Name : Putu Agus Septiyana

Class : 1A Singaraja
NIM : 19290810009

1. How is the view on Bilingualism from the pre-colonial time to the present?
a. There was early generalized acceptance, perhaps even embracement, of bilingualism, from
pre-Colonial times to the late 1800s. From around 1880, English-only sentiments grew
markedly, intensifying from around 1920 and still present today.
2. What are the factors behind shifts in views on bilingualism in the United States?
a. First, in pre-colonial and colonial times, bilingualism was at least accepted and protected,
if not widely appreciated or embraced as a societal benefit. An important coincident
condition at least during colonial times was a generalized dedication to the spirit of
individual rights and freedoms or to will or moral principle. Other simultaneous factors,
such as political instability and economic problems did not seem to deter a prevailing
sentiment favoring bilingual protections. Today, such dedication to principle does not
generally seem to take precedence over other considerations such as the economy or
health issues.
b. A second lesson from history is that peak immigration can be associated with decline in
acceptance of bilingualism. It is likely that increasing immigration creates a feeling of
instability among citizens. The feeling of instability could be due to an unsettling aura of
change, increased job competition, and/or a general inability to communicate with the
newcomers.

Vargas
1. What is the author suggestion on immigrants’ native language?
a. The native language is an asset rather than a crutch that has to be taken away. The
benefits of these programs are shown in Ramirez’s conclusion to his report: Students who
were provided with a substantial and consistent primary language development program
learned mathematics, English language, and English reading skills as fast or faster than
the norming population used in this study. As their growth in these academic skills is
atypical of disadvantaged youth, it provides support for the efficacy of primary language
development in facilitating the acquisition of English language skills. (as cited in
Cummings, n.d., 16)
2. What happened in America’s bilingual program when Fidel Castro came to power in
Cuba in 1959?
a. The United States experienced a new wave of immigration. The arrival of thousands of
Spanish-speaking immigrants to Southern Florida paved the way for the proliferation of
bilingual programs in this region
3. What are the proves that two-way immersion program is successful?
a. Cazabon (1998) found that the students of the Amigos two-way immersion program seem
to have both a better attitude and appreciation for people of another culture and to
perform better than students who are enrolled in all-English programs. This study does, in
particular, defy the arguments of people who oppose bilingualism by claiming that it
leads to academic failure.
b. Kathryn J. Lindholm (2001) found participation in DLE programs does not retard “the
native language development of Spanish or English speakers. In contrast, almost all
students, regardless of their student characteristics, were proficient in English and
Spanish

Franceschini
1. What does enable the development of multilingualism?
a. Sporadic or prolonged language contact between populations through cohabitation, trade,
intermarriage, conquest, exploration, travel, or shared interests raises the desire or need
for exchange. These direct contact situations heighten the probability that speakers and
entire groups become able to understand, speak, or write several languages, to a greater
or lesser degree (functional multilingualism).
b. Multilingualism can also develop through mediated means, like an interest in studying
written texts, through administrative acts or religious practices expressed in languages
other than the commonly used one, or through teachers. All these contribute to form a
dynamic landscape of language diversity with regional, historical, cultural, and
ideological differences. Broadly speaking, what multilingualism means is the use of more
than one language socially, or in everyday life by individuals or groups or in institutions
(Franceschini, 2009, pp. 33–4).
2. Where is multilingualism traced for the first time? What are the proofs?
a. One of the oldest sources documenting an administration’s need to train people for
multilingual purposes in a large empire goes back to the Sumerians: A huge number of
multilingual vocabularies and grammars on clay tablets (ca. 2600 BC) impressively show
that multilingually skilled persons, mainly civil servants, were deliberately trained to be
able to speak and write in the different languages of the empire, such as Sumerian and
Akkadian (
b. Egypt preserves a long history of multilingual scriptural practices: From the arrival of the
Greeks up to the ninth century AD one can trace bilingual texts for over a millennium. A
large collection of papyri, for example, contains writings from various levels of society,
private letters (written perhaps with help from scribes), and administrative documents in
Demotic, Greek, Latin, Coptic, and Arabic (Papaconstantinou, 2010).
3. How is functional multilingualism viewed during the Middle Ages period?
a. So, for centuries, multilingual abilities were not highlighted because they were simply
normal for doing a job well (see also Braunmüller & Ferraresi, 2003, p. 3). Nor was
perfect command of a language an issue, as it is in contemporary discourse. We can
assume that functional multilingualism was seen as the norm, and that non-ideological,
pragmatic attitudes prevailed. Attempts to enforce one language in connection with state
power were not very pronounced.
4. How about the in multilingualism after the Middle Ages period?
a. In terms of multilingualism, the period of the Renaissance (15th to the mid-16th century)
was characterized by the attempt of humanists to return to pure Latin and Greek, after the
decline—in their view—during the Middle Ages
b. The age of Enlightenment (mid- to late 17th and 18th century) brought language learning
into focus as a subject to learn by following rules: Increasingly grammars of single
languages were written and therefore standardized
c. Apparently, multilingualism was no longer part of a self-evident practice but was seen as
an exceptional competence. A divide can be seen: Learning other languages came under
control, and either became an achievement for the elite (like French in the courts of
 Russia in the 19th century) or was relegated to socially excluded minorities and
disregarded.

Nieto
1. What is the contribution given by Bilingual Education Act to the bilingual education in
America?
a. The Bilingual Education Act has been considered the most important law in recognizing
linguistic minority rights in the history of the United States. The law did not force school
districts to offer bilingual programs, but it encouraged them to experiment with new
pedagogical approaches by funding programs that targeted principally low-income and
non-English speaking populations
b. It was the first bilingual and bicultural education program that was approved at the
federal level. It offered supplemental funding for those districts that developed special
programs to meet the needs of students whose English was not proficient. It granted
funding for planning and developing bilingual programs and for defraying the costs of
training and operating those programs.
2. What is the reason behind Congress decision to pass the Bilingual Education Act of
1968, also known as Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(Crawford, 1989)?
a. In the 1960s, ethno-linguistic minorities experienced a pronounced increase in numbers.
The lack of access to a meaningful education hindered the possibility of full participation
in society for these non-English speaking students and blocked their upward mobility.
3. What does the author suggest about Bilingual Education?
a. Often, bilingual education has been blamed for the lack of academic skills and
educational opportunities of minority language students. However, those shortfalls are
mainly a result of socio-economic structures of schools and in our society. Research has
sufficiently stressed the benefits, both psychological and educational, for students to be
placed in classrooms where they are able to develop their skills in content subjects taught
in their native languages and, at the same time, develop their knowledge of a second
language. Not only does such an approach ease the transition between one language and
another without having students lose ground on content subjects, but it also strengthens
 the students’ cognitive skills. Bilingual education may also have a positive effect on
students’ confidence and self-esteem because it strongly values their previous knowledge
by actively incorporating it into daily instruction
Bybee
1. What are the authors standing point in term of “sink or swim” method?
a. It is much less successful in promoting student achievement. Freeman et al. (2005)
reported that achievement for English Language Learners (ELL) stalled after the passage
of Proposition 227 in California that outlawed bilingual education in favor of all-English
Structured English Immersion (SEI) programs. The authors note that after five years of
SEI implementation in California, just 30% of the Limited English Proficient (LEP)
students had conversational English and only 7% were able to follow academic
instruction from school textbooks at grade level. Collier (1995) suggested that, in US
schools where all the instruction is given through the second language (e.g., submersion
schooling), second language speakers of English with no schooling in their first language
take between 7 to 10 years or more to reach the language proficiency of native English
speaking peers. Cummins (2000) also cites the need for going beyond primary language
instruction and Garcia and colleagues (2008, 2010) have pointed out policy makers and
educators should think of ELL’s and LEP as “emergent bilinguals” with the potential for
possessing two languages
2. How does the author view the recent situation of bilingualism and bilingual education?
a. From one perspective, it appears that the pendulum has swung again in the direction
towards more assimilationist policies that restricts language variation. However, at the
same time, dual language programs, including classroom instruction in two languages
and at least 50% of the instruction in the native language, have increased substantially
(Center for Applied Linguistics, 2008). In sum, current approaches to bilingual education
at the state level appear highly polarized.

Video
1. What is the meaning of Defensive Pluralism proposed by Havinghurst in 1978?
The way of immigrant communities to preserve their cultural tradition, creating religious
services, newspaper, and school serving that particular population.
 It can also be defined as preservation of the immigrant’s ancestors way of life while
participating in a civil life of the nation.

2. What does sink-or-swim method in 1880-1960 refer to?

A belief of the teachers or policy makers that linguistic and cognitive adjustment rely on the
students, not the schools.
3. What are the characteristics of isolated bilingual programs appear in 1960-1980?
English and the students’ native language were used in all grades for language and content
instruction
Some included English-speakers
Programs were examples of excellence
4. Why Bilingual Education is needed back in the 1960-1980 period?
It is because more language minority students appeared in the US classroom due to 1965
immigration act
5. What are President Clinton’s contribution of Bilingual Education in 1999?
He restored funding for BE programs, dropped a bill article allowing only 2years to learn
English, increasing funding for English-only immersion programs, and hindering the
implementation or two-way BE programs.

Powerpoint
1. When did the term “bilingualism” appear?
In the early of 19th century when the acceptance of multiple languages for communication
and education indicate a broader language ideology of linguistic pluralism during this time
period.
2. What are the backgrounds of bilingual education in the US?
1958: With the demands of World War II, The National Defense Education Act was enacted
to increase foreign language instruction in schools (Ovando, 2003).
1968: The Bilingual Act of 1968 or Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education
Act (ESEA) mandated that schools provide bilingual programs (Ovando, 2003).
 1974: Lau vs. Nichols found the San Francisco school districts failed to provide over 1,800
non-English speaking students with the instruction they required to master the target
language. This violated Title VI of the ESEA ( Ryan, 2002).
1994: Proposition 187 in California introduced to deny illegal immigrants access to social
services, health care, and public education. However, it violated the constitution (Cerda, &
Hernandez, 2006)
3. When did the early research on bilingualism conducted?
Early research on bilingualism, conducted before the 1960s
4. What was it about?
It was linked bilingualism with lower IQ scores, cognitive deficiencies and even mental
retardation. These studies reported that monolingual children were up to three years ahead
of bilingual children in both verbal and non-verbal intelligence
5. Mention the main development in the history of bilingualism!
Up until the 1880s: relatively relaxed approach to language in the United States.
1880s to the 1960s: English-only laws enacted to assimilate students into “American” culture
(Ovando, 2003). Monolingualism was favored as part of a “cultural genocide campaign to
“civilize” Indians and contain them on reservations” and a military strategy during World
War I to maintain a sense of nationalism (Ovando, 2003).
By 1923: 34 states had passed legislation to enforce English-only instruction in all private
and public primary schools by the year 1923 (Ovando, 2003)
1958: With the demands of World War II, The National Defense Education Act was enacted
to increase foreign language instruction in schools (Ovando, 2003).
1968: The Bilingual Act of 1968 or Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education
Act (ESEA) mandated that schools provide bilingual programs (Ovando, 2003).
1974: Lau v. Nichols found the San Francisco school districts failed to provide over 1,800
non-English speaking students with the instruction they required to master the target
language. This violated Title VI of the ESEA (Ryan, 2002).
1994: Proposition 187 in California introduced to deny illegal immigrants access to social
services, health care, and public education. However, it violated the constitution (Cerda, &
Hernandez, 2006)
1998: Proposition 227’s (California) goals were to eliminate bilingual education entirely