ABE 114 Midterm Coverage

ABE 114
Introduction to
Plant and Livestock
Microclimate
Engr. Sheila Jane Margaret C. Peñ a
Instructor
Contents
Environment: Meaning &
Components Plant and
Physical factors Livestock
which make up Weather
the environment
Relationships
1 Important
3
parameters in
agricultural and bio-
production systems
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
Environment: Meaning &

Components
What is Environment?
 The term environment has been derived from a French
word “Environia” means to surround
It refers to both abiotic (physical or non-living) and biotic
(living) environment
The word environment means surroundings, in which
organisms live
Environment is the sum total of conditions in which an
organism has to survive or maintain its life process. It
influences the growth and development of living forms.
What is Environment?
 The term environment is used to describe, in the
aggregate, all the external forces, influences and
conditions, which affect the life, nature behavior and the
growth, development and maturity of living organisms’
(Douglas and Holland).
The entire range of external influence acting on an
organism, both the physical and biological, and other
organisms, i.e. forces of nature surrounding an individual
(Encyclopedia Britannica).
Environment refers to the sum total of all conditions which
surround man at a given point in space and time(C.C.Park).
Components of Environment
There are three major components of environment
These are as follows:
• Physical component - includes air, water, soil, light,
temperature, climate, etc.
• Biological component - includes all living things
like plants, animals and small micro-organisms like
bacteria, algae and fungi.
• Social component - is mainly consists of various
groups of population of different living beings like birds,
animals, etc.
Source: https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/environment-and-its-components/
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
also termed as abiotic components of the
environment
on the basis of physical characteristics and state,
abiotic or physical environment is subdivided into:
• Solid i.e. lithosphere (solid earth)
• Liquid i.e. hydrosphere (water component)
• Gas i.e. atmosphere (gaseous component)
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
LITHOSPHERE:
• The word lithosphere originated from a Greek
word mean "rocky" + "sphere” i.e. the solid
outmost shield of the rocky planet.
• The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It is
composed of a number of different layers.
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
• These layers are:
The Core which is around 7000 kilometers in diameter

(3500 kilometers in radius) and is situated at the Earth's
center.
The Mantle which environs the core and has a
thickness of 2900 kilometers
The Crust floats on top of the mantle and is composed
of basalt rich oceanic crust and granitic rich continental
crust.
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
HYDROSPHERE:
• The hydrosphere includes all water on or near earth surface and
includes oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands, icecaps, clouds, soils, rock
layers beneath surface etc.
• water exist in all three states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas
(water vapor)
• 71%of planet surface is covered with water
• Freshwater - 2.53%
• Freshwater in glaciers -1.74%
• Water as water vapor in atmosphere -12,900 km³
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
ATMOSPHERE:
• the thick gaseous layer surrounding the earth
• It spreads up to 300 km above the earth’s surface
• Apart from gases there are water vapor, industrial
gases, dust and smoke particles in suspended
state, microorganism etc.
• Four major zones: Troposphere, Stratosphere,
Mesosphere and Thermosphere
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
•Since the environment includes both
physical and biological concept, it
embraces both the abiotic (non-living)
and biotic (living) components of planet
earth.
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS (NON-LIVING):
these are the most important determining
factor of where and how well an organism
exists in the environment.
Although these factors interact with each
other, one single factor can limit the range of
an organism thus acting as the limiting factor.
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
PHYSICAL FACTORS:
•the major components are
- temperature
- water(rainfall)
- light(energy)
- soil
- air
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
TEMPERATURE:
• All living things perform in a particular range of
temperature.
• Growth of living beings will be affected when
temperature will not fall in that range.
• A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide
range of temperatures without having effect on their
internal environment (they are called eurythermal),
but, a vast majority of them operate within a narrow
range of temperatures (such organisms are called
stenothermal)
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
WATER:
• Water is another most important factor
influencing the life of organisms
• Water plays a vital role to keep optimum
temperature of the body and perform
metabolic activities.
• All living organisms require water for their
survival
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
LIGHT (ENERGY):
• One can quickly and easily understand the
importance of light/energy for living
organisms, particularly autotrophs since they
produce/manufacture food through
photosynthesis, a specialized process which
is only possible with the availability of sunlight
as a source of energy
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
SOIL:
• Soil is another important component for all
living beings to build their habitat
• It is the soil where plant grows and human
builds houses to live in.
• Soil serves to retain ground water which is
obtainable for drinking and other farming
activities.
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
AIR:
• Air is main physical component which
provides oxygen for respiration
• All living beings including plants & animals
require oxygen for their existence.
• In metabolic process, oxygen is inhaled into
the body and exhaled in form of CO2.
BIOLOGICAL COMPONENT
The biological component of environment is also
termed as biotic component.
This biological component includes all living things
like plants, animals and small micro-organisms like
bacteria, algae and fungi.
This component interacts with the abiotic
component of the environment. This interaction of
two components forms various ecosystems like
pond ecosystem, marine ecosystem, desert
ecosystem etc.
SOCIAL COMPONENT
This component is mainly consists of various
groups of population of different living beings
like birds, animals, etc.
Human is the most independent and
intelligent living organism.
Like other living creatures, man builds house,
prepares food and releases waste materials to
the environment
ENVIRONMENT COMPONENTS
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
AGRICULTURAL & BIO-

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Agricultural Production System

– are set to improve our land’s ability to
produce goods of all types through
profitable and copious means with
cautious and careful management towards
ecosystem, public health, animal welfare
and the well-being of communities
Agricultural Production Systems

– undergo rapid changes in response to
shifts in production expenses, consumer
demands ,and increasing concerns for
food safety, security, and environmental
impact (Hanson et al., 2008; Hendrickson
et al., 2008)
Agricultural Production System (Crop-livestock farming)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxIkG-4QM0g
Agricultural
Production
System
• Conservation agriculture
systems
• Reduced- or low-input
Agricultural farming systems
System or • Integrated farming systems
Farming • Alternative livestock
production systems
System • Integrated crop–livestock
farming systems
• Organic agriculture
• Ecologically based farming
systems
• Food systems
Conservation agriculture systems

• Conservation farming typically involves the integrated use
of minimal tillage, cover crops and crop rotations
Reduced- or low-input farming systems
• minimize the use of off-farm resources such as
commercially purchased chemicals and fuels
Integrated farming systems
• combine methods of conventional and organic production
systems in an attempt to balance environmental quality and
economic profit
Alternative livestock production systems

• use lower-confinement housing and rely more on pastures
than do conventional and industrial livestock farms
Integrated crop–livestock farming systems
• generate a significant fraction of animal feed on cropland
and pastures owned or managed by the livestock farmer.
• These systems use the crop and livestock enterprises to
efficiently recycle nutrients, promote crop rotations and
insulate livestock farmers from price fluctuations in feed
and input markets.
Organic agriculture
• is both an ecological production management system and a
labeling term that indicates that the food or other
agricultural product has been produced using approved
methods that integrate cultural, biological and mechanical
practices that foster cycling of resources, promote
ecological balance and conserve biodiversity.
Ecologically based farming systems
• emphasize the use of ecological pest management,
nutrient cycling, and natural and renewable resources to
enhance soil health and protect water quality.
Food systems
• refer to a complex set of activities and institutions
that link food production to food consumption.
• Food system studies often use a “commodity chain”
approach to analyze production, processing, selling
and consumption.
(Adapted from National Research Council, 2010

Important
Parameters:
Reference:
Walters, J. et al.
(2016). Exploring
agricultural
production systems
and their
fundamental
components with
system dynamics
modelling
Causal-Loop Diagram of production drivers (principle drivers are in larger bolded font). The positive (+) or negative (−) impact of
a practice on a factor is indicated at the head of the arrow linking the two parameters, e.g., Animal Diet (+) → Beef Protein
Produced.
Environmental Quality
• Farm Size – area of coverage (influence on production
strategies)
• Soil and topography – rocky vs. steep vs. flat, erodible vs.
non-erodible, nutrient-rich vs. nutrient-poor
• Cover crops – use of ground cover to improve organic
matter
• Geographic distribution – distribution of population centres
and the influence on marketing options
• Pests – crop damage due to the presence of pests
Economics
• Risk Management – acknowledgement and
appreciation of risk, and mitigation of risk through
crop and livestock diversification, or support through
government policies
• Marketing output and net return – marketing
channels, and influence this has on crop types
inventories based on demand; Influence over
market prices
Social Quality
• Lifestyle – farming as a way of life with deep roots in
family and heritage
• Old vs. New – contrast between old and new
generational strengths, weaknesses, change, risk,
influence on diversity, acceptance on new ideas
• Commitment to community – local support and
relationships, the influence this has on regional
identity, breadth of crop selling and marketing
channels
Social Quality
• Environmental stewardship – precedence of
environmental preservation both locally and globally
through production practices
• Acquisition and use of information – the use (and
acceptance) of available information to make
decisions on strategic crop selection and
diversification
• Feelings on policy – aversion and concerns, activity
in government policy, involvement in policy
decisions
 Relationship between
Agri-environmental
indicators and health of
agricultural production
system
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
PLANT & LIVESTOCK WEATHER

RELATIONSHIPS
PLANT & LIVESTOCK WEATHER RELATIONSHIPS
Weather and climate

• Weather is the short-term day-to-day fluctuation of
the meteorological variables.
• Climate is the long-term average condition of over
30 years of meteorological variables in a given
region.
• Macro-climate is the general large scale climatic
condition of the open atmosphere in a large area or
country.
• Micro-climate is the climatic condition closely

surrounding an animal e.g. the condition under a
tree, in the pen, etc.
• Climatic variables: Temperature (ambient,
minimum, maximum, mean temperatures), Humidity,
Rainfall (amount and distribution), Sunshine (day-
length and intensity), Wind (direction and speed)
Relationship between various climatic variables

• Weather plays a major role in determining the

success of agricultural pursuits.
• Most field crops are dependent solely upon
weather to provide life‐sustaining water and
energy.
• Livestock are also dependent upon weather
for their comfort and food supplies.
• Occasionally, adverse weather conditions can

cause production losses, especially if
experienced during critical stages of growth.
• Individual elements of weather influence crops
and livestock in particular ways. However, the
combination of all weather elements occurring
simultaneously can have additive effects.
How Plant Survives?

It needed things such as:
-Light
-Air
-Water
-Nutrients
How Animal Survives?

It needed things such as:
-Food
-Air
-Water
-Shelter
-Light
Effect of Weather on Plants

• Temperature is a key factor in plant growth and
development. Along with the levels of light, carbon
dioxide, air humidity, water and nutrients,
temperature influences plant growth and ultimately
crop yields.
• Extreme temperatures, causes a decrease in water
availability and changes to soil conditions will
actually make it more difficult for plants to thrive

• Colder weather can decrease plant enzyme activity. This
then disrupts plant nutrient intake because plants secrete
enzymes to digest surrounding materials for soil.
Consequently, this can stunt growth or more severely
cause them to die.
• High temperatures affect plant growth in numerous ways.
The most obvious are the effects of heat on
photosynthesis, in which plants use carbon dioxide to
produce oxygen, and respiration, an opposite process in
which plants use oxygen to produce carbon dioxide

• Extremely hot or cold soil temperatures can also hamper
plant growth, as well as affect seed germination.
• Extreme temperatures (too hot or too cold) can inhibit fruit
set on tomatoes and other garden plants. Temperature as
well as moisture level may affect the flavor of fruits and
vegetables
• The effect of temperature on plants vary widely, and is
influenced by factors such as exposure to sunlight,
moisture drainage, elevation, difference between day and
night temperatures, and proximity to surrounding rock
structure (thermal heat mass).

• Precipitation – the water available to plants for growth is
affected by the amount and type of precipitation, as well as
soil characteristics, temperature, and wind
• The effects of too much or too little precipitation can be
temporary or permanent, depending on the type of plant
and how long the condition lasts.
• Too much water reduces the amount of oxygen in the soil,
resulting in root loss or injury. It can also make the plant
more susceptible to many fungal diseases.
• Heavy rain can damage plants, compact soil, and cause
erosion.

• Wind – has a drying effect. This can dry out wet
plants, reducing disease chances. However, it can
also remove water faster than the plant can replace
it.
• This can be a problem in summer when combined
with high temperatures and low soil moisture.
• Wind can disperse pollen, seeds, spores, insects,
pathogens, salt, and noxious chemicals. Excess
wind can do considerable damage to plants.

• Sunlight – exposure to the intense sunlight of
bright, cloudless, summer days can be too much for
sensitive plants. Reflected light from walls and other
surfaces can also add to the problem. Stunted plant
growth and a yellow-white "burn" on the upper
surface of older leaves are familiar symptoms of too
much intense sunlight.
Effect of Weather on Livestock

• Temperature affects most of the critical
factors for livestock production, such as water
availability, animal production, reproduction
and health.
• Forage quantity and quality are affected by a
combination of increases in temperature, CO2
and precipitation variation.
Source:
Downing, M. et al.
(2017). Climate
change and livestock:
Impacts, adaptation,
and mitigation
Thank You
Any questions??
Assignment:
Assignment #1
• Write a report about the effect of Climate
Change in Agricultural Production Systems in
Global and Philippine Setting
Due date : September 24, 2020 (Friday)

•File format : PDF (3-6 pages)
•Naming file submitted by email :
Assignment No. 1 _ Name of student
(ex) Assignment No. 1 _ Sheila Peñ a
Email here: scpena@carsu.edu.ph
ABE 114
II. Physiological
Responses to the
Environment
Instructor
Contents
Definition of Terms
Livestock
 Physiology Physiological
 Response Response
 Physiological
Response
1 Plant Physiological 3
Response
 Physical
Factors
DEFINITION OF TERMS
PHYSIOLOGY:
study of the functioning of living organisms,
animal or plant, and of the functioning of their
constituent tissues or cells (Britannica).
is the science of life (Physoc.org)
the branch of biology dealing with the
functions and activities of living organisms and
their parts, including all physical and chemical
processes(Dictionary.com).
DEFINITION OF TERMS
RESPONSE:
 a reaction to something (Oxford
Languages).
 is a reaction to a question, experience,
or some other type of
stimulus (Vocabulary.com)
DEFINITION OF TERMS
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE:
Physiological responses happen when we
perceive that we're under stress or danger,
whether it's real or imagined.
Physiological response of crops refers to
changes in the plant mechanism or
metabolism due to an stimuli (may be light,
water, CO2, nutrients, etc.)
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
Plant Physiological Response

PLANT PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE
PHYSICAL FACTORS:
- temperature
- water(rainfall)
- light(energy)
- soil
- air
A better understanding of physiological

response of crops to the factors of crop
production helps in altering the
management practices such as to
improve the crop yields.
Temperature
• The effect of high temperature
on plants is primarily on
photosynthetic functions. The
heat tolerance limit of leaves of
plants coincides with the
thermal sensitivity of primary
photochemical reactions
occurring in the thylakoid
membrane system.
Temperature stress in plants is classified

into three types depending on the
stressor, which may be high, chilling or
freezing temperature.
Temperature-stressed plants show low
germination rates, growth retardation,
reduced photosynthesis, and often die.
Effect of High Temperature
on Plant
• Plant can operate most of its
physiological process normally
in the range of 0-40°C
• High temperature stress
>40°C causes injury to plant
• The degree and duration of
exposure also increases the
effect on plant
Source:
Beck, E. et al. (2007).
Specific and unspecific
responses of plants to
cold and drought stress
Water
• Water stress adversely
impacts many aspects of the
physiology of plants, especially
photosynthetic capacity. If the
stress is prolonged, plant
growth, and productivity are
severely diminished.
Note: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play important roles in
maintaining normal plant growth, and improving their tolerance
to stress
Plant response to water stress

 Effect of drought stress (DS) on plants and possible responses.
Note: Enzymatic antioxidants – catalase

(CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD),
glutathione peroxidase (GPX), ascorbate
peroxide(APX), glutathione reductase (GR)
Plant hormone – Abscisic acid (ABA)
LIGHT
Plants have three basic
responses or reactions to light.
They are photosynthesis,
phototropism and photoperiodism.
The sensing of light in the
environment is important to
plants; it can be crucial for
competition and survival.
LIGHT
Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is the
process by which green plants
and certain other organisms
transform light energy into
chemical energy.
LIGHT
Phototropism
• Photo means light and tropism
means turning movement or
growth in response to.
• The growth of or the
movement of an organism
towards light is called
Phototropism.
LIGHT
Phototropism
• Positive phototropism – if the
plant grows towards light.
• Negative Phototropism – if the
plant grows away from light.
• Phototropism allows the plants
to be in a position to get
sunlight for photosynthesis. Auxin, the chemical signal that causes plants
to elongate and grow cells faster on the side of
the plant farthest from the light
LIGHT
Photoperiodism
• The influence of relative
duration of day and night on
the flowering response of
plants is called
photoperiodism.
• This phenomenon was first
discovered by Garner and
Allard(1920)
PROBLEMS WITH THE EXCESS AND DEFICIT OF LIGHT
Excess Light
• Scorching of leaves
• Chlorophyll content is reduced. This reduces the rate of light
absorption and the rate of photosynthesis.
• Excess light intensity is associated with increase in the
temperature of leaves which in turn induces rapid
transpiration and water loss.
• Stomatal conductance declines in response to declining leaf
water potentials
• High leaf temperature inactivates the enzyme system that
changes sugars to starch
PROBLEMS WITH THE EXCESS AND DEFICIT OF LIGHT
Deficit Light
• Etiolation, a morphological manifestation of the adverse effect in inadequate
light: it develops white, spindly stems, elongated internodes, leaves that are
not fully expanded, and a stunted root system.
• Stems will be leggy or stretched out
• Leaves turn yellow
• Leaves are too small
• Leaves or stems are spindly
• Brown edged or tips on leaves
• Lower leaves dry up
• Variegated leaves lose their variegation
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
Livestock Physiological Response

LIVESTOCK PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE
 Animal production problems associated with weather and

climate go beyond an understanding of the processes and
variations in the atmospheric boundary layer and the role of
local ground cover and topography in those variations.
Knowledge of how potential environmental stressors
(ambient temperature, humidity, thermal radiation, air speed)
can directly and adversely affect animal performance, health
and well-being when coping capabilities of the animals are
exceeded is also required.
Responses of animals to potential environmental stressors that can influence performance and health
(adapted from Hahn and Becker, 1984)
 Internal environment: This consists essentially of the
fluids that surround the cells. The composition and
condition of these can be regulated within narrow limits
by the animal.
 External environment: this includes all factors
external to the animal that influence its functions over
which the animal has little control.
• Homeostasis: This is the regulation of the internal environment. It is the

tendency for internal variables such as water content, solute concentration,
pH, body temperature, respiratory rate, etc. to remain at controlled levels.
• Acclimatization: Long-term adaptive physiological adjustment which results
in an increased tolerance to continuous repeated exposure to complex
climatic stress.
• Adaptation (physiological): Is the capacity and process of adjustment of the
animal to itself, to other living things and to its external physical environment
• Adaptation (genetic): The heritable animal characteristics which favor
survival of a population in a particular environment
• Adaptation (biologic): Refers to the morphological, anatomic, physiological,
biochemical and behavioral characteristics of the animal which promote
welfare and favor survival in a specific environment.
Temperature
• Most livestock are homeotherms
(animals that maintain the body
temperature constant).
• They have a range of environmental
temperatures that they can withstand
without changes in basal metabolism
and this is termed zone of thermal
neutrality or thermal comfort.
• The temperature boundaries are the
upper and lower critical
temperatures.
Temperature
• Increased temperatures and frequency and
intensity of heat waves can affect livestock health
by causing metabolic disruptions, oxidative stress,
and immune suppression causing infections and
death.
Temperature
• Condition caused by temperature
Heat Stress
Cold Stress
Stress: Any condition that imposes a deviation on the

internal variables from the controlled levels.
• Some of the common factors that can lead to stress
(stressors) in livestock production include transportation,
noise, fasting, water deprivation, hotness, coldness, etc.
Temperature
• Heat stress is a form of hyperthermia (elevated body
temperature) in which, the physiological systems of the
body fail to regulate the body temperature within a normal
range.
• Cold stress occurs by driving down the skin temperature,
and eventually the internal body temperature. When the
body is unable to warm itself, serious cold-related
illnesses and injuries may occur, and permanent tissue
damage and death may result. Types of cold stress
include: trench foot, frostbite, and hypothermia.
Source:
Ahirwar, M. et al.
(2018). Effect of
non-genetic
factors on semen
quality in bulls: A
review
Physiological mechanism during heat stress

Classification of zones based on THI values
Source:
Ahirwar, M. et al.
(2018). Effect of
non-genetic
factors on semen
quality in bulls: A
review
Note: Temperature Humidity Index (THI)

Source:
Manzoor, A. et al.
(2019).
Mitigating winter
vagaries in dairy
animals: A review
Lower (L) and upper (U) critical temperature and animal response
Lower critical temperature for different farm animals

Upper critical temperature for different farm animals

• Factors Affecting an Animal's Ability to Withstand the Cold

• Acclimation: Cattle do adjust or acclimate to colder weather by
growing a longer, thicker coat. This provides additional insulation
against cold weather. The coat must be clean and dry to provide
maximum protection to the cow. Dirt or moisture on the coat reduces its
insulation value dramatically.
• Fat Layer: Cattle in good condition with a thick fat layer are better able
to withstand the cold than thin cattle. The fat layer acts as another
insulating layer between the animal's core and the environment.
• Metabolic Rate: Cows will also increase their metabolic rate to
increase heat production and help maintain body temperature. This
increases the need for dietary energy, so appetite is usually increased
and cows eat more.
The Effects of Severe Cold Stress on Cattle
• Hypothermia occurs when the body temperature drops well below
normal.
• mild hypothermia occurs with a body temperature of 30°C–32°C,
(86°F–89°F),
• moderate hypothermia at 22°F–29°C, (71°F–85°F) and
• severe hypothermia below 20°C (68°F).
• As hypothermia progresses, metabolic and physiological processes
slow down, and blood is diverted from the extremities to protect the
vital organs.
• Teats, ears and testes are prone to frostbite.
• In extremes, respiration and heart rate drop, animals lose
consciousness and die.
Source:
Manzoor, A. et al.
(2019).
Mitigating winter
vagaries in dairy
animals: A review
Diagrammatic representation of animal’s response to cold

Thermal radiation
• Thermal radiation received by an animal has two
primary sources: solar radiation (direct, or reflected
from clouds and surrounding surfaces) and terrestrial
or long-wave radiation (emitted from all surfaces
constituting the surroundings).
• The net impact of thermal radiation on an animal
depends on the difference between the combined
solar and long-wave radiation received and the long-
wave radiation emitted by the animal.
Thermal radiation
• Shades, nearby structures and other animals, ground
cover, clouds, surface characteristics of the animal,
and insulation along with interior surfaces of housing
are examples of factors influencing the net impact of
thermal radiation.
• For animals in sunlight, a net gain of heat by thermal
radiation usually exists, resulting in an
increased effective ambient temperature (EAT) of 3 to
5°C. In winter, the increased EAT is beneficial; in
summer, it is detrimental.
HEAT EXCHANGE WITH THE ENVIRONMENT AND HEAT EXCHANGERS

Humidity
• The air's moisture content influences an animal's
heat balance, particularly in warm or hot
environments where evaporative heat loss is crucial
to homeothermy.
• The higher the ambient vapor pressure, the lower the
vapor-pressure gradient from the skin or respiratory
tract to the air, and hence the lower the rate of
evaporation.
Humidity
• An increase in ambient vapor pressure generally has
less impact on the heat balance of species that
depend more on panting (and less on sweating) to
lose heat during heat stress.
• Different weightings are given dry-bulb and wet-bulb
air temperatures in calculating temperature-humidity
indices for different species.
Humidity
• For cattle, which sweat in response to heat stress,
one index is calculated as:
[(0.35) (dry-bulb temperature) + (0.65) (wet-bulb temperature)]
• In an index for swine, a non-sweating species, wet-

bulb temperature is given less weight and
temperature-humidity index is calculated as:
[(0.65) (dry-bulb temperature) + (0.35) (wet-bulb temperature)]

HIGH TEMPERATURE-HUMIDITY INDEX (THI) OF DAIRY CATTLE

Air Movement
• It affects rate of convective and evaporative heat
exchange
• The increase in rate of heat loss or gain per unit
increase in air velocity is greatest at low air velocities
because disruption of the boundary layer of still air
surrounding the body requires relatively little air
movement
• Above 6 km/h, increased air velocity results in little
additional increase in convective heat transfer.
Air Movement
• By means of a wind-chill index, the combined effect
of ambient temperature and air speed on
environmental heat demand is represented by a
single value.
• Wind-chill indices have been developed for various
species in cool and cold environments.
• In extremely hot environments (when ambient
temperature exceeds animal surface temperature),
animals gain heat convectively.
Contact Surfaces
• The nature and temperature of the floor or other contact
surfaces determines rate of conductive heat flow from an
animal.
• Although this is ordinarily a small part of total heat exchange,
it can be significant in some situations such as piglets on a
floor with high thermal conductivity, such as concrete.
• An animal may respond behaviorally to change its posture
and thus its orientation to specific environmental
components such as area of contact with a cool or warm
floor, orientation to radiation sources and sinks, and
orientation to drafts and winds.
Precipitation
• Animals are sometimes exposed to inclement weather.
• A combination of low temperature, wind, and rain or wet
snow can adversely affect an animal's heat balance.
• Water accumulates in an animal's pelage, displacing still air,
thereby reducing external insulation.
• Rain may flatten the pelage, thereby reducing its depth and
thus insulative value.
• Snow or cold rain increase conductive heat loss, and drying
of the pelage cools the animal by evaporative heat loss.
Thank You
Any questions??
ABE 114
III. Microclimate
Modification
Instructor
Contents
Definition of Terms
Techniques of
 Microclimate Microclimate
 Micro Climatic Modification
Modifications
 Plant
for Livestock
Microclimate
2
1 Techniques of 3
Microclimate
Modification for
Plants
DEFINITION OF TERMS
MICROCLIMATE:
deals with the climatic features peculiar to small
areas and with the physical processes that take
place in the layer of air very near to the ground.
Soil-ground conditions, character of vegetation
cover, aspect of slopes, and state of the soil
surface, relief forms – all these may create special
local conditions of temperature, humidity, wind and
radiation in the layer of air near the ground which
differ sharply from general climatic.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
MICROCLIMATE:
Microclimate is a result
of the interaction
between the local
topography, landscape
characteristics and the
regional climate.
Various climate scales and associated

phenomena (Source: Foken 2008)
DEFINITION OF TERMS
MICRO CLIMATIC MODIFICATION:
Microclimate modification patterns are about the
mimicking of natural systems to control the
environment to achieve several benefits
Artificial control of field environment to keep the
optimum condition of plant growth and crop
production that is practice of environmental control
requires a complete knowledge of physiology of
plants and physical environment. It is done through:
controlling wind velocity, controlling heat load,
controlling water balance.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
PLANT MICROCLIMATE:
The physical processes of the atmosphere,
called meteorological processes, establish the
existing climate or microclimate.
Although it does not act alone, climate, in
turn, determines the regime of soils and plants
at a given location.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
PLANT MICROCLIMATE:
Wind, precipitation, sunshine, temperature,
humidity, and soil moisture are the primary
factors involved.
The profitable production of crops and
efficient use of water require a microclimate
suitable for plant growth.
MICROCLIMATE COMPONENTS:
Microclimate components and
interlinkages (Source
MetaMeta, 2016)
MAIN FACTORS THAT AFFECT
MICROCLIMATES:
Topography
Aspect
Soil
Water
Vegetation
Artificial Structures
MICROCLIMATES:
TOPOGRAPHY:
• The shape of the land is a significant influence
on microclimates.
• While on a large scale, weather systems have a
certain predictability (related to the rotation of
the earth and the interplay between ocean and
land), these patterns can get disrupted at the
local level by topographical features such as
aspect and slope.
MICROCLIMATES:
ASPECT:
• It refers to the direction that a slope faces.
• This will determine how much solar radiation it
receives, which in turn impacts upon
temperature and shading.
MICROCLIMATES:
ASPECT:
• In the northern hemisphere south-facing slopes
are exposed to more direct sunlight than
opposite slopes, as are north-facing slopes in
the southern hemisphere.
• This will cast longer shadows on the opposite
side of the slope, which must be taken into
account when deciding which species of plant to
place there.
MICROCLIMATES:
ASPECT:
• The angle of slope on a geological feature is a
major factor in determining the influence of wind
and water on a site.
• The appropriate placement of windbreaks can
help to alleviate these effects, while if you do
have steep slopes on your site that create a lot
of wind, you may wish to investigate harnessing
this energy with turbines.
MICROCLIMATES:
SOIL:
• The composition of the soil affects microclimates
primarily through how much water it retains or
which evaporates from it.
• A soil that has a large proportion of clay retains
more moisture than one that is predominantly
sand.
• The degree to which a soil retains moisture affects
the humidity and temperature of the air above it.
MICROCLIMATES:
WATER:
• It is not just the moisture level within the soil that can
affect a microclimate, the water stored on the surface
of the land is also important.
• Over a region, the presence of lakes and reservoirs
can create a more moderate climate, while ponds,
streams and other bodies of water will impact upon
the temperature of the surrounding areas. These
effects are due to the fact that water gains and losses
heat more slowly than the land.
MICROCLIMATES:
VEGETATION:
• The vegetation on a site interacts with the soil and
water to affect the microclimate.
• Not only does it cover the soil and prevent heat
loss and radiation from it, it also regulates the
temperature of the soil, filters dust and other
particles from the air, and can act as a windbreak
or suntrap.
MICROCLIMATES:
ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURES:
• Our house can impact upon microclimates by
absorbing heat during the day and releasing it at
night, by deflecting wind and creating sheltered
spots, and reflecting sunlight.
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
Techniques of Microclimate
Modification for Plants
MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Modification for wind

Modification for heat load
Modification for frost
Modification for water
balance
MODIFICATION FOR WIND:

• Windbreaks and shelterbelts provide the
protective shelter against desiccating
winds to extent of 5-10 times the height
of the tall tree on windward side and up
to 30 times on leeward side.
• For example a 10-11 meter tall windbreak when
encountered by 45-50 km/hr wind, it reduces on
windward side to 20-30 km/hr and to 10 km/hr on just
leeward side.

Windbreaks
• Windbreaks are such structures which break the
wind-flow and reduce wind speed.
• A wide range of materials was used for windbreaks,
including rigid bark sheets inserted in sand, piles of
grass or foliage, and stone walls.

Windbreaks
• To protect field crops / livestock from cold / hot wind.
• To prevent soil erosion.
• To reduce evaporation from farmlands.
• To improve the microclimate.
• For fencing and boundary demarcation.
• For productive role-fuel, fodder, etc.

Shelterbelt
• These are belts / blocks consisting
of several rows of trees or shrubs
planted for protection of crop
against wind

Shelterbelt
• To deflects air currents.
• To reduces the velocity of winds.
• To provides general protection to the leeward
areas against the effects of wind erosion.
• To protects the leeward areas from desiccating
effects of hot wind.
• To provide fuel, fodder timber etc.
MODIFICATION FOR HEAT LOAD:

• During summer season in the tropical and sub-
tropical areas, heat load on plants exceeds the
tolerance limit. As a result of accumulation of heat
energy, the soil temperature increases.
• The control of heat balance is achieved in two ways;
one through heat trapping and by heat evading.

Heat Evasion
• In many areas in the tropics and subtropics, when
the head load exceeds the tolerance limit, it is
desirable to evade the thermal energy in order to
achieve good result.
• In these areas shading of plants is common
method of evading solar radiation.
• A number of shade structures are used and these
are opaque. The shade can be wood or fiber.

Heat Trapping
• The opposite of heat evasion, heat tapping is
extremely beneficial in temperate climates where
the growing period is comparatively short.
• It can be achieved by:
Taking into account the angle of solar radiation relative
to plant
Planting on steep and sunny slope
Erecting alternate rows of alternate stone wall
MODIFICATION FOR FROST:

• Frost damage to crops results not from cold
temperature but mainly from extracellular (i.e.
not inside the cells) ice formation inside plant
tissue, which draws water out and dehydrates
the cells and causes injury to the cells.
The characteristics of
frost/freeze protection
methods are given in
the table:
MODIFICATION WATER BALANCE:

• During summer season the atmospheric water
demand increases, resulting in high
evapotranspiration (evaporation from wet soil
surface and transpiration from crop canopy).
• Thereby rate of depletion of soil moisture increases.
• The water loss by this way is reduced by mulching
and use of different types of anti-transpirants.
MODIFICATION FOR WATER BALANCE:

Anti-Transpirant
• Anti-transpirants are the materials or chemicals
which decrease the water loss from plant leaves
by reducing the size and number of stomata.
• Nearly 99 percent of the water absorbed by the
plant is lost in transpiration.
• Anti-transpirants and any natural substance
applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing
water loss from the plant.

Anti-Transpirant
• There are of four types:
Stomatal closing type
Film forming type
Reflectance type
Growth retardant

Anti-Transpirant
Stomatal closing type
 Most of the Transpiration occur through the
stomata on the leaf surface. Some fungicides
like phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA) and
herbicides like Atrazine in low concentration
serve as anti-transpirants by inducing stomatal
closing.

Anti-Transpirant
Film forming type
 Plastic and waxy material which form a thin film
on the leaf surface and result into physical
barrier.
 Example: ethyl alcohol.

Anti-Transpirant
Reflectance type
 They are white materials which form a coating on the
leaves and increase the leaf reflectance (albedo).
 By reflecting the radiation, vapor pressure gradient
and thus reduce transpiration.
 Example: Application of 5 percent kaolin spray
reduces transpiration losses. eg. Diatomaceous earth
product (Celite), hydrated lime, calcium carbonate,
magnesium carbonate, zincs sulphate etc.

Anti-Transpirant
Growth retardant
 These chemicals reduce shoot growth and
increase root growth and thus enable the plants to
resist drought. They may also induce stomatal
closure.
 Example: Cycocel is useful for improving water
status of the plant.

Mulching
• The application or creation of any soil cover that
constitutes a barrier to the transfer of heat or
vapor known as mulching.
• It is the practice of placing a heat or moisture
barrier over the top of the soil surface to check
evaporation and to improve soil moisture
conditions.

Mulching
• Types of Mulches:
Plastic mulch
Stubble/Trash mulch
Soil mulch
Vertical mulching

Mulching
Plastic mulch
 Plastic material like polyethylene and polyvinyl
chloride are used as mulching materials.

Mulching
Stubble/Trash mulch
 It is created by permitting residues of small grain
crops to remain standing in the field so as to
increase surface roughness and reduce soil
blowing.
 Crop residues like wheat straw or cotton stalks are
left on the soil surface as stubble mulch.
 This type of mulch protects the soil from erosion
and evaporation losses are reduced.

Mulching
Soil mulch
 If the surface of the soil is loosened, it acts as
mulch for reducing evaporation.
 The loose surface soil is called soil mulch.
 Inter-cultivation creates soil mulch in a growing
crop.
 This mulch interrupts the continuity of capillaries
and hence creates a barrier to the vapor.

Mulching
Vertical mulching
 Sub-soiling is the most effective method of
breaking hard pans to improve root penetration,
aeration and water percolation.
 The effects of sub-soiling are not long lasting.
 The object of vertical mulching is to fill slots with
organic matter and keeping them open and
functional for a longer period.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HM9hjezz39A
Thank You
Any questions??
ABE 114
III. Microclimate
Modification
Instructor
Contents
Definition of Terms
Techniques of
 Microclimate Microclimate
 Micro Climatic Modification
Modifications
 Plant
for Livestock
Microclimate
2
1 Techniques of 3
Microclimate
Modification for
Plants
REVIEW ON DEFINITION
MICROCLIMATE:
deals with the climatic
features peculiar to small
areas
Microclimate is a result of
the interaction between the
local topography, landscape
characteristics and the
regional climate.
Various climate scales and associated
phenomena (Source: Foken 2008)
REVIEW ON DEFINITION
MICRO CLIMATIC MODIFICATION:
Microclimate modification patterns are about
the mimicking of natural systems to control the
environment to achieve several benefits
It is done through: controlling wind velocity,
controlling heat load, controlling water
balance.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
LIVESTOCK MICROCLIMATE:
The physical processes of the atmosphere,
called meteorological processes, establish the
existing climate or microclimate.
Wind, precipitation, sunshine, temperature,
humidity, and soil moisture are the primary
factors involved.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
LIVESTOCK MICROCLIMATE:
Livestock production require special microclimate in
livestock housing. Microclimate parameters,
depending on the zone in the livestock house
influences production.
Example is the radiation that the animal receives,
and thus rises the body temperature. This become
basis in ensuring the adequate ventilation, proper
shading and maintaining water balances.
MICROCLIMATE COMPONENTS:
Decision diagram for managers considering livestock environment modification

MICROCLIMATES:
Topography
Aspect
Soil
Water
Vegetation
Artificial Structures
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
Techniques of Microclimate
Modification for Livestock
Modification for wind

Modification for heat load
Modification for cold/frost
Modification for water balance

Windbreaks
• Windbreaks and shelterbelts provide the protective
shelter against desiccating winds.
• Windbreaks are such structures which break the
wind-flow and reduce wind speed.
• Grazing animals or animals giving birth will seek
shelter from strong winds, especially during cold
weather.

Windbreaks
• Structures or trees can markedly reduce wind-
speed, and can be beneficial to the survival of
exposed animals (especially newborn).
• However, windbreaks have an importance much
beyond these benefits, especially in the tropical and
subtropical regions.

Windbreaks
• The protection achieved is determined by the
configuration, height, density and thickness of the
trees in a belt. The higher the windbreak the
greater will be the distance of its downwind (and
upwind) protection,

Windbreaks
• Windbreaks located perpendicular
to winter winds can protect
livestock while allowing cooling
summer winds to circulate in the
feedlot or pasture.

Windbreaks
• However, in using trees as windbreaks there is a trade-
off between any enhanced growth of the associated
grassland and the area occupied by the shelter trees,
unless they have associated timber or fuel value .
• The use of leguminous trees or shrubs can be a
practical means to counteract the effects of the wind
and the heat stress as well as to improve the animal
diet.

• As previously discussed, climate-related
temperature changes have an impact on normal
behavioral, immunological and physiological
functions of animals.
• In addition, as feeding patterns change, metabolic
and digestive functions are often compromised.

Minimizing Heat Stress
• Effects of high heat load can be minimized through:
adjusting the environment
nutritional and watering strategies
selection for thermal tolerance
change of livestock species, e.g. goats rather than cattle

Environment
• The main strategies to improve heat exchange between an
animal and its environment are:
design and construction of livestock facilities
provision of shade
 increase of ventilation
water misters, foggers, or pad cooling
using sprinklers to wet animals

Environment
Livestock Facilities
The design and construction of livestock facilities can
be adjusted to minimize heat stress.
Ventilation can be improved.
Other important considerations are shade, the
orientation of the building in relation to the sun, and
thermal characteristics of construction materials.

Environment
Shade
Shade can for example be provided by roofs and
trees.
Design considerations for shade structures include
insulation, orientation, pitch, height and material.
Environment
Ventilation
Air temperature can be further reduced by using
evaporative pads.
As outside air enters an evaporative pad, energy is
removed from both the wet pad and the air as the water
evaporates, thereby decreasing air temperature. Hence, the
air temperature entering the facility is lower (since heat was
removed for evaporation) and the relative humidity as well
as the water vapor content is greater.
Environment
Fogging and Misting
Fogging and misting systems can reduce air temperature
via water evaporation.
Fogging systems create very fine droplets usually achieved
by high pressure.
Conversely, misting systems generate larger droplets (low
pressure) that do not fully evaporate while airborne can wet
surrounding surfaces and animals.
Environment
Skin Wetting
Air movement over the animal affects both convective and
evaporative heat loss.
Another methodology is skin wetting, circulating cool water
through the floor the animals lie on; this, however, is
generally an expensive solution.
The figure summarizes the
environmental
characteristics that can be
modified to reduce heat
stress (e.g. in pig
production systems), such
as surrounding surface
temperatures through
conduction and radiation,
convection and evaporation.
Illustration of cooling systems in a pig pen


Nutritional and watering strategies
Access to cool clean drinking water to meet potential
peak demands is paramount.
Water restriction will further increase the negative
aspects of high heat load by decreasing evaporative heat
loss, leading to further reductions in feed intake, so water
intake may increase markedly during periods of high
heat load.

Nutritional and watering strategies
Nutritional strategies include changes to feeding
frequency and time of feeding, (e.g. feeding at night) and
changes in ingredients (e.g. addition of dietary fat to
increase energy density, or additional roughage added to
cattle diets to reduce heat increment).

Selection for thermal tolerance (Genetic Opportunities)
Genetic selection for thermal tolerance is one potential
strategy to mitigate the effects of heat stress, but this is a
long-term solution.
Breeding goals may have to be adjusted to account for
higher temperatures, lower quality diets and greater
disease parasite challenge.
Genetic variability for heat tolerance in a species occurs
within and between breeds.

Change of livestock species
On the other end of the scale, winter shelters for
ruminants, for example in Mongolia, assist with colder
climates, helping changing breeds or even livestock
species that can better cope with the changing
conditions in areas with increasing cold stress.
MODIFICATION FOR COLD/FROST:

• An effective prevention scheme for extreme cold and wet
weather conditions should take into account the following:
(a)Be prepared to prevent and treat bloat when cattle
increase grazing after a hard rain,
(b)Maintaining water consumption to encourage feed
consumption during prolonged cold stress. Warming
devices will aid in preventing freezing of water and
preventing salt poisoning in animals,
(c) Monitor body condition of cattle under prolonged cold
stress and adjust the ration accordingly.
MODIFICATION FOR FROST:

• When plants freeze, changes occur rapidly in
their metabolism and composition that can be
toxic to livestock. Two problems need to be
considered – prussic acid poisoning and bloat.
• However, many of these problems can be
prevented, or at least minimized with proper
management.

• After frost damage, cyanide levels will likely be
higher in fresh forage as compared with hay or
silage, because cyanide is volatile and
dissipates as the forage cures and dries or is
ensiled.

• Removing livestock from pastures for several days
after a frost is the best preventative management
strategy to reduce prussic acid poisoning in
sudangrass and sorghum-sudangrass pastures.

• Pasture bloat should be a concern to cow-calf operators and
stocker operators as experience during the first frost. Frothy
bloat, or legume bloat, is the most common type of pasture
bloat.
• In general, if pastures contains over 50 percent grass, there will
be minimal danger of bloat.
• If pastures contain more than 50% legume, be prepared to use
bloat control measures.
• Bloat can be reduced by supplementing grass hay to cattle
grazing bloat provoking pasture. Significant amounts of hay must
be consumed for this to be effective.

• Strategic use of bedding can help reduce cold
stress. Increase bedding during cold temperatures.
• In open lots bedding should be placed on the slope
downwind from prevailing winds. Thinner hided
cattle (such as dairy beef) have less insulation and
may require more frequent bedding than British-
breed cattle.

• Controlled ventilation systems in enclosed housing
can use minimal sensible heat to buffer extremes of
cold for improved efficiency, and added artificial heat
is essential for survival or economically beneficial.
MODIFICATION WATER BALANCE:

• Livestock water use is water associated with
livestock watering, feedlots, dairy operations, and
other on-farm needs.
• Other livestock water uses include cooling of
facilities for the animals and products, dairy
sanitation and wash down of facilities, animal waste-
disposal systems, and incidental water losses.
 In feedstock production, green
water is involved at field level (in
pastures and feed crops), while
blue water is involved in the feed
processing stage (to produce
roughages, grains and
c o n c e n t r a t e s ) .
 In livestock production, blue
water is involved as drinking and
service water (e.g. for cleaning)
and during the primary processing
stage as service/processing water
and water used to produce other
inputs (e.g. hydroelectricity).

In practice, to maintain water balance it is recommended to
act as following:
In Cattle Production
Drinking water is extremely important in times of heat stress.
Intake may increase by 20 to >50% during heat stress.
Clean, fresh water must always be available close at hand. This is
done by having adequate watering devices or space (minimum of
2-3 inches per cow) on hand, making sure pressure is adequate to
refill waterers (quickly for light plastic tubs), and providing more
water sources in the pasture if travel distances or sight-distance
issues arise.

In Cattle Production
Other potential adjustments include providing
sprinklers in the pasture. If kept in the barn during
the day, the barn will need cooling equipment,
such as fans and sprinklers.

In Sheep and Goat Production
Sheep should be cooled by applying rubbing alcohol to
the area between their rear legs. Besides not being
covered with wool, this area has a lot of vascular activity.
Wooled sheep should not be sprayed with cool water as
this will prevent cooling. Air will not be able to pass
through the wetted fleece. Other cooling treatments
include ice applications, submersion in ice and cool
water enemas.

In Sheep and Goat Production
Heat-stressed animals should be offered ample water
and encouraged to drink small amounts. It may be
necessary to administer fluids to animals that have
become dehydrated as a result of their exposure to
extreme heat and/or humidity.
Woolly or hairy animals should be sheared as conditions
allow.

In Pigs/Swine Production
Ensuring adequate quantities of quality water are
available is extremely important to ensure pigs to not
become dehydrated.
Waterers need to be adjusted and functioning properly,
with enough waterers available to allow adequate
access.
In confinement systems, water sprinkler systems and
drip coolers can also provide effective supplemental
evaporative cooling.
In group pens, sprinkling water in 1 to 2 minute intervals
every 20 – 30 minutes allows moisture to evaporate off
the pig’s skin before wetting and starting the cooling
process over again, and is more effective than leaving
waterers on continuously.

For sows individually housed in gestation or farrowing
stalls, dripping water on the necks and shoulders
combined with air movement also provides direct
evaporative cooling.
Thank You
Any questions??
ABE 114
IV. Principles of
Environmental
Control
Instructor
Contents
Psychrometry and Air Energy
Conditioning Considerations
1 3
Insulation and Vapor
Barriers
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
Psychometry and Air Conditioning

PSYCHROMETRY AND AIR CONDITIONING
PSYCHROMETRY:
This branch of science deals with the study of
properties of moist air and its behavior under different
conditions.
The properties of moist air include Dry-bulb
Temperature (DBT), Wet-bulb Temperature (WBT),
humidity, Relative Humidity (RH), etc.
PSYCHROMETRY:
• Let us consider moist air represented by the
state A on T-s diagram show in Figure.
Water vapor in the air at state A is in the superheated condition
and it has a partial pressure pv. Suppose one adds water vapor
to such air till the air becomes fully saturated with water vapor
(point B), the partial pressure of water vapor contained in the air
would be ps. The addition of water vapor to the air can be by
spraying water in the air. At state point B, air contains the
maximum amount of water vapor corresponding to its
temperature.
For saturated air, the maximum specific humidity (ws or Wmax) is

given as
Here, ps = partial pressure of water vapor in a saturated air corresponding to DBT and p is the total pressure of
moist air.
PSYCHROMETRY:
• Dry-Bulb Temperature (DBT)
It is the temperature of air measured or recorded by a thermometer. It
is denoted by T or Tdb or DBT.
• Wet-Bulb Temperature (WBT)
It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer when its bulb is
covered with wet wick or cloth over which air is moving at a velocity at
2.5 to 10 m/s.
• Dew Point Temperature (DPT)
It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer when the
moisture present in it starts condensing. It is denoted by Tdp or DPT.
PSYCHROMETRY:
• Dew Point Temperature (DPT)
Consider that a certain sample of unsaturated moist air shown by state
A in given figure, is cooled at constant pressure slowly by passing over
the cooling coil. Its temperature goes on decreasing till it reaches a
temperature DPT, at which the first drop of dew will be formed. It
means that the water vapor in the air starts condensing.
In the case of dehumidification of air, it is required to maintain the
temperature of cooling coil well below DPT. During the cooling process,
the partial pressure of water vapor and the specific humidity w remain
constant until the vapor starts condensing.
The DPT (saturated temperature) can be found from the steam table
corresponding to the partial pressure of water vapor pv.
FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS:
Pressure
Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio
Relative Humidity
Enthalpy
Specific Volume
Degree of Saturation
Pressure:
• In air conditioning terms, air means a mixture of water vapor
and remaining gases.
• So by Dalton's law of partial pressure
where
p = total pressure of air
pa = partial pressure of dry air
pv = partial pressure of water vapor.
Pressure:
• The partial pressure of water vapor can be found out by
Carrier's equation
where
pw = saturation pressure of water vapor corresponding to wet
bulb temperature (from steam tables)
pv = atmospheric pressure of moist air
Tdb = dry bulb temperature
Twb = wet bulb temperature.
Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio:

• It is the ratio of mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air
contained in the sample air. It is denoted by w. It is normally
expressed in g/kg of dry air.
w = mass of water vapor in air/mass of dry air in air

= mv/ma
Let pa, va T, ma and Ra be the pressure, specific volume, DBT in K, mass and
gas constant respectively.
Let pv, vv T, mv and Rv be the pressure, specific volume, DBT in K, mass and
gas constant respectively.

Using equation
pv = mRT
For dry air

where pv and pa are partial pressure of water vapor and
dry air respectively.
For water vapor
As air and water vapor have the same volume and

temperature, we get
Now

• Example
The dry-bulb temperature and dew point temperature of atmospheric air are 30°C
and 14°C, respectively. If the barometer reading is 758 mm of Hg, determine the
humidity ratio.
Solution: (Use of steam table)
From steam tables, the partial pressure of water vapor corresponding to DP temperature
140°C is 0.015973 bar.
Atmospheric pressure is 758 mm Hg (758 x 0.001332 = 1.0105656 bar).
Relative Humidity:
• It is the ratio of mass of water vapor in a given volume of air
at any temperature and pressure to the maximum amount of
mass of water vapor which the same volume of air can hold
at the same temperature conditions.
• The air contains maximum amount of water vapor at the
saturation conditions.
• Let vv and vs be the specific volumes of water vapor in the
actual and moist saturated air at temperature T and in a
volume V.
Applying ideal gas equation to the

state points A and B of following
figure,
• Relative humidity is therefore defined as the ratio of vapor
pressure in a sample of air to vapor pressure of saturated air
at the same temperature, i.e.
RH = vapor pressure of water vapor/vapor pressure of saturated

air at the same temperature
• Relative humidity is measured in percentage. It has great

influence on evaporation of water in the air and therefore on
the comfort of human beings.
Enthalpy:
• Air is a homogeneous mixture of dry air and water vapor.
Therefore, enthalpy of air is found taking the sum of enthalpy
of dry air and enthalpy of water vapor in the moist air.
• Enthalpy of air/kg of dry air = Enthalpy of dry air + enthalpy
of w kg of water vapor
= ha + whv
• Considering the change in enthalpy of perfect gas as a
function of temperature only, the enthalpy of dry air part,
above a datum of 0°C, can be found as
ha = cpaTdb = 1.005 Tdb kJ/kg
Enthalpy:
• Assuming enthalpy of saturated liquid at 0°C as zero, the
enthalpy of water vapor at point A in given figure, is
expressed as
Enthalpy:
• Assuming enthalpy of saturated liquid at 0°C as zero, the
enthalpy of water vapor at point A in given figure, is
expressed as
Enthalpy:
Enthalpy:
Specific Volume:
• It is the volume of air per unit mass of dry air. It is measured
in m³/kg of dry air.
• Air flow is measured by anemometer as volume rate of flow
and the heat added or cooling requires mass flow rate.
• So specific volume is essential to relate the two.
Degree of Saturation:
• It is the mass of water vapor in a sample of air to the mass of water
vapor in the same air when it is saturated at the same temperature.
Degree of Saturation:
• Relative humidity, RH = pv/ps = 0 when moist air is totally dry,

i.e. which does not contain water vapor.
• If the moist air is saturated, then pv =ps then RH = 1 and µ =
1. It shows that the degree of saturation varies between 0
and 1.
Example:
• For a dry-bulb temperature of 25°C and a relative humidity of
50%, calculate the following for air when the barometric
pressure is 740 mm Hg. Find without using psychrometric
chart:
(a) Partial pressure of water vapor and dry air
(b) Dew point temperature
(c) Specific humidity
(d) Specific volume
(e) Enthalpy
Solution:
Dry-bulb temperature, Tdb = 25°C
Relative humidity, RH = 0.50
Atmospheric (barometric) pressure, pb
= 740 mm Hg
= 740 x 133 Pa = 98,420 N/m2 = 98.420 kPa
From steam tables, saturation pressure of water vapor corresponding to dry-bulb

temperature,
Tdb = 250°C, ps = 3.17 kPa.
Relative humidity, RH = pv/ps
0.5 = pv/3.17
Solution:
a) Partial pressure of water vapor, pv = 1.585 kPa
p b= p a + p v
Partial pressure of dry air, pa = 98.420 – 1.585 = 96.835 kPa
Corresponding to pv = 1.585, the saturation temperature from steam tables = 140°C.
b) Dew point temperature, Tdp = 140°C
c) Specific Humidity
d) Specific Volume
Solution:
e) Enthalpy of the moist air
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART:
• A psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the
thermodynamic properties of moist air.
• These properties of moist air vary with atmospheric pressure
and altitude.
• One such chart for atmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar at
sea level is shown in following figure.
• The variables shown on a complete

psychrometric chart are: DBT, WBT,
relative humidity, total heat; vapor
pressure and the actual moisture
content of the air.
• As shown in this figure the dry-bulb
temperature is taken as the x-axis
and the mass of water vapor per kg
of dry air as the ordinate.
• DBT lines
These dry-bulb temperature lines extend
vertically upwards and there is one line
for each degree of temperature.
• WBT lines
The wet-bulb temperature scale is found
along the 'in-step' of the chart extending
from the toe to the top. These lines
extend diagonally downwards to the
right. There is one line for each degree
of temperature.
• RH lines
 On the psychrometric chart, the
relative humidity lines are the only
curved lines on it.
 The various relative humidifies are
indicated on the lines themselves.
 The 100% RH line or saturation
curve becomes the boundary of the
chart on the left side.
 The region beyond this line is the
supersaturated zone or fog zone.
• Specific humidity lines
 The scale for specific humidity is a
vertical scale on the right side of
psychrometric chart.
 The scale is in grams of moisture per
kilogram dry air.
• DPT lines
 The scale for dew point temperature
is identical to the scale of WBT lines.
The DPT lines run horizontal to the
right.
• Specific volume lines
 The specific volume lines are drawn
along the sole chart and they are
equally-spaced diagonal lines.
• Specific enthalpy lines
 The specific enthalpy scale is located
along the 'in-step' of the chart. These
lines are similar to WBT lines
 Specific enthalpy lines indicate the
total heat content.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES OR AIR

CONDITIONING PROCESSES:
Sensible Heating
Sensible Cooling
Cooling and Dehumidification
Heating and Humidification
Sensible Heating of Air:

• Sensible heat will be added to the moist air while passing it
over the hot dry surface.
• Normally, the heating surface is steam or hot water coil,
whose surface temperature is above DBT of the air.
• As the air comes in contact with the warm surface, the DBT
of air increases and tends to approach the temperature of
the heating surface.
Sensible Heating:
• Since no moisture is added or removed from the
air the specific humidity remains constant.
• The process is illustrated with a schematic
diagram as in the figure.
• The process takes place along the constant DPT
line.
• For steady flow conditions, the required rate of
heat addition is
• The process takes place along the constant

moisture content line, here Tdb2 or T2 is me heater
temperature.
Sensible Cooling of Moist Air:

• Sensible cooling of moist air can be done by passing it over
a cooling coil whose surface temperature is kept below the
DBT of entering air and above the DP temperature.
• In this process, no moisture is added or removed, and DP
temperature and latent heat content of air remain the same
throughout the cooling process.

• The process is represented as a horizontal
line from right to left, depending upon the
end conditions of air (see figure).
• The total change in heat (enthalpy) content
is equal to the change in sensible heat.
• Following figure shows the cooling process
on psychrometric chart.
 The air can be cooled to surface temperature of coil.

But this requires contact of air with coil surface for a
sufficient period.
 The cooling of air depends on the number of rows of
coil, depth of the coil and the velocity of air approaching
the coil.

• The heat transfer between the air and
the cooling coil indicates that the
temperature difference between the air
and the coil surface is large at the
beginning (first few rows of the coil). At
subsequent rows this difference
decreases. So; the last few rows are
uneconomical due to very small
temperature drop achieved.
• Therefore, the number of rows is limited
and the air is then cooled to a
temperature higher than T2.

• Low velocity of air allows adequate time for cooling.
• But low velocity causes laminar flow and also requires a higher
cross-section of coil for adequate airflow.
• So velocity has to be of reasonably high value. Thus, air cannot be
cooled to coil temperature by low air velocity.
Cooling capacity of coil = mass flow rate of air x specific heat x (T1 – T2)
Cooling and Dehumidification of Moist Air:

• Here air is to be cooled and during cooling water vapor is to
be separated from the air.
• Moisture separation will occur only when moist air is cooled
to a temperature below its dew point temperature.
• Therefore, the effective surface temperature of the cooling
coil kept below the initial dew point temperature of the air is
called Apparatus Dew Point (ADP).

• A cooling coil is shown schematically in Figure (a) and air flows uniformly
across the coil. The process of cooling the air from state 1 to state 2 is as
shown in Figure 8(b), while the coil surface temperature is kept at ADP.
• Although moisture separation

occurs at various temperatures
ranging from the initial dew
point to final saturation
temperature, it is assumed that
the condensate water is cooled
to the final air temperature T2
before it drains from the
system under steady state.

• Cooling the air to the coil surface temperature becomes uneconomical
as the size of the heat exchanger becomes very large as (ΔT) reduces.
Therefore, surface area of the coil is so designed that it wall have a
certain bypass factor given by following formula,
• In any cooling and dehumidification process, both sensible and latent heats need to
be rejected and this is carried out by the cooling fluid circulated through the coil.
• The sum of sensible and latent heat is the total heat transferred.
• The ratio of sensible heat to the total heat transfer is known as the Coil Sensible
Heat Factor (CSHF).

• By knowing CSHF, we can find the sensible heat and latent heat
quantities.
The enthalpy difference (h1 – h2) represents the total heat

absorbed by the coil.
In the processes 1-2, 1-2', 1-2" the total heat absorbed is
same but the proportion of sensible heat absorbed to total
heat absorbed successively reduces.
This is indicated by the fact that T1" > T2' > T2.
This proportion is called the Sensible Heat Factor (SHF).

• SHF represents the slope of the line representing the process on the
psychrometric chart. So, from figure it can be said that,
• ADIABATIC COOLING OR COOLING WITH

HUMIDIFICATION PROCESS
• Adiabatic cooling is because of the water attaining the wet-bulb
temperature of air due to constant evaporation.
• In some dry areas, the difference between dry-bulb and wet-bulb
temperature is high enough to use well water as cooling medium in a
coil.
• As the WB temperature is higher than the dew point of air, the process
is sensible cooling.

 Let us consider warm air blowing over the water surface as shown in following figure.

• The air gets cooled. For cooling, air has to lose the heat it possesses. The air
physically contacts the water surface, therefore, in one way it dissipates heat
to the water by conduction.
• Secondly, water particles separate from the water surface, evaporate and mix
with the air. For the evaporation of water latent heat is to be supplied which
actually comes from both air as well as water. Therefore, both air and water
get cooled.
• The heat exchange process is only between the air and the water, so the
system is said to be insulated. This process of cooling is known as adiabatic
cooling. It is also called evaporative cooling or cooling with humidification.
• For this reason, water in an open lake or well is cooler than the surrounding.

• The water surface can also be in the form of water spray as shown in Figure (a) to
hasten evaporation and cooling.
• During an adiabatic process no heat enters or leaves the system. Thus, the process
line 1-2 on the psychrometric chart is along the constant enthalpy line.
• The lowest possible temperature to which air can be cooled is the wet-bulb
temperature (Twb).
• Due to inefficient spray systems or uneconomical situations of providing a large
number of banks of spray to get the cooling to Twb, air is practically cooled to T2 (T2
> Twb).
• The efficiency of spray is defined as
Spray efficiency

• The water is recirculated with a pump. Make-up water is
added to compensate for the water evaporated during the
operation.
• The makeup water also known as humidifier duty in liter/h
can be given by the formula,
Heating and Humidification:

• In this case both heat as well as water vapor are added to
the air.
• To achieve this, the temperature of water to be sprayed in
the air stream is kept at a temperature greater than the DBT
of incoming air so that heat will be transferred to air to heat
it.
• The unsaturated air reaches the condition of saturation and
the heat of vaporization of water is absorbed from the spray
water itself so that the spray water gets cooled.

• The heating and humidification process is shown in following figure.
• During this process, the humidity ratio, the dry-

bulb temperature, the wet-bulb temperature,
the dew point temperature and the enthalpy of
air increase while passing through hot spray.
• The relative humidity may increase or
decrease. The spray water is to be heated
before being pumped to the spray nozzles.
• The air enters at state 1 and leaves at state 2,
as shown in figure.

• The mass balance for water is:
Where,
mw1, mw2 are the mass flow rates of water

entering and leaving in kg/min, respectively, m is
the mass flow rate of air in kg/min, and w1 and
w2 are specific humidity of air entering and
leaving respectively.
AIR CONDITIONING:
UNITARY SYSTEM
• Such a unit is designed to be installed in or near the
conditioned space.
• The components are contained in the unit.
• Unitary systems are standardized for certain applications but
minor modifications are possible to suit an application.
• Heating components are rarely included.
Room Air Conditioners (Window AC)
• This is the simplest form of an unitary air-conditioning system,
assembled inside a casing (see figure), and suitable for installation on
a window or wall opening.
• The assembly incorporates a refrigeration unit and
a double shaft fan motor, with fans mounted on
both shafts of the motor-one on the evaporator
side and the other for the air-cooled condenser.
• The room (or cooling side) and the outdoor (heat
rejection side) of the unit are separated by an
insulated partition within the casing.
• The front panel, with supply and return air grills
and a door opening to get access to the control
operating panel on the unit face, is attached to the
unit on the room side.
Room Air Conditioners (Window AC)
• The unit thus consists of: the refrigeration system, the control system
(thermostat and selector switch), electrical protection system (motor
overload switches and winding protection thermostat for the
compressor motor), air-circulation system (fan motor, centrifugal
evaporator blower and propeller fan for air cooled condenser) and
ventilation (fresh air) damper and exhaust system.
• The refrigeration system consists of a hermetic compressor, forced air-
cooled tinned condenser coil, finned cooling coil, capillary tube as
throttling device and a refrigerant filter/drier.
• The refrigerant used is R-22.
CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
• A central air conditioning system can be used for single-zone (a zone
consisting of a single room or group of rooms) or multi zone
applications.
• In this section a central AC system,

all air for a single-zone application is
discussed and the system is shown in
following figure.
• A single-zone air conditioning system has one thermostat that
automatically controls one heating or cooling unit to maintain proper
temperature in a zone comprising a single room or a group of rooms.
• A window air conditioner is an example of a single-zone air
conditioning unit.
• The system shown in given figure is for year-round air conditioning to
control both temperature and humidity.
• All the components shown in the figure may not be utilized in all the
circumstances.
• An air-handling unit (AHU) cools or heats air that is then distributed to
the single zone.
• The supply air fan is necessary to distribute air through the ductwork
to the rooms.
Cooling coil: It cools and dehumidifies the air and provides humidity
control in summer. Reheat coil is optional and is used when air
temperature is to be maintained at the required level, especially in
winter. In summer, it may remain idle.
Reheating coil: It heats the cooled air when the room heat gain is less
than the maximum, thus providing humidity control in summer. The coil
capacity is such that it satisfies the heating needs during winter.
Ductwork: It is arranged so that the system takes in some outside
ventilation air (OA), the rest being return air (RA) recirculated from the
rooms. The equivalent amount of outside air must then be exhausted
from the building. Dampers are provided to vary the rate of ventilation
air as per the requirement of fresh air in the rooms. In some
applications as in operating theatres, ventilation air can be 100%.
Return air fan: It takes the air from the rooms and distributes it through
return air ducts back to the air conditioning unit or to the outdoors. In small
systems with little or no return air ducts, the return air fan is not required
because the supply fan can be used to draw in the return air.
Preheat coil: The preheat coil may be located either in the outside air or the
mixed airstream. It is required in cold climates (below freezing) to increase
the temperature of air so that the chilled water cooling coils do not freeze. It is
optional in milder climates and when DX (dry expansion) cooling coils are
used
 Filters: The filters are required to clean the air.
• A room thermostat will control the cooling coil capacity to maintain the desired
room temperature.
UNITARY VS. CENTRAL SYSTEMS
• As already stated earlier, the classification of air conditioning systems
into unitary and central systems, is not according to how the system
functions, but how the equipment is arranged.
• In a unitary system, the refrigeration and air conditioning components
are factory selected and assembled in a package. This includes
refrigeration equipment, fan, coils, filters, dampers and controls.
• A central system is one where all the components are separate. The
engineer has to design and install the central plant and its suitable
components are based on the air-conditioning load.
UNITARY VS. CENTRAL SYSTEMS
• Unitary equipment is usually located in or close to the space to be
conditioned whereas the central equipment is usually remote from the
space, and each of the components may or may not be remote from
each other, depending on the desirability.
• Unitary systems are generally all-air systems limited largely to the
more simple types such as single-zone units with or without reheat.
This is because they are factory assembled on a volume basis.
• Central systems can be all-air, all-water or air-water systems and they
are generally suitable for multi-zone units.
HEAT PUMP UNIT
• A heat pump is an air conditioner in which the refrigeration cycle can
be reversed, producing heating instead of cooling in the indoor
environment.
• They are also commonly referred to as a "reverse cycle air
conditioner".
• The heat pump is significantly more energy efficient than electric
resistance heating.
HEAT PUMP UNIT
• When the heat pump is in heating mode, the indoor evaporator coil switches
roles and becomes the condenser coil, producing heat. The outdoor
condenser unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator, and
discharges cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air).
• Air-source heat pumps are more popular in milder winter climates where the
temperature is frequently in the range of 4–13 °C, because heat pumps
become inefficient in more extreme cold. This is because ice forms on the
outdoor unit's heat exchanger coil, which blocks air flow over the coil.
• A heat pump system will therefore have a form of electric resistance heating
in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode in order to
compensate for the temporary indoor air cooling, which would otherwise be
uncomfortable in the winter.
COMFORT AIR CONDITIONING
• Since the purpose of most air-conditioning systems is to provide a
comfortable indoor environment, the system designer and operator
should understand the factors that affect comfort.
Body Heat Loss
• Heat is generated in the body due to metabolism or digestion of food.
This body heat is continually lost to its cooler surroundings. The factor
that determines whether one feels hot or cold is the rate of loss of
body heat.
• When the rate of heat loss is within certain limits, one feels
comfortable. If the rate of heat loss is too much, one feels cold and if
the rate is too low, one feels hot.
Body Heat Loss
• The processes by which the body loses heat to the surroundings are
convection, radiation and evaporation.
• The rate of body heat loss is affected by five conditions:
Air temperature
Air humidity
Air motion
Temperature of surrounding objects
Body Heat Loss
• The system designer and operator can control comfort, primarily by adjusting
three conditions: temperature, humidity and air motion. How are they
adjusted to improve comfort?
• The indoor air temperature may be lowered to increase the body heat loss in
summer while in winter it may be raised to decrease the body heat loss.
• In winter, humidity may be raised to decrease the body heat loss and in
summer humidity may be lowered to increase the body heat loss by
evaporation.
• Air motion may be raised to increase the body heat loss in summer and
lowered to decrease the body heat loss in winter by convection.
Indoor Air Quality
• Another factor, air quality, refers to the degree of purity of the air. The
level of air quality affects both comfort and health. Air quality is
worsened by the presence of contaminants such as tobacco smoke
and dust particles, biological microorganisms and toxic gases.
• Cleaning devices such as filters may be used to remove particles.
Adsorbent chemicals may be used to remove unwanted gases. Indoor
air contaminants can be diluted in concentration by introducing
substantial quantities of outdoor air into the building. This procedure is
called ventilation.
Effective Temperature
• Effective temperature (ET) is defined as that temperature of saturated
air at which the subject would experience the same feeling of comfort
as experienced in the actual unsaturated environment.
• Based on the concept of effective temperatures some comfort charts
have been developed. To mention one, there is the Fanger's comfort
chart. These may be referred to when a compromise in the inside
design conditions is to be achieved.
Thank You
Any questions??
ABE 114
IV. Principles of
Environmental
Control
Instructor
Contents
Psychrometry and Air Energy
Conditioning Considerations
1 3
Insulation and Vapor
Barriers
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
Insulation and Vapor Barriers

INSULATION AND VAPOR BARRIERS
INSULATION:
Insulation is a general term used to describe
material that creates barriers for transmission of
electricity, heat, moisture, shock or sound between
insulated surfaces of adjacent bodies. These
materials could be insulating heat, cold, electricity,
sound or radiation (Corrosionpedia.com)
INSULATION:
Insulation refers to a barrier to the progression or
transmission of any forms of energy through the insulated
surfaces. It has various applications. They are:
Building insulation – used in buildings for comfort and
energy savings
Electrical insulation – used to resist electricity and
magnetism
Insulated glass – used for power-saving
Acoustic insulation – used to reduce the intensity of sound
Thermal insulation – used to reduce heat transfer
INSULATION:
Insulation is basically trapped air and air is a
good insulating material.
Air entrapped in the small bubbles of foam or the
small spaces in fiberglass retards heat flow.
The small bubbles in a sheet of foam or in the
small spaces in a batt of fiberglass entrap dead
air.
The thin film of air surrounding these spaces also retards the heat flow.
Together a thermal resistance (R-value) is established.
Technically it is measured in ºF – square foot – hour/Btu. The greater
the R-value, the greater the insulation effect.
HOW MUCH INSULATION DO YOU NEED?

The amount of insulation that should be installed depends on several
factors including:
1.) The climate where the structure is located.
2.) The design temperature used.
3.) The amount of ventilation needed for moisture removal. This make-
up outside air has to be heated during the winter. The heat from equipment
and employees in the building can be conserved and used for heating the
ventilation air if more insulation is installed.
4.) The cost of fuel to heat the building or the cost of electricity to run
fans or air conditioning. With increasing fuel costs, this is the major reason
to install more insulation.
5.) The local building code. The R-value for floors, walls and ceilings in
some buildings is specified in the code to meet national energy conservation
goals.
Choosing an insulation material:

Most insulation materials reduce heat flow caused by
conduction or convection.
When selecting insulation, consideration should be given to
the following:
R-value – Select a material with the highest R-value.

When new construction is planned, build with 6" thick
walls rather than 4" as more insulation can be used.
Ease of installation – Blanket or batt type insulation is

easy to install in walls during new construction but placing
rigid board material on the surface or fill-type material
blown in through holes may be the only type that can be
conveniently installed to insulate an existing wall.
Fiberglass or rock wool is commonly blown into attic
space as it can be applied at 12" thickness or more.
Ease of installation – Blanket or batt type insulation is
easy to install in walls during new construction but placing
rigid board material on the surface or fill-type material
blown in through holes may be the only type that can be
conveniently installed to insulate an existing wall.
Fiberglass or rock wool is commonly blown into attic
space as it can be applied at 12" thickness or more.
Fire resistance – Materials that create toxic gases or
contribute to flame spread should not be used unless
covered with a non-flammable material. There have been
a number of fires in buildings that had unprotected,
sprayed-on urethane foam insulation.

Vapor barrier – moisture is a good conductor of heat.
Moisture from inside the building that migrates into the
insulation reduces the R-value and can contribute to
deterioration of the wall. Either a vapor barrier as part of the
insulation or a separate 6 mil polyethylene sheet should be
installed on the heated side of the ceiling and walls.
– Fiberglass even with a vapor barrier is not a good choice for
a connecting wall between an attached greenhouse and a
headhouse as the moisture in the greenhouse is driven into the
insulation by the high temperatures developed. Also polystyrene
beadboard is permeable to moisture and should not be used
where a vapor barrier is needed.
Cost – a comparison based on total cost/unit R-value

may be the best way to compare materials. Cost includes
materials, labor and equipment if needed.
INSULATING LIVESTOCK AND OTHER

FARM BUILDINGS:
Energy and how we use it are vital considerations today in
the planning and construction of farm buildings.
When it comes to livestock structures, conserving energy
means doing those things that reduce or eliminate wasted
heat in winter and excessive heat build up in summer.
The most effective conservation measure is proper
insulation.
PRINCIPLES OF HEAT FLOW

Principle 1. There is a difference between heat and
temperature.
Heat, measured in BTUs or calories, is a form of energy that
you and your animals need for keeping warm. It can come from
the sun, food or feed and from supplemental sources, such as a
furnace. The level or degree of hot or cold is indicated by the
temperature, measured in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.
When you feel hot air coming from a heater, you feel heat, not
temperature. The thermometer simply indicates the degree or
level of heat in an area at that moment.

Principle 2. Heat flows from a hot area toward the cold.
The natural direction of heat flow is from the high temperature side of
a wall or ceiling toward the colder side. Expressed another way, `cold'
is the absence of heat (BTUs).
A temperature difference between two sides of a wall indicates that

there are more BTUs on one side than the other. This causes the
excess BTUs on the warm side to move toward the cold side, until
both areas are the same temperature. One might say the difference in
temperature is the `pressure' that causes the heat to equalize the
temperature. Also, the rate at which heat moves is determined by the
kind and thickness of the material (insulation) through which the heat
must flow.

Principle 3. Insulation does not stop heat flow, just slows it
down.
All materials conduct heat. Some, such as aluminum, copper, steel,
concrete and glass, are good conductors of heat; whereas wood,
paper and fibrous materials like fiberglass, mineral wool and cellulose
are poor conductors.
The thicker the material and the lighter, fluffier (full of air pockets) or
less dense it is, the poorer its heat-conducting ability. We call these
materials insulation. Newer insulation materials, including urea-
formaldehyde foam, polystyrene and polyurethane, are very light and
porous, thus are even poorer conductors of heat.

Principle 3. Insulation does not stop heat flow, just slows it
down.
The poorer the insulation material is in conducting heat and the
thicker it is, the more `resistance' it has to the flow of heat. This
resistance is measured in terms of R-value. The higher the R-value of
a material, the better it is as insulation.
R-values of various insulating and building materials are compared in

Table 1. Note the striking differences in heat flow resistance between
insulation materials and building materials such as concrete, wood or
metal siding. This is primarily due to differences in density.
 For example, the R-value of 1/2-inch
plywood (.62) is about the same as 8
inches of concrete (.08 x 8.64).
 However, it would take about 3 inches of
plywood or 44 inches of concrete to equal
in insulation value just 1 inch of fiberglass
batt or 1/2 inch of expanded
polyurethane.
 Commercial insulation materials add
substantially to the resistance of heat flow
through wall and ceiling/roof areas as
compared to conventional building
materials!

Principle 4. Warm air holds more moisture than cold air.
The moisture-holding capacity of air doubles with each 20°F rise in
temperature. This principle explains why walls and ceilings become
wet and drip.
Livestock add heat and moisture vapor to the surrounding air. So

when warm, moisture-laden air in the animal environment contacts a
cool surface, such as a poorly-insulated wall or ceiling, cold window or
foundation, the air cools and can no longer hold as much water vapor.
This causes condensation or `sweating.' If the surface is cold enough,
this condensate freezes. Insulation prevents condensation by keeping
the inside surfaces warm--i.e., above the `dew point' (saturation
temperature of the air).

Principle 5. Moisture vapor can move through building
materials.
Most building materials, including insulation, are porous to the
movement of moisture vapor. If vapor is allowed to move
through insulated walls, condensation can occur in the wall
cavity, thus wetting the insulation. The amount of condensation
depends on: (1) the difference in temperature between the warm
and cold sides, (2) resistance of the materials to the flow of
moisture vapor, and (3) the amount of moisture in the air.

Principle 5. Moisture vapor can move through building
materials.
Movement of moisture through materials is caused by vapor pressure.
Vapor pressure of warm air is higher than that of cooler air and, thus,
`pushes' vapor through the wall toward the cooler side-unless there is
special provision made on the warm (or inside) surface to obstruct or
impede its flow.
These obstructions can be: (1) a sheet of nearly-impervious, 6-mil
plastic film installed between the insulation material and inside wall
surface, (2) a vapor flow retardant incorporated into the insulation
material itself, or (3) insulation batts. blanket or board made with a
special paper or aluminum foil barrier attached. Such obstructors of
flow are called vapor barriers.
 Table 2 shows the degree of

resistance to vapor flow
(expressed as `perms') of various
vapor barriers and common
building materials.
 For a barrier to be effective, it
should have a perm rating of less
than 1.0.
INSULATING LIVESTOCK AND OTHER

FARM BUILDINGS:
Energy and how we use it are vital considerations today in
the planning and construction of farm buildings.
When it comes to livestock structures, conserving energy
means doing those things that reduce or eliminate wasted
heat in winter and excessive heat build up in summer.
The most effective conservation measure is proper
insulation.
CHOOSING THE “RIGHT” INSULATION:

There is a variety of insulation materials from which to
choose. Look for R-values on the bags or bales, and
compare with the levels recommended in Tables 3 and 4 to
determine how much insulation you need.

Types of Insulation
Batt and blanket insulation – is available in thicknesses from 1 to
8 inches and in widths to fit 16-, 24-and 48-inch stud spaces. Batts
are 4 to 8 feet long, and blankets up to 100-feet long. Materials are
fiberglass, mineral wool or cellulose fibers, available with or without
a vapor barrier attached.
Loose-fill insulation – is packaged in bags and may be mineral
wool, cellulose fiber, vermiculite, granulated cork and/or
polystyrenes. Some materials are easily adaptable for pouring or
blowing above ceilings, in walls of existing or new buildings and in
the cavities of concrete blocks. A separate vapor barrier must be
applied to the inside wall or ceiling to keep the insulation dry.

Rigid insulation – available in block shapes or in 1/2 - to 2-inch
thick panels up to 4 x 8 feet, is made of such materials as cellulose
fiber, polystyrene, polyurethane and polyisocyanurate. It can be
used on the inside or outside of roofs and walls, as a ceiling liner, or
along foundations that are partially in the ground (perimeter
insulation) or buried under concrete floors (if waterproof and if
protected from physical damage).

Rigid insulation – must be adequately supported (at least 2 feet
o.c.) when used in walls, ceilings or roofs. Some types have
aluminum foil or other vapor barriers firmly attached to one or both
faces to keep them dry. Check for flammability and whether they
produce toxic gases when burned. If so, they must be protected
with fire-resistant building materials, such as gypsum board or
plywood. Check with your insurance company if in doubt.

Foamed-in-place insulation – is usually obtained only through
commercial applicators because it requires special equipment and
experienced workers. It is available in liquid components or
expansible pellets of polystyrene, polyurethane and urea-
formaldehyde which are mixed or sprayed into cavities or onto
surfaces. Sub-standard workmanship and application techniques
can lead to excessive shrinkage, making insulation effectiveness
less than desired. Also, a separate vapor barrier must be applied.
Sprayed-on insulations – are difficult to protect with an adequate
vapor barrier. As a result, they sometimes are subject to premature
peeling from the surface on which they have been sprayed.
DETERMINING INSULATION LEVELS NEEDED:

After choosing the types of insulation that would best fit your
building, you must next determine the level of insulation
needed and then decide on the best method of installation.
Proper insulation thickness in wall and ceiling/roof areas of a
livestock structure is dictated by its intended use and the
resulting need for heat conservation.

Open-front buildings need no insulation in the walls and just
enough in the roof to prevent condensation by keeping the
cold surfaces warm (R-value, approximately 4).
Heated buildings should have a wall R-value of at least 13
and ceiling R-value of at least 20.
Enclosed, unheated, naturally-ventilated buildings (modified
open-front) should have wall and roof R-values of at least
13.
To compare your building with the recommended insulation minimums
in Table 4, you must determine the overall R-value of its walls and
ceiling or roof. To do this, first find in Table 1 the R-value for each
material that makes up the walls and the ceiling/roof area; then add
these figures together. Include in your total an R-value for inside and
outside wall or ceiling/roof surfaces (bottom of Table 1), because the
thin, stagnate film of air next to these surfaces contributes slightly to
the overall R-value.
(Note: Windows, doors and foundations typically are high heat loss
areas. These must also be taken into account when evaluating your
building.)
 As an example, assume you want to determine the R-
value of a hog house wall which has a stud cavity filled
with 3-1/2 inches of fiberglass and lined with 3/8-inch
plywood on the inside and metal siding on the outside.
 Using the information in Table 1, add the R-values,
proceeding from the outside to the inside of the wall
section:
 A variation of this procedure may be used to determine
the inches of insulation you would need in an
uninsulated wall, ceiling or roof to obtain a specific
desired R-value.
 Simply add the R-values of the various construction
materials used; subtract that sum from the overall R-
value you want; then divide that figure by the per-inch
R-value (Table 1.) of the insulation you plan to use.
INSTALLING INSULATION--WHERE AND HOW
 The next figures show the commonly-used construction methods for roofs,
ceilings, walls, floors and foundations which employ insulation. If you have a
choice. insulate the ceiling instead of the roof. You'll use 15 percent less
insulation, the volume of space to be heated will be less, and mechanical
ventilation systems will provide a more uniform air distribution.
 Make sure that all cracks or openings around window and door frames, fuel
supply pipes, water and sewer pipes, and electrical service entrance wires are
carefully filled with insulation and covered with a vapor barrier. Such places, if
not insulated, will show up later as cold spots, drafty areas, or where
condensate or frost collects. Caulk all cracks and joints on outside surfaces
that are exposed to wind and weather.
 Insulating the Ceiling
Figure 1. Loose-till, batt, blanket insulation Figure 2. Ceiling with rigid insulation (R=8-16). A ceiling
(R=20+). Loose-till, batts and blankets are with rigid insulation liner is used in some shops and
recommended as ceiling insulation in heated large animal housing. More insulation can easily be
buildings, especially where mechanical added later. Check with your insurance company about
ventilation is used. fire hazards from exposed insulation.
 Insulating the Roof
Figure 3. Rigid foam placed over purlins (R=4-9). Rigid foam Figure 4. Insulated roof panels over trusses (R=13-
placed over purlins is recommended for lightly-insulated 15). Insulated root panels over trusses are best
livestock buildings and for machinery storage. The foam fabricated on the ground and lifted into place.
boards should be protected from moisture with tight-fitting Roofing is then applied. This installation is
tongue-and-groove joints. Screen building openings to keep recommended for modified open-front livestock
birds away from the insulation. Foil faces and taped joints housing.
on top side reduce leaks.
Figure 6. Set-in-place insulated roof panels (R=13-15).

Figure 5. Fire-protected foam panels over trusses
Set-in-place insulated roof panels are fabricated on
(R=5-10). Fire-protected foam panels over trusses
the ground and placed between trusses. The panel
utilize plywood sheathing instead of purlins for lateral
studs act as blocking to provide lateral roof strength.
roof strength. This is used for lightly-insulated
Roofing is applied after panels are nailed securely in
livestock housing and for machinery storages.
place This system works well in modified open-front
livestock housing and farm shops.
Figure 7. Spray-on roof insulation (R=13). Spray-on Figure 8. Stud wall insulation (R=13-15 if 2x4 studs,
roof insulation should be protected from moisture it 20+ if 2x6 studs). Stud wall insulation is most
used in buildings where humidity is high. If fire common in heated farm buildings particular if walls
protected. it is satisfactory for farm shops or are 8 feet or less in height.
buildings with low moisture levels.
Figure 10. Post wall with batt or blanket

Figure 9. Concrete block and stud wall insulation (Upper wall R=13-15 if
insulation (R=13-15). This 4-inch post wall with
2x4 studs, 20+ if 2x6 studs; lower wall R=12 if standard blocks, 16 if
lightweight blocks with cores filled). Concrete block with stud wall above batt or blanket insulation is common in heated
32 inches is popular for housing large swine. Although blocks provide a buildings. It is usually more economical to build
`pig-proof' wall surface next to the animals, they lose much heat and than the stud wall shown in Figure 8.
`sweat' unless insulated.
 Insulating the Walls
Figure 11. Post wall with rigid foam insulation (R=4-8). Figure 12. Post wall with 6-inch batt insulation
Post wall with rigid foam insulation is used in livestock (R=21+). Post wall with 6-inch batt insulation is
buildings where it can be protected from animal contact. beneficial in solar-heated buildings where heat
Check with your insurance company about fire hazards conservation is especially important.
from exposed insulation.
 Insulating the Walls
Figure 13. Concrete block wall (R=10 if standard Figure 14. Pre-cast tilt-up concrete wall panels (R=11).
blocks, 14 if lightweight blocks with cores filled). Pre-cast tilt-up concrete wall panels may be insulated
Concrete block walls may be insulated inside by using using waterproof rigid insulation. This type of wall is
furring strips and, in new construction, by filling the sometimes used for milking parlors and milk houses.
block cores with insulation.
 Insulating the Floor and Foundation
 Perimeter insulation reduces heat loss through the foundation and floor
and eliminates cold, wet floors. Insulation under the floor is not necessary
unless the floor is heated. New pre-cast or cast-in-place foundations may
have 2-inch insulation imbedded in the center portion.
 New concrete block foundations or foundations under existing buildings

may be insulated by covering the foundation exterior below the siding to
18 inches below ground line with 1-2 inches of rigid-foam insulation board.
It should be protected with an impact- and moisture-resistant covering
above ground. such as 3/8 inch foundation grade plywood or 1/4-inch
tempered hardboard.
Figure 15. Foundation perimeter insulation-post

construction (R=2.2). Perimeter insulation of a pole
foundation may be accomplished by using 2-inch thick,
pressure-treated splashboards and rigid insulations as
forms for pouring the concrete foundation between
posts, then leaving them in place. Soil must be
backfilled and lightly compacted to hold the insulation
and splashboards in place before pouring.
Figure 16. Foundation perimeter insulation-

outside (R=2.2). Perimeter insulation along the
outside of foundation walls is toe most
common method used today Waterproof
insulation, protected from vehicle, bird and
rodent carnage by a rigid waterproof covering,
is an investment that will last the life of the
building. Soil should be backfilled to within 6-8
inches of the top of the insulation
Figure 17. Foundation perimeter insulation-

inside (R=2.2). Perimeter insulation for floors
in new construction may be placed around the
inside perimeter of the building.
MAXIMIZING INSULATION EFFECTIVENESS
 Moisture Protection
 Insulation's effectiveness is reduced drastically if it becomes wet. Wet
insulation not only permits greater heat loss, but also contributes to
deterioration of the building's structural members.
 For this reason, vapor barriers should be incorporated on the warm side of
all insulated walls, ceiling/roofs, floors and foundations. This is especially
important in livestock structures, where the relative humidity can be 80
percent or more and there is much moisture in the air. Many of the
illustrations above show where these vapor barriers are to be applied.
 Vapor barriers should be as perfect as possible. Unnecessary holes or
tears become critical as you make the building `tighter' with heavy
insulation, weather stripping and caulking. Therefore, before putting the
interior lining in place on the ceiling or wall, lay a solid film of 6-mil plastic
over the studs and on the underside of the joists. (Clear plastic allows you
to see the stud locations thus facilitating installation of the interior liner.)
Overlap the edges several inches, then carefully staple in place. Surface-
mount light switches and receptacles, electric wiring and waterpipes.
 Overlaying a solid plastic film will allow you to use an insulation material
with no vapor barrier attached, which is often less expensive than
insulation with a self-contained vapor barrier.
 A comparison of the permeability of various building materials to water
vapor is shown in Table 2. Where possible, material with a permeability
rating of less than 1.0 perm should be used.
 Ventilation of the space above insulation in the ceiling or between the
insulation and siding or roofing is important-sometimes critical. This is
especially true in a livestock building where humidity is high and/or a
pressure ventilation system is used. The pressurized air -- water vapor --
will be `pushed' into the wall and ceiling insulation if the vapor barrier is
not perfect.
 For ceilings, allow air to circulate in the attic space, entering and leaving
through gable, roof or eave ventilators. Summer ventilation can be
supplemented with fans to reduce heat buildup in the attic space. One of
the most effective means of ventilating attics is to have air enter at the
soffit and exhaust at the ridge.
 Doors and Windows
 Entry doors, insulated and weatherstripped, should be located on the
downwind (south or east) side of buildings. If the entry must be on the
upwind side of a heated building, plan for an air-lock type entrance, where
the outer door is at least 4 feet from an inner door. This will prevent cold
air and wind from blowing directly into the building when workers enter or
leave. As a way to conserve floor area, consider making the air-lock
entrance a part of an office, storage area or washroom.
 If remodeling a building, consider closing up all windows with insulated
panels, or replace them with permanent insulated wall sections. Hinged or
removable panels can be used for summer ventilation.
 Doors and Windows
 There is little or no benefit to having windows or sky-lights in heated farm
buildings. As evidence, compare the insulation R-values of single-,
double- and triple-paned windows and storm windows (Table 1) with that
of a well-insulated wall (R=13-15).
 Birds and Rodents

 To prevent infestation and damage by birds and rodents, screen all vent
openings and maintain a rodent bait program.
AB Plant &
Livestock
System &
Engineering
Energy Considerations
ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS
 Energy usage on farms is considered direct when used to

operate machinery and climate control systems or indirect
when is used to manufacture feed and agro-chemicals.
 Direct on-farm energy consumption was estimated to be 6 EJ
yr−1, representing about 1.2% of total world energy
consumption (OECD, 2008).
 If indirect energy is included, total farm energy consumption
could be as much as 15 EJ yr−1, representing about 3.1% of
global energy consumption.
Exajoule ( EJ ) :: 1 EJ = 10 18 J
 Housed livestock require adequate indoor climate conditions

to maximize both production and welfare, particularly
avoiding thermal stress.
 The task of the engineer is to improve the energy use
efficiency of livestock and plant housing and to minimize
energy consumption.
 This can be achieved by improving the energy performance
of the equipment used for climate control and the design of
the building.
CONCEPTS TO UNDERSTAND IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
 Energy and Mass Balance of a Livestock House
 Thermodynamically, a livestock house is an open system that exchanges
energy and mass (such as air, moisture, and contaminants) between the
indoor and outdoor environments and the animals that occupy the internal
volume (the enclosure).
 The law of conservation of energy and mass is the basic principle for the mass
balance.
 The building walls, floor, and roof represent the control surfaces and enclose
the control volume of the thermodynamic system represented by the livestock
house and its internal surfaces, such as animals, interior walls, and
equipment.
 Energy and mass balance equations allow the analysis of the thermal
behavior of a livestock house, but calculating these balances is challenging
because many factors affect the thermal behavior of these buildings.
CONCEPTS TO UNDERSTAND
Energy Balance
Sensible heat is the amount of heat exchanged by a body
and the surrounding thermodynamic system that involves
a temperature change.
Latent heat is the heat absorbed or released by a
substance during a phase change without a change in
temperature.
The latent heat of vaporization for a unit of mass of water
is 2,272 kJ kg−1 at 100°C and atmospheric pressure.
Energy Balance
 The energy balance of a livestock house, considering only the
sensible heat, can be written as follows (Panagakis and
Axaopoulos, 2008):
Energy Balance
 Equation 1 is a dynamic energy balance. For large time steps or in
steady-state conditions with constant indoor and outdoor air
temperature, heat accumulation by the building itself can be
considered to be zero, so equation 1 becomes:
 To obtain the energy balance of a livestock house in cold condition

requiring supplemental heating, the energy balance becomes:
 Figure 1 presents an illustration
of the sensible heat balance of
equation 3 for simple dairy cow
housing.
 Equation 3 can be used to
design a basic livestock house.
Mass Balance
 To estimate the ventilation flow rate for moisture control in a simple
livestock house, equation 4 (Panagakis and Axaopoulos, 2008) can
be used:
Mass Balance
 In steady-state conditions and
not considering the presence
of fogging systems, the mass
balance (figure 2) can be
simplified as:
 Equation 5 is the basic

formulation of the moisture
mass balance in steady-state
conditions for livestock houses.
Energy Management Calculations
 Heat Flow from the Reared Animals

 The animals produce and contribute considerably to heat flow in their
housing.
 In cool conditions, this heat flow can help warm the building and
decrease the need for supplemental heat.
 In warm conditions, this heat flow should be removed to avoid
overheating and causing animal heat stress.
 Animals need to emit heat (both sensible and latent heat) for regulating
their body temperature and maintaining their body functions.

 Standard values for heat production are available (CIGR, 1999;
ASABE, 2012), but a specific calculation is possible (Pedersen and
Sällvik, 2002).
 First the total heat produced, (sum of the sensible and latent
heat), for the animal house is calculated for an indoor air
temperature of 20°C.
 The formulation of the equation depends on animal species and
production:
 Next, the sensible heat produced ( ) at a given indoor air
temperature is calculated.
 If the indoor air temperature is in the thermoneutral zone, that is, a
temperature range where the animal heat dissipation is constant
(Pedersen and Sällvik, 2002) and the energy fraction used by
animals for maintaining their homeothermy is at a minimum, at the
house level can be calculated as:
 One hpu is defined as the number of animals that produces 1000 W
of total heat (sum of sensible and latent heat) at an indoor air
temperature of 20°C and can be calculated as:
 where is calculated using equations 6, 7, 8, or 9 depending on

species and production system.
 Transmission Heat Flow through the Building Envelope
 The term is being taken to represent the heat flow through the
walls, roof, windows, doors and floor. It is calculated as (European
Committee for Standardization, 2007):
The factor is used to correct the heat flow

when the forcing temperature difference is
not the difference between the indoor and
outdoor air, for example when the heat flow
occurs toward unconditioned spaces (e.g.
material storages and climate control rooms)
or through the ground.
 Transmission Heat Flow through the Building Envelope
 Heat Flow Due to a Supplemental Heating System
 In most of the cases, is the unknown of the problem and the energy balance is
solved with the aim of finding its value. A typical example is to solve the energy
balance of equation 3 for finding and sizing the heating capacity of the
supplemental heating system.
 In other cases, could be equal to zero and the unknown of the problem could
be with the aim of finding the needed ventilation flow rate to maintain a certain
indoor air temperature and to cool the reared animals. Rarely, has to be
estimated.
 For example, has to be estimated when the energy balance is solved with the
aim of evaluating the indoor air temperature in given specific boundary conditions.
An easy way to estimate is to consider the heating capacity reported in the
technical datasheet of the equipment for supplemental heating.
 Heat Flow from Solar Radiation
 The heat flow due to solar radiation is dependent on the season, the farm
location, and features of the building. In general terms, the solar heat flow can be
split into two terms as follows (International Organization for Standardization,
2017):
 The shading factors for both opaque and glazed components can be
excluded for most livestock housing because they increase the complexity
of the calculation, but they do not greatly affect the results.
 Heat Flow Due to the Ventilation System
 The heat load due to the ventilation system can be expressed as
 Heat Flow Due to the Ventilation System
 In the cool season, usually has the same value of , since
the ventilation uses outdoor air.
 In the warm season, could have values lower than , since
outdoor air is cooled before entering inside the building. The value
of can be estimated using the direct saturation effectiveness
(%) of an evaporative pad system, calculated as (ASHRAE, 2012):
Equation 20 can be rearranged to

estimate the air supply temperature
in presence of evaporative pads for use in
equation 19.
HEATING ANIMAL HOUSES
Supplemental Heating Systems
 In cold weather, a supplemental heat source may be needed to
reach the air setpoint temperature for guaranteeing adequate living
conditions for the livestock.
 This is common at the beginning of the production cycle when
animal heat production is small and in cold seasons of the year.
 This energy consumption represents a major fraction of the total
direct energy consumption of the farm (table 3) and can be
calculated using equation 3.
EXAMPLE
Example 1: Heat flow through a building envelope
Problem:
Determine the total steady-state transmission
heat flow through the building envelope of the
gable roof broiler house presented in figure 5.
The thermophysical properties of the envelope
elements are shown in table 4. For the
calculation, assume the indoor air temperature
is 23°C and the outdoor air temperature is
20°C.
EXAMPLE
Solution:
The total transmission heat flow through the envelope
should be calculated through equation 15. In the
summation, all the envelope elements of the broiler house
must be considered. In this broiler house, the various
products of the summation of equation 15 are:
EXAMPLE
The U-value of the floor of the broiler house is 0.94 Considering the previously
W m−2 K−1. This value was calculated considering calculated values, the sum is:
that the floor was made by a reinforced concrete
screed and a waterproofing sheet directly in contact
with the ground. In the transmission heat flow via
ground, the coefficient has to be considered.
Finally, the heat flow can be calculated
Considering that the floor of the broiler house is in
considering the temperature difference
direct contact with the ground, can be assumed between inside and outside as:
equal to 0.45 (value from table 2). The calculation is:
EXAMPLE
Example 2: Sensible heat flow in a broiler house
Problem:
Determine the sensible heat flow produced at the house level by a flock of 14,000
broilers at an indoor air temperature of 23°C. The average weight of the broilers is 1.3
kg.
Solution:
The total heat production from a broiler
flock at an indoor air temperature of 20°C is Before calculating has to be calculated
defined by equation 6 that reads according to equation 14:
Considering the given boundary conditions,

equation 6 becomes:
EXAMPLE
Example 2: Sensible heat flow in a broiler house
Solution:
Finally, calculated at 23°C of is (from

equation 10):
The broiler flock in this example produces around 82 kW of sensible heat.

CONCEPTS TO UNDERSTAND IN PLANT PRODUCTION
 Greenhouses were developed to extend the growing season in
colder climates and to allow the production of perennial plants that
would not naturally survive cold winter months.
 In providing an optimal environment for a crop, whether in a
greenhouse or indoor growing facility, the air temperature is a critical
factor that impacts plant growth and development.
 Growers seek to create ideal growing environments in greenhouses
and other indoor growing facilities by controlling heating, venting,
and cooling (Both et al., 2015).
 Psychrometric Chart .
 Knowledge of the relationship
between temperature and
relative humidity is critical in the
design of heating, cooling, and
venting systems to maintain the
desired environmental conditions
inside plant production facilities.
 The psychrometric chart (figure
1) is a convenient tool to help
determine the properties of moist
air.
Heating
A major expense of operating a greenhouse year-round
in cold climates is the cost of heating. It is, therefore,
important to understand the major modes of heat loss
when designing or operating a greenhouse.
 Heat loss occurs from the structure directly through
conduction, convection, and radiation.
 Estimating Heat Needs
 Estimating the heat losses due to conduction, convection, radiation,
and infiltration, requires both the inside and outside air temperatures.
 Equation 1 provides a means to solve for the conductive, convective,
and radiative heat losses:
 The overall heat transfer coefficients for typical greenhouse materials
are listed in table 1. Equation 2 is for solving the heat loss due to
infiltration:
 Select heat transfer
coefficients (U-values; table
1) and infiltration rates (table
2) with caution when
performing heat loss
calculations. Infiltration rates
depend highly on the
magnitude and direction of
the wind, among other
factors.
 Cooling and Cooling Methods
 Mechanical Cooling (Air Conditioning)
 Evaporative Cooling
 Pad-and-Fan System
 High-Pressure Fog System
The required evaporative pad area depends on the

pad thickness and can be calculated by:
Note: To calculate the energy requirements for

cooling refer to PAES 415:2001
 Ventilation
 Lighting and Shading
Equation 4 determines the instantaneous photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) intensity

(μmol m−2 s−1) necessary to meet a daily light integral (DLI) target (mol m−2 d−1) over a
specific number of hours:
For example, using equation 4, an intensity of 197 μmol m−2 s−1 is needed to deliver a
target DLI of 17 mol m−2 d−1 over 24 h (one day).
Note: To calculate the energy requirements for ventilation, lighting and shading, refer to
PAES 415:2001
 A Note on Lighting Units
 In the horticulture industry, it is still common to use light

units of lux, lumens, or foot-candles. However, this is
not particularly useful since lux, lumens, and foot
candles are based on the sensitivity of the human eye,
which is most sensitive to the green part of the visible
light spectrum (figure 4).
 Ideally, the total light output of supplemental lighting
devices should be reported in integrated PAR units
(μmol s−1).
 Note that this unit is not the same as the unit used for
instantaneous PAR intensity (μmol m−2 s−1).
 Users should be aware of this when purchasing lighting
fixtures and make sure that the proper instruments
were used to assess the light output.
EXAMPLE
Example 1: Greenhouse heating
Problem: Solution:
Determine the required heating system The required heating system capacity is a
capacity for a greenhouse with the following function of the structural heat loss (conduction,
characteristics: convection, and radiation), the infiltration heat
loss, and the conversion efficiency of the fuel
source for the heating system.
First, calculate the structural heat loss using
equation 1:
EXAMPLE
Example 1: Greenhouse heating
Next, determine the heat loss by infiltration using equation 2: Entering these values in equation 2:
Some assumptions are required to solve equation 2. It is reasonable

to assume that the air density of the greenhouse air is 1.2 kg m−3.
The infiltration rate N can be estimated from data included in table 2: Thus, the resulting heat loss is the sum of the
a value of 0.0004 s−1 was selected (an older, glass-covered structural heat loss (conduction, convection, and
greenhouse with good maintenance). radiation) and the infiltration heat loss: 2,519.68
In order to determine the humidity ratios for the inside and outside + 1,283.17 = approximately 3803 kW.
air, we need to use the relative humidity of the inside and outside air. The heating system capacity is the total heat
Using the psychrometric chart (figure 1), the humidity ratios for the loss divided by the conversion efficiency of the
inside and outside air are 0.0091 and 0.0005 kg kg−1, respectively. fuel source.
The specific heat of greenhouse air at 17°C is 1.006 kJ kg −1 K−1 For natural gas with a conversion efficiency of
and the latent heat of vaporization of water at that temperature is 85%, the required overall heating system
approximately 2,460 kJ kg−1. These values were found in capacity is 3803/0.85 = 4,474 kW.
engineering textbooks regarding heat and mass transfer.
Thank You
Any questions??

ABE 114 Midterm Coverage

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ABE 114

Environment: Meaning &

The Core which is around 7000 kilometers in diameter

AGRICULTURAL & BIO-

Agricultural Production System

Agricultural Production Systems

Agricultural Production System (Crop-livestock farming)

Conservation agriculture systems

Alternative livestock production systems

(Adapted from National Research Council, 2010

PLANT & LIVESTOCK WEATHER

Weather and climate

• Micro-climate is the climatic condition closely

Relationship between various climatic variables

• Weather plays a major role in determining the

• Occasionally, adverse weather conditions can

How Plant Survives?

How Animal Survives?

Effect of Weather on Plants

Effect of Weather on Plants

Effect of Weather on Plants

Effect of Weather on Plants

Effect of Weather on Plants

Effect of Weather on Plants

Effect of Weather on Livestock

Due date : September 24, 2020 (Friday)

Plant Physiological Response

A better understanding of physiological

Temperature stress in plants is classified

Plant response to water stress

Note: Enzymatic antioxidants – catalase

Livestock Physiological Response

 Animal production problems associated with weather and

• Homeostasis: This is the regulation of the internal environment. It is the

Stress: Any condition that imposes a deviation on the

Physiological mechanism during heat stress

Note: Temperature Humidity Index (THI)

Lower critical temperature for different farm animals

Upper critical temperature for different farm animals

• Factors Affecting an Animal's Ability to Withstand the Cold

Diagrammatic representation of animal’s response to cold

HEAT EXCHANGE WITH THE ENVIRONMENT AND HEAT EXCHANGERS

• In an index for swine, a non-sweating species, wet-

[(0.65) (dry-bulb temperature) + (0.35) (wet-bulb temperature)]

HIGH TEMPERATURE-HUMIDITY INDEX (THI) OF DAIRY CATTLE

Various climate scales and associated

Modification for wind

MODIFICATION FOR WIND:

MODIFICATION FOR WIND:

MODIFICATION FOR WIND:

MODIFICATION FOR WIND:

MODIFICATION FOR WIND:

MODIFICATION FOR HEAT LOAD:

MODIFICATION FOR HEAT LOAD:

MODIFICATION FOR HEAT LOAD:

MODIFICATION FOR FROST:

MODIFICATION WATER BALANCE:

MODIFICATION FOR WATER BALANCE:

MODIFICATION FOR WATER BALANCE:

MODIFICATION FOR WATER BALANCE:

MODIFICATION FOR WATER BALANCE:

MODIFICATION FOR WATER BALANCE:

MODIFICATION FOR WATER BALANCE: