Chapter 18: Electrical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are electrical conductance and resistance
characterized?
• What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
• For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, temperature, and deformation?
• For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected
by impurities (doping) and temperature?

Chapter 18 - 1
 View of an Integrated Circuit
• Scanning __________ micrographs of an IC:
Al (d) (a)
(d)

Si
(doped)
45 μm 0.5 mm
• A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):
-- Si shows up as ______ regions. (b)

• A dot map showing location of Al (a conductor):

-- Al shows up as ______ regions. (c)

Fig. (d) from Fig. 12.27 (a), Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
(Courtesy Nick Gonzales, National Semiconductor Corp., West
Figs. (a), (b), (c) from Fig. 18.27, Callister
Jordan, UT.) & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 18 - 2
 Electrical Conduction
• __________ Law: V=IR
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance (Ohms)
C = _____________ current (amps = C/s)

• ______________, ρ:
-- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry cross-sectional area
of current flow

current flow
path length
• _____________, σ

___________

Chapter 18 - 3
 Electrical Properties
• Which will have the greater ______________?
2
D

2D

• Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

• __________ depends on sample geometry and
size.

Chapter 18 - 4
 Definitions
Further definitions

J=σ% <= another way to state Ohm’s law

current I
J  current density = = like a flux
surface area A

%  _______________________________

J =  (V/ )

Electron flux conductivity _________________

Chapter 18 - 5
 Conductivity: Comparison
• Room temperature values (Ohm-m)-1 = (Ω - m)-1
METALS conductors _____________
-10
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10-13

______________________ POLYMERS
-14
Silicon 4 x 10 -4 Polystyrene <10
Germanium 2 x 10 0 Polyethylene 10 -15-10-17
GaAs 10 -6
semiconductors _________
Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 18 - 6
 Example: Conductivity Problem
What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that V < 1.5 V?

= 100 m
Cu wire - I = 2.5 A +

100 m
< 1.5 V

2.5 A
pD 2
4 ____________________
Solve to get D > _______________

Chapter 18 - 7
Electron Energy Band Structures

Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 18 - 8
Band Structure Representation

Fig. 18.3, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 18 - 9
 Conduction & Electron Transport
• Metals (____________):
-- for metals _________________ are adjacent to filled states.
-- thermal energy Partially filled band Overlapping bands
excites _________
Energy Energy
into empty higher
empty
energy states. band
-- two types of band GAP empty
structures for metals band
- __________________ partly
- empty band that filled filled

filled states
band

filled states
overlaps filled band band

filled filled
band band

Chapter 18 - 10
 Energy Band Structures:
Insulators & Semiconductors
• ______________: • ________________:
-- wide band gap (____ eV) -- narrow band gap (____ eV)
-- few electrons excited -- more electrons excited
across band gap across band gap
Energy empty Energy empty
conduction conduction
band band
GAP ?
GAP

filled filled

filled states
filled states

valence valence
band band

filled filled
band band

Chapter 18 - 11
 Metals: Influence of Temperature and
Impurities on Resistivity
• _______________________ increases resistivity
-- grain boundaries
These act to scatter
-- _____________
electrons so that they
-- impurity atoms take a less direct path.
-- _____________
6
• Resistivity
Resistivity, ρ
(10 -8 Ohm-m)

5
_________ with:
4 -- temperature
3 ρd -- wt% impurity
-- %CW
2 ρi
1
ρt
ρ = ρthermal
0 -200 -100 0 T (ºC) + ρimpurity
Fig. 18.8, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [Adapted from J. O. Linde, Ann.
Physik, 5, 219 (1932); and C. A. Wert and R. M. Thomson, Physics of Solids,
+ ρdeformation
2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1970.]

Chapter 18 - 12
 Estimating Conductivity
• Question:
-- Estimate the electrical conductivity σ of a Cu-Ni alloy Adapted from Fig.
18.9, Callister &
that has a _______________________. Rethwisch 9e.
180
Yield strength (MPa)

(10 -8 Ohm-m)
50

Resistivity, r
160
140 40
125 30
120
100 20
21 wt% Ni 10
80
60 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt% Ni, (Concentration C) wt% Ni, (Concentration C)
Adapted from Fig. 7.16(b), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

From step 1:

CNi = _____________ Ni

Chapter 18 - 13
Charge Carriers in Insulators and
Semiconductors
Fig. 18.6 (b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
Two ______________________
carriers:
________________
– _________ charge
– in conduction band

________________
– _________ charge
– vacant electron state in
the valence band

Move at different speeds - drift velocities

Chapter 18 - 14
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Pure material ___________________: e.g., silicon &
germanium
– Group IVA materials
• Compound semiconductors
– _______ compounds
• Ex: GaAs & InSb
– _______ compounds
• Ex: CdS & ZnTe
– The wider the electronegativity difference between
the elements the wider the energy gap.

Chapter 18 - 15
 Intrinsic Semiconduction in Terms of
_____________________ Migration

• Concept of ________________:
valence electron hole electron hole
electron Si atom
pair creation pair migration

- + - +

no applied applied applied

electric field electric field electric field
• Electrical _____________ given by:
Adapted from Fig. 18.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
# holes/m3

hole mobility
# electrons/m3 electron mobility
Chapter 18 - 16
 Number of Charge Carriers
____________ Conductivity

• for ______ semiconductor n = p = ni

 σ = ni|e|(μe + μh)

• Ex: GaAs

For GaAs ni = ___________

For Si ni = 1.3 x 1016 m-3
Chapter 18 - 17
 Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Conductivity vs T
• Data for _____________:
-- σ increases with T
-- opposite to metals
________________

material band gap (eV)

Si 1.11
Ge 0.67
GaP 2.25
CdS 2.40
Selected values from Table 18.3,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Adapted from Fig. 18.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 18 - 18
 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
• ____________:
-- case for pure Si
-- # electrons = # _________ (n = p)
• ____________:
-- electrical behavior is determined by presence of impurities
that introduce excess electrons or holes
-- __________
• n-type _________: (n >> p) • p-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)
Phosphorus atom Boron atom
________
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
electron
4 + 5+ 4 + 4 + 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electron 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

Adapted from Figs. 18.12(a)

no applied Si atom no applied
& 18.14(a), Callister & electric field electric field
Rethwisch 9e. Chapter 18 - 19
 Extrinsic Semiconductors: Conductivity
vs. Temperature
• Data for ______________:
-- _____________________ doped

-- reason: imperfection sites undoped

lower the activation energy to 3

concentration (1021/m3)
produce mobile electrons.

Conduction electron

freeze-out
2

extrinsic

intrinsic
• Comparison: __________ vs
extrinsic conduction... 1
-- _____________ doping level:
1021/m3 of a n-type donor
impurity (such as P). 0
-- for T < 100 K: "freeze-out“, 0 200 400 600 T (K)
thermal energy insufficient to
excite electrons. Adapted from Fig. 18.17, Callister & Rethwisch
9e. (From S. M. Sze, Semiconductor Devices, Physics
-- for 150 K < T < 450 K: "extrinsic" and Technology. Copyright © 1985 by Bell Telephone
Laboratories, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley
-- for T >> 450 K: "intrinsic" & Sons, Inc.)

Chapter 18 - 20
 p-n Rectifying Junction
• Allows flow of ____________ in one direction only (e.g., useful
to convert _____________ current to __________ current).
• Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped crystal.

-- No applied __________: + p-type

+ +
n-type
- - Adapted from
Fig. 18.21,
__________________. + + - - - Callister &
Rethwisch
9e.
-- __________ bias: carriers
flow through p-type and p-type+ - n-type
+ + -
n-type regions; holes and ++- - -
electrons recombine at + -
p-n junction; current flows.

-- __________ bias: carriers n-type -

+ p-type
flow away from p-n junction; - + + - - +
junction region depleted of + + - -
carriers; little current flow.

Chapter 18 - 21
 Properties of Rectifying Junction

Fig. 18.22, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. Fig. 18.23, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 18 - 22
Junction Transistor

Fig. 18.24, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 18 - 23
 MOSFET Transistor
Integrated Circuit Device

Fig. 18.26, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

• MOSFET (__________________________________________)
• Integrated circuits - state of the art ca. ___ nm line width
– ~ 1,000,000,000 components on chip
– chips formed one layer at a time

Chapter 18 - 24
 Ferroelectric Ceramics
• Experience ______________ polarization

BaTiO3 -- ferroelectric below

its ____ temperature
(120°C)

Fig. 18.35, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 18 - 25
 Piezoelectric Materials
____________________
– application of stress induces ___________
– application of voltage induces dimensional change
σ

stress-free with applied

σ stress
Adapted from Fig. 18.36, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(© 1989 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.)

Chapter 18 - 26
 Summary
• Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters
-- geometry independent
• Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
-- differ in range of conductivity values
-- differ in availability of electron excitation states
• For metals, resistivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- addition of imperfections
-- plastic deformation
• For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- doping [e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type)]
• Other electrical characteristics
-- ferroelectricity
-- piezoelectricity
Chapter 18 - 27