Expressionism

Expressionism is a modernist movement,

initially in poetry and painting, originating
in Northern Europe around the beginning
of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to
present the world solely from a subjective
perspective, distorting it radically for
emotional effect in order to evoke moods
or ideas.[1][2] Expressionist artists have
sought to express the meaning[3] of
emotional experience rather than physical
reality.[3][4]
 Expressionism

Edvard Munch, The Scream, 1893, oil, tempera

and pastel on cardboard, 91 x 73 cm, National
Gallery of Norway, inspired 20th-century
Expressionists.

Years active The years before WWI

and the interwar years

Country Predominantly
Germany

Major figures Artists loosely

categorized within
 such groups as Die
Brücke, Der Blaue
Reiter; the Berlin
Secession and the
Dresden Secession

Influenced American Figurative

Expressionism,
generally, and Boston
Expressionism, in
particular

Expressionism developed as an avant-

garde style before the First World War. It
remained popular during the Weimar
Republic,[1] particularly in Berlin. The style
extended to a wide range of the arts,
including expressionist architecture,
painting, literature, theatre, dance, film and
music.[5]

The term is sometimes suggestive of

angst. In a historical sense, much older
painters such as Matthias Grünewald and
El Greco are sometimes termed
expressionist, though the term is applied
mainly to 20th-century works. The
Expressionist emphasis on individual and
subjective perspective has been
characterized as a reaction to positivism
and other artistic styles such as
Naturalism and Impressionism.[6]
Etymology and history

El Greco, View of Toledo,

1595/1610 is a Mannerist
precursor of 20th-century
expressionism. [16]

Wassily Kandinsky, Der Blaue

Reiter, 1903
 Egon Schiele, Portrait of Eduard
Kosmack, 1910, oil on canvas, 100
× 100 cm, Österreichische Galerie
Belvedere

While the word expressionist was used in

the modern sense as early as 1850, its
origin is sometimes traced to paintings
exhibited in 1901 in Paris by obscure artist
Julien-Auguste Hervé, which he called
Expressionismes.[7] An alternative view is
that the term was coined by the Czech art
historian Antonin Matějček in 1910 as the
opposite of Impressionism: "An
Expressionist wishes, above all, to express
himself... (an Expressionist rejects)
immediate perception and builds on more
complex psychic structures... Impressions
and mental images that pass through ...
people's soul as through a filter which rids
them of all substantial accretions to
produce their clear essence [...and] are
assimilated and condensed into more
general forms, into types, which he
transcribes through simple short-hand
formulae and symbols."[8]

Important precursors of Expressionism

were the German philosopher Friedrich
Nietzsche (1844–1900), especially his
philosophical novel Thus Spoke
Zarathustra (1883–1892); the later plays
of the Swedish dramatist August
Strindberg (1849–1912), including the
trilogy To Damascus 1898–1901, A Dream
Play (1902), The Ghost Sonata (1907);
Frank Wedekind (1864–1918), especially
the "Lulu" plays Erdgeist (Earth Spirit)
(1895) and Die Büchse der Pandora
(Pandora's Box) (1904); the American poet
Walt Whitman's (1819–1892) Leaves of
Grass (1855–1891); the Russian novelist
Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881);
Norwegian painter Edvard Munch (1863–
1944); Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh
(1853–1890); Belgian painter James
Ensor (1860–1949);[9] and pioneering
Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud
(1856–1939).[5]
In 1905, a group of four German artists, led
by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die
Brücke (the Bridge) in the city of Dresden.
This was arguably the founding
organization for the German Expressionist
movement, though they did not use the
word itself. A few years later, in 1911, a
like-minded group of young artists formed
Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in
Munich. The name came from Wassily
Kandinsky's Der Blaue Reiter painting of
1903. Among their members were
Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and
August Macke. However, the term
Expressionism did not firmly establish
itself until 1913.[10] Though mainly a
German artistic movement initially[11][5]
and most predominant in painting, poetry
and the theatre between 1910 and 1930,
most precursors of the movement were
not German. Furthermore, there have been
expressionist writers of prose fiction, as
well as non-German-speaking
expressionist writers, and, while the
movement declined in Germany with the
rise of Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, there were
subsequent expressionist works.

Expressionism is notoriously difficult to

define, in part because it "overlapped with
other major 'isms' of the modernist period:
with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism,
Surrealism and Dadaism."[12] Richard
Murphy also comments, “the search for an
all-inclusive definition is problematic to the
extent that the most challenging
expressionists such as Kafka, Gottfried
Benn and Döblin were simultaneously the
most vociferous 'anti-expressionists.'"[13]

What can be said, however, is that it was a

movement that developed in the early
twentieth century, mainly in Germany, in
reaction to the dehumanizing effect of
industrialization and the growth of cities,
and that "one of the central means by
which expressionism identifies itself as an
avant-garde movement, and by which it
marks its distance to traditions and the
cultural institution as a whole is through
its relationship to realism and the
dominant conventions of
representation."[14] More explicitly, that the
expressionists rejected the ideology of
realism.[15]

The term refers to an "artistic style in

which the artist seeks to depict not
objective reality but rather the subjective
emotions and responses that objects and
events arouse within a person".[16] It is
arguable that all artists are expressive but
there are many examples of art production
in Europe from the 15th century onward
which emphasize extreme emotion. Such
art often occurs during times of social
upheaval and war, such as the Protestant
Reformation, German Peasants' War, and
Eighty Years' War between the Spanish
and the Netherlands, when extreme
violence, much directed at civilians, was
represented in propagandist popular
prints. These were often unimpressive
aesthetically but had the capacity to
arouse extreme emotions in the viewer.

Expressionism has been likened to

Baroque by critics such as art historian
Michel Ragon[17] and German philosopher
Walter Benjamin.[18] According to Alberto
Arbasino, a difference between the two is
that "Expressionism doesn't shun the
violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque
does. Expressionism throws some terrific
'fuck yous', Baroque doesn't. Baroque is
well-mannered."[19]

Notable Expressionists

Alvar Cawén, Sokea soittoniekka

(Blind Musician), 1922

Rolf Nesch, Elbe Bridge I

 Franz Marc, Die großen blauen
Pferde (The Large Blue Horses),
1911

Some of the style's main visual artists of

the early 20th century were:

Armenia: Martiros Saryan

Australia: Sidney Nolan, Charles

Blackman, John Perceval, Albert Tucker,
and Joy Hester

Austria: Richard Gerstl, Egon Schiele,

Oskar Kokoschka, Josef Gassler and
Alfred Kubin
Belgium: Marcel Caron, Anto Carte, and
Auguste Mambour, and the Flemish
Expressionists: Constant Permeke,
Gustave De Smet, Frits Van den Berghe,
James Ensor, Albert Servaes, Floris
Jespers and Gustave Van de Woestijne.

Brazil: Anita Malfatti, Cândido Portinari,

Di Cavalcanti, Iberê Camargo and Lasar
Segall.

Denmark: Einer Johansen

Estonia: Konrad Mägi, Eduard Wiiralt,

Kuno Veeber

Finland: Tyko Sallinen,[20] Alvar Cawén,

and Wäinö Aaltonen.
France: Frédéric Fiebig, Georges
Rouault, Alexandre Frenel, Georges
Gimel, Gen Paul, Marie-Thérèse Auffray,
Jacques Démoulin and Bernard Buffet.

Germany: Ernst Barlach, Max Beckmann,

Fritz Bleyl, Heinrich Campendonk, Otto
Dix, Conrad Felixmüller, George Grosz,
Erich Heckel, Carl Hofer, Max Kaus,
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Käthe Kollwitz,
Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Elfriede Lohse-
Wächtler, August Macke, Franz Marc,
Ludwig Meidner, Paula Modersohn-
Becker, Otto Mueller, Gabriele Münter,
Rolf Nesch, Emil Nolde, Max Pechstein,
Christian Rohlfs, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff
and Georg Tappert.

Greece: George Bouzianis

Hungary: Tivadar Kosztka Csontváry

Iceland: Einar Hákonarson

Ireland: Jack B. Yeats

Indonesia: Affandi

Israel: Isaac Frenkel Frenel

Italy: Amedeo Modigliani, Emilio

Giuseppe Dossena

Japan: Kōshirō Onchi

Mexico: Mathias Goeritz (German

émigré to Mexico), Rufino Tamayo
Netherlands: Willem Hofhuizen, Herman
Kruyder, Jan Sluyters, Vincent van Gogh,
Jan Wiegers and Hendrik Werkman

Norway: Edvard Munch, Kai Fjell

Poland: Henryk Gotlib

Portugal: Mário Eloy, Amadeo de Souza

Cardoso

Russia: Wassily Kandinsky, Marc

Chagall, Chaïm Soutine, Alexej von
Jawlensky, Natalia Goncharova, Mstislav
Dobuzhinsky, and Marianne von
Werefkin (Russian-born, later active in
Germany and Switzerland).

Romania: Horia Bernea

Serbia: Nadežda Petrović

South Africa: Maggie Laubser, Irma
Stern

Sweden: Leander Engström, Isaac

Grünewald, Axel Törneman

Switzerland: Carl Eugen Keel, Cuno

Amiet, Paul Klee

Ukraine: Alexis Gritchenko (Ukraine-

born, most active in France), Vadim
Meller

United Kingdom: Francis Bacon, Frank

Auerbach, Leon Kossoff, Lucian Freud,
Patrick Heron, John Hoyland, Howard
Hodgkin, John Walker

United States: Ivan Albright, David

Aronson, Milton Avery, Leonard Baskin,
George Biddle, Hyman Bloom, Peter
Blume, Charles Burchfield, David Burliuk,
Stuart Davis, Lyonel Feininger,
Wilhelmina Weber Furlong, Elaine de
Kooning, Willem de Kooning, Beauford
Delaney, Arthur G. Dove, Norris Embry,
Philip Evergood, Kahlil Gibran, William
Gropper, Philip Guston, Marsden Hartley,
Albert Kotin, Yasuo Kuniyoshi, Rico
Lebrun, Jack Levine, Alfred Henry
Maurer, Robert Motherwell, Alice Neel,
Abraham Rattner, Esther Rolick, Ben
Shahn, Harry Shoulberg, Joseph Stella,
Harry Sternberg, Henry Ossawa Tanner,
Dorothea Tanning, Steffen Thomas,
 Wilhelmina Weber, Max Weber, Hale
Woodruff, Karl Zerbe.

Groups of painters

Franz Marc, Rehe im Walde (Deer in

Woods), 1914

The style originated principally in Germany

and Austria. There were groups of
expressionist painters, including Der Blaue
Reiter and Die Brücke. Der Blaue Reiter
(The Blue Rider, named after a painting)
was based in Munich and Die Brücke was
originally based in Dresden (some
members moved to Berlin). Die Brücke
was active for a longer period than Der
Blaue Reiter, which was only together for a
year (1912). The Expressionists were
influenced by artists and sources including
Edvard Munch, Vincent van Gogh and
African art.[21] They were also aware of the
work being done by the Fauves in Paris,
who influenced Expressionism's tendency
toward arbitrary colours and jarring
compositions. In reaction and opposition
to French Impressionism, which
emphasized the rendering of the visual
appearance of objects, Expressionist
artists sought to portray emotions and
subjective interpretations. It was not
important to reproduce an aesthetically
pleasing impression of the artistic subject
matter, they felt, but rather to represent
vivid emotional reactions by powerful
colours and dynamic compositions.
Kandinsky, the main artist of Der Blaue
Reiter, believed that with simple colours
and shapes the spectator could perceive
the moods and feelings in the paintings, a
theory that encouraged him towards
increased abstraction.[5]

The ideas of German expressionism

influenced the work of American artist
Marsden Hartley, who met Kandinsky in
Germany in 1913.[22] In late 1939, at the
beginning of World War II, New York City
received many European artists. After the
war, Expressionism influenced many
young American artists. Norris Embry
(1921–1981) studied with Oskar
Kokoschka in 1947 and during the next 43
years produced a large body of work in the
Expressionist tradition. Embry has been
termed "the first American German
Expressionist". Other American artists of
the late 20th and early 21st century have
developed distinct styles that may be
considered part of Expressionism. Another
prominent artist who came from the
German Expressionist "school" was
Bremen-born Wolfgang Degenhardt. After
working as a commercial artist in Bremen,
he migrated to Australia in 1954 and
became quite well known in the Hunter
Valley region.

After World War II, figurative

expressionism influenced artists and
styles around the world. In the U.S.,
American Expressionism and American
Figurative Expressionism, particularly
Boston Expressionism, were an integral
part of American modernism around the
Second World War.[23][24] Thomas B. Hess
wrote that "the ‘New figurative painting’
which some have been expecting as a
reaction against Abstract Expressionism
was implicit in it at the start, and is one of
its most lineal continuities."[25]

Major figurative Boston Expressionists

included: Karl Zerbe, Hyman Bloom,
Jack Levine, David Aronson. The Boston
Expressionists persisted after World
War II despite their marginalization by
the development of abstract
expressionism centered in New York
City, and are currently in the third
generation.

New York Figurative

Expressionism[26][27] of the 1950s
represented New York figurative artists
such as Robert Beauchamp, Elaine de
Kooning, Robert Goodnough, Grace
Hartigan, Lester Johnson, Alex Katz,
George McNeil (artist), Jan Muller,
Fairfield Porter, Gregorio Prestopino,
Larry Rivers and Bob Thompson.

Lyrical Abstraction, Tachisme[28] of the

1940s and 1950s in Europe represented
by artists such as Georges Mathieu,
Hans Hartung, Nicolas de Staël and
others.

Bay Area Figurative Movement[29][30]

represented by early figurative
expressionists from the San Francisco
area Elmer Bischoff, Richard
Diebenkorn, and David Park. The
movement from 1950 to 1965 was
joined by Theophilus Brown, Paul
Wonner, Hassel Smith, Nathan Oliveira,
Jay DeFeo, Joan Brown, Manuel Neri,
Frank Lobdell, and Roland Peterson.

Abstract expressionism of the 1950s

represented American artists such as
Louise Bourgeois, Hans Burkhardt, Mary
Callery, Nicolas Carone, Willem de
Kooning, Jackson Pollock, Philip Guston,
and others[31][32] that participated with
figurative expressionism.

Sōsaku-hanga ( 創作版画 "creative

prints") was an expressionist woodblock
print movement in early 20th century
Japan. The movement was
characterized by the work of Kanae
Yamamoto (artist), Kōshirō Onchi, and
many others.

In the United States and Canada, Lyrical

Abstraction beginning during the late
1960s and the 1970s. Characterized by
the work of Dan Christensen, Peter
Young, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis,
Larry Poons, Walter Darby Bannard,
Charles Arnoldi, Pat Lipsky and many
others.[33][34][35]

Neo-expressionism was an international

revival style that began in the late 1970s
Representative paintings

August Macke, Lady in a Green Jacket, 1913

Franz Marc, Fighting Forms, 1914

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Nollendorfplatz, 1912

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Self-Portrait as a

Soldier, 1915
In other arts
The Expressionist movement included
other types of culture, including dance,
sculpture, cinema and theatre.

Mary Wigman, pioneer of

Expressionist dance (left) at
her West Berlin studio in
1959.

Dance

Exponents of expressionist dance

included Mary Wigman, Rudolf von Laban,
and Pina Bausch.[36]

Sculpture

Some sculptors used the Expressionist

style, as for example Ernst Barlach. Other
expressionist artists known mainly as
painters, such as Erich Heckel, also
worked with sculpture.[5]

Cinema

There was an Expressionist style in

German cinema, important examples of
which are Robert Wiene's The Cabinet of
Dr. Caligari (1920), The Golem: How He
Came into the World (1920), Fritz Lang's
Metropolis (1927) and F. W. Murnau's
Nosferatu, a Symphony of Horror (1922)
and The Last Laugh (1924). The term
"expressionist" is also sometimes used to
refer to stylistic devices thought to
resemble those of German Expressionism,
such as film noir cinematography or the
style of several of the films of Ingmar
Bergman. More generally, the term
expressionism can be used to describe
cinematic styles of great artifice, such as
the technicolor melodramas of Douglas
Sirk or the sound and visual design of
David Lynch's films.[37]
Literature

Journals

Two leading Expressionist journals

published in Berlin were Der Sturm,
published by Herwarth Walden starting in
1910,[38] and Die Aktion, which first
appeared in 1911 and was edited by Franz
Pfemfert. Der Sturm published poetry and
prose from contributors such as Peter
Altenberg, Max Brod, Richard Dehmel,
Alfred Döblin, Anatole France, Knut
Hamsun, Arno Holz, Karl Kraus, Selma
Lagerlöf, Adolf Loos, Heinrich Mann, Paul
Scheerbart, and René Schickele, and
writings, drawings, and prints by such
artists as Kokoschka, Kandinsky, and
members of Der blaue Reiter.[39]

Drama

The artist and playwright Kokoschka's

1909 playlet, Murderer, The Hope of
Women is often termed the first
expressionist drama. In it, an unnamed
man and woman struggle for dominance.
The man brands the woman; she stabs
and imprisons him. He frees himself and
she falls dead at his touch. As the play
ends, he slaughters all around him (in the
words of the text) "like mosquitoes." The
extreme simplification of characters to
mythic types, choral effects, declamatory
dialogue and heightened intensity all
would become characteristic of later
expressionist plays.[40] The German
composer Paul Hindemith created an
operatic version of this play, which
premiered in 1921.[41]

Expressionism was a dominant influence

on early 20th-century German theatre, of
which Georg Kaiser and Ernst Toller were
the most famous playwrights. Other
notable Expressionist dramatists included
Reinhard Sorge, Walter Hasenclever, Hans
Henny Jahnn, and Arnolt Bronnen.
Important precursors were the Swedish
playwright August Strindberg and German
actor and dramatist Frank Wedekind.
During the 1920s, Expressionism enjoyed
a brief period of influence in American
theatre, including the early modernist plays
by Eugene O'Neill (The Hairy Ape, The
Emperor Jones and The Great God Brown),
Sophie Treadwell (Machinal) and Elmer
Rice (The Adding Machine).[42]

Expressionist plays often dramatise the

spiritual awakening and sufferings of their
protagonists. Some utilise an episodic
dramatic structure and are known as
Stationendramen (station plays), modeled
on the presentation of the suffering and
death of Jesus in the Stations of the
Cross. Strindberg had pioneered this form
with his autobiographical trilogy To
Damascus. These plays also often
dramatise the struggle against bourgeois
values and established authority,
frequently personified by the Father. In
Sorge's The Beggar, (Der Bettler), for
example, the young hero's mentally ill
father raves about the prospect of mining
the riches of Mars and is finally poisoned
by his son. In Bronnen's Parricide
(Vatermord), the son stabs his tyrannical
father to death, only to have to fend off the
frenzied sexual overtures of his mother.[43]
In Expressionist drama, the speech may be
either expansive and rhapsodic, or clipped
and telegraphic. Director Leopold Jessner
became famous for his expressionistic
productions, often set on stark, steeply
raked flights of stairs (having borrowed
the idea from the Symbolist director and
designer, Edward Gordon Craig). Staging
was especially important in Expressionist
drama, with directors forgoing the illusion
of reality to block actors in as close to two-
dimensional movement. Directors also
made heavy use of lighting effects to
create stark contrast and as another
method to heavily emphasize emotion and
convey the play or a scene's message.[44]
German expressionist playwrights:

Georg Kaiser (1878)

Ernst Toller (1893–1939)

Hans Henny Jahnn (1894–1959)

Reinhard Sorge (1892–1916)

Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956)

Playwrights influenced by Expressionism:

Seán O'Casey (1880–1964)[45]

Eugene O'Neill (1885–1953)

Elmer Rice (1892–1967)

Tennessee Williams (1911–1983)[46]

Arthur Miller (1915–2005)

Samuel Beckett (1906–1989)[47]

Poetry

Among the poets associated with German

Expressionism were:

Jakob van Hoddis

Georg Trakl

Walter Rheiner

Gottfried Benn

Georg Heym

Else Lasker-Schüler

Ernst Stadler

August Stramm

Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926): The

Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge
 (1910)[48]

Geo Milev

Other poets influenced by expressionism:

T. S. Eliot[49]

Rudolf Broby-Johansen[50]

Tom Kristensen

Pär Lagerkvist

Edith Södergran

Prose

In prose, the early stories and novels of

Alfred Döblin were influenced by
Expressionism,[51] and Franz Kafka is
sometimes labelled an Expressionist.[52]
Some further writers and works that have
been called Expressionist include:

Franz Kafka (1883–1924): "The

Metamorphosis" (1915), The Trial
(1925), The Castle (1926)[53]

Alfred Döblin (1878–1957): Berlin

Alexanderplatz (1929)[54]

Wyndham Lewis (1882–1957)[55]

Djuna Barnes (1892–1982): Nightwood

(1936)[56]

Malcolm Lowry (1909–1957): Under the

Volcano (1947)

Ernest Hemingway[57]
James Joyce (1882–1941): "The
Nighttown" section of Ulysses (1922)[58]

Patrick White (1912–1990)[59]

D. H. Lawrence[60]

Sheila Watson: Double Hook[61]

Elias Canetti: Auto-da-Fé[62]

Thomas Pynchon[63]

William Faulkner[64]

James Hanley (1897–1985)[65]

Raul Brandão (1867–1930): Húmus

(1917)
Music

The term expressionism "was probably

first applied to music in 1918, especially to
Schoenberg", because like the painter
Kandinsky he avoided "traditional forms of
beauty" to convey powerful feelings in his
music.[66] Arnold Schoenberg, Anton
Webern and Alban Berg, the members of
the Second Viennese School, are
important Expressionists (Schoenberg
was also an expressionist painter).[67]
Other composers that have been
associated with expressionism are Krenek
(the Second Symphony), Paul Hindemith
(The Young Maiden), Igor Stravinsky
(Japanese Songs), Alexander Scriabin
(late piano sonatas) (Adorno 2009, 275).
Another significant expressionist was Béla
Bartók in early works, written in the second
decade of the 20th century, such as
Bluebeard's Castle (1911),[68] The Wooden
Prince (1917),[69] and The Miraculous
Mandarin (1919).[70] Important precursors
of expressionism are Richard Wagner
(1813–1883), Gustav Mahler (1860–1911),
and Richard Strauss (1864–1949).[71]

Theodor Adorno describes expressionism

as concerned with the unconscious, and
states that "the depiction of fear lies at the
centre" of expressionist music, with
dissonance predominating, so that the
"harmonious, affirmative element of art is
banished" (Adorno 2009, 275–76).
Erwartung and Die Glückliche Hand, by
Schoenberg, and Wozzeck, an opera by
Alban Berg (based on the play Woyzeck by
Georg Büchner), are examples of
Expressionist works.[72] If one were to
draw an analogy from paintings, one may
describe the expressionist painting
technique as the distortion of reality
(mostly colors and shapes) to create a
nightmarish effect for the particular
painting as a whole. Expressionist music
roughly does the same thing, where the
dramatically increased dissonance
creates, aurally, a nightmarish
atmosphere.[73]

Architecture

Einsteinturm in Potsdam

In architecture, two specific buildings are

identified as Expressionist: Bruno Taut's
Glass Pavilion of the Cologne Werkbund
Exhibition (1914), and Erich Mendelsohn's
Einstein Tower in Potsdam, Germany
completed in 1921. The interior of Hans
Poelzig's Berlin theatre (the Grosse
Schauspielhaus), designed for the director
Max Reinhardt, is also cited sometimes.
The influential architectural critic and
historian Sigfried Giedion, in his book
Space, Time and Architecture (1941),
dismissed Expressionist architecture as a
part of the development of functionalism.
In Mexico, in 1953, German émigré
Mathias Goeritz published the Arquitectura
Emocional ("Emotional Architecture")
manifesto with which he declared that
"architecture's principal function is
emotion".[74] Modern Mexican architect
Luis Barragán adopted the term that
influenced his work. The two of them
collaborated in the project Torres de
Satélite (1957–58) guided by Goeritz's
principles of Arquitectura Emocional.[75] It
was only during the 1970s that
Expressionism in architecture came to be
re-evaluated more positively.[76][77]

See also
Post-expressionism

New Objectivity

History of Painting

Western Painting

References
1. Bruce Thompson, University of California,
Santa Cruz, lecture on Weimar
 culture/Kafka'a Prague (http://media.ucsc.
edu/classes/thompson/weimar.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
100111221535/http://media.ucsc.edu/cla
sses/thompson/weimar.html) 2010-01-
11 at the Wayback Machine

2. Chris Baldick Concise Oxford Dictionary of

Literary Terms, entry for Expressionism

3. Victorino Tejera, 1966, pages 85,140, Art

and Human Intelligence, Vision Press
Limited, London

4. The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary, 1976

edition, page 294
5. Gombrich, E.H. (1995). The Story of Art (ht
tps://archive.org/details/storyofart00gom
b_0/page/563) (16. ed. (rev., expanded
and redesigned). ed.). London: Phaidon.
pp. 563–568 (https://archive.org/details/s
toryofart00gomb_0/page/563) .
ISBN 978-0714832470.

6. Garzanti, Aldo (1974) [1972]. Enciclopedia

Garzanti della letteratura (in Italian). Milan:
Guido Villa. p. 963. page 241

7. John Willett, Expressionism. New York:

World University Library, 1970, p.25;
Richard Sheppard, "German
Expressionism", in Modernism: 1890–
1930, ed. Bradbury & McFarlane,
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1976,
p.274.
 8. Cited in Donald E. Gordon, Expressionism:
Art and Ideas. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1987, p. 175.

9. R. S. Furness, Expressionism. London:

Methuen, pp.2–14; Willett, pp. 20–24.

10. Richard Sheppard, p.274.

11. Note the parallel French movement
Fauvism and the English Vorticism: "The
Fauvist movement has been compared to
German Expressionism, both projecting
brilliant colors and spontaneous
brushwork, and indebted to the same late
nineteenth-century sources, especially
Van Gogh." Sabine Rewald, "Fauvism", In
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New
York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
2000–.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/fauv
/hd_fauv.htm (October 2004); and
"Vorticism can be thought of as English
Expressionism." Sherrill E. Grace,
Regression and Apocalypse: Studies in
North American Literary Expressionism.
 Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989,
p. 26.

12. Sherrill E. Grace, Regression and

Apacaypse: Studies in North American
Literary Expressionism. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1989, p.26).

13. Richard Murphy, Theorizing the Avant-

Garde: Modernism, Expressionism, and
the Problem of Postmodernity. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press,1999, p. 43.

14. Richard Murphy, p. 43.

15. Murphy, especially pp. 43–48; and Walter

H. Sokel, The Writer in Extremis. Stanford,
California: Stanford University Press, 1959,
especially Chapter One.
16. Britannica Online Encyclopaedia (February,
2012).

17. Ragon, Michel (1968). Expressionism (http

s://archive.org/details/expressionism00ra
go) . Heron. ISBN 9780900948640. "There
is no doubt that Expressionism is Baroque
in essence"

18. Benjamin, Walter (1998). Origin of German

Tragic Drama (https://archive.org/details/
originofgermantr1998benj) . London:
Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-899-9.
19. Pedullà, Gabriele; Arbasino, Alberto
(2003). "Sull'albero di ciliegie –
Conversando di letteratura e di cinema
con Alberto Arbasino" (http://www.librawe
b.net/articoli3.php?chiave=543&rivista=23
&articolo=200302301011) [On the cherry
tree – Conversations on literature and
cinema with Alberto Arbasino].
CONTEMPORANEA Rivista di studi sulla
letteratura e sulla comunicazione.
"L'espressionismo non rifugge dall'effetto
violentemente sgradevole, mentre invece il
barocco lo fa. L'espressionismo tira dei
tremendi «vaffanculo», il barocco no. Il
barocco è beneducato (Expressionism
doesn't shun the violently unpleasant
effect, while Baroque does. Expressionism
 throws some terrific "Fuck yous", Baroque
doesn't. Baroque is well-mannered.)"

20. Ian Chilvers, The Oxford dictionary of art,

Volume 2004, Oxford University Press, p.
506. ISBN 0-19-860476-9

21. Ian Buruma, "Desire in Berlin", New York

Review of Books, December 8, 2008, p. 19.

22. "Hartley, Marsden", Oxford Art Online

23. Bram Dijkstra, American expressionism :

art and social change, 1920–1950, (http://
www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/50866889
&referer=brief_results) (New York : H.N.
Abrams, in association with the Columbus
Museum of Art, 2003.) ISBN 0-8109-4231-
3, ISBN 978-0-8109-4231-8
24. Judith Bookbinder, Boston modern:
figurative expressionism as alternative
modernism (http://www.worldcatlibraries.
org/oclc/57652272&referer=brief_result
s) (Durham, N.H. : University of New
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58465-488-0, ISBN 978-1-58465-488-9

25. Thomas B. Hess, “The Many Deaths of

American Art,” Art News 59 (October
1960), p.25
26. Paul Schimmel and Judith E Stein, The
Figurative fifties : New York figurative
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ts) (Newport Beach, California : Newport
Harbor Art Museum : New York : Rizzoli,
1988.) ISBN 978-0-8478-0942-4

27. “Editorial,” Reality, A Journal of Artists’

Opinions (Spring 1954), p. 2.

28. Flight lyric, Paris 1945–1956, texts

Patrick-Gilles Persin, Michel and Pierre
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280 p. ISBN 88-7624-679-7.
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1950–1965, (http://www.worldcat.org/ocl
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30. American Abstract and Figurative

Expressionism: Style Is Timely Art Is
Timeless (http://www.worldcat.org/searc
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1&fq=dt%3Abks) (New York School
Press, 2009.) ISBN 978-0-9677994-2-1 pp.
44–47; 56–59; 80–83; 112–115; 192–195;
212–215; 240–243; 248–251
31. Marika Herskovic, American Abstract
Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated
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oclc/50253062&tab=holdings) (New York
School Press, 2000. ISBN 0-9677994-1-4.
pp. 46–49; pp. 62–65; pp. 70–73; pp. 74–
77; pp. 94–97; 262–264
32. American Abstract and Figurative
Expressionism: Style Is Timely Art Is
Timeless: An Illustrated Survey With
Artists' Statements, Artwork and
Biographies (http://www.worldcat.org/ocl
c/298188260&referer=brief_results) (New
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9677994-2-1. pp.24–27; pp.28–31; pp.32–
35; pp. 60–63; pp.64–67; pp.72–75;
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33. Ryan, David (2002). Talking painting:
dialogues with twelve contemporary
abstract painters, p.211, Routledge.
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27629-0. Available on Google Books (http
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34. "Exhibition archive: Expanding Boundaries:

Lyrical Abstraction" (http://www.bocamus
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national/Catalogue/Detail.cfm?IRN=3601
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36. Walther, Suzanne (23 December 1997).

The Dance Theatre of Kurt Jooss (https://
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37. Maria Pramaggiore; Tom Wallis (2005).

Film: A Critical Introduction (https://archiv
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38. "Der Sturm." (https://www.britannica.com/
EBchecked/topic/570146/Der-Sturm) .
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Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2012.
Retrieved 21 January 2012.

39. Günter Berghaus (25 October 2012).

International Futurism in Arts and
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080422-5. Retrieved 29 May 2018.

40. David Graver (1995). The Aesthetics of

Disturbance: Anti-art in Avant-garde
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id=Ub69UFnyuSwC) . University of
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41. John Lincoln Stewart (1991). Ernst
Krenek: The Man and His Music (https://ar
chive.org/details/bub_gb_-5RqK8C__ys
C) . University of California Press. p. 82.
ISBN 978-0-520-07014-1. Retrieved
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42. Jonathan Law (28 October 2013). The

Methuen Drama Dictionary of the Theatre
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4081-4591-3. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
43. J. L. Styan (9 June 1983). Modern Drama
in Theory and Practice: Volume 3,
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ooks.google.com/books?id=sBSKmRjbbU
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44. Fulton, A. R. (1944). "Expressionism:

Twenty Years After". The Sewanee Review.
52 (3): 398–399. JSTOR 27537525 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/27537525) .

45. Furness, pp.89–90.

46. Stokel, p.1.

47. Stokel, p.1; Lois Oppenheimer, The Painted
Word: Samuel Beckett's Dialogue with Art.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
2000, pp.74, 126–7, 128; Jessica Prinz,
"Resonant Images: Beckett and German
Expressionism", in Samuel Beckett and the
Arts: Music, Visual Arts, and Non-Print
Media, ed. Lois Oppenheim. New York:
Garland Publishing, 1999.

48. Ulf Zimmermann, "Expressionism and

Döblin's Berlin Alexanderplatz, in Passion
and Rebellion

49. R. S. Furness, Expressionism. London:

Methuen, 1973, p.81.
50. "Lyrisk ekspressionisme | lex.dk" (http://de
nstoredanske.dk/Dansk_litteraturs_histori
e/Dansk_litteraturs_historie_4/Lyrisk_eksp
ressionisme) .

51. Cowan, Michael (2007). "Die Tücke Des

Körpers: Taming The Nervous Body In
Alfred Döblin's 'Die Ermordung Einer
Butterblume' And 'Die Tänzerin Und Der
Leib' ". Seminar: A Journal of Germanic
Studies. 43 (4): 482–498.
doi:10.3138/seminar.43.4.482 (https://doi.
org/10.3138%2Fseminar.43.4.482) .
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Stanford, California: Stanford University
Press, 1959, pp 3, 29, 84 especially;
Richard Murphy, Theorizing the Avant-
Garde. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press,1999, especially pp 41,142.

53. Silvio Vietta, "Franz Kafka, Expressionism,

and Reification" in Passion and Rebellion:
The Expressionist Heritage, eds. Stephen
Bronner and Douglas Kellner. New York:
Universe Books, 1983 pp, pp.201–16.
54. Richard Murphy, Theorizing the Avant-
Garde: Modernism, Expressionism and the
Problem of Postmodernity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp.74–
141; Ulf Zimmermann, "Expressionism and
Döblin's Berlin Alexanderplatz " in Passion
and Rebellion, pp.217–234.

55. Sheila Watson, Wyndham Lewis

Expressionist. Ph.D Thesis, University of
Toronto, 1965.

56. Sherrill E. Grace, Regression and

Apocalypse: Studies in North American
Literary Expressionism. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1989, pp.141–
162.
57. Raymond S. Nelson, Hemingway,
Expressionist Artist. Ames, Iowa
University Press, 1979; Robert Paul Lamb,
Art matters: Hemingway, Craft, and the
Creation of the Modern Short Story. Baton
Rouge: Louisiana State University Press,
c.2010.

58. Walter H. Sokel, The Writer in Extremis.

Stanford, California: Stanford University
Press, 1959, p.1; R. S. Furness,
Expressionism. London: Methuen, 1973, p.
81.

59. Sherrill E. Grace, p.7.

60. Sherrill E. Grace, p.7

61. Sherrill E. Grace, pp 185–209.

62. Sherrill E. Grace, p.12.

63. Sherrill E. Grace, p.7, 241–3.

64. Jeffrey Stayton, "Southern Expressionism:

Apocalyptic Hillscapes, Racial Panoramas,
and Lustmord in William Faulkner’s Light
in August". The Southern Literary Journal,
Volume 42, Number 1, Fall 2009, pp. 32–
56.

65. Ken Worpole, Dockers and Detectives.

London: Verso Editions, 1983, pp. 77–93.

66. The Norton Grove Concise Encyclopedia

of Music, ed Stanley Sadie. New York:
Norton1991, p. 244.

67. Theodor Adorno, Night Music: Essays on

Music 1928–1962. (London: Seagull,
2009), p.274-8.
68. Nicole V. Gagné, Historical Dictionary of
Modern and Contemporary Classical
Music (Plymouth, England: Scarecrow
Press, 2011), p.92.

69. Andrew Clements, "Classical preview: The

Wooden Prince", The Guardian, 5 May
2007.

70. The Cambridge Companion to Bartók, ed.

Amanda Bayley (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2001), p.152.
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20091030221948/http://encarta.msn.co
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ncarta.msn.com) on 2009-10-30.
Retrieved 2012-06-29.; Donald Mitchell,
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Chronicles and Commentaries. Rochester,
NY: Boydell Press, 2005

72. Edward Rothstein New York Times

Review/Opera: "Wozzeck; The Lyric
Dresses Up Berg's 1925 Nightmare In a
Modern Message". New York Times
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73. Theodor Adorno, Night Music (2009),
pp275-6.

74. Mathias Goeritz, "El manifiesto de

arquitectura emocional", in Lily Kassner,
Mathias Goeritz, UNAM, 2007, p. 272-273

75. George F. Flaherty (16 August 2016). Hotel

Mexico: Dwelling on the '68 Movement (htt
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wAAQBAJ) . Univ of California Press.
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Further reading
Antonín Matějček cited in Gordon,
Donald E. (1987). Expressionism: Art
and Idea, p. 175. New Haven: Yale
University Press. ISBN 9780300033106

Frank Krause (ed.), Expressionism and

Gender / Expressionismus und
Geschlecht. Göttingen: V&R unipress,
2010, ISBN 3899717171

Jonah F. Mitchell (Berlin, 2003). Doctoral

thesis Expressionism between Western
modernism and Teutonic Sonderweg.
Courtesy of the author.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1872). The Birth of

Tragedy Out of The Spirit of Music.
Trans. Clifton P. Fadiman. New York:
Dover, 1995. ISBN 0-486-28515-4.
Judith Bookbinder, Boston modern:
figurative expressionism as alternative
modernism, (http://www.worldcatlibrarie
s.org/oclc/57652272&referer=brief_resu
lts) (Durham, N.H.: University of New
Hampshire Press; Hanover: University
Press of New England, ©2005.) ISBN 1-
58465-488-0, ISBN 978-1-58465-488-9

Bram Dijkstra, American expressionism:

art and social change, 1920–1950, (htt
p://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/508
66889&referer=brief_results) (New
York: H.N. Abrams, in association with
the Columbus Museum of Art, 2003.)
ISBN 0-8109-4231-3, ISBN 978-0-8109-
4231-8

Ditmar Elger Expressionism-A

Revolution in German Art ISBN 978-3-
8228-3194-6

Paul Schimmel and Judith E Stein, The

Figurative fifties: New York figurative
expressionism, The Other Tradition (htt
p://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/599
97649&referer=brief_results) (Newport
Beach, California: Newport Harbor Art
Museum: New York: Rizzoli, 1988.)
ISBN 978-0-8478-0942-4 ISBN 978-0-
91749312-6
Marika Herskovic, American Abstract
and Figurative Expressionism: Style Is
Timely Art Is Timeless (http://www.worl
dcat.org/search?qt=worldcat_org_bks&
q=9780967799421&fq=dt%3Abks)
(New York School Press, 2009.)
ISBN 978-0-9677994-2-1.

Lakatos Gabriela Luciana,

Expressionism Today, University of Art
and Design Cluj Napoca, 2011 (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20111216045054/h
ttp://www.uad.ro/storage/Dataitems/rez
umat%20Thesis%20summary%20LAKA
TOS%20GABRIELA%20LUCIANA%20-en
gleza.pdf)
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ww.hpic.net/galerie/galerie.htm) A free
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