MIXING, HANDLING, PLACING, AND COMPACTING CONCRETE heavier, more sturdy formwork. In any case, however, the cost of labour would probably be the deciding factor as far as the total cost is concerned. Both compaction by hand and compaction by vibration can produce good quality concrete, with the right mix and workmanship. Likewise, both methods can produce poor concrete: in the case of hand-rammed concrete, inadequate compaction is the most common fault whilst, in the case of vibration, non-uniform compaction can accur due to inadequate vibration or to over-vibration which causes segregation; the latter can be prevented by the use of a stiff and well-graded mix. The specified consistence of the mix governs the choice of the vibrator as, for example, mixes suitable for pumping may have too-wet a consistence for vibration. Thus, for efficient compaction, the consistence of the conerete and the characteristics of the available vibrator have to be matched. Essentially, there are three basic methods of compacting concrete by vibration, and these are discussed below. There are variations of these types which have been developed for special purposes but they are beyond the scope of this book. Internal vibrators Of the several types of vibrators, this is perhaps the most common one, It consists of a poker, housing an eccentric shaft driven through a flexible drive from a motor. The poker is immersed in concrete and thus applies approximately harmonic forces to it; hence, the alternative names of poker vibrator or immersion vibrator. The frequency of vibration usually varies between 70 and 200 Hz with an acceleration greater than 4g. The poker should be easily moved from place to place so that the concrete is vibrated every 0.5 to | m (or 2 to 3 ft) for 5 sec to 2 min, depending on the consistence of the mix. The actual completion of compaction can be judged by the appearance of the surface of the concrete, which should be neither honeycombed nor contain an excess of mortar. Gradual withdrawal of the poker at the rate of about 80 mm/sec (3 in./sec) is recommended so that the hole left by the vibrator closes fully by itself without any air being trapped. The vibrator should be immersed, quickly, through the entire depth of the freshly deposited concrete and into the layer below if this is still plastic or can be made plastic (see Fig. 7.11). In this manner, monolithic concrete is obtained, thus avoiding a plane of weakness at the junction of the two layers, possible settlement cracks, and the internal effects of bleeding. It should be noted that, with a lift greater than about 0.5 m (2 fi), the vibrator may not be fully effective in expelling air from the lower part of the layer, Unlike other types, internal vibrators are comparatively efficient since all the work is done directly on the concrete. They are made in sizes down to 20 mm (} in.) in diameter so that they are useful for heavily reinforced and relatively inaccessible sections. However, an immersion vibrator will not expel air from the form boundary so that ‘slicing’ along the form by means of a flat plate on edge is necessary. The use of absorptive linings to the form is helpful in this respect but expen 136Correct Incorrect Fig. 7.11: Placing of poker vibrators (Based on ACT Manual of Concrete Practice.) External vibrators This type of vibrator is rigidly clamped to the formwork which rests on an elastic support, so that both the form and the concrete are vibrated. As a result, a considerable proportion of the work done is used in vibrating the formwork, which has to be strong and tight so as to prevent distor- tion and leakage of grout. The principle of the external vibrator is the same as that of an internal one, but the frequency is between 50 and 150 Hz; sometimes, manufac- turers quote the number of impulses, ie. half-cyeles. External vibrators are used for precast or thin in situ sections having a shape or thickness which is unsuitable for internal vibrators. The conerete has to be placed in layers of suitable depth as air cannot be expelled through too great a depth of conerete, and the position of the vibrator may have to be changed as concreting progresses. Portable, non- clamped external vibrators may be used at sections not otherwise accessible, but their range of compaction is very limited. One such vibrator is an electric hammer, sometimes used for compacting concrete test specimens. Vibrating tables A vibrating table provides a reliable means of compaction of precast concrete units and has the advantage of ensuring uniform vibration, The system can be considered as a case of formwork clamped to the vibrator, as opposed to that of an external vibrator, but the principle of vibrating the concrete and formwork together is the same. Generally, a rapidly- rotating eccentric weight makes the table vibrate with a circular motion 137