Changes in life satisfaction and self-concept clarity during the transition from university to work Name: Phyl M. W. Kessels EMPLID: 1254682 Mentor: dr. A. K. Reitz Second reader: dr. J. M. H. Chung Words: 4066Abstract The transition of university to work can be a very life changing period in someone’s life. This transition comes along with all sort of new responsibilities and changes, Self-concept clarity (SCC) and life satisfaction are considered to play an important role during young adulthood. Little research is done about the influence of the transition on someone’s SCC and life satisfaction. The present study aims to expand current literature by examining the changes within and relationship between life satisfaction and SCC during the transition, A natural experiment is used. 163 German graduates participated at two time points. Both SCC and life satisfaction where measured at both times. We also asked for job status at the second time point, which enabled us to compare two groups: people who are in a fulltime position and people who are not. Using repeated measures ANOVA and hierarchical multiple regression analyses, this study found that both SCC and life satisfaction increased over time. There were no significant differences fount between the job beginners group and comparison group. Indicating that the transition from university has less influence than expected. Additionally, SCC has been found to have a positive effect on life satisfaction. This effect was smaller for the job beginners group than for the comparison group. Although the transition to work is considered to have a major influence, the present study suggests that this influence is more nuanced than expected.Changes in self-concept clarity and life satisfaction during the transition from university to work Adolescents are forced to make future related choices at an increasingly younger age. At approximately age fourteen, adolescents in the Netherlands have to give direction to their career path by choosing in which subjects they want to graduate, Some universities require of students to be graduated fiom high school in specific subjects. It is therefore important and necessary to have at least a small vision of one’s future. Especially now, when students no longer receive student grants from the government and have to loan everything, it could make a big difference financially to choose the ‘right’ major in university. With a minimal loan, ‘young adults are in a better position to enter the workforce. According to Amett (2007) being financially independent is important during the transition to adulthood. More criteria have ‘major importance during young adulthood. The Developmental task theory (Havighurst, 1972) considers entering the workforce as a developmental task of late adolescence and young adulthood. According to Developmental task theory, every developmental stage has its own tasks to complete. Havighurst states that when the tasks of a developmental stage are successfully completed, one experiences higher levels of happiness and improves one’s chance of successfully completing new tasks in later stages. The first aim of the present study is therefore to research the change in life satisfaction during the transition from university to work. As said, in order to know what kind of job suits one, it may be important to have a clear vision of life aspirations and personal interest and skills. According to Amett (2000), the emerging adulthood, which he proposed as a developmental stage between adolescence and young adulthood, is a period in which the self-concept is still developing. Unfortunately, little research is done with regard to the impact of having a(n) (un)elear self-concept during the transition from university to work. Since going to work and conceptualizing the self are two‘major tasks during the emerging adulthood, itis important to know whether the transition from university to work impacts one’s clarity of the self. The second aim of the present study is therefore to examine the change in self-concept clarity during this transition. Having a clear concept of the self is found to be having a positive effect on life satisfaction (Diehl & Hay, 2011; Hanley & Garland, 2017; Ritchie, Sedikides, Wildschut, Amdt, & Gidron, 201 1). Because of lacking research about this relationship during the transition from university to work, the third aim of the present study is to examine the relationship between having a clear concept of the self on life satisfaction. Life Satisfaction During the Transition to Work, Defined by Shin and Johnson (1978) life satistaction is “a global assessment of a person's quality of life according to his chosen criteria” (p. 478). Life satisfaction is therefore truly subjective, since it is measured by comparing life to its own standards, Susanli (2017) found a difference of well-being between the employed and the unemployed, whereas employment had a sizeable effect on well-being. An increase in engagement from occupational goals during the transition associates with an increase of well-being (Haase, Heckhausen, & Silbereisen, 2012). Positive experience someone has at its job and specific working conditions influence satisfaction (e.g. well-being; Elfering, Semmer, Tschan, Kalin, & Bucher, 2007; Drobnié, Beham, & Priig, 2010). Unemployed on the other hand, can be experienced as a stressful event (De Battisti, Gilardi, Guglielmett, & Siletti, 2016; Dettenborn, Tietzem, Bruckner, & Kirschbaum, 2010; Dietrich, Jokisaari, & Nurmi, 2012) and it may have a negative influence on life satisfaction (Elfering et al, 2007; Hirsch, Mar, & Peterson, 2012). ‘These statements illustrate the link between employment and well-being, but don’t tell us how work and life satisfaction relate to each other during the transition from university to work. No previous research is done on how and if the transition effects life satistaction.Self-Concept Clarity During the Transition to Work A clear concept of the self is introduced by Campbell et al. (1996) as self-concept clarity (SCC). SCC means “the extent to which the contents of an individual's self-concept are clearly and confidently defined, internally consistent and temporally stable” (p. 141). SCC is considered as an opinion of the self (Campbell et al., 1996). SCC consists of two components: the evaluative component and the knowledge component: someone might have a particular view of them self, which others argue based on the behavior one shows. Low SCC is associated with internalizing problems (i.e. anxiety and depressive symptoms; Dijk et al., 2013), High SCC is associated with a healthy identity development (Schwartz et al. 2011), less susceptible to (negative) external cues which do not match the self-concept, and more flexibility to the social environment (Campbell, 1990). Although SCC is considered to be fairly stable (Shin, Steger, & Henry, 2016), SCC can change over time and is among other things subject to influence of changing life circumstances (McAdams, 1995), Self-Concept Clarity on Life Satisfaction ‘There has a correlation been found that self-concept clarity positively influences life satisfaction by creating opportunities to make autonomous decisions in order to pursue an idealized self (i.e. the standards one has of its own life; Hanley & Garland, 2017). Applied to the transition from university to work, this could mean that when someone can pursue a job they think would fit to them (as a result of a clear self-concept), it positively influences life satisfaction. Being unemployed could be a stressful situation which leads to questioning oneself (Ritchie et a., 2011), making the self-concept less clear. This could affect well-being (e.g, SCC mediates the relationship between stress and well-being; Ritchie et al., 2011), ‘The Present Study ‘The present study will first examine the changes in life satisfaction and SCC in a sample of young adults during the transition from university to work. Secondly, it examinesthe relationship between the two constructs during the transition from university to work. We will also examine if change within and the relationship between life satisfaction and SCC differs for employed and unemployed graduates. Data used to answer the relation between life satisfaction, SCC and being (unjemployed is collected at two time points; before graduating from university (Time 1) and fourteen months later (Time 2) when all participants had completed their education. At Time 2, about half of the participants had started a fulltime job, whereas half of the participants had not. We examined the relation of life satisfaction and SCC for the two groups (i.e. job beginners and the comparison group). The first aim of the present study is to examine if there is a mean-level change in life satisfaction during the transition to work and if this change is ‘more positive for the job beginners group than the comparison group. We hypothesized (H1L.1) that life satistaction increases over time, with (HI.2) a bigger mean level change in the job beginner group compared to the comparison group. The second aim of the present study is to examine if there is a mean-level change in SCC during the transition to work and if this change is more positive for the job beginners group than the comparison group. We hypothesized (H2.1) that SCC increases over time, with (H2.2) a bigger mean level change in the job beginner group compared to the comparison group. The last aim of this study is to examine if SCC at Time I has an influence on life satisfaction on Time 2, and if this change is, different for the two groups. We hypothesized (H3) that SCC at Time 1 has a positive influence on life satisfaction at Time 2 and that this influence is larger for the job transition ‘group as compared to the comparison group.Method Participants and Procedure Data comes from a large longitudinal study that was conducted in Berlin, Germany. Participants were graduate students attending universities in Berlin and cities nearby, who ‘where about to finish their master’s theses. Psychology students were excluded to participate because of the potential familiarity with used procedures and measurements. Participants of other discipline are approximately representative for the population (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2011; 18% natural sciences, 12% engineering, 36% law, business, social science, 23% languages, cultural sciences). Participants received 120 Euro and feedback about their personality as reimbursement. The study included two waves of data collection that were, approximately 14 months apart (M= 62 weeks, SD = 6) in 2012/2013. At Time 1, NV=209 students participated, and ‘N=191 of them also participated at Time 2 (retention was 91%). N=28 participants who did not yet finish their master’s theses (or had missing data) at Time 2 were excluded, since we aimed for a natural experiment in which participants were assessed before and after graduating (resp. Time | and Time 2), The sample used in this study consisted N=163 participants, of which 113 were female (69,3%) and 50 were male (30,7%). The average age of the participants was M=27 (SD = 2.84). At Time 2, N=78 participants had started a fulltime job; the job-beginner group. The average time individuals in the job-beginner group were in their full-time job was 9 months. Almost half of the participants had not started a full-time job r '5), which we used as the comparison group. The comparison group consisted individuals, who worked part-time (N=34), had several part-time jobs (N=18), were doing an internship (N=7) or had no job at all (N=26) ‘To qualify as a natural experiment, mean differences in life satistaction, S oC and demographic variables were examined to exclude pre-exiting changes between the jobbeginners group and the comparison group. No significant mean differences were found (see also Table 1). ‘Measures, Self-concept clarity was measured using the Self-Concept Clarity Seale from Campbell et al. (1996). This questionnaire consists of 12 statements which can be scored on a S-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). The Self-Concept Clarity Scale contained questions like ‘My beliefs about myself seem to change very frequently” and “"In general, [have a clear sense of who I am and what I am’. Cronbach’s alphas were .88 (Time 1) and .86 (Time 2) Life satistaction was measured by using the Satisfaction with Lite Seale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). This scale consists of 5 items to assess cognitive life satistaction (e.2., The conditions of my life are ideal”” and “"I am satisfied with my life”), Answers could be given on a 7-points scale ranging from | (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Cronbach's alphas were .86 (Time 1) and .85 (Time 2). At Time 2, participants were asked about their job status. The response categories were as follows: (1) fulltime job, (2) part-time job, (3), several part time jobs, (4) internship, and (5) unemployed. Individuals in category (1) are called the job beginners and individuals. in category (2) to (5) are the comparison group. Only category | is considered as job beginner group since having a fulltime job after university can be seen as successfully completing the developmental task stated by Havighurst (1972), whereas having a part-time job, several part- time jobs or doing an intemship could be discussed as not having suecessfully completed the task, Statistical Analyses ‘To examine the first two aims (does life satisfaction and SCC inerease over time, H1.1 and H2.1, and is this change bigger for the job beginner group, H1.2 and H2.2), we conductedrepeated measures ANOVA using SPSS. This enabled us to compare the means of both constructs at to time points. SCC or life satisfaction is the dependent variable and time the independent variable. In a first step, we tested for a mean-level change of both groups taken together. In the second step we examined if SCC or life satisfaction changes within the two ‘groups (i. job beginner group and comparison group). In a final step, we investigated if the ‘two groups differed significantly from each other. The mean-level change was significant if p <5. To examine the third aim (does SCC at Time 1 has an influence on life satisfaction on Time 2 and is this change different for the two groups) we conducted a hierarchical multiple regression analysis using SPSS. Life satisfaction at Time 2 was the dependent variable and SCC at Time 1, life satisfaction at Time 1 and employment were the independent variables. Adding life satisfaction at Time 1 as a predictor, we were able to control for change in life satisfaction it selves. In a first step, we only included the predictors, SCC and life satisfaction at Time 1. This gave us an insight if SCC affects life satisfaction, In the next step employment (as a dummy; e.g., 0no job; 1=job) was included, to see if there is a main effect of employment. In a last step the interaction variable of SCC at Time 1 and employment was included, to test whether the effect of SCC on life satisfaction differs across the job status groups. Results ‘Aim 1: Mean Level Change in Life Satisfaction, To examine if there is an overall mean-level change in life satisfaction, we conducted a repeated measures ANOVA (see Table 1 for mean levels). Taken both groups together, results showed that there was a significant increase in life satisfaction from T1(M(SD) = 4.17(.96) to T2 (MSD) = 4.60(1.15), FUL, 162) = 38.05, p <.05, d= 406 (see also Table 2). Results show that there was a significant increase in life satisfaction for the job beginnersfrom T1 (M(SD) = 4.22(.92) to T2 (M(SD) = 7(1.06), FUL, 77) = 24.82, p <.05, d= 484. ‘The comparison group also showed a significant increase in life satisfaction from T1 (MSD) = 4.13(1.00) to T2 (MSD) = 4.48(1.22), FUL, 84) = 14.09, p <.05, d= 314. There has no significant difference been found between the two groups (F(L, 161) = 1.20, p = .274, partial 17° =.007. Concluded, there has no evidence been found that employment has an effect on life satisfaction during the transition from university to work. Figure 1 shows there seems to be no considerably difference in individual variance between the job beginner group and the comparison group, making mean-level change an appropriate way to examine change. Aim 2: Mean level change in SCC To examine if there is an overall mean-level change in SCC, we conducted a repeated measures ANOVA (see Table | for mean levels). Taken both groups together, there was a significant change in SCC from TI (M(SD) = 3.61(.78)) to T2 (M(SD) = 3 .77(.71), F (1s 162) = 10.63, p <.05, d=.215 (see also Table 2). For the job beginners group, there was no significant change of SCC from TI (M(SD) = 3.67(.76) to T2 (MSD) = 3.81(.65), FUL, 77) = 3.90, p =.052, d =.198. The comparison group showed a medium change in SCC from TI (MSD) = 3.56(.81)) to T2 (MSD) = 3.72(.76)), F (1, 84) = 7.07, p <.05, d=.204. The ‘groups did not significantly differ from each other in their mean-level change (F(1, 161) = 04, p = 841, partial 1° = 06. Therefore, there has no evidence been found that employment had an effect on SCC during the transition from university to work. Figure 2 shows there seems to be no considerably difference in individual variance between the job beginner group and the comparison group, making mean-level change an appropriate way to examine change. 10Aim 3: The Longitudinal Relationship between SCC on Life Satisfaction To test the hypothesis that SCC positively affects life satisfaction with employment as ‘moderator, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted. In the first step, the variables SCC and life satisfaction at Time 1 were included (see also Table 4). These variables accounted for a significant amount of variance in life satisfaction at Time 2, adjusted R® = .433, F(2, 160) = 62.89, p <.05. Whereas only life satisfaction at Time | significantly contributed to the model (Life satisfaction: f = .634, r= 9.885, p <.05; SCC: B = .068, = 1.061, p=.29). In the second step a job dummy variable was included. The job dummy variable and the variables from step 1 together did also account for a significant amount of variance in life satisfaction, adjusted 135, FI3, 159) = 42,545, p <.05. Neither SCC (p= 064, = 994, p = 322) nor the job dummy variable (B = .072, 1= 1.215, p =.226) significantly contributed to the model. In the last step, the interaction term between SCC at Time 1 and employment was added. This accounted fora significant proportion of variance in life satistaction, adjusted R? = 447, F(4,158) = 33.765, p < .00. Model 3 is both significant, as accounting for more variance, R? square = .016, p = 0.34. SCC appears to have a significant effect on life satisfaction, [= .174, 129, p =.035. The effect of SCC on life satisfaction is not the same for the two groups (the job beginners and the comparison), there is a significant difference between the two groups where the effect of SCC on life satisfaction for people with a job is smaller than the effect of SCC on life satisfaction for people without a job, f = -.168, -2.14, p = 03. This is, in contradiction with our hypothesis where we expected that the influence of SCC would be larger for the job transition group as compared to the comparison group. aDiscussion ‘The major aim of this study was to examine changes in life satisfaction and SCC and their relationship during the transition from university to work. Results showed a significant, bbut small increase in life satisfaction over time. In contradiction with our hypothesis, life satisfaction for the job beginners group did not increase more than the comparison group. We found a similar pattern for SCC: as hypothesized, SCC increased over time, although significant, it was a small increase. But in contradiction with our hypothesis, the increase for the job beginners group was not significantly larger than the increase for the comparison group. Regarding the third hypothesis, SCC had a positive effect on life satisfaction when accounted for its stability and when a job dummy variable and interaction variable between SCC at Time 1 and employment were included. The influence of SCC on life satisfaction was smaller for the job beginners than for the group. This finding is not in line with our hypothesis, as we expected that SCC has a bigger influence on life satisfaction for the job beginner group. Life Satisfaction During the Transition to Work In contradiction with what we expected (bigger increase of life satisfaction in the job beginners group), both groups increased in life satisfaction without a significant difference between them. Since getting a job after graduating was considered as mastering the task belonging to the transition (Havighurst, 1972), our hypothesis must be rejected. The transition of university to work was found to have no significant impact on life satisfaction (Switek & Easterlin, 2016). Switek and Easterlin (2016) state that employment during this transition will improve the feeling about the economic situation but decline on satisfaction with work. This could explain why we didn’t find that the job beginners group significantly differs (positively) from the comparison group. During emerging adulthood, a lot of characteristics matter in life, Whereas making independent choices, accepting responsibility for one’s self and becoming 2financially independent are considered to be most important criteria (Amett, 2000), Future research could include these (and more) criteria to examine the unique effects of each criteria. Self-Concept Clarity During the Transition to Work Previous research showed that SCC has a curvilinear increase until middle age, where it reaches its peak (Lodi-Smith and Roberts, 2010). The increase found in SCC could be due to maturation or aging. Since the present study shows that there is no significant difference in change of SCC between the job beginners group and the comparison group, the influence of the transition from university to work is therefore excluded. This is not in line with what we expected since having a clear concept of the self could help with finding a suitable job (Erikson, as cited in Dunkel & Harbke, 2017; Schwarz et al., 2011). And as mentioned before, being unemployed could be a stressful situation which can lead to questioning yourself (Ritchie et al., 2011). We therefore didn’t expect to see significant increase of SCC in the comparison group. In despite of lacking research, this finding could be explained by the possibility that graduates who are not employed, are -during their job search- more occupied with questions about who they are and what they want. Further research is needed to test this possibility. Clarity on Life Satisfaction As stated before SCC has a positive influence on life satisfaction (Diehl & Hay, 2011; Hanley & Garland, 2017; Ritchie et al. 2011). The present study found evidence that supports this statement, In contradiction with our hypothesis, results show that the influence of SCC on life satisfaction is smaller for the job beginners group than for the comparison group. Perhaps ‘more specific questions about the self-concept are raising for job beginners, like: suitability of the job, job satisfaction, etc. Although this could influence SCC since those aspects can confirm ot disprove one’s opinion of the self (ie. self-concept; Ritchie et al., 2011), those are 3smaller and specific ‘questions’ than unemployed could have about what kind of job they want. Future research could also include stress as a third variable since multiple research, pointed out the relationship of stress on life satisfaction, SCC and work (e.g. Dietrich, Jokisaari, & Nurmi, 2012; Hirsch, Mar, & Peterson, 201. itchie et al., 2011). Adding stress in the model could possibly change the influence of SCC on life satisfaction. Important is to address the different causes of stress, ince stress in general is too broad. Unemployed graduates can experience stress of being unemployed (Dettenborn et al., 2010; Hirsch, Mar, & Peterson, 2012), but employed graduates can experience stress of new responsibilities (Elfering et al., 2007) and job performance (Dietrich, Jokisaari, & Nurmi, 2012). Limitations Most developmental theories move from adolescence to young adulthood (e.g developmental task theory of Havighurst, 1972 and developmental stages of Erikson, as cited in Dunkel & Harbke, 2017). Since society is changing, the age span used in these theories are possible not accurate anymore (Mandarino, 2014). As Seiffge-Krenke and Gelhaar (2008) show, Havighurst’s Developmental task theory is still accurate (regarding the tasks people ‘must endure), the timeframes in where these tasks must be completed have shifted. Society requires adolescents to be adults as of age 18, when a lot of adolescents are still in college/university. Around 23 many adults graduate and enter the worktorce. The present study used data from people with a mean age of 27, which is older than most theories suggest (e.g, Erikson, as cited in Dunkel & Harbke, 2017). It is therefor questionable if the comparisons with the developmental theories are legitimate to make In defining the two groups (job beginners group and the comparison group) only those who are fulltime employed were considered as job beginner. This decision was made with 14regard to developmental task theory (Havighust, 1972), stating that a fulltime job would indicate mastery of the task of adolescence. One could question this, since it is possible that someone has @ fulltime job as a waiter (and is because of the fulltime job considered as ‘mastering the transition in this study) but has a degree in law. Additionally, someone may have multiple part-time jobs in the field they studied, which would in this study considered as a failed mastery of the transition. Future research could add more job status groups as there are more ways to master the transition. Conclusions In conclusion: the present study extends prior research on how life satisfaction and ‘SCC changes, by examining the change during the transition from university to work. The study suggests that life satisfaction and SCC endure a slight increase over time and that ‘mastering the transition to work is not of significant influence. This indicates that there are ‘more and different factors that influence the increase of life satisfaction and SCC during emerging adulthood. New evidence is found for the positive relationship between SCC and life satisfaction. Since the influence of SCC on life satisfaction is found to be smaller for job beginners, further research is needed to examine underlying constructs that could explain this finding, 15References Amett, J.J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through. the twenties. 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European Journal of Personality, 25, 373-385. Switek, M., & Easterlin, R. A. (2016). Life transitions and life satisfaction during young adulthood. Journal of Happiness Studies. doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9817-y 18Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the demographic variables, SCC and life satisfaction per group. Life satisfaction Female ‘Job-beginner 68% Comparison 71% Group Time! ‘Time2 M(SD) —- M(SD) 4.22(92) 4.7 (1.06) 4.13 (1.00) 4.48 (1.22) Overall 6% Table 2 4.17 (96) 4.60 (1.15) Descriptive statistics of repeated measures ANOVA on life satisfaction Overall ‘Comparison Tnteraction| F 38.05 120 P 000 274 Cohen's d 406 Partial 2 06 Table 3 Descriptive statistics of repeated measures ANOVA on SCC Overall ‘Comparison’ Tnteraction| F 10.68 vy P 001 841 Cohen's d 215 Partial 2 007 1sTable 4 Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for variable predicting life satisfaction (N=163) Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Variable B SEB Bb B SEB fp B SEB B SCC 1 O71 067 —=«O68—«GT-—=«067 «06830867 Le 758 077 634** 756.077 632** 761.076 .636** satisfaction Job 118.097 072.120.096.073 SCC 1 x Job -264 124.168" R 440 445 461 F for change 7 62.893" 1.475 4.563" in? ‘Note: SCC and life satisfaction were centered at their means. *p<05. **p<.01. 20Panel A Panel B Lt Sastacion Time 2 j_ i 7 i Ute Satitecton Time + Lite Satisfaction Time t Figure 1. Individuals variance for the job beginners group (Panel A) and the comparison group (Panel B). The black line represents the correlation between Time 1 and Time 2, with a 95% confidence interval represented by the dashed lines Panel A Panel B ‘sco Time? Sc Time 1 sco Tinet Figure 2. Individuals variance for the job beginners group (Panel A) and the comparison group (Panel B). The black line represents the correlation between Time 1 and Time 2, with a 95% confidence interval represented by the dashed lines a