Resonance Learning Objectives * Series and parallel resonance # Sensitivity * Voltage magnification * Q factor * Bandwidth Dynamic impedance 6.1 Introduction Consider an electrical circuit consisting of various active and passive sources. In such a circuit, the state in which the current is maximum is called resonance. In a series RLC circuit, the condition of current lagging or leading the applied voltage depends on the values of XL and XC. If one of the parameters of the series RLC circuit is varied in such a way that the current in the circuit is in phase with the applied voltage, then the circuit is said to be in resonance. In other words, when the net or total current in an electrical circuit is in phase with the applied voltage, then the circuit is said to be in resonance. 6 Series RLC Resonance Figure 6.1 shows a series RLC circuit where the parameters R, L and C are connected in series with each other. The voltage of the circuit is given by V= UR+ i(X,~Xe)) (6.1) Total impedance of the series RLC circuit is given by Z= R+i(X,-Xe) vA - 1 Z= rsi(on +) (6.2) Now, a circuit is said to be in resonance if the current is in phase with the applied voltage. Thus, a series RLC circuit, resonance Figure 6.1 Series RLC circuitSennen 6.2 Network Analysis .. Resonant alled resonant frequency. Resona occurs when X, ; i = ‘urs when X; The frequency at which resonance occurs Fequency is discussed in detail in the following subsection. 623% Resonant Frequency LC ina series Ri When the condition of series resonance is considered, ie. X, = Xe. the impedance in 2 SAT" Uo Circuit becomes purely resistive. At resonant frequency (f,)- the vollages across capas inductance are equal in magnitude, i.c.. X, = Xe. Therefore, we can write X, = Ne (at resonance) 1 = ol =— oc 2nf,L = 7 . Where f, is the resonant frequency nhc fo" Selle 1 “eM ‘A series RLC circuit has the following parameters: R = 17 Q, ulate the resonant frequency. And under resonant condition, ca and voltage drops across various elements, if the applied voltage is 70 V. S&S U Since 2n/, = w,. we can write «, 18 WH, and C= 444F culate current, power, R=17Q,L=38 WH, C= 44uF, V=70V * Resonance frequency f, = sie : 1 2my(38 x 10) (44 x 10-%) = 3.89 kHz © Current at resonance net Z= Rat resonance] z q 70 zt, 7 TALITAResonance 6.3 * Power supplied by source = VI, = 70x 4.117 = 288.19 W Voltage drop across L= 1, 2nf,L) =A4L117 (2 x 3.14 x 3.89 x 10° x 38 x 10° * Voltage drop across C = Voltage at Lat resonance =3.82V or Voltage across capacitance C 1 A ___ aay 2nf,C. 2 x3.89x10° x44 x 10° # Voltage drop across R = 1,R LIT 17 69.989 V ~ 70 V or Voltage drop across R = Applied voltage = 70 V 170 8H tue SOO tk fol2el) feel fe el fe Ve Vi Ve ° lo fasza IR 1 © isbn) Tov @ (by Phasoraiagram Figure 6.2 Circuit for Example 6.1 6.3 Voltage Magnification clops across Land C of a series RLC circuit, voltage across R tio of voltage developed across L or C to applied voltage is an represent voltage magnification, Q, as shown below. 1X; Vv At resonance, a large voltage drop d is the same as the applied voltage termed as voltage magnif Q64 Network Analysis or 1X, y, oe—# oe But, V= IR rtd @ 1X, orl Xe se Ear Xe Pe TR v de ok 1 A oe 7 @,CR ey 2, LIL Therefore, we can write volt ification as Q = —,|— € can write voage magnification ay Q = = che 6.4 Bandwidth, Sensitivity,and Q Factors Figure 6.3 shows the frequency response of a series ' RLC circuit. If we assume J, to be the current at the al E condition of resonance, the power delivered to circuit 0.707 1, |- at resonance would be 12R. When current falls to i.e, 0.707 J, the power delivered becomes: Power delivered = requency response of a series Figure 6.3 a+r RIC circuit 2 = Half of power delivered at resonance From Fig. 6.3, the following points are observed: © Aand B are termed as power points. ¢ f,and fy are called the half-power frequencies. @ f,is called the lower half-power frequency. # ris called the upper half-power frequency.Resonance 6.5 Bandwidth The range of frequencies between the frequencies fjand f; is called the bandwidth of the circuit. Bandwidth = f, ~ f, Bandwidth is expressed in Hz and is denoted by Af. Quality Factor Quality factor of a series RLC circuit is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to bandwidth. It is denoted by Q and may be expressed as given below. o- fe Anh From the above expression it can be observed that if bandwidth series RLC circuit, narrow bandwidth can be obtained with low circuit resistance. It is po express Q factor in a number of ways. Some of them are discussed below. * Q factor is same as voltage magnification and may be defined as the ratio of voltage developed across L or C to applied voltage. That is, is narrow, Q would be high. In a le to # Q may also be expressed in terms of energy. That is = 27 | _Maximumenergy stored Energy dissipated per cycle At resonance, /,, will be maximum and hence the maximum energy stored can be written as : Loa t aye Maximum Energy = —L lj?or — CV? Energy dissipated/cycle = Average power/(cycle x period) = (Ipuss)” RXT66 Network Analysis Sensitivity Sensitivity of a series RLC circuit may be defined as the ratio of bandwidth to resonant frequency. It is also defined as the reciprocal of quality factor. We can express sensitivity as 6.4.1 Expression for Bandwidth eries RLC circuit given in Fig. 6.3. At point A in the ive Consider the frequency response o! ©, denote the angular frequency at half-power frequency. At this point, the capa Ja larger than the inductive reactance (= @, L). y Leo R At rms value of the current, the above expression can be written as Bev a= (6.3) v2 VaR When current falls ta impedance of the circuit becomes effec | Z=R at resonsnace) (6.4)Resonance 6.7 > LC 2 -CR@,+1=0 = LC @2-CRo,=+1 E @ {LC @,- CR] =+1 On solving, we obtain @,, we can write = @, " i f+ 0, aki i 3p + On (taking «, as positive) Ae (0, = angular frequency at A (, = angular frequency at B o,=0,+ % and 2L o=0,-4 as is written as oo, = © — [2]. 2 Bandwidth is writen as ay 0 = 37 ~|-5-] = 7 However, @,=2nf, and @, =2nf, R an(f,-fy=% Ia h-M= 7 R h-h= sa G oeR Therefore, the bandwidth (Af) of the circuit is found to be = 527, “el Quality factor, Q= R R (a 2nf,L => A Coe =] OL an Th ee ae ss quality factor, Q is writen as SE de? 26.5 Resonant Frequency in terms of Half Power Frequencies -~ ° 42 Resonant frequency of a circuit may also be expressed as the geometric mean of half-power frequencies such that h=Vih @) Wy> Toor We know R=0,L- as 0, At half power point A, if «, is angular frequency, then - OL 6. ac a a At half power point B, if «, is angular frequency, then (6.6) From Eqs. (6.5) and (6.6), we getResonance 6.9 We know = Substituting this, we get ©, 0, = 05 4 [= faa] fo= Vil where @, = 2nf,, @, = 2nf, and @, = 2nf,, Hence, we have shown that resonant frequency may be expressed as the geometric mean of two half-power frequencies. GEE Determine half-power frequencies of a resonant circuit where the resonant frequency is 245 kHz and the bandwidth is 100 kHz. Solution Bandwidth = f; - f, = 100 (6.7) fea Vih =s = hh=-s > he = (6.8) : Substituting Eq. (6.8) in Eq. (6.7) we obtain : as h > ~ 100f; - 2457 =0 Solving for fy, we get Si = fy ~ 100 = 200 kHz6.10 Network Analysis fed so that it has a bandwidth of 320 rad/s 3500) rad/sec. determine the resistance of coil ine the voltage acros A series RLC circuit has to be desi 5.0.2 H. IF it has to resonate Ifthe applied voltage is 150 V, deter Inductance of the and capacitance of condens and coil Solution Given bandwidth = 320 rad/sec, V = 150 V, L = 0.2 H. resonant frequency @, = 27f, * Resonance frequeney. «@, = T= n= = 3500 = = 2450000 x C= 1 = c= —_ 24.08 x10 2450000 * Bandwidth = @, - @ = 3 3500 ~ 10.937 20) larly, we know that Q = 10.937 = 1x pee Ones RY 4.08x 107 10.937 = — x 700.14 R= 64.015 2 => © Applied voltage = 150 Voltage across capacitor =Resonance 6.17 Al resonance, Z = R Voltage = 1637.95 V Since. Q is voltage magnification, voltage 1, (R + jo,b) Solution Given Jy. Q can also be writter oF TR Oo, 1 © 313.1104 = 2.60 10” = 2.6.x 107 UF (0, ~ 0, = 10° (6.9) = (.1 x 10°? = 9.61 x 10" (6.10)6.12, Network Analysis 9.61x10" O; o, Substituting the above expression in Eq, (6.9), we get i QHIMIO! ips : O; = 03 - 9.61 x 10" = 10%, = 9.61 x 10" =0 10° + 10" +4(19.61x10! = @, = = 3.15 x 10° rad/sec From Eq. (6.9), we can write @, = @ — 10° 15 x 10° - 108 @, = 3.05 x 10° rad/see EEEESIRED 80 impedance coit ving resistance 24 Q and an inductance of 008 Hi conncaied in series with a 0.02-F capacitor. Calculate the following: (i) Q of coil, (ii) resonant frequency of circuit, (iii) half-power frequencies. Solution Given fe (i) Q= E R=24Q, L=0.04H, C= 0.02 NF 0.04 24 ¥0.02x10° = 58.925 (ii) Resonant frequency. f, = ~ 2 ¥0.04«0.02x10° 5.626 kHzResonance 6.13 ih Sify = 31.662 x 10° (6.11) = (5.626 x 10°)? We know that Q = 58: fy fy = 95.477 (6.12) a From Eq. (6.11) , fy = 31.662 10! Substituting the above expression in Eq. (6.12), we get 510% 31.662x10! = 95.477 31.662 x 10° - 95.4775 = 0 _ 95.477 + y(95.477)" +4(1)(31.662%10°) * “567x10" =5.58kHz (fResonance 6.15 wae Maximum Voltage Drop AcrossLandC At resonance, the maximum current occurs in circuit, This leads toa large voltage drop across inductors and capacitors. However, maximum voltage does not occur at Land C at resonance. This can be explained using the graph given in Fig, 6.4 We know that inductive reactance X, = 2xfL, and capacitive es but I reactance X¢ = —— . Therefore, as increases X; increa 2a fC : 2 X¢ decreases. So, the net reactance would decre: ind total circuit impedance the current increases. Voltage drop across L would increase as both fand X, increase. Afler resonance, the current begins to decrease as f increases, but X continues to Figure increase and so, the voltage drop IX, further continues to increase Fesona in magnitude for some time. This can be illustrated as shown in Fig. 64 This increase cannot continue indefinitely because the current drops more rapidly owing to increased impedance. Maximum voltage drop across L occurs, not actually at resonance, but a little later. For a similar reason, maximum voltage drop across C occurs a little prior to resonance, as evident in the figure given above 6,8” Equation for Frequency f, at Maximum V, and f,at Maximum Ve Maximum voltage drop across the inductance occurs at f= f,, which lies a little beyond f, We know that Vi =1X, =I (@Ll) Vv 7 However, current, = 7 where Z Vol. a vy, The value of V, is maximum when6.16 Network Analysis Substituting wl = 27f,L dV, zs oo . V¢ is maximum when oH = 0. Differentiating Vc with respect to w and equating the derivative to do zero, we get 1 Rk LC 2b Substituting @C = Examp Following are parameters for a series RLC circuit: R= 60 QL = Ifa constant voltage of 250V, at variable frequency is applied, determine th resonance occurs. Also find maximum voltages across L and C, 0.8 H, and C= 40 HE 1e frequency at whichResonance 6.17 Solution Given: V=250V, R=60 Ohms, L=0.8H, C=40 HF I I 2nVLC 2a Jo.8x40x10° 13 Hz 1 x 40x10 2(0.8) = 29.488 Hz X= 2af, b X, = 20x 29.488 x 0.8 = 148,224 0 1 Xe= "RAC 1 2 x29.488x40x10°° = 134.930 Z= YR +(X,-Xe)? = (60? + (148.22 - 134.93 =61.45Q = = 4.068 A 61.45 Maximum voltage drop across L is V, (max) = IX; = 4.068 x 148.224 = 603.04 V Se6.18 Network Analysis * Maximum voltage drop occurs at C when the frequency is fc fe cla Re f= EVIE 1 1 60 2x = 27.103 Hz is the inductance reactance at f= fe Xi = 2Afcl. 2m x 27.103 x 0.8 = 136.23 2 1 2nfc Capacitive res 21 x27.103x40% 10° = 146.80 2 Impedance Z! = [R? +X =X," = ¥(60)" + (146.80 - 136.23)? = 60,923 Q =4.103 A drop across capacitance Cis Vay, = 1! Xe = 4.103 x 146.80 = 602.39 V WA EL ea A series RLC circuit with R = 65 Q. 8 mH, and C = 4OUF has an applied voltage of 150 V at variable frequency. Frequency is varied until the voltage across the capacitor becomes maximum. Determine frequency and capacitor vol Maximum voltResonance 6.19 Solution Given: R= 65 Q:L= 8 mH and C= 40 pr a | 1 0 27 \osx4ox10* 208) 3, 27.103 Hz = 2 afk 4X 27.103 x 8 x 10% 3625.2 1 IC 1 21 x27.103x40% 10% 146.8. IR? +(Xe-X,) = ¥(65)° + (146.8 -1.3625)° = 1593.2 oe Z~ 1593 =0.9416A Since Ve= 1X, = 0.9416 x 146.8 = 138.23 V Zz 6.9 Parallel Resonance All the concepts discussed above are related to series resonance, that is when RLC components were placed in series with each other. However, the relation of resonant frequency changes when these Wo cases are majorly considered in the concept of Parameters are placed in parallel with each other. Parallel resonance. They are as follows: (i) Considering the internal resistance of both L and C (ii) Considering the internal resistance of only L.6.20 Network Analysis 6.9.1 Parallel Resonance Considering Internal Resist: Xe=X,. Cor Normally parallel resonance occurs ances of Land ‘der the parallel circuit given in Fig. 6.5, The internal resistances of both L and C have been incorporated along with the parameters, According to KCL where ¥, and Y are the branch admittances such that oe 1 “ZR, +jol Rationalizing the expression for ¥,. we obtain Similarly, * te-[er) ‘ Rationalizing the expression for Yc, we obtain ) +5 oC The circuit is said to hav h Figure 6.5 (a) ie fc R Re L c Parallel circuit achieved resonance if the net susceptance is zero, Thus, from the above equation equating the imaginary part equal to zero, we get where @, is the resonant frequency.Resonance 6.21 Solving the above equation, we get . ie as] Substituting @, = (6.13) IR, = Re, then f, = 2aVic 6.9.2 ParallelResonance Considering Internal Resistance of L Only Figure 6.6 shows the parallel L-C circuit where the internal resistance of C is considered to be zero and only the internal resistance of L is considered. Figure 6.6 can R also be referred to as atank circuit because the circuit stores g, 6) c energy in the magnetic field of the coil and in the electric field of the capacitor. Normally, the circuit is said to be in resonant condition when the susceptance part of the admittance is zero, The total admittance of the uit given above is Figure 6.6 Parallel L-C circuit (6.14) Simplying further, we can write eo. fe Ri+X; [Xe REM In order to satisfy the condition of resonance, the suseptance part, B, should be zero. which implies (6.15)6.22 Network Analysis From the above expression ee ol The resonant frequency for the tank circuit is given by f, IE 6.10 QFactor and Bandwidth of Parallel Resonance Consider the pi Hel RLC circuit as shown in Fig. 6.7. Normally, the condition for resonance occurs when the suseptance part is zero. aL - 6.7, the admittance of the circuit £5) R £ Al Figure 6.7 Parallel RLC (6.16) Since condition for resonance oceurs when the suseptance part is zero, omparing Eq. (6.11) with Y =G+ jB), we can write as @,C-— = 0, which implies @, = The expression for bandwidth can be written as coe 1 So. in order to obtain the lower half-power frequency in a parallel circuit, we write I I oC-— =-— oor R. Solving the above equation, we have oe =0 RC LCResonance 6.23 Further simplifying, hoxlas (<4 Pe] oan 2n|2 2RC} “Le Similarly, the upper half-power frequency can be obtained as Simplityi au, ft Jet (6.18) 2n{ 2Rc* \\aRc) “Le Thus, bandwidth ean be written ay = fy— fy = or =o,ke Oz wo Pe Quality factor is 2 aximum energystored In other words, quallity factor can be expressed as 2 x™ —— y dissipated/e For Inductor In the case of inductor, the maximum ene! 'y stored is given by —LI° and energy dissipated per For Capacitor In the case of eapacitor. the maximum energy stored is given by —CV? and energy dissipated per cycle is xRxT. So, the quality factor is written as6.24 Network Analysis Love Q= 2nx 1 XRXT yp 2 —_ = OCR it shown in Fig. 6.8, determine (i) resonance frequency, (ii) input 702 the i admittance at resonance, (iii) quality factor, (iv) bandwidth, and (v) power frequencies. Solution 3 HF, R,=70Q, — 10ka a gr Figure 6.8 Circuit for Example 6.8 = 79.386 Hz From the circuit, Z, = R= 10 kQ ‘Lere] ~' ivan =-j 1002411 1 =7.1002.411 (0.975 x 10-*) 10 + j (2m x 79.38 x 2) = 70 + j 997.59 Q Y= x = 6.99 x 105 — 9.975 x 10-4 Zs YaY+y+¥y = 10 + j (0.975 x 10+) + 6,90 x 10-7 9.975 x 104 = (1.669 x 104-79 x 1049Resonance 6.25 R 10,000 2nf,L 2nx7938%2 = 10.02 Bandwidth, Meh-he & oe 1 Finding half-power frequencies Bandwidth fy f, = 7.922 (6.19) We know that Jif; =f, = (6.20) 6.11 DynamicIlmpedance Under resonance condition, the effective resistance offered by a parallel circuit is known as dynamic impedance. At resonance, we know that net susceptance is equal to zero, that is, the imaginary part in the total admittance will be zero.6.26 Network Analysis Ww can itance isa pure capacitance, that is, if Re = 0, then Thus, we can write, dynamic impedance, Z, F020 R, 6.12 Comparison between Series and Parallel Resonance S.No. | Reference Series Circuit I ¢ during resonance low 2 resonance high a Powerfactor at resonance unity 4. Resonant frequency poe : Indic Os Quality factor XUR XUR 6 Improves Voltage current Additional Examples Example 6. An impedance coil having resistance of 28 Q and inductance 28 mH is connected in with variable capacitors. Determine value of C when the circuit undergoes resonance if « 100 V, 430 Hz source is applied. Find also the line current under resonanenResonance 6.27 Solution Given R 8x10" 52x10 x28 532. 100 _ 60532 ind the re nant frequenc resonant ‘uit shown in 6.9 a) which has R = 12 kQ. Lb Solution = . . » ay in ic le Total admittance, Y= Yee it Ye | &Q re gi xe | Figure 6.9a) Circuit for Example 6.10 te Figure 6.9(b)Phasor diagram6.28 Network Analysis Total admittance, ance is equal to zero. Thus, we can write 7 } silac- = At resonance, net susce} = 530.51 Hz I orl Ie altopte Te In Vets 6 Make RyYe ” VeYe R — or w,CR ©, where (iii) Bandwidth Af =f, -f,Resonance 6.29 Ea ind the value of R¢ at which the circuit shown in Fig. 6.10 resona Solution Given: R=5Q X= 150K, and 2; are in parallel and the equi (Re = j1S) 2 15.0 Q, Z, = (5 +j15) Q, ‘alent admittance is found to be 0.0 Z, S+il = 0.02 = 0.06 5a Ro on -/1500 Figure 6.10 Circuit for Example 6.11 Total admittance, Y= Y, + ¥y = 15 = (0.06) (Rc? + 225) E, 0.06 Re + 13.5 = i, - Re =5Q Therefore, Re is found to be 5 Q.6.30 Network Analysis awe etermine the value of C at which it resonay RES ERAEY For the circuit given in Fig. 6.11 determine th nates 100 Hz. Solution 100 Hz From Fig. 6.11. we can write 2, = (10 +)8), 2) = (10-j NOB ! = 0.06 - j0.04 Q © 1048) Figure 6.11 Circuit for Example 6.12 1 1 104+ 5X, 7 102 ee @ 10? +(X¢ 10 IX 2. aa i © 100+ 100+ X_ 10 IX = (0.06 ~ j0.04) + 5 +c 1004X2 1004+X¢ 20064 Og fe os 1004X2 "oe xe The condition for resonance is that the net susceptance should become equal to zero. That is, Xe —“c__ 0.04 =0 100+X¢ X¢ 100+X_ Xe =4 + 0.04 x2 c+ 4=0 1£ Vay -4(0.04)(4) 2x0.04 0.04 u U 8 2 a _ ltvi-04 = ——— = 20 0.08 2100x209 CEN OMTResonance 6.35 A series RLC circuit with voltage 320° resonates at a frequency of 8200 Hz. The peak value of current is 400 mA at resonance and the bandwidth is 100 Hz. Determine R, L, C and cutoff frequencies. Solution Given: supply voltage = 320°, f, = 8200 Hz, Imax at resonance = 400 mA Af = fy-f,=100Hz (6.23) Vv Vv Iss R=— aon Tayas = 12 = 20 pn = 282.84 mA a 2 4 “3 __ - 10.4606 0 282.84x10™ We know that h-hh 2hh fi fe = (82007 6 = Gee (6.24) fi Substituting Eq. (6.24) in Eq. (6.23), we get rE 6 51.24x10" _ 5 «199 f 67.24 x 10° -f,? = 100f, =f? = 100 f, + 67.24 x 10° =0 f;? + 100f, - 67.24 x 10°=0 Solving for f, we get fy = 7762.04 Hz _ 67.24x10° 2° 7162.04 = 8662.67 Hz R We know that Y= oS333 ta a 6.36 Network Analysis -5 not 10.6) (taking R= c an Lf, 7 1 © 4x? X11.93.x10™ x(8200"" = 31.57 x 10°F C=315.7 PF of Solution Given: R Bandwidth Q: f, = 300 Hz f= f= 30 He S RLC circuit of 5 Q resistance should be designed to have pass bandwidth mine the values of R and C at which the circuit resonates at 300 Hz 4 we Y nL : R 5 2naf 2x30 = 26.52 mH I 2a Vic 1 4m Lc /Resonance 6.37 A series circuit has a capacitor and a coil, which takes maximum current of 0.5 A DH e . at 250 12. If the voltage across the capacitor is 350 V at resonance, determine the capacitance, inductance, resistance, and Q of the coil Solution Al resonance, a series RLC circuit has maximum current, Voltage drop across the capacitor is Ig = 0.5: sf, = 50 Hz. ve gw PL VEPKL po ees05er 2m x 50 x350 cross L and C are same. Io QRf,L) 350 V = [gx 2m x 50XL p= 350 0.5 x2nx 50 Voltage across R = 1,, R = Applied voltage 4.5 \F At resonance, voltage 3 Voltage drop across L 2.22H y 2 r= X22 5099 Io 2m fle ore 28 500 iE 222 oe, Cc 500 Y45x 10% =14= 139 ‘A series resonant circuit has the following parameters: resonant frequency = 1.1 x 10® rad/see, bandwidth = 10° rad/sec, R = 2 Q. Calculate the values of L and C of network, and Q. R=2Q, 0, = 1.1.x 10%, wy - @ = 10° -bx10° Lx10" SLI x10 10a 6.38 Network Analysis @,L is also given as Q= oe , 449 " = j= OR _ LINO x? - o, 1.x L0® 6 a I I 0=—— or C= ‘ a aicR Q0,R 7 1 © 11X10? x1.1x10°X2 = 413 pF Given bandwidth - 0, = 10° (6.25) oo, 0, = 0,7 1.1 x 10%? = 1.21 x 10? acto” to, = 121x108" (6.26) O Substituting Eq. (6.26) in Eq, (6.25), we get _ L2nx10? Q, =10° OF = 1.21 x10" — wx 10° =0 OF ~ a x10? = 1.21 x 10 =0 Solving for @;, we get ~ Ws 4(d.21x10") 2 = 1.048 x 10° rad /sec 0; 1.21x10% 1.048x10° 2 = 1.154 x 10° rad/seeSIL x1 ne inductance of 12 {J An impedance coil having a resistance of 10 Q and inductance of oe is connected in parallel with a capacitog/find the value of this capacitor if the one un eTpoes © resonance when a 50 V, 230 Hz source is applied. Also determine the line current under resonance Solution Given: R=10.9, L=12mH, f,=230 vee (LN For a parallel circuit, f,= Je —— / ‘or a pa uly = S _ 230 = 2x ee 12x10°C (12x10™ (nx 230)? = UO dt (12x10 12x10°C 2.08 x 10° + 694.44 x 19’ = —1__ 12x10°C = 2.77 x 10° = —+__ 12x10°C = C=0.03 mF ve v Atresonance, /,= >~, where Z, is the dynamic impedance, a -3 28 | ioxo CR, 30.03x10 x10Resonance 6.41 Fecha — 7 a Undergoes teonagce, (ne ‘HCuit shown in Fig. 6.14, ind the value of X¢ at which the circuit Solution From the circuit given above, 2, = 6+ j4 and Z, = 7.34-j - ae c 1 os 4a Ke Go ja = 0-115 ~ 70.076 f Ya —! “ 734=iX¢ . Figure 6.14. Circuit for Example 6.21 _ _7344jX¢ (7.347 +X¢ Total admittance, Y = ¥, + Y5 7.34 iXe = 0.115 ~ j0.076 + ———_ + —oc _ (134 XCF ° (734 +X + j| -0.076 + sfc (7.34) +X¢ At resonance, the net susceptance is zero. Therefore, 0.076 + Xe __ os (7.34)? + X2 (-0.076) ((7.34) + X¢2) + Xc=0 = 4.094 = 0.076 X2 + Xe =0 0.076 X,2 - X¢ + 4.094 =0 Solving for Xe, we get 0 ~ 2.(0.076) Xe=4Q 47 v BREE] For a series resonant circuit with constant voltage and variable frequency, obtain frequency at which voltage across the inductor is maximum, Calculate maximum voltage when R = 100.2, L = 0.1 H, C= 50 pF, and V = 150 V. Solution The maximum voltage across the inductor is at frequency f,6.42 Network Analysis 1 a (400)? x50%10* “2x01 1 a 2nJ0.1x50x10° -—__! x 0.816 2n J0.1x50x10° = 58.07 Hz " When f= f;, = 58.07, the value of the reactances are X,=2nfL = 22x 58.07 x 0.1 = 36.492 1 : * Qa fe ~ 2mx358.07%50%10~ = 54.814 Q Xe Net reactance, X=X--X, = 18.32 = YR? +x? = yoy +118.32)? -_= = 101.66 Vv _ 150 Z ~~ 101.66 AISA Voltage drop across inductor = 1 X, = 1.475 x 36.49 = 53.83 v Impedance, Current, An RLC series circuit of 5 Q resistance is to be designed to have a bandwidth of 25 H/ ues of L and C so that the system resonates at 150 Hz. Also determine the half fo Determine the power frequencies. Solution Given: R= 5 Q: f,= 150 Hz & \ Ay-h=25 (6.29Resonance 6.43 Sify = 22500 (6.30) 22500 = 25f, + f;7 Se + 25f, - 22500 = 0 Solving for f,, we get oe Oo ars We yor? e A . R Bandwidth is also given as Af = 5 a R 10 —+ = = 6 mH teat * Inxas ~°™ We know that f, | © 4nLC 1 I Cs —- = —_,—_ 4nf2L — 4xx(150)? x63.66x10™ 5555 WF YK _ w~ A series REC circuit is shown in Fig. 6.15, determine, (i) value of capacitor (ii) value of supply voltage needed to produce voltage of 10 V across capacitance, if the resonant frequency is 10 kHz, (iii) if eapacitance is reduced to half, determine the frequency of resonance and Q of the new circuit.6.44 Network Analysis Solution (i) We know that resonant frequency is fy = % 10000 = —_—_______ 2230x107 xCx 10% 1 Figure 6.15. Series RLC circuit fy, 10 kHz i eo = ecucossca0 a. Example 6.24 1 4mx30X10™ x(10,000)? x10-° C= 0.0265 uF (i) Ve=10=V. J : © 2 x10%10" x0,0256%10 x7.28 V=8539V Git) If capacitance is halved, the frequency of resonance would become V2 rH s » = v2 x 10,000 = 14142.13 2nx14142.1x30x 107 Sam C= 366.17 oS V 15 WF. Find the values oj SLUEEEEE A series RLC circuit has R = 30 Q, L= 0.5 H, and C Impedance at resonant frequency and also at 30 Hz above and below resonant frequency, Solution Resonant frequency, = : = 58.1 Hz , 2nY0sxisxio® ' / 8.1 +30 = 88.11 He (f) = 28.11 Hz (f,) The frequency at 30 Hz above The frequency at 30 Hz below = 58.11 — We know that at resonance 1 1 . —___ = 199,49 OC IAx88.11x15x10° 2 OL= 20x 8811x055 276.800Xo= = ——1 __ - 377450 @,C — nx28.11X15x10° Xp = OL = 2x x 28.11 x 0.5 Impedance at 88.11 Hz is given as IZ|= JR +X - Xe — = 30? +(276.80- 120.42" = 159.23 Since X, > Xc = Zis inductive. Impedance at 28.11 Hz is given as IZ|= YR? +(X)3 - Xe. = \(30)° +(88.31-377.45)" 8.310 a 90.62 2 Since X¢ > X, = Zis capacitive a Resonance 6.456.48 Network Analysis Determine the Oa with a 30 V, 150 Hz supply. If the eapacitance changes to 25 MF, the current flowing through circuit becomes 0.707 times its maximum value. Find the maximum current flowing through ,° circuit and Q-factor of the coil at a frequency of 1000 rad/sec q Solution The circuit draws the maximum current at resonant frequency. Resonant frequency, fo = 150 Hz 1 1 om ite 2 o* Cae xf. =——_|__, = 0.056 20x10" x4n? x(150) We have 1000 x 0.056 - : 1000x2510 = R=16Q At resonance, R=Z Maximum current flows in the circuit J = Z a 218A 16 on -factor = SY O-faci R 10000.056 6 v SLIUEEEEL 4 500-UF capacitor is connected in parallel with a coil having resistance of 20 Ge Siduatisice af LS H Ecteciedio the lregerwey ay Will Mic clseuiy aie es 4 wilh-lctlucih resistance. Find the value of the resistance. Solution In parallel resonant circuit, resonant frequency is given as a ay : 7]. = we (Rk L fie (*)Y Resonance 6.49 } 1388.89 (ue 1 2.5x500x10° ( ©, = 37.26 radisee f,= 5.931 Hz { resonance a parallel circui , ‘ Attesonance a parallel circuit offers only a resistance known as dynamic resistance. Dynamic resistance is represented as 2,5 +a is a CR, 12 Zy= = 1200 ~ “50x10 x20 The constituents of a tank circuit are 650-UF capacitor, 500-mH inductor, and 100-0 resistor. The tank\circuit is fed by a current source having an internal resistance of 100 kQ, Find resonant frequency and Q-factor. —— Solution bE For the defined tank circuit, Resonant frequency = *x650x10~% * | s00x10 \ 00x10 = 277.35 Hz ) O-fuctor @ @yL _ 2mx277.35x500x10~* factor Q= 2 = reer 100 =8.71 ! ce and the coil resistance at resonant frequency PEE Determine the value of the cap: Of 650 rad/sec in the circuit shown in Fig. 6.17. The circuit has an inductance of 0.5 H and quality factor of 10 and is connected in parallel with a capacitor. R “Solution a i Resonant frequency, (a) = 650 rad/see : L=05H;Q=10 o,L @,L _ 650x0.5 We know that Q = “= = R= 55 ae 23250 b a Q Figure 6.17 Circuit for Example 6.32‘i 6.50 Network Analysis MME For the circuit given in Fig. 6.18, find the frequency at which the circuit resonay. ‘Also find the resonant frequency if the inductor and h wiho capacitor are interchanged. Solution ' ae : ja, From the circuit given in Fig. 6.18, Z,,=j@+ (=) Ilia ‘ dD 2n bh 19 xxi Figure 6.18 Circuit for Example 6 ~iRQo+ ia ale a dd (oe? +1) At resonance, the net reactance is zero. This implies 2w 2 14407 1440 1+ 407 o @=0.5 rad/sec If the inductor and capacitor are interchanged, then <4 + Goll y=! 4 1x) 20 2w * jor! . jot ja) l+o° @= I rad/secIna series RLC circuit, a maximum current of 0.6 A flows through the circuit when ) UF with a fixed frequency and a voltage of 10 V. Determine resonant frequency, the caps resistaneeat resonant frequency, bandwidth, and Q-factor when L = 2 H. ree eee Sa Solution At resonance, maximum current flows through the circuit : Ga v v [ Ys pet = 216.650 R 7 06 Resonant frequency, = 35.58 Hz 2ny2x10x10° a i 2nx35.58x2 by OL, 2035-58? Logg3 A ER factor, ee ork 16.66 Bandwidth = = 3558 <1 396 Hz, Q ” 2683NETWORK THEOREMS 1. Superposi n Theorem: Statement: In any linear, bilateral, passive network with several independent and dependent sources, the overall response in any part ofthe network is equal to the sum of the individual responses due to each independent sources with all other independent Sources reduced to zero. Applications of superposition Theorem: is useful in circuit analysis (i., finding the Values of current and voltage in any element or branch of the network), when the circuit has a large number of independent sources. Limitations of Superposition Theorem: + Itisnot applicable for power calculations, + Not applicable to non-linear elements like transistors, diode etc., Procedure to verify Superposition Theorem: 1, Select a single source acting alone, Short the other voltage sources and open the current sources, if internal impedances are not known. If known, replace them by their intemal impedances, 2. If there are dependent current and voltage sources present in the circuit, then such dependent sources should not be replaced by pen and short circuit but must be kept a while applying the theorem. 3. Find the current through or the voltage across the required element, due to the source under consideration, using a suitable network simplification technique. 4. Repeat the above two steps for all other ‘Sources also, 5. Add all the individual effects produced by dividual Sources, to obtain the total current OF Voltage across the element.ee Calcul ross the 3-Q resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. 7.2(a) using superposition theorem, Also calculate the power across the 3-Q resistor, jate the current a 10a 1900 tov igure 7.2(a) Network for Example 7.1Network Theorems 7.5 Solution Let / be the current flowing through the 3-Q resistor. Applying superpo' circuit the voltage source; the circuit reduces to the one shown in Fig. 7.2 (b) ion theorem, first we short- Now, 1 [using current division] 5x u 1043 = 3.846A “ 846 A Second, we open-circuit current source and the circuit reduces to the one shown in Fig. 7.2(c). ws 1-2 3 1, = 0.7692. A Hence, according to superposition theorem, we obtain the value of Jas =I, + ly 846 + 0.7692 4.6152 A Therefore, the current across the 3-2 resistor is 4.6152 A. Power, P= PR = (4.6152) x3 = 63.9002 W Thus, the power across the 3-2 resistor is 63.9002 W. 10.2 102 10.0 th 2 30 D) 5A 10V 3a Open-circuiting the current source Figure 7.2(b) Short-circuiting the voltage source Figure 7.2(c)Find the current through the capacitor and voltage across 4-Q resistance of the AC network shown in figure by using superposition theorem. 2a 4a 5a Biwa 50 Z10° LLL, 0 215VQ) Figure 7.7(a) Network for Example 7.6 Solution reuited 50.210° V source as shown in Considering the voltage source of 100 215° V and short- Fig. 7.7(b), “isa 100 215° V a co Figure 7.7(b) uit for Example 7.6 Z=2+(-j5||4) - 2+( fxs) jst4 Total impediance,712 Network Analysis 849 Z~ 23.73° 2 100215° 100215° Currem 1, Z 48092-23.73 = 20.623 7 38.73° 4 hx 35 = 20.623 2 38.73 (; = 12.88 290.07 =; 12.88 0 Voltage across 4 resis Vs -j5x1, = ~j5xj12.88 = 64420 V NOM Consider the volage source of 500° and short-circuited 100.215° V source as shown in Fig. 7.7(6), sic 50 210° Figure 7.2) Citeuit for Example 7.6 Impedance tothe left of terminals Ag is 9-766 2-6.87°9 Current through 4-0 resistor S02 10° 5.7662 687° = 8.672 216.879 4Network Theorems 7.13 Current through ~ j5 Q capactior, 1” = 2-55 = 8.672 216.87° x 3.221 285.07°A Xl = 4x 8.672 216.87° = 34.69 £16.87°V By superposition theorem. total current through capactior T+ I= 12.88 290° +3.221 285.07° = 16.09 289° A Voltage across 4-2 resistor, vy Voltage across 4-Q resistor = V, + Vj = 64.4 20° ~ 34.69 216.87° = 32.78 Z-17.89° V2. Thevenin’s Theorem: Statement: Thevenin’s theorem states that any two | terminal linear network having a number of sources | and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage | Source(Vin) in series with a resistance (Ry), where the value of the voltage source is equal to the open circuit Voltage across the two terminals of the network, and the resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance measured between the terminals with all the energy sources replaced by their internal resistances. | Applications of Thevenin’s Theorem: One of the main applications of the theorem is the replacement of a large part of a network, often a complicated and un-interesting part by a very simple equivalent, It helps us to choose the best value of the | load resistance (or) impedance required to accomplish a maximum transfer of power. Limitations of Thevenin's Theorem: * Not applicable for non-linear elements like diode, transistors et.. Not applicable for unilateral elements like diodes etc... * Not applicable if the lond is in series or parallel with dependent sources * Not applicable if it consists of magnetic coupling between load and any other circuit element.P siceclare fora i Remove the brancl ‘h “impedance! resistance through which current is required to be Calculate the voltage across these open circuited terminals, by using any of the jecvork simplification technique, This voltage is called as Thevenin’s Voltage (Va, oF V,.) Gelculote Thevenin’s Resistance Ru) as () If the circuit contains only independent sour iit tesistors, deactivate the feutess and find” Ry, by cireuit reduction technique, Independent. ¢ are deactivated by openi (©) If the circuit cor spplied to the terminals a-b, ‘Then find Ry= ©) Ifthe circuit contains resistors and only dependent sources, then Vee= 0 (since ag is no energy source). Connect 1A current Source to terminals a-b and determine Vix y, Then find Ry= “st Lamp Replace the entire network by a single Thevenin's voltage source (Vth) and a series resistance of (Ry) Connect the load resistance (R.) to the equivalent circuit and then find the current flowing through the load, theverta's theBex th co. eq ma LitLumteastayy: — 1 Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across AB for the circuit given in 52 A 7 25Vv B Figure 7.16(a) Network for Example 7.13 Solution 102 52 AWW Ao 50V > A) G@ > Vv pe" Figure 7.16(b) Currents through the circuit The current flowing through the circuit is given as ~ 50+ 101+ 5/+25=0 15/-25=0 151 = 25 = 1.667 A7.22 Network Analysis To find Vo¢ consider the circuit as shown in Fig. 7.16(¢)- AWW Applying KVL, we get 1 Valea = Voc -50+107 = 0 aye > Yoo “ B Voc + 101.6667) = 50 Voce = 50-16.667 = 33.33 V Figure 7.16(c) Determination of V,.. Thus, open-circuit (or) Thevenin’s voltage is given as Vy, = 33.33 V To find Ry, Make all the voltage sources equal to zero. The circuit reduces to the one given in Fig. 7.16(d). 100 50 A 8 Figure 7.16(d) Making all current sources zero R= WQ|]5Q _ 1x5 1045 Ry = 3.33 2 Therefore, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is given as shown in Fig. 7.16(e). 3.330 —Ww——* A 33.33 [______.8 ire 7.16(e) Thevenin’s equivalent circuitFigure 7.19a) Network for Example 7.16 Solution Neglect the 5-Q resistor so that the circuit is reduced as shown in Fig. 7.19(b),Network Theorems 7.27 Figure 7.1%b) Reduced circuit Applying KVL, we get Hoop :15/, +81 +6(1, ~ 1) +10(1, -1)) =0 231, +61, +101, ~61, -10/; =0 391-161, =0 I loop :-100 +10(1, - 1) +6(/ -1,) =0 ~161, +161, = 100 Solving above, we get 1 =4347 A y= 10.597 8 To find Vy, For the determination of Vj, the circuit reduced as shown in Fig. 7.19(c). 4Vy, = 151, +10(1, -1,) = 101, =251, = 10 (10,597) ~ 25 (4.347) Vy =~ 2.705 V Figure 7.19 (e) Determination of Vp, To find Ry, Make the voltage source equal to zero by short-circuiting as shown in Fi redrawn as shown in Fig. 7.19(e). 7.16(d). The circuit can be 100 60 A 8a 15a 8 Figure 7.19(d) Making voltage source zero Figure 7.19(e) Redrawn circuit7.28 Network Analysis Rp, = 10 QI62=3.752 3.750 A Rpy = 1SQ|SQ=5.2179 Putting these values the circuit reduces to the one shown in 52170 Fig. 7.19(0), Reg = 3.75 + 5.217 : = 8.967 Figure 7.19(f) Reduced circuit . Ry, = 8.967 2 The value of equivalent resistance is obtained as shown in Fig. 7.19(g). : 8.967 V ; 8.9672 Voc = -2.705 v ( 5a — 7 8 Figure 7.1%g) Equivalent resistance Figure 7.19(h) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit 705 (8.96745) 1 = 2.705 13.967 resistor is 0.19364 Current flowing through the 5 Jeg, = 0.1936 Ax0, — @ Novtons thedem } — aus — =— Statement: Norton's theorem states that any two terminal linear network having a number of sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single current Source(|,<) in parallel with a resistance (Ry), where the value of the current source is equal to the short circuit current between the two terminals of the network, and the resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance measured between the terminals with all the energy sources replaced by their internal resistances, This is also called dual of the Thevenin’s theorem, A “Ye Applications of Norton's Theorem: One of the main applications of the theorem is the replacement of a large part of a network, often a complicated and ui-interesting part by a very simple equivalent, Ithelps us to choose the best value of the load resistance (or) impedance required to accomplish a maximum transfer of power. Limitations of Norton’s Theorem: + Net applicable for non-linear elements like diode, transistors ete.. + Not applicable for unilateral elements like diodes etc... + Not applicable if the load is in series or parallel with dependent sources + Not applicable if it consists of magnetic coupling between load and any other circuit element.Procedure to apply Norton’s Theorem: 1, Short circuit the branch impedance/ resistance through which current is required to be calculated, 2. Calculate the current flowing through this short circuited branch, by using any of the network simplification technique. This current is called as Norton’s Current (Ise or In) 3. Calculate Norton’s Resistance (Ry-Ri,) as described below: (c) If the circuit contains only independent sources and resistors, deactivate the sources and find Rw by circuit reduction technique. Independent current sources, are deactivated by opening them while independent voltage sources are deactivated by shorting them. (d) If the circuit contains resistors, dependent and independent sources, find the short circuit current I,. ,when a short circuit is applied to the terminals a-b. Then find Ry= Voc Isc (c) Ifthe circuit contains resistors and only dependent sources, then Vo, = O (since there is no energy source). Connect 1A current - source to terminals a-b and determine Vy, Then find Ri= ; Fos amp - Replace the entire network by a single Norton’s current source (se or Jy) with a parallel resistance of (Ry) - Connect the load resistance (Ri) to the equivalent circuit and then find the current flowing through the load, > wFind the current flowing through the 6-Q resistor of the network shown in Fig 7.24(a) by using Norton’s theorem. 59 ~ 3 toa Zon Figure 7.24(a) Network for Example 7.20 Solution Replace the 6-Q resistor by a short-circuit as shown in Fig. 7.24(b). 50 ; AWW 20v = 3 10a Figure 7.24(b) Replace load resistance with short-circuit The 10-0 resistor can be neglected since voltage across the short-circuit is zero, The circuit now reduces as shown in Fig. 7.24(c), sa 20V > Isc. Figure 7.24(c) Reduced circuit Applying KVL, we haveNetwork Theorems To find Ry, Make all the energy sources equal to zero, The circuit reduces as shown in Fig. 7.24(d). 52 — oy ESSnenenes Figure 7.24(d) Determination of Ry Ry =5.Q|) 102 = 3.33.0 Norton's Equivalent Circuit Norton’s equivalent circuit for the given problem is shown in Fig. 7.24(e). extn) sua Zen Figure 7.24(e) Norton's equivalent circuit 4x 33+6 log = 142768 Toa. = ©. The current flowing through 6-Q resistor = 1.4276 A, 7.35 Determine Norton's equivalent circuit at terminals AB for the circuit shown in Fig. 7.25(a). 109 50 AWW WW Th iv Figure 7.25(a) Network for Example 7.21 av = 107.36 Network Analysis Solution To find Igc To calculate Isc, short-circuit the terminals AB as shown in Fig 7.25(b). 10a 5a WW ave GD feCy tev Figure 7.25(b) Short-circuiting A-B Isc can then be determined as given below loz hth n= 2=2a; 10 Inc =2+2=4A To find Rr, Make all the energy sources equal to zero as shown in wa 5a Fig. 7.25(c). I Thevenin’s equivalent resistance may be obtained as A given below. is Ry = 10Q]SQ =3.339 Figure 7.25(c) Determination of Ry, Norton's equivalent circuit Norton's equivalent circuit for the given problem is shown in Fig. 7.25(d). A 3.332 8 Figure 7.25(d) Norton's equivalent circuit4. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: Statement: In an active network, maximum power transfer to the load takes place when the load impedance is the complex conjugate of an equivalent impedance of the network as viewed from the load terminals, * Wthe cireuiis purely resistive, then Ry = Ri, & Prax a 5 Ria Ry * If the load consists of resistange and Feactance, then Z, = Zy', & Poae= Vy (Riz real pant 4, %) AR * If the circuit is impedance network and the load is purely resistive, then Ri= [Zyl , & Prax = TPR, Efficiency of the circuit is only 50% when Procedure to verify Maximum Power Transfer - Theorem: 1. For the given network, calculate Ru or Za. 2, Based on Ry or Zs, Calculate the load resistance or impedance of the given circuit to satisfy the condition for maximum power transfer, . Finally, the value of maximum power transferred to the load is calculated. Applications of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: 1. We can select the suitable load to get maximum power transfer. 2. We can find the value of maximum power transferred to the load.STEELY Calculate value of R, for which maximum power is delivered to the load ini, network given in Fig, 7.41(a). 5a AWW mn Sra (Hie Figure 7.41(a) Network for Example 7.34 Solution Neglecting R,, we obtain the circuit given in Fig. 7.41(b). 10.0 Figure 7.41(b) Neglecting load resistance ¥,-100 4-0 5 10 V, = 70 = Voc By nodal analysis, we can writ To find Ry, Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is obtained using the circuit shown in Fig. 7.41(c).Network Theorems 7.59 9A 5a 4B Figure 7.41(c) Determination of Ry, Rp, = 5||10=3,3332 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 7.41(d). 3.33330 nov 3a Figure 7.41(d) Thevenin's equivalent circuit Maximum power will be transferred to the load when load R, = 3.333 Q Maximum power = —70) 4G. 367.5036 W Find the value of R, for which the maximum power delivered to R, in the network 42a). Sov en 100 5A Figure 7.42(a) Network for Example 7.35 Solution Neglecting R,, we obtain the circuit shown in Fig. . 7.42(b).7.60 Network Analysis 2a Sa AWW - WwW 50V—— 8a ons Ysa Figure 7.42(b) Neglecting load resistance 50 30 ‘ips = 1.667; i =5A To find Voc Voc = 6i, + 10i, = 60 The open-circuit voltage is obtained from the circuit given in Fig, 7.42(c). af 82 3 s 102 te Figure 7.42(c) Determination of Voc Here, 6 Q is deleted because when A and B are opened, there will be no current in 6 Q. >———* Voc e To find Ry, Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is obtained from the circuit given in Fig. 7.42(d), 222 6Q WW Soa 102 Figure 7.42(d)Determi (22||8)+6+10 = 21.8667 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 7.42(e). 21.8667 2 AWW 60v Sa Figure 7.42(e) Thevenin's equivalent circuitNetwork Theorems 7.61 Maximum power will be delivered to load when R, = 21.8667 Q and maximum power = : os 41.158. 4h, S210 -1584.W DERELE Find the vatue of 2, to be connected across terminals AB in Fig.7.43 for maximum power transfer. Also obtain the maximum power obsorbed by Z,. 5a Figure 743. Network for Example 7.36 Solution To find Vy, Vp is the voltage across (5 + j10)Q impedance. (5+ jl0) Vp, = 2020° x 2-7 = 19,772 18.43° V . 5+ jl0+5 To find Zy, 5] 6+J10) 5x(5+ j10) = = 03.75 + 1.252 SESH We know y= Ly = (3.75 = j1.25)Q i vz, _ (19.77) me4R, — 4x3.75 [ERR ir te toad tobe connected across terminals “AB? in Fig 7.44 such that maximum s place to the load, What is the value of maximum power? j10a A = 26.06 W G+j40 -/4a 100 20°V 8 Figure 7.44 Network for Example 7.377.62 Network Analysis Solution al to et . For maximum power transfer to the load, the load impedance should be equal to complex conjugate of Zin. x (E14) 3+ J14) Zp across terminals AB = a aig = (0.44 ~ j5.45)Q Z,, for maximum power transfer, Z; Ziq, = (0.44 + j5.45)Q Vm = V3 4A — s* Tjae34 iid = 10020" x 4) 36 34 jl0 : a Vn Maximum power, Prax ; aR, Z2-163.3°V3 "5. Milliman’s Theorem: Statement: If ‘n’ voltage sources Viv Vay having intemal impedances (or series impedances) Z1, Zay .... Zy respectively, are in parallel, then these Sources may be replaced by a single voltage source of voltage “Vi.” having a series impedance Zy. where, My = MMrt a Noct = Vy Vn 24 = —1 . Yaa yge tg (iz O22 ‘@y, ©y-- ov, 7 ™ [t. — 1d) gad Procedure to apply Milliman’s Theorem: 1. Modify the given circuit in such a manner that the voltage sources in the circuit are in series with the resistors, 2. Calculate the Milliman’s Voltage Vig Ve Mitt WoNos ----4 Mat +Yy it et 3. Calculate the Milliman’s impedance Zy4 t Zu ON “Yq 4. Draw the Milliman’s Equivalent circuit along with the load resistor, 5. Find the current flowing through the load. LiNetwork Theorems 7.15 ind the value of current flowing across the 9-Q resistor of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.10(a) using Millma 20 ee 2a 6a Son sv 6. 15V Figure 7.10(a)_ Network for Example 7.8 Solution According to Millman’s theorem, we can write v= = EG = G, +G; +6, +G, =r Krew > 21.6667 Thus, v= 286 Hence, the circuit now reduces to the one shown in Fig. 7.10(b). 06a WW e600 vL 90 Figure 7.10(b) Millman’s equivalent circuit rro'9h6. Reciprocity Theorem: : ‘Statement: In a Jinear bilateral network, senieae ic ii in the case ever ccitation to response is equal in the positions of excitation & response i ae interchanged. However, if the excitation is a voltag source, the response must be a current and vice-versa. ' Procedure to verify Reciprocity Theores 1. Consider a network in which excitation is placed at terminals a-a’ and response is found out at b-b? 2. The excitation is now shifted to the terminals b-b’ and the response is found out at terminals aa’. 3. If the ratio of excitation to response in both the cases is found to be the same, then reciprocity theorem is said to be verified. Applications of Reciprocity theorem: * This theorem is applicable to any linear, time- invarient circuit’ composed of passive elements, It permits the interchange of position of the excitation and response, Limitations of Reciprocity theorem: |. Not applicable to dependent sources 2. Not applicable to multisource network 3. Not applicable to time elements, variant & non-linearFor the circuit shown in Fig. 7.32(a) verify the reciprocity theorem. 20 Ba 30 sz0'v ©) Figure 7.32(a) Network for Example 7.27 Solution The impedance of the circuit is written as = (24 3) 4 C/SB+ 32) ae ~ ils -73 Zy= ésmrzt9.sg Q = 2+ jy4 oisNetwork Theorems 7.47 Total current in the network is given by 3620" tps Oe 6.537219.36 5.5072 ~19,36 A =j5 342j-j5 Ix 6.492 - 64.36 A 6.492 - 64.36 A Now, interchanging the positions of response and excitation [Fig. 7.32(b)], we obtain 20 33a 30 NW 8 AWW Ra 4 = -/50 IQ wo Figure 7.32(b)Interchanging po 1S of response and excitation Impedance in the circuit given in ‘ig. 7.32(b) is written as = 9,804219,36° 3670" Total current J, = eee Z_ 9.804Z19.36° 6722 —19.36° A -j5 R I, x 1= 6.492 -64.36°A Hence, the responses in both the cases are equal. Therefore, reciprocity theorem is proved. BERL Verify reciprocity theorem for the circuit shown in Fig. 7.33(a),7.48 Network Analysis 3Q 32 32 AWN rr —! —h 30V 22 22 A Figure 7.33(a) Network for Example 7.28 Solution Total resist lance in the circuit is found using series-parallel method and so R = 4.3548 Q, The currents is given as 222A 2 2 and Ns I'x—— 52.222 x2 = 0.8880 A 342 3 1 = 0.8889 A When positions of excitation and response are interchanged, we obtain Fig. 7.33(b). 3a 30 30 kh —r _—1 20 29 30Vv Figure 7.33(b) Interchanging positions of response and excitation Equivalent resistance R = Me P= 6.8890 sx I= I’x2 20.8889, 5 Mey it idCom Statement: If the impedance Z of Ps . a bi i Fe network in which a curent ‘I flows is changed tye Mae amount 82, then the change in the currents inal other branches of the network may be ealeulated by Inserting a voltage source: of V.=1. 8Z into that branch with all other volt : intemal inmpedense SBE S04ES replaced by thet -Compensalion aN ewe = Procedure to apply Compensation Theorem 1. Find the current (I) through the original element in the given circ Calculate 82 Calculate the compensation voltage, which is given by V = 1.8Z volts 4, Remove all the existing energy sources and the modified circuit consisting of compensation voltage along with the new impedance value. 5. For the above circuit, calculate the current in the new impedance, which gives the change in current (Al) due to change in impedance. “Applications of Compensation Theorem: ‘© This theorem is mainly used in determining the incremental changes in voltages and in the branches of a network due to a impedance in one branch. ions of Compensation Theorem: |. It is not applicable to the circuit consisting of only dependent sources. . tis not applicable to non-linear elements. oe teyussse Calculate the change in current for the network show n in Fig. 7.46(a) using Compensation theorem when the reactance has changed to j15. Figure 7.46(a) Network for Example 7.387.64 Network Analysis Solution: Total impedance Z = (20 + j20) 5020" 20+ 720 Current i= = 1.7682 -45° Reactance has changed from j20 Q to j 15 2. +. Change in reactance = AZ = j20 - j15 = j5 Q The network is as shown in Fig. 7.37(b). Z oat = (20 + j15) D 682 Figure 7-46(b) Circuit for Example 7.35 = 0.35428.131° A 7.10 (Substitution Theorem 7 32 Substitution theorem states that any branch of a network may be replaced by a new branch withou. changing the voltages and currents in all other branches. In the same way the current in the new branch and the voltage across the new branch are the same as in the original branch, The substitution theorem is useful when there is a need to replace one branch by other desired circuit element For the circuit shown in istor with an equivalent voltage sou 20 52 AWW A gov C 6a 90 8 Figure 7.47(a) Circuit for Example 7.39 Solution Applying kvL to the loops we get 20 59 Figure 7.47(b) cuit for Example 7.39Network Theorems 7.65 8i, - 61, = 30 V (7.24) ~6i, + 201, = OV (7.23) Solving equations (7.24) and (7.25), we have i) = 4.8384 iy = 1451 Therefore. the current flowing through 9 Q is i, igg ~ 82 = 1.451 A from A to B “Vag = 9 fy = 9 1.451 = 13.059 V with a higher potential Therefore, the circuit can be redrawn by replacing 9 Q resistor by an equivalent voltage source as shown in Fig. 7.47(c), 20 5a A nov C) 080 8 Figure 7.47(¢) Additional Examples emNetwork Theorems 7.53 6 7.7 Tellegen’s Theorem Tellegen’s theorem is valid for any lumped network containing elements that are linear or non- linear, passive or active, and time-variant or time-invariant, This theorem is based on Kirchoff's two laws but is independent of the type of circuit elements®(This theorem states that in any rbitrary lumped network, the algebraic sum of powers in all branches at any instant is zero or in a given network the algebraic sum of powers delivered by all sources is equal to the algebraic sum of powers observed by all elements. All branch currents and voltages in that network must satisfy Kirchoff"s laws. 6 This is also known as the ‘principle of conservation of power’)Consider two networks N, and N, having the same graph with different types of elements Between the corresponding nodes. Then ‘ DMuin =Oand PVagig # Gor a given network with e elements and m nodes, iy ign iy are the currents so that KCL is satisfied at every node and V,, V3... V, are the voltages so that KVL is satisfied for every loop of the network. Then, according to Teilegen’s theorem, we can write LMi=0) re where V, and i, are voltages and current through &” element, respectively. Proof: Let k” element be connected between g! and n" node. Then, VY=V,-V, Viig= Vp —Vadip V, [current leaving ¢" node] +¥, [current entering n" node ] Vilalgebraic sum of currents at node 1} DM + Valalgebraic sum of currents at node 2] + V,lalgebraic sum of currents at node 1] By KCL, algebraic sum of node currents is zero. Hence, )°V,i, =0 mi Therefore, LMC, =0 a7.54 Network Analysis 6 © (Procedure to Verify Tellegen’s Theorem The steps listed below may be followed for the verification of Tellegen's theorem. (i) Trrorder to verify Tellegen’s theorem, first find the eurrent Mowing through all the elemen, the network u (ii) Find the values of power delivered and power diss pated by the various elements of the networ, " =0, then Tellegen’s theorem is said to be satistiew) (ii) If the total power is written as DMie res “3 theorem for the circuit shown in Fig. 7.36. 30 we 7) B20 TW Prove Tellege Solut By applying KVL to the circuit of Fig. 7.36, we have Power delivered = -10 x 2 = -20 W Total power = 20 - 20 =0 Figure 7.36. Circuit for Example 7.31 Hence, Tellegen’s theorem is proved.