BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

On a global scale, people believe that education is an important tool for the socio-economic
development of an individual, the society and nations at large. This is why nations of the world
are concerned with the provision of education to their citizens starting from the early childhood
days. It is important to ensure that children are given the requisite opportunity to access basic
education in their various communities because they constitute the future human capital of the
society and therefore have the potential to exert significant impact on the growth and
development of the economy. However the whole community has a role to play in the growth
and development of its young people.

The family has its role to play in the life of a child, the community is not exempted because
the child must relate with his or her environment, the school and teachers have a great role to
play in raising a whole child. Parent involvement means the active participation and awareness
of parents in regular, two-way, and meaningful communication involving student academic
learning and other school activities including ensuring that parents play an integral role in
assisting their child’s learning; are encouraged to be actively involved in their child’s education
at school; and are full partners in their child’s education and are included, as appropriate, in
decision making and on advisory committees to assist in the education of their child. It can take
different forms ranging from providing condusive environment for learning at home to engaging
in educational activities both at home and in school. Parental involvement has many positive
effects on children other than academics, including increased motivation, self-esteem, and self-
reliance, which may lead to academic success. parents are important in providing social,
environmental and economic factors whci have powerful effect on pupils academic lives.
research has consistently indicated that parental involvement is integral to high students
academic acheivement. henderson & mapp(2002) concluded that parents have a major infleunce
on their children acheivement in schooland through life. hence when parents are involved in their
childs educational pursuit, irrespective of their background and incomelevels, their children
perform bettern academic work and extra curricular activities. goddman (2005) asserts that “ the
quality and content of parental involvement matters more for childrens outcome than the quantity
of timethey spend with their children. it is important that parents participate in the learning that
takes oplace at home and in the school settings. parents who are im tune with what is happening
to their children in school are better able to establish a connection between what is learnt at
school and what is learnt at home. this connection is a key component of the childs development
and supporting for further learning. not only doed family helps teaching outside the classroom
they are the first institution of learning a child encounters in lifer before socialising with oithers.

Teachers are also partners in quality education to pupils. he role of a teacher in early
childhood education plays an important part in shaping a child’s growth and progress in their
first years of school. While teachers entertain children with arts and crafts, they also provide
structure, encourage cognitive learning and introduce them to physical, social and language
development. Teachers help in the development of children through a variety of methods.
Guising study material with an entertaining and fun approach, educators boost children’s
confidence and help them progress at their own pace, in their own terms. A positive relationship
with teachers therefore, can significantly impact children’s performances as they transition to the
other stage of school. Most importantly, teachers have a unique power that can have a lasting if
not lifelong impact - the ability to instill love and joy of learning in children. So it is expedient
for the family and school to work together to achieve their mutual goals.

Home –school relationship has long been heralded as an important and positive variable on
children’s social learning and academic performance. As both these two key socializing spheres-
families and schools are important in raising a whole child. Home –school partnership allows for
conceptualization of roles. Parents ’relationship with child’s teacher is an important factor in
how well he or she gets along at school and at home. For many children, the most significant
adults in their lives on a day-to-day basis are immediate family members and caregivers
(primarily parents), and their teachers. These are the adults with whom they spend the most time,
who make most of the decisions regarding how they spend their time and who provide guidance
and direction, through their actions and their words, on most aspects of their lives. How these
adults interact, relate and communicate, both with each other and with the child, impacts his or
her experiences and learning. Home is the first training ground for a child and the parents are the
child’s first teachers. Being the first mentors and the primary source of exposing children to
social settings, parents’ roles are both leading and supportive in the academic pursuit of a child.
Mainly the family has a responsibility to socialize the children for making them productive
members of the society. Teachers are also important factors in the academic achievement of a
child, they communicate expectations about appropriate parental role behaviours. Its been
observed that parents are more likely to be involved in their child’s academic activities if the
teachers want them to. Parents- teacher relationship regarding children’s learning and
development has the potential to help parents provide a home learning environment that will also
support the child’s development. However it is crucial that teachers and parents collaborate
because it links learning between the home and the school. It also enables teachers and parents to
learn the children’s world and be acquainted to children’s education. Parents and teachers are
powerful but they equally hold banks of knowledge. A parent has the relational knowledge while
the teachers have expert knowledge. The school is equipped with the necessary facilities and
knowledge needed to build on what a child has learnt from home and give the children necessary
tools they need to achieve wholeness and able to fit in to the world at large. However it is
important that children have a balanced education from both parties to make them unstoppable. It
is also interesting to analyze how positive home-school collaboration can create and foster a
sense of belonging and connectedness to the school among pupils and their parents through
increased parents-school interaction (Barrera-Ososioro, Gertler, Nakajima, and Patrinos,2020).

It is also factual that whatever affects the development of children’s environment would
definitely affect their education. So when a child is in a poor state mentally or psychologically it
will definitely affect his or her academic performance, therefore, learning is a process of
adaptation to one’s environment, in which an experience in one moment leads to alterations in
(implicit) knowledge structure and eventually is likely to impact behavior. social learning is
related to the experiences we get from others or from the environment through observation.it has
been researched that children (9-12) at this stage learns a lot by observing and imitating others.
Social learning is a process in which individual and groups exchange or jointly develop
knowledge (including skills and experiences) through human interaction. Children naturally
develop some skills by interacting with others or by imitating others. However children can be
influenced positively or negatively by their environment. What children see their family
members do daily unconsciously becomes their way of behaving. Activities like family practices,
can affect the way they behave in the school environment. Both parents and the school
community make a conscious and intentional effort to facilitate the development of aca-
demic and social/emotional skills in children. Socio-emotional intelligence has been discussed as
comprising skills that facilitate the processing of social and emotional information and improve
problem-solving and leadership-context activities in which the child must interact with
otherpeople and consequently deal with varied emotions in social situations (Gole-man, 1998).

According to albert banduras theory on social learning, he proposed that learning occurs through
observation, imitation and modelling and it’s influenced by factors which include; attention,
retention, reproduction and motivation. The theory accounts for the interaction of the
environment and cognitive elements that affects how people learn. Parents, family members and
members of the community are models for children. If a child is to learn anything from a model
he or she has to pay serious attention to the behavior the model exhibits. Therefore it is important
that both parties exhibit good behavior because modelling can also be used in detrimental ways
(children observing how parents argue or beat one another, an adult smoking or using vulgar
languages) and as such contributes to the way a child behaves in the school. The promotion of
social/emotional skills to enhance students’ academic performance finds an ally in the level and
style of parental involvement if we consider that effective, lasting academic learning and socio-
emotional learning are built on caring relationships. The ability of a child to remember the
behavior he or she had witnessed from a model which in turn could be positive or negative. This
is why modelled behaviors can make or mar a child. Reproduction on the other hand is a process
by which a child tries to practice the behavior he has retained. However the childs mental and
physical abilty might not be matured enough to do exactly what he or she sees but the child does
something similar to what was seen and retained. A child can be motivated to repeat the
behaviors based on the social responses and consequences they receive when they imitate a
behavior. . When educators and families work together, they can build strong connections with
each other that reinforce social and emotional skills developed in the home, in schools, and in
their communities.

Through supportive relationships and home environments, families model and practice social and
emotional learning with their children. As experts in their children’s development, interests,
cultures, and strengths, families are also important advocates for SEL at their child’s school.
Families and caregivers can also be critical partners in shaping SEL implementation in schools
 Pupils are faced with a few challenges which has affected their academic performance in a
great deal. Teachers being criticized and blamed for low academic performance of children by
parents. Parents also leaving the home-exercise for teachers forgetting that education is not a
one-way journey. It has to be a collective responsibility of both parents and teachers. The home
is the first institution of learning for a child, most parent have refused to come to terms with this
fact. The school teachers are also important in the overall development of a child but sometimes
shift their responsibilities to the home front. The home and school responsibility has not been
clearly stated for both the home and school. There is conflicts of intentions even though both
parties are directly and indirectly working towards achieving the same goal. Lack vital
relationship between both parties has contributed a great deal in the dwindling performance of
pupils.

Social skill is as important as water is to life in a child’s academic journey it is an academic

enabler. Children who constantly misbehave in school achieve less academically and often
influence their classmates. Its also been observed that home and its environment are contributors
to how a child relates and associates with others in school.

Most alarming is inability of parents to help supervise their wards assignment, not checking in
with the teacher to find out about their wards progress, not attending any school program or even
volunteer in the school activities, not helping to prepare the children for assessment( test and
examination).according to Freud ,children at this stage (9-12) might have issues with social and
communication skills and self-confidence if not properly managed. it’s been observed that
parents are even more frustrated dealing with children at this stage leaving them in the hands of
teacher and watching television without supervision. All these activities are what culminate into
inappropriate social skills and low academic performance. It is on these note that the present
study is undertaken to find the influence of home-school relationship on primary schools
students social learning and academic performance in jos south local government area of plateau
state.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The growing concern over poor performance of pupils in school examinations is alarming.
Despite the fact education at the foundation level is important to governments all over the world,
there is still a serious lacuna in the relationship between parent and teachers which is negatively
affecting the performance of children in school. There ia no clear explanation of what home-
based involvement and school based involvement should be including academic socialization of
pupils. There is need for home based teaching to be spelt out which will enable parent know their
own responsibility and what the child should be able to achieve at the home front outside the
school environment. At the same time the school should also be aware of its responsibility. As a
result of these pupils perform poorly and lack basic social skills necessary for relating in the
school environment. Parents and teachers should stop leaving their responsibility to each other
which in turn affects the children’s academic performance. It is based on this background that
this study wishes to study the influence of parent-teacher relationship on primary school pupils’
social skills and academic performance.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY

The aim of this study is to critically examine the influence of parent-teacher’s

relationship on primary school students’ social learning and academic performance in jos south
local government of plateau state. The specific objectives of the study are to:

1. Investigate the influence of parents’ socio economic background on pupils’ social learning
and academic performance.
2. To find out to what extent does cultural variation affects pupils’ social learning and
academic performance.
3. To find out to what extent does parents involvement in school programs affect social
learning and academic performance.
4. To find out how the quality of parent-teacher relationship affects pupils social learning and
academic performance.
5. To find out to what extent does effective and frequent communication between parents and
teachers affect pupils’ social learning and academic performance.
6. To find out how pupils’ perception of their parents and teachers’ relationship affect their
engagement and academic performance?

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions were to guide this study

 1. To what extent does parents socio-economic background influence social learning and
academic performance.
2. To what extent does cultural variation influence pupils’ social learning and academic
performance?
3. To what extent does parental involvement in school activities influence pupils’ social
learning and academic performance?
4. How does the quality of parent-teacher relatinship affects pupils’ social learning and
academic performance?
5. To what extent does effective and frequent communication between parents and teachers
affects pupils’ social learning and academic performance?
6. How do students’ perception of their parents’ relationship with their teachers affect their
engagement and academic performance?

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

The following hypothesis was formulated to guide the study

1. There is no significant relationship between parent –teachers’ relationship and social

learning of primary school pupils.
2. There is no significant relationship between parent-teachers relationship and
academic performance of primary school pupils.

1.6 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study, if completed would provide useful information that is needed to create a
balance in the academic world and also be beneficial to parents, teachers, guidance
counsellors, educational psychologists, the society, and head of schools and curriculum
planners. The study will help teachers to assume their responsibilities of providing
essential care to the pupils especially at the early stage of life and to also be precise in
ensuring that necessary measures are put in place for the children’s academic success
which include a two-way communication between the home front and the school and to
see themselves as important in the lives of the children. This will also help to reduce the
 disagreement that usually spring up between parents and teachers.it will help teachers in
ensuring that appropriate classroom factors like teaching aids, pedagogy are also
considered and used for the right purpose and at the right time for the children academic
success. In the same manner parents would be better informed and educated on how to
generate an intellectually stimulating home environment and been conscious about
practices that will enhance positive and improved academic success. The family will have
better understanding of the various difficulties and behaviours exhibited at the early stage
of life and hoe to patner with teachers to help pupils through this milestone.
The compelling question among educators today is how to enhance teaching and
learning in order to increase academic achievement and enhance social skill of learners.
Many solutions have been offered to respond to the question in various schools
throughout the nation. The present research if completed will enable the curriculum
designers to design a more comprehensive curriculum including expected activities of
parents and teachers so as to enable pupils development. Many educational experts have
identified reasoning, patience, resilience , forbearance and responsibility as key problem
solving skills that when learned can enhance and benefit student achievement and general
life success strategies. The research will provide a direction on how curriculum can be
designed keeping this in mind.
The research if completed will help head of schools to understand parents’ responses
to academic activities of their children. This will help them to provide necessary
measures that will enhance smooth partnership between the school and the home front . it
will also help to provide a school climate marked by caring and supportive human
resources and opportunities for meaningful participation of parents in their children’s
academic pursuit.
Finally, the research if completed will enable the researcher to endeavor to write
articles from this study which can be published in national journals on the influence of
parent-teacher relationship on primary school pupils’ social skills and academic
performance.

1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Social learning Theory

 Bandura has developed a concept of social-learning. He defined it as how both
environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior
( Bandura, 1977.) albert bandura emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling and
imitating of behaviours, attitudes and emotional reaction of others. He posits that we can
acquire new behaviours and knowledge by watching others. Its aslo known as vicarious
learning. He made us understand how our environment and people around us shape our
behavior. He explains how individuals develops new skills and behavior by paying
attention to the behaviours of others and trying to reproduce that behavior themselves. In
a nutshell, bandura’s theory provides a framework for educators to consider how pupils
learn through observational learning and modelling. He believes learning takes place in a
social setting through observation but it also involves cognitive processes; that is learners
internalize and make sense of what they see in other to reproduce the behavior
themselves.
He also proposed that this type of learning involves four different stages.

Attention: whereby pupils need to attend to the behavior. They need to actually see the behavior
that they want to reproduce. Pupils can educate themselves directly by observing the behaviours
of others and by followingthe consequences of using those behaviours.

Retention; where they internalize what they have seen which also involves the cognitive
processes where the pupils mentally rehearse the actions to be produced.

Reproduction: This should be automatic. To enhance learners ability, they must be able to
rehearse and practice. Outcomes must be applicable and unique.this is also where they convert
the information they obtained from attention and retention into action.

Motivation: this is when pupils need to enact or imitate the behavior they they have observed.
Though motivation occurs through reinforcement. Bandura also proposed that when observing
others we not only learn from their behaviours but also from the reactions of other people to the
role models behavior which he sees as a potential way but also learn from other peoples
mistakes. This makes us to see that an individual can learn in multiple ways. People can make
choices based on self-reflection but the environment in which they find themselves influences
how they behave and learn. The advantages of social learning are:
  Thetheory is scientific because it results from several test ans research.
 The theory emphasizes the value of surrounding environment and role models.
 Th eidea provides a sufficient jhustification for how many behavoiurs including
violence are learnt.
 It makes it possible to use practical knowledge in real world situation.

Each of these stages can lead to various results for pupils ,parents, teachers and the
school at large .each stage includes many academic practices which will enable
educators to have better understanding of their learners behaviors. This will also pose
a challenge to schools on how to involve families in working together to build a
whole child and to see each other as partners working towards the same goal.

For teachers, the benefit may be presumed to be better communication with parents
and a better understanding of the families of their pupils and their situation. Therefore
it is safe to say that these four stages will be of benefit to the pupils, parents and
teachers.

1.8 SCOPE OF STUDY

This study will be carried out among primary school pupils.it was delimited to public
primary schools in Jos south local government area plateau state. This study is
restricted to their academic achievement and social learning considering the influence
of parent and teachers relationship.

1.9 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS.

Influence in this study is the ability of parents and teachers to affect pupils’ social
learning and academic performance.

Parent-teacher relationship in this study means parents and teachers active

partnership, presence and communication in their children’s academic performance
both at home and in school such as : following up on children’s progress in school
and at home, giving feedbacks on children’s activities in school, helping with
homework, volunteering in school activities as parents.
 Social learning in this study means learning social behaviors which is acquires
through observing and imitating others

Primary School Pupils in this study implies learners from primary six whose social
learning and academic performance is hinged on parent-teachers relationship.

Academic Performance in this study is the extent to which a pupil performed in his
or her common entrance examination.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section reviews relevant works of scholars, researchers and educationalists related to
parents-teachers relationship, social learning, and academic performance among primary school
pupils. Especially, the review focuses on the following topics: importance of home-school
relationship, home-school relationship strategies, effect of home school relationship. The second
section discussed: concept of parent-teacher relationship’ effective communication strategies’
parent-teachers’ partnership and collaboration, home and school based parental involvement.
This will be followed by a review of the concept of social learning, theory of social learning,
implication of social learning. The fourth section of this review focused on pupils’ academic
achievement and performance and the last section reviewed empirical studies as well as the
summary of literature review.

2.1 THE CONCEPT OF HOME- SCHOOL RELATIONSHIP

Home-school relationship is a much more complex endeavor than parental involvement or

support. It can be described as the mutual determination to work together by all partners (parents,
teachers, and pupils) to achieve a desired goal. The sphere of influence of the partnership must
be a two-way journey. Family and school are two important institutions with which a school
child engages daily. It is understandable that the school is an institution, yet each school has its
own characteristics and practices influenced by individual perspectives (such as those of the
principal and teachers); its practices are also conditioned by the cultures and traditions of the
society with which it is associated, and at the same time schools are all governed by national and
societal laws, regulations and policies. School practices place demands and expectations on
students and their families, and in turn influence family practices. For example, the school
hours, homework policies and pedagogies require students and their families to comply with
school expectations and structure. In turn, these influence the families ‘routines, such as what
times to wake up and go to bed, and whether or not to give extra homework. However, this does
not mean it should be accepted that school is more powerful and that families must follow the
school practices strictly without expressing their own needs or problems. Nevertheless, some
studies have noted that school personnel (e.g. teachers, educators) form stereotypes along ethnic
lines regarding family cultural practices (Archer & Francis, 2007; Sanagavarapu, 2010). A good
relationship between family and school means that the student can be provided with a better
training program i.e. one which helps the student experience the encounter of these two worlds in
a calm way. Both teachers’ professionalism and the parents’ knowledge of their child can pave
the way to an efficacious educational partnership. The school can identify and celebrate each
child’s individuality and welcome all families while helping them to recognize their children as
learners and reinforce the importance of home-work. While families also recognize and celebrate
the relentless effort of teachers in building wholeness in the children. ). Better mutual
understanding can enhance home–school relations, as well as act for the betterment of the child.
In contrast, as pointed out by several studies ,misunderstanding, ignoring, assuming or
stereotyping family or school practices can not only worsen home–school relations but also
disadvantage children’s learning and development (Archer & Francis, 2007; Dooley, 2003; Fleer
& Hedegaard, 2010; Hedegaard, 2005, 2009). Despite these findings, discrepancy does not
inevitably result in disadvantage. Hedegaard’s (2009) model of child development indicates that
children learn and develop through participation in institutionalized practices. Each institution
has its own values and practices conditioned by the cultures and traditions of the society it is
associated with (Hedegaard, 2009). The institutions a child is engaged with in his/her everyday
life can have consistent or differing values and practices, which may lead to dissonance between
home and school. Vygotsky (1998) argues that such dissonance can lead to a crisis, which in turn
may emerge as a source of development for the child. However, if the dissonance is excessive,
this may lead to detriment (Kravtsova, 2006). Thus differences in practices (and values) between
institutions such as family and school need to be understood and managed to be productive for
child development. Parents’ views on the school practices shape their attitudes towards a
particular school and their subsequent relationship with it, which in turn affects the choices
parents make regarding their children’s education teachers view of parents attitude and
disposition towards their method of handling children affects the way they relate with the
parents.

Home –school relationship involves collaborative working partnership between families and
schools, where both of them can support pupils in more productive and consistent work and
behavior. In effective relationship, both parties recognize their shared interest in and
responsibility for children and collaborate to achieve the shared goal, share information which
will enhance the children’s learning. They create constructive connections between the home and
the school settings that promotes positive educational and social outcome. While family
engagement is key to developing home-school relationship, they are not equivalent to
partnership. Families can attend school programs, conferences activities etc. its still a one-way
work. a home school partnership by contrast involves genuine collaboration and coordination
between families and school on key issues relevant to both the school and family goals for their
children education.

The concept of home-school relationship is a two –way journey which can also be look at as:
parents’ characteristics and teachers view of the relationship. Parental characteristics that
influence the school-home relationships in a relevant way can be summarized as follows
(adapted from Eccles & Harold, 1996):1. Parents’ social and psychological resources (personal
health, available coping strategies, social networks); 2. Personal sense of efficacy (trust in one’s
own ability to help children carry out assigned tasks; a conviction of being able to continue
helping one’s children in various subjects during secondary school); 3. Perception of one’s own
child (trust in the child‘s cognitive and learning abilities; educational and job hopes, and
expectations for one’s child; real opportunities for one’s child in the present and future); 4.
Parent’s personal construction of the parental role; convictions regarding parental role in
children’s education and results obtained at school (What is the parent’s role? How does this role
change during a child’s growth? Attribution or not of importance in participating in management
of school, benefits that good school performance creates); 5. Cultural, ethnic and religious
identity of parents (perception of one’s own culture, religion and socialization processes; existing
relationships between cultural convictions, parental role and school results; cultural and social
recognition received in the school context; school perceived as a reality in which models and
values are provided that contrast with those of the family or a context in which one is helped in
the task of cultural and religious transmission); 6. Parental socialization practices (carrying out of
their educational role in order to promote their children’s autonomy and independence; presence
or absence of sharing and reworking through children‘s experiences); 7. History of relationship
with school and education of children (their prior experience in school and relationships with
teachers; introduction to the school system as a parent and continuation of this relationship
during the course of their children’s scholastic career).

According to a great deal of research, the way in which a relationship between a student’s
family and an educational institution takes shape, depends mostly on how the institution and its
professionals carry out their roles. The family-school relationship is influenced by the practices
adopted by teachers, by the structure of the educational institution, and the way in

which a family is considered by the school; it also depends on teachers and their interest level
and desire to involve parents, and on their knowledge of concrete methods aimed at increasing
processes of parental collaboration. The passivity of parents observed in various countries seems
to be fuelled by the formal and institutional nature of the school, by its bureaucracy and the
attitudes of many teachers who do not always encourage the presence of parents. At the
international level, a widespread state of paradoxical behaviour at school has also been seen
between teachers towards parents who are the end receivers of these contradictory messages. The
latter are told: ‘You are absent parents, therefore inadequate’, but at the same time, the parents
are also asked ‘not to be overly present’ (Auduc, 2007; Gayet, 1999; González-Falcón &
Romero-Muñoz, 2011). Teachers, as a matter of fact, do not seem to encourage the involvement
of parents at school and in the classroom, especially when they are dealing with low-income
families and/or members of a minority, who are perceived as being part of the problem rather
than a resource (Mac Ruairc, 2011; Palaiologu, Evangelou, & Tspakidou, 2011). In certain cases,
the school fosters a sense of impotence in the family and a sense of distance that parents
associate with frustration and a sense of being judged (Perregaux et al., 2011). The relationship
with parents is certainly not an easy one. Dealing with families means encountering different
types of axiology, convictions about what educating means, which tasks lie with the school and
which with the family, representations of educational functions linked to roles of parents and
teachers, all of which bring with them different interpretations of the family-school relationship,
as well as of its meaning and the methods to be used. Teachers ‘most frequent objections
concerning active involvement of parents – which can mean their presence in the classroom

The two-way system of support involves: teachers creating avenue for families and
learners to share knowledge gained through home experience, teachers building on children’s
experience at home to bring about stimulating, meaningful and effective teaching and learning,
this school also providing resources that will meet children’s need and support parents to engage
with their children learning. So the activities on both ends are recognized as conducive to
children’s development. Susan. (2003) opined that for children to get most out of school, there
need to be promotion of a partnership between parents, community and teachers, only through
partnership can school thrive and children learn better.

2.1.2 IMPORTANCE OF HOME-SCHOOL RELATIONSHIP

Having laying the foundation that home-school partnership is a wider endeavor than parental
support. It is expedient to also emphasize the importance of the partnership as an important
phenomenon to both parents, teacher and pupils. (Iheoma & Iruka,2013.) stated that Strong
partnership supports childrens learning and ability to develop lifelong skills and networks while
also strengthening parents capacity to be engaged in their childrens school experience. A positive
relationship helps the children feel good about school, learning, interacting with others and being
successful. It also demonstrates that children can trust their teachers and the school because their
parents do. The positive relationship makes children feel like the most important people I n their
lives are working together. They learn best when the significant adults in their lives work
together to encourage and support them. This gives clear indicvation as to important partnership
is. This will aslo enable both families and schools to each party should not be stereotyped to its
way of doing things. This means that schools should not limit education to academic activities
alone while the home should not be limited to teaching family practices and norms. So both
parties will have a mutual understanding of their collective roles of supporting the children to
succeed academically, morally and emotionally. Home school relationship will further help
children to further understand how the significant adutls in their lives treat each other, take
decisions, execute them, and solve problems together. It will also sensitise the children that some
persons both in and outside the school cares about them, their feelings of self-worth, competency
and understanding of the world around them ( James, P. &Norris, Haynes. 1997). On this note,
partnership also create childrens positive engagement with peers and adults and enhance
relationship between parents, teachers and the pupils.

One of the importance of home- school relationship is that it helps to sharpen the
understanding of both parties on how important they arein the development and success of the
children. Acceptance of each other will also create a stimulating learning environment which will
in turn enable both parents and teachers to learn from each other and make their individual work
easy. This will further create an avenue for both parties to share beliefs about the best way to
support their children’s learning rather than imposing their beliefs on one another. This will
further make them focus on engaging, guiding and motivating each child to aspire to be
successful. This will also stimulate self-growth among parents. Parents can gain greater
confidence in parenting and even decide to grow in their personal education and benefit from
improved adult/ family literacy. Teachers will also benefit from feeling supported and
appreciated and will bring about a positive school climate.

2.1.3 PRINCIPLES OF HOME- SCHOOL RELATIONSHIP

TRUST

Trust is one of the important principle of a relationship. (Tschannen- Morron, 2003.), Defined
trust as the ability of an individual or groups willingness to be vulnerable to one another based
on the confidence that the latter party is benevolent, reliable, competent, honest and open.
Benevolence is the degree to which the other party takes your best interest to heart and act to
protect them. Reliability as the extent to which you can depend on the other party to come
through for you, to act consistently Honesty as the degree to which the other person or institution
demonstrate integrity, represent situation fairly and speak truthfully to others. Openness as how
the other party welcomes communication and shares information with the people it affects. Trust
also extends to families believing that the school personnel are qualified, fair, dependable and
have their children’s interest at heart.( Adam& Chirsten,2000). In other words, it is a pivotal
joint resource for effective and efficient interaction between parents and the school. Studies have
shown that parents’ trust in school is basically to motivate their children’s education and its
achievement.( Neuenschwander, 2020)The more both parties interact the more their willingness
to trust each other based on their actions and their perception of one another’s intentions,
competency and integrity. Trust is what will make parents entrust their children’s care into the
school whether its familiar or unfamiliar. Familiar in the sense that everyone went to the school
and has certain understanding about how it will go. Unfamiliar as believing that all will go well
despite not being aware of the details on hoe it will go. For effective experience on both nthe
home and the school, trust has to be reciprocal though its time that builds trust. Trust requires
that both sides will be open and willing to listen to each other’s point of view. Sending a child to
school is just an exhilarating and terrifying decisions that is important in the journey of
parenting, however it is important for the school to reciprocate by providing the right resources:
both human and material for parents and keep the line of communication open with parents
concerning their children. This means that the information and knowledge that parents have
about nthe school performance and its teachers may diverge, remain limited or stay incomplete
(Thiel et al, 2014.). although parents trust can be affected by socio- demographic and socio-
economic factors such as; age, gender, education and background,( Borgonovi & Burns, 2015.).

HOME-SCHOOL COMMITMENT

The home-school relationship plays a crucial role in a child's education and overall development.
When parents and educators work together, children thrive both academically and personally.
Commitment is one key principle that strengthens this relationship

Commitment in the home-school relationship refers to a mutual dedication to the well-being and
success of the child. It involves parents and educators actively participating, supporting, and
engaging in ongoing communication and collaboration. This commitment promotes a positive
learning environment and helps children reach their full potential. (Bronstein & Hertoft, 2018;
Fan & Chen, 2020).
Commitment is a psychological attachment to an organization in which people give their loyalty
to its values and goals. Teacher commitment is the emotional bond teachers demonstrate toward
their work. Teacher commitment has been recognized as one of the most critical factors in
effective teaching. Thereby, teachers with high level of commitment can make a difference to the
learning and achievement of their students. Committed teachers are affiliated with the school
they work for and they invest their time and energy in promoting their school. Teacher
commitment is associated with creating an effective learning environment in which students
enhance their abilities for greater achievement. Teacher commitment is an internal force that
drives teachers to show enhanced job performance (Tsui & Cheng, 1999).

In the same vein, passion that committed teachers have, is caring and learning new things.

Passion is motivation and seeking for the new. It is the inclination somebody shows towards an
activity in which he/she invests time and energy (Carbonneau, Vallerand, Fernet & Guay, 2008).
Commitment is a sense of loyalty, faithfulness and devotion. Meyer and Allen (1997) see
commitment as a sense of responsibility. Institutional commitment affects and influences

productivity. It is imperative to note that committed workers have higher yields than less
committed staff (Schelvis et al. 2014)..

Teachers who regard learners as individuals act as mentors (Day 2004). Teaching requires
passion and identity since it involves working with fresh budding minds that are shaping their
future, Teacher commitment is a guide to measuring school effectiveness (Yong 1999). Lezotte

This relationship defies the opinion that teacher commitment is concentrated solely on peripheral
measurements. It searches the bond between teacher urges, principles and philosophies, and
teacher commitment in a manner that illustrates teacher commitment as extremely personal
method of seeing the self and its link to education. crosswell takes the position that while
teachers do articulate a commitment to external factors such as learners, they also make
significant links to personal passions which have clear articulations in with their ideology, values
and beliefs (Crosswell
2004).

Parental commitment to education partnership refers to the active involvement and support of
parents in their children's education. It extends beyond simply ensuring that children attend
school regularly, but encompasses a collaborative relationship between parents and educators to
promote academic success and holistic development.

The scope of parental commitment to education partnership can be described in various ways,
including:

1. Communication: Effective communication between parents and teachers is essential for

understanding a child's progress, challenges, and goals. Parents should maintain ongoing
conversations with teachers to gain insights into their child's academic performance, behavior,
and overall well-being.

2. Home support: Parents play a crucial role in creating a conducive learning environment at
home. This involves providing resources such as books, materials, and technology, as well as
establishing routines for homework, study time, and extracurricular activities.

3. Parent involvement in school activities: Parents should actively participate in school events,
parent-teacher associations, and volunteering opportunities. By engaging in these activities,
parents demonstrate their commitment to their child's education and contribute to the overall
school community.

4. Academic guidance: Parents can provide academic guidance by assisting with homework,
reviewing assignments, and encouraging a positive attitude towards learning. They can also
collaborate with educators to identify and address any learning difficulties or specialized needs
their child may have.
5. Emotional support: A supportive home environment is important for a child's emotional well-
being and academic success. Parents can provide emotional support by fostering a sense of
belonging, modeling resilience, and promoting a growth mindset. This includes celebrating
achievements, encouraging self-expression, and helping children overcome challenges.

A committed home-school relationship sets the foundation for academic success. Parents and
educators can align their goals, encourage consistent learning routines, and provide the necessary
resources and support for optimal learning outcomes. This commitment positively influences
academic achievement and long-term educational goals. (Epstein, 2019; Dearing et al., 2006)

Commitment facilitates social-emotional development. The development of strong relationships

between parents, educators, and the child. This supportive network creates a sense of belonging,
security, and emotional well-being, leading to enhanced social and emotional development.
(Sanders, 2019; Cefai et al., 2015)

A commitment to open and regular communication helps parents and educators stay informed
about the child's progress, challenges, and successes. It allows for timely interventions,
personalized support, and proactive problem-solving. Effective communication nurtures trust and
strengthens the parent-educator partnership. (Henderson et al., 2017; Pomerantz et al., 2005)

Practical Strategies to Foster Commitment includes establishing Clear Expectations by defining

roles and responsibilities for parents and educators while establishing expectations regarding
communication, involvement, and participation in their child's education.

Encourage open lines of communication, whether through emails, phone calls, parent-teacher
conferences, or digital platforms. Foster a welcoming and receptive environment that encourages
parental input and seeks feedback from all stakeholders. Collaborative Decision-Making which
includes Involving parents in decision-making processes related to their child's education. By
considering their perspectives, insights, and cultural backgrounds, educators can create an
inclusive and holistic learning environment.
Parental Involvement Opportunities which also means providing various opportunities for
parental involvement, such as volunteering in the classroom, participating in school events, or
joining parent-teacher associations. Engaging parents in their child's education shows that their
contributions are valued and strengthens their commitment.

Encourage ongoing professional development for educators to enhance their knowledge and
skills in working with diverse families. This empowers educators to better understand and meet
the needs of all students and facilitates effective collaboration. (Epstein, 2019; Henderson et al.,
2017)

Commitment is a vital principle for building a strong home-school relationship. By fostering

commitment, parents and educators can create an environment that supports academic success,
social-emotional development, and effective communication. Through practical strategies and
ongoing collaboration, the home-school partnership becomes a dynamic force in promoting a
child's well-being and educational journey.

MUTUAL RESPECT

Respect denotes both a positive feeling of esteem for a person and also specific actions and
conducts representative of that esteem. Respect can be defined as allowing yourself and others to
do and be their best.

It is the goal of any school to create a mutually respectful atmosphere between all individuals
involved within the school including administrators, teachers, staff members, students, parents,
& visitors.

And while it's true that all of the facts, skills, and concepts that children learn at school are
influenced by what parents do at home, their education is equally impacted by the relationships
their parents form with their teachers. Building an effective relationship with the teacher is a
critical task, and, like you, every teacher wants to achieve this goal. As with any relationship,
mutual respect is one of the important principle needed to form the foundation.

When parents and teachers work well together, everyone benefits. Parents and teachers can
provide each other with unique insight and different perspectives about the same child,
culminating in a more complete understanding of that child, her abilities, strengths, and
challenges. The teacher will know much more about the curriculum and the school culture, while
the parents know more about their child's personality, tendencies, and family life, both parties are
ready to work and listen to each other on how to achieve a common goal.A successful parent-
teacher partnership also shows a child that an entire team of adults is on her side.

Making reference to Bandura theory on Imitation, it is expedient that parent and teachers are
respectful towards one another because the xhildrwn are observing.

As such, all entities are expected to remain respectful to each other at all times. Students and
teachers, teachers and parents especially are expected to greet each other with kind words and
parents/teacher exchanges should be friendly, in an appropriate tone, and should remain
respectable. The majority of parents t/teacher interaction should be positive.

Respect must often be discussed, but more importantly, regularly modeled by teachers and
parents. When a teacher refuses to be respectful to their students, it undermines their authority
and creates a natural barrier that hinders student learning. The same goes with parents Students
will not thrive in an environment where the teachers and parents overstep their authority. The
good news is that most teachers are respectful towards their pupils parents on a consistent basis.

Mutual respect in the School encompasses more than the interaction between students and the
teacher but extends to teachers and parents.An atmosphere of mutual respect means that
everyone also treat each other properly. The result is a classroom where more learning takes
place as students feel safe, motivated and, of course, respected. Achieving this atmosphere takes
considerable effort on the part of the teacher as well as the students. Once established, however,
students will usually work to maintain a positive classroom environment.

Model attitudes that foster partnership.

Administrators can promote and model effective partnerships by respecting family differences
and asking for input. Rather than simply distribute information to families, administrators must
be willing to listen to them, incorporate their ideas into schoolwide planning, and encourage
teachers to do the same. Parents want the best for their children, even if their goals don’t seem to
align with the school’s. Educators must strive to understand and support those goals.

Address conflicts constructively. As with any relationship, conflict can arise in family- school
partnerships. It is important to be respectful, nonjudgmental, and focused on the shared desire to
resolve the issue in the best interest of the student. How the school approaches and helps resolve
conflicts not only affects the outcome of the specific issue but also helps shape parents’ attitudes
about the value of family-school partnerships. Make partnerships a school wide priority.
Partnering with families should be a school wide priority that is shared among all school
personnel. Administrative support for family collaboration programs and related staff
development is essential, but school psychologists, social workers, and other specialists can help
teachers create an environment that is family friendly. Because teachers may need to
accommodate parents who have challenging schedules by visiting them at home or holding early
morning or evening conferences, compensatory time and substitute teachers are important
considerations. When working with parents who are not proficient in English, it will also be
important to plan ahead by securing interpreters or community representatives.

Create a welcoming environment. Many families are uncomfortable becoming involved in their
children’s education because they do not believe they can help or because they do not know how
to help. Therefore, administrators must explicitly solicit families’ involvement and encourage all
teachers to similarly invite parents to collaborate.

Listen actively. Teachers should put themselves in parents’ and students’ shoes and parents and
students should put themselves in the teacher’s shoes. Show compassion, sensitivity, empathy
and mutual respect for each other. All parties should try to understand the other’s perspective.
Consistently trying to understand each other and focusing on developing solutions can avoid
negative situations.
Treat each other as equal partners in the planning and decision-making.

Develop a mutual understanding of the strengths and needs of the student. Parents and teachers
should share their understanding of the student’s learning styles. Parents can provide input on
how they see the student’s physical strength, how the student interacts with others and the
student’s mental processing out of the classroom, while the teacher can share his or her
observations from a class vantage point. Plus, students can contribute their ideas on the ways
they learn best, as well as the factors that inhibit their learning.

Trust each other’s judgment.

Approach disagreement in a manner that encourages mutual problem solving. Utilize a problem-
solving model to keep emotionalism at bay. Most models include: stating the problem,
brainstorming ideas and developing a solution. Share the model with all parents and problem-
solving them know how the school resolves issues.

2.2 PARENT- TEACHER RELATIONSHIP STATEGIES

2.2.1 PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

Although it seems that parental involvement is a widely researched the topic of

many domestic and foreign studies, there is still concern regarding parental involvement and
what constitutes effective parental involvement in the education of students. Educators, parents,
and community members may have different opinions regarding effective involvement practices
and the ways each can contribute to the educational process.

Parental involvement in the education of students begins at home with parents providing a safe
and healthy environment, appropriate learning experiences, support, and a positive attitude about
school. Several studies indicate increased academic achievement with students that have
involved parents (Epstein, 2009; Greenwood & Hickman, 1991; Henderson & Berla, 1994;
Rumberger et al., 1990; Swap, 1993; Whitaker & Fiore, 2001). Studies also indicate that parental
involvement is most effective when viewed as a partnership between educators and parents
(Davies, 1996; Emeagwali, 2009; Epstein, 2009). By examining parents’ and teachers’
perceptions, educators and parents should have a better understanding of effective parental
involvement practices in promoting student achievement. Numerous researchers such as Berger
(2008), Davies (1996), Epstein (2009), and Henderson and Mapp (2002) have studied parental
involvement and its effects on the educational process over the years and have been able to come
with the result that parental involvement can lead to positive academic performance of children.
Children whose parents are actively engaged in the academic pursuit perform better and have
positive attitude towards school academic activities.

A leading researcher of parental involvement is Joyce Epstein, the founder and director of
the National Network of Partnership Schools at Johns Hopkins University. With numerous
studies and work in over 100 publications, Epstein focuses on school, family, and community
partnership programmes that will improve policy and practice in an effort to increase student
academic achievement and student success. Epstein has identified a framework which containing
six important factors with regards to parental involvement. This framework is based on findings
from many studies of what factors are most effective with regards comes to children’s education
(Epstein, 1995, 1996, 2001, 2003, 2009). Those six factors are parenting, communicating,
volunteering, learning at home, decision-making and collaborating with the community.

Parenting – includes all of the activities that parents engage in to raise happy, healthy children
who become capable students. Unlike teachers, whose influence on a child’s is relatively limited,
parents maintain a life-long commitment to their children. Activities that support this type of
involvement provide information to parents about their child’s development, health, safety, or
home conditions that can support student learning. Includes: parent education and other courses
or training for parents, family support programs to assist families with health, nutrition, and other
services, home visits at transition points

to elementary, middle, and secondary school.

Communicating – Families and schools communicate with each other in multiple ways. Schools
send home notes and flyers about important events and activities. Parents give teachers
information about their child’s health and educational history. A school website is an additional
mode of communication with parents and families. conferences with every parent at least once a
year, language translators to assist families as needed, regular schedule of useful notices, memos,
phone calls, newsletters, and other communications.
Volunteering – applies to recruiting and organizing help and support from parents for school
programs and students’ activities. There are three basic ways that individuals volunteer in
education. First, they may volunteer in the school or classroom by helping teachers and
administrators as tutors or assistants. Second, they may volunteer for the school; for instance,
fundraising for an event or promoting a school in the community. Finally, they may volunteer as
a member of an audience, attending school programs or performances. School/classroom
volunteer program to help teachers, administrators, students, and other parents, parent room or
family center for volunteer work, meetings, and resources for families, annual postcard survey to
identify all available talents, times, and locations of volunteers.

Learning at home – pertains to providing ideas and information to parents about how they can
best assist their children with homework and curricular-related decisions and activities. Parents
helping their children with homework or taking them to a museum are examples of this type of
involvement. These activities produce a school-oriented family involvement.

Looking at parental involvement in the aspect of home-school partnership, it includes behavior

with or on behalf of the children at home or in school, attitudes and beliefs about parenting,
education and expectations for children’s future, this literarily means parents behavior when they
interact with their children or their children’s school. This is also characterized by the presence
of parents in one’s daily life and school activities. Parents who are involved in children’s life
participate and make effort to attend their child’s events, school activities and academic pursuits.
In contrast, parents supports incorporate the emotional roles parents play in their children’s lives.
Supportive parents provides encouragement and emotional warmth to their children throughout
childhood experience. Parental involvement focus on the feelings of the child and helping them
by listening, spending time with the child and taking interest in what is going in the child’s life
( Ratelle, Larose,Guay &Senekal, 2005) . Parents play a dynamic role to enhance their children’s
academic outcomes. They provide financial support, emotional support, motivational support and
facilitate the sources ( e.g books, textbooks, educational toys, novels and other instructional
materials) to ensure their children’s better academic performance. Feurstein ( 2000) defined
parental involvement as activity encompassing a wide range of behaviours discussing school
activities with children and also attending parent- teachers conferences.
Parents play important role in the development of their children as they grow from infancy to
childhood, late childhood and several other stages of development and also learn how to navigate
through life. One of the main roles that parents play on their child is their influence on academic
should be pursued This also include home-based involvement and school based involvement.

HOME BASED PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

The home environment focuses on the aspect of creating a supportive environment for the
children to study which includes balanced meals, safety, reading, the home provides a schedule
for meals, setting rules for bedtime, extracurricular activities, setting limit on television time,
setting a high and realistic expectation on how children behave outside the home environment,
parents being models of diligence, learning and hardwork. Home environment includes
supervision and rules. Clark (1993) asserts that children that spend less time watching television
and more time on school related activities show a positive relation with academic achievement.

Parents checking a child’s home work also has shown a positive association with the child’s
academic achievement. In some studies, pupils whose parents are involved in checking their
homework showed higher academic achievement than those whose parents are not involved in
checking their homework. Researches have also shown that parents and children spend less time
together because they are juggling their jobs and families. Suggestions were also made that
families can struggle to make ends meet and still meet the needs of their children. If parents
could look and see that when they don’t spend quality time with their children, it brings negative
school performance (united state department of education) when parents patner with their
childrens education, the results are improved in the aspect of academic performance. Learning at
home – pertains to providing ideas and information to parents about how they can best assist
their children with homework and curricular-related decisions and activities. Parents helping
their children with homework or taking them to a museum are examples of this type of
involvement.

These activities produce a school-oriented family and encourage parents to interact with the
school curriculum. Activities to encourage learning at home provide parents with information on
what children are doing in the classroom and how to help them with homework Includes:
information for families on skills required for pupils in all subjects at each grade, information on
homework policies and how to monitor and discuss schoolwork at home, as well as family
participation in setting student goals each year and in planning for college or work.

Research suggests parents assisting their children with homework has three benefits – 1)
establishing communication between the parents and the teacher, 2) increasing time families
spend together, and 3) increasing student achievement (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005). “When
teachers of any grade level involve parents frequently in home learning activities, they can
positively affect the parents‟ awareness of the teachers‟ efforts and knowledge about the school
program” (Epstein, 1986, p. 289). Activities that supported learning mathematics included
homework assignments students and parents had to do together, and math materials families
could use together at home (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005)

School based parental involvement.

Rasinski, Padak, and Fawcett (2009) identified several principles of successful parent
involvement initiatives in reading. These include the following:

Use methods of instruction that are proven. In the same way that parents want teachers to use
scientifically based instructional methods, when asking parents to work with their children in
academics, teachers wants to ensure that the methods shared with parents are based on proven
effective practice. Develop a consistent program or instructional routine that does not vary
widely over time. The consistency allows parents to develop a sense of competence in their
academic work with their children, and make the parent involvement activity easy and quick to
implement. Parents’ time to help their children may be limited. Moreover, parents do not
generally have the same instructional training as teachers. Programs for parents should be simple
in their implementation and not take an excessive amount of time—10–15 min per day seems
sufficient. Training and support is also essential for parents on the basic principles they can adopt
in helping their children at home. Most parents lack instructional expert so teachers need to help
parents learn the methods they wish them to implement with their children. Moreover whatever
teachers ask parents to do with their children should be enjoyable and should involve authentic
acitivities. Parents and children are more likely to grasp that what they are doing at home will
help the children become good scholars if the activity involves real practice. Moreover, parents
and children are more likely to persist in implementing the program if they perceive the
instructional activity as fun and enjoyable to do

As a form of parent involvement, school-based parent involvement can be defined as

encompassing a range of “practices on the part of parents that require their making actual contact
with schools” (Pomerantz et al., 2007, p. 374), and represents one of the most visibly identifiable
forms of parent involvement in children’s education. These activities include visiting the
classroom, volunteering in school activities, attending concerts and performances involving their
children, and communicating informally and formally with the teacher.

A number of studies have identified positive associations between higher school-based parent
involvement and improved student success, particularly in the earlier years of schooling
(Englund, Luckner, Whaley, & Egeland, 2004; Fan & Chen,2001; Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994;
Hill & Craft, 2003; SuiChu & Willms, 1996). Dearing et al. (2006) for example found school-
based parent involvement in the early years of children’s education predicted higher literacy
skills in later years of elementary school, controlling for children’s literacy skills during
kindergarten. Jeynes’ (2005) meta-analysis reported that attendance and participation in school-
based parent involvement activities had an effect size on academic standardized test results of d
= .22 (p < .05. School-based parental involvement is important because it allows parents to stay
informed about their child's academic progress and to work collaboratively with teachers and
school administrators to support their child's learning. It also helps to create a sense of
community within the school and can lead to improved communication and relationships
between parents and educators.

There are several school-based parental activities that can have a positive impact on a child's
academic performance. Some of the activities include

1. Parent-teacher conferences: These are meetings between parents and teachers to discuss a
child's academic progress, strengths, and areas for improvement. They provide an opportunity for
parents to ask questions, share concerns, and work collaboratively with teachers to support their
child's learning.
2. Volunteering in the classroom: Parents can volunteer to help out in the classroom by assisting
with activities, reading to students, or providing extra support to students who need it. This can
help to create a sense of community within the classroom and can provide additional support to
students who may be struggling.

3. Participating in school events and activities: Parents can participate in school events and
activities such as field trips, school plays, and sports events. This can help to create a sense of
community within the school and can provide opportunities for parents to get to know their
child's classmates and teachers.

4. Serving on advisory committees: Parents can serve on advisory committees such as the school
board or parent-teacher association. This can provide an opportunity for parents to have a voice
in school decision-making and to work collaboratively with educators to improve the school and
support student learning. Overall, school-based parental activities can help to create a supportive
and collaborative learning environment that can positively impact a child's academic
performance.

Both moral and financial involvement of parents have a positive relationship with academic
performance of students. Factors that were found to have a positive impact on academic
performance under moral involvement included checking of studies, discussion of social life, and
frequent contact with teachers, not involving children in family disputes, and encouragement for
participating in co-curricular activities by parents. Factors that were found to have a positive
impact on academic performance under financial involvement included no discussion of
financial problems, bearing college expenses, provision of pocket money, giving gifts and cash
prizes, and provision of health facilities to their children.

2.2.2 EFFECTIVE HOME-SCHOOL COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

Communication is an essential part of the daily lives of families, educational personnel, and
students across all grade levels. According to Nwogbaga, Nwankwo, and Onwa

(2015), “Communication refers to the process of exchanging information between or among

individuals, groups, institutions, and/or organisations in oral, written, or signed forms through
any available media” (p. 33).

Through effective communication, which includes verbal and non-verbal communication

methods, teams have the potential to collaborate to meet a goal or complete a project efficiently
(Sharma & Sharma, 2014). Several skills contribute to the effectiveness of communication some
include empathy, active listening, and conciseness when communicating a message (Sharma &
Sharma, 2014). Communication serves many purposes within personal and professional
relationships .Additionally, through formal and informal communication experiences, teams
become more comfortable with one another and build a significant rapport which, in turn, can
have a positive effect on meeting the overall goal. Small talk, or “phatic communication” (p.
218), surrounds general or personal topics and has the potential to build the most rapport with
individuals with a common goal, even though it is not directly related to meeting those
overarching goals (Placencia, 2004). This small talk is particularly designed to meet our social
needs to build a relationship (Nwogbaga, Nwankwo, & Onwa, 2015). According to Pratt,
Imbody, Wolf, and Patterson (2017), communication regarding personal and professional topics,
building bonds between professionals not only benefits professional communication within that
team to meet the desired outcomes, but it also benefits the surrounding environment, such as a
parents and pupils and the school community as a whole. . Building rapport is particularly
important in an educational setting because Educators and other school personnel often work to
meet the needs of students and their families simultaneously. To build significant rapport, face-
to-face communication, both formal and informal, is unnecessary for every encounter, however,
each should be utilized throughout a given project. Within an educational setting, effective
communication serves as an integral contribution to the academic, social, and emotional success
of students. Communication among educators, students, families, and other educational
personnel should be analysed and reviewed periodically to note the effectiveness of the
communication. Although there are several mediums for communication between families and
educational personnel, they often include the use of technology such as emails, or typical
traditional methods such as notes sent home. Ultimately, families feel the need to be connected
with their child’s educational experience and often seek educators on how to best support
students (Currie-Rubin & Smith, 2014). To facilitate the best educational experience for
students, it is imperative to understand the different perspectives the various stakeholders have
regarding communication patterns and methods that families are most comfortable
communicating through.This holds specifically for children of lower socioeconomic status (SES)
and children with academic problems and/or social, emotional, and behavioural
difficulties(Gwernan-Jones et al., 2015). These children benefit even more from a stable school–
home environment that is interconnected with a good parent-teacher communication.(Fantuzzo,
MacWayne, & Perry, 2004). Teacher reports showing strong parent-teacher relationships are
associated with higher levels of children’s adaptive functioning and lower levels of externalising
behaviour (Kim, Sheridan, Kwon, & Koziol, 2013). Children regarded as disruptive by teachers
may particularly benefit from high-quality parent–teacher relationships and communication.
(Thijs & Eilbracht, 2012).

Teachers Communicating with Families

Effective communication between teachers and families provides the two parties with a

deeper understanding of mutual expectations and children’s needs. This enables both

parties to effectively assist children and to establish a basis of cooperation (Conderman,

Johnston-Rodriguez, Hartman, & Kemp, 2010; Epstein & Sanders, 2006). Building a

A trustful relationship between parents and teachers is conditional for cooperation. A

genuine interest in the child, approachability of the teacher and openness of the school

are known to be conducive to building connectedness and trust between parents and

teachers (Lasky & Dunnick Karge, 2011; Wellner, 2012). Informal conversations and

unscheduled visits are important parent involvement practices in this matter (Turnbull,

Turnbull, Erwin, Soodak, & Shogren, 2011), providing additional opportunities in

which teachers and parents gain insight into one another’s perspectives (Denessen,
Bakker, & Gierveld, 2007). However, when it comes to formal ways for achieving oral school–
family like parent–teacher conferences, teachers and parents tend to keep to their respective
roles of teachers as advice givers and parents as advice seekers. As a

Consequently, only the teachers’ expertise is acknowledged, whereas the parents’ is largely
unrecognised (Cheatham & Ostrosky, 2011). Parent–teacher conferences are too often
‘dominated by issues of academic progress and/or behaviour rather than allowing for a genuine
dialogue as to how school and family might work together to support pupils’, as Mutton, Burn &
Thompson (2018, p. 12) put it. Even though many schools attempt to facilitate two-directional
communication, it is more likely that communication and its content is controlled by the school
(Cheatham & Ostrosky,2011; Epstein & Sanders, 2006).

A parent–teacher relationship is seen as a one-way process if teachers inform or instruct parents

(Tett, 2004), and the parents’ role is that of the passive receptors of expert advice (Cheatham &
Ostrosky, 2011; Gwernan-Jones et al., 2015). Parents, however, are much more likely to
participate if frequent, clear, two-way communication is present (Bakker, Denessen, Dennissen
& Oolbekkink-Marchand, 2013; Tett, 2004).

When teachers are responsive towards home language and respectful towards parents’

role conceptions, parents feel more strongly connected to school (Denessen et al., 2007).

Academic achievement is rooted in a school-supportive home climate (Cabus & Ariës,

2016). When parents and teachers search for agreement on respective tasks and abilities, and
strive for shared expectations regarding home learning activities, they can

support their children in an effective way (Iruka, Winn, Kingsley, & Orthodoxou, 2011),

which leads to better learning outcomes (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). When teachers share

appropriate information concerning school tasks and children’s development regularly and

comprehensively, this leads to an increasing sense of efficacy for parents who feel
insecure,which in turn is positively related to parental involvement (Waanders, Mendez, &
Downer,2007). Teachers need to inform parents of effective strategies in the home environment.
When
teachers acknowledge that parents are usually aware of their children’s needs and

difficulties and are willing to support their development, the non-optimal division of

roles, e.g. teachers as advice givers and parents as advice seekers, can be overcome.

Positive home–school relationships, founded on trust and approachability, may give

Teachers and parents have the opportunity to talk about parenting issues and home life. It is

important that teachers have knowledge of the home life of their pupils since this also

may avoid judgements of ‘bad’ parenting vis-à-vis parents who have a different frame of

reference than the teacher (Gwernan-Jones et al., 2015). The teachers’ attitude herein is crucial,
especially when discussing difficult subjects with parents and handling possible

conflicts of interest (Conderman et al., 2010). However, teachers seem, rather, to use a

conflict-avoidance strategy when confronted with low-SES parents who have children

with learning and behavioural problems (Broomhead, 2014).

When considering communication between teachers and families, it is imperative to realise the
overlying goal of both stakeholders to educate and socialise the students between the home and
shool settings (Vickers & Minke, 1995).

Traditionally, teachers communicate with families regarding classroom updates, student grades,
assignments, or behavioural concerns regarding the student

(Kosaretskii & Chernyshova, 2013). Communication methods can include emails, letters home,
phone calls, or even text messages depending on the teacher or family’s preference. Traditional
methods for teachers when communicating with families, have been through the use of bulletin
boards, notes sent home or in-person meetings.

Educational Team Communication

Effective communication strategies are not only important when considering the accomplishment
of reaching professional goals, but they are also necessary within
functioning educational teams. Educational teams are vital to the success of school functioning
and students’ academic and social fulfilment. Educational personnel teams include families,
general education teachers, special education teachers, school counsellors, administrators, related
service professionals, and others who contribute to overall school functioning. There must be
fluid communication within this team to ensure a positive and

fluid environment. Research has shown that teams with exceptionally high performances
exchange information frequently and feel comfortable providing communication with their
teammates (Butchibabu, Sparano-Huiban, Sonenberg, & Shah, 2016). Through the exchange of
messages, members of the educational team can relay positive information or concerns that likely
affect a student’s functioning outside the scope of their respective

professional view of the student. The effective use of teams in an educational setting provides
systematic, holistic support for students (Mahoney, Lafferty, & Nutter, 2003).

This system acts as a safety net to maintain a student’s a positive outlook on the educational
environment.Beyond the overall school functioning, educational teams can engage in the same
professional development programming to be comfortable using the same

educational jargon while communicating and have the the same message overall (Lindeman &
Magiera, 2014). This method ensures that there are no team members who are unfamiliar with
the terms being used and the reasoning behind the choices being made within a school.

Considering the varying professional and educational backgrounds an educational team has,
specifically Regarding teachers and school counsellors, there is a significant amount to learn
from one another and each brings different experiences as well as knowledge (Rice & Smith,
1993). Consultation within the various disciplines is to be expected in educational collaboration
(Tatar, 2009).

Common Goals of Parents and Teachers in Communication

The basic goal of the first meeting between teachers and parents is to provide timely information
about the school's mission, the learning progress of the year, and the fact that teachers and
parents are considered co-responsible for the children's learning progress. Additionally, the
combination of views, knowledge, and information of the family, teachers, and children is
beneficial for everyone, especially for children. Communication creates for teachers and parents
a more complete picture of the interests, needs, learning progress, and uniqueness of each child.
Therefore, common goals for teachers and parents during communication may include
understanding the child's learning progress, identifying areas for improvement, and working
together to support the child's academic and personal growth.

The forms of communication between parents and teachers can be divided into formal and
informal categories

Formal communication forms include: The first information session for parents, which is
scheduled by each class teacher at the beginning of the school year. During this session, the
teacher informs parents about teaching subjects and the learning process and sets the evaluation
goals for the school year. Moreover, the teacher highlights the fact that teachers and parents are
responsible for the child’s learning progress. The establishment of a weekly time slot for
meetings between teachers and parents. The teacher sets a time slot within his/her working hours,
to inform parents about children’s learning issues, but also about issues concerning their conduct.
In addition, the teacher provides clear guidelines about how to help their children with their
homework. Information about learning activities through a short text distributed to parents.
Listing of achievements, learning difficulties, or behaviours in a journal, to be in a position to
inform parents by providing specific facts.

Informal communication forms include: Extraordinary communication over the phone at the
initiative of either party. Parents’ visits outside the scheduled time slot, to deal with an
extraordinary learning issue or behaviour. Contacts and discussions in case of activities and
school events, when parents attend the school.

HOME-SCHOOL COMMUNICATION STRATEGY

Regular communication: Parents and teachers should communicate regularly to stay informed
about the student's progress and any issues or concerns that may arise. This can be done through
phone calls, emails, or in-person meetings.Parental involvement should include the participation
of the parents in regular, two-way and meaningful communication involving the learners’
academic learning, behaviour as well as other school activities. Face-to-face meetings involving
the families and the community members were more effective compared to other ways of
communication between the home and the school.Teachers can establish regular communication
with parents, such as weekly meetings or check-ins, to discuss the child's academic progress,
behavior, and any concerns or questions that either party may have. This can involve regular
updates on the child's progress, sharing of information about school activities and events, and
addressing any issues or concerns that may arise.

2. Clear and concise communication: Both parents and teachers should communicate clearly and
concisely to ensure that everyone understands the information being shared. This can help to
prevent misunderstandings and ensure that everyone is on the same page.Clear and open
communication: Teachers should communicate clearly and openly with parents, using language
that is easy to understand and avoiding jargon or technical terms. They should also be willing to
listen to parents' concerns and feedback, and to provide regular updates on their child's progress.
Communication between parents and teachers should be clear and concise, with a focus on the
child's progress and areas for improvement. This can help to ensure that parents have a clear
understanding of their child's academic and personal development, and can work with teachers to
support their child's learning.

also be willing to listen to parents' concerns and feedback, and to provide regular updates on
their child's progress. Communication between parents and teachers should be clear and concise,
with a focus on the child's progress and areas for improvement. This can help to ensure that
parents have a clear understanding of their child's academic and personal development, and can
work with teachers to support their child's learning.

3. Active listening: Both parents and teachers should practise active listening when
communicating with each other. This means listening carefully to what the other person is saying
and asking questions to clarify any misunderstandings. Teachers should be proactive in
communicating with parents, rather than waiting for parents to initiate contact. Teachers can
practice active listening, which involves listening carefully and observantly to parents, accepting
their views by adopting a neutral attitude, and sharing their thoughts and feelings with empathy.

Building trust and rapport: Teachers can establish a positive relationship with parents by being
approachable, non-judgmental, and responsive to their concerns. They can also make an effort to
learn about the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of their students and their families, and to be
sensitive to their needs and perspectives.The means of communication should be appropriate for
the parents and their cultural specifications while the process needs to be bidirectional.

4. Respectful communication: Parents and teachers should communicate with each other in a
respectful and professional manner. This can help to build trust and positive relationships
between home and school.Regular communication is important to keep parents informed about
their child's progress and any issues that may arise. They should encourage parents to provide
feedback on their child's progress and any issues that may arise.

Teachers can provide personalized communication, such as letters or comments about the child's
work, to keep parents informed about their child's progress.Effective communication should be
positive and respectful, with a focus on building a partnership between parents and teachers. This
can help to create a supportive and positive learning environment for the child, and can foster a
sense of community between parents, teachers, and students.

5. Collaboration: Parents and teachers should work together to support the student's academic
and personal development. This can involve sharing information, setting goals, and developing
strategies to address any issues or concerns.could be used to improve practice with intent to
enhance meaningful learning among the children. Combined efforts involving the national and
educational government bodies, the schools, the individuals and the relevant institutions should
be initiated.

Teachers can create a welcoming school environment that makes parents feel comfortable and
encourages their participation in their child's education.

Both parties can engage in preventive communication by addressing potential issues before they
become problems, such as by providing clear guidelines on how parents can support their child's
learning at home.

Schools can communicate with families in multiple ways, including sending home notes and
flyers about impoprioritizess and activities, giving teachers information about their child's health
and educational history, and maintaining a school website as an additional mode of
communication with parents and families. Additionally, schools can hold conferences with every
parent at least once a year, provide language translators to assist families as needed and maintain
a regular schedule of useful notices, memos, phone calls, newsletters, and other communications.
It is also important for schools to make an effort to involve all parents in the education of their
children and make the educational experience more positive for everyone involved. This can
include recruiting and organizing help and support from parents for school programs and student
activities, as well as providing opportunities for parents to volunteer in the school or classroom
as tutors or assistants, fundraising for events, or attending school programs or performances.
Overall, effective home-school communication requires a collaborative and respectful approach
that prioritises the student's academic and personal development.

HOME-SCHOOL COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY

Rapport can also be built through the use of technology.

Technology has had a significant impact on the way society communicates and has, overall,
changed communication expect the order to implement a method of communicating through
technology, it is important to have all stakeholders fluidly trained in the communication method
to be effective (Sharma & Sharma, 2014). Each individual taking part in the communication
should understand the uses, advantages, and disadvantages of the tool being used. Although there
is still significant value held in face-to-face communication, Technological advances in the realm
of communication have eliminated constraints such as time and space (Yumurtaci, 2017).
Stakeholders now can't via email, text message, online portal, or discussion boards. The ability
for quick responses creates an expectation efficiency .Communication through technology has
clear advantages; however, a piece of communication that is lost virtually is the non-verbal
aspect which can affect the reception or tone of the the message being sent. Yumurtachi (2017)
suggests that Technological communication is best used in conjunction with in-person
communication at the agreed upon the discretion of each stakeholder.

According to Tatar (2009), advice or information within respective disciplines in education

should be encouraged and “well-received” (p. 122) when working towards a goal in education.
To effectively work as an educational unit, it is important for each professional to identify and
define his or her role and responsibilities within the group (Dagenais, Pinard, St-Pierre, Briand-
Lamarche, Cantave, &

Péladeau, 2016). Overall, when working in educational teams it is important to keep student
success at the forefront of communication regardless of professional objectives. Use of
technology: Technology can be a useful tool for home-school communication, such as online
portals or apps that allow parents to access information about their child's progress and
communicate with teachers.Prudence: Teachers should be careful when discussing sensitive or
confidential information, and should consider whether digital communication is the appropriate
method for such discussions. Rhe school can use new technologies, such as email or online
platforms, to communicate with parents who may not be able to attend in-person meetings. These
methods are becoming less effective as technology continues to advance (Kosaretskii &

Chernyshova, 2013). Both teachers and families are relying more heavily on using technology to
communicate effectively. Using technology can build connectedness from the family to the
school since communication can be instant. Communication from the

The perspective of the teachers is likely to include massmessages that go out classwide unless
directly relevant to one particular student, while families communicate through technology
typically to gain information regarding their child (Kosaretskii & Chernyshova, 2013). Teachers
and

Families should, ideally, communicate through dynamic means rather than one-sided.However,
issues such as access and understanding come into concern when using technology to
communicate with families. Another issue with teachers communicating with families through
technology, there may be a misperception of tone within the message (Kosaretskii &

Chernyshova, 2013). Technological communications are often quick and direct and can be
perceived as negative. Teachers need to utilise the appropriate method, or channel, of
communication, when reaching out to, or responding to, families. As educators, being accessible
Through various forms of communication, lines are important

to reach families where they are socially, from a Technological sense and individual needs are
important for student success as well as positive rapport with the student’s family.

Ultimately, effective communication between educational professionals and families serves as a

fundamental factor in a student’s social and academic success. To maintain proper
communication, it is imperative to have the student’s best interests behind each line of
communication. Although each stakeholder may have the

same goal, defining clear roles can best facilitate the process of communication (Dagenais et al.,
2016). This provides each party with a coherent understanding of expectations for further
communication.

Obstacles to effective home-school communication

Many barriers hinder unification between families and schools.

Glasgow and Whitney (2009) observe that parents and teachers have a misconception about

each other’s vision for parental involvement. According to Erlendsdottir (2010), parents do

not always respond to communication from the school, hence the teachers may feel that the

parents are not interested in becoming involved. Accordingly, the parents often believe that

The teachers do not desire their involvement. Some parents and teachers often believe

that the learners may not appreciate or support their parents’ involvement. In particular, some

Teachers feel that the parents of teenagers should never be too involved. They,, therefore,
actively discourage the parents from participating in the relevant activities (Erlendsdottir,

2010; Richardson, 2009).

Nichols and Read (2002) and Lemmer (2013) note that a significant obstacle to meaningful

communication is the traditional parent-teacher conference that only lasts 5-15 minutes. A

meeting that is so short does not allow meaningful communication about the child’s academic

and social progress. Cultural differences also cause communication problems, especially if

the teachers rely on their cultural interpretations while interacting with heterogeneous

groups of parents. Similarly, Erlendsdottir (2010) and Richardson (2009) note that the parents’

own negative school experiences may affect the building of a positive relationship with their

children’s teachers. Christenson and Sheridan (2001) mention financial and time constraints

as other obstacles to effective communication between the teachers and the parents. In

addition, the educational jargon that schools often use with the parents hinders effective

communication between families and schools (Erlendsdottir, 2010).

As per NASP (2005), working with families and communities will always be one of the more

challenging tasks for educators and may frustrate many otherwise willing teachers.

Accordingly, families and educators often differ in their expectations, goals and

communication patterns, sometimes leading to annoyance and misunderstanding among

learners, families, and educators. Open communication is therefore essential for the

educators and families to understand and respect each other’s perspectives (Hoover-Dempsey,

Walker, Sandler, Whetsel, Green, Wilkins & Closson, 2005).

Epstein (2009) observes that the schools need to overcome challenges to family-school

partnerships by providing for school-home and home-school communication in a language and

at a reading level all families can understand, ensuring adequate representation of the entire
community of parents on school advisory councils or the school governing bodies, and
disseminating information provided during workshops to the families who could not attend.
Accordingly, the schools that make these kinds of efforts to reach all families will reap the
rewards of appreciation from all the parents, thereby improving the achievement of all the
learners. Furthermore, to address obstacles to parental involvement, teacher training, both pre-
and in-service, should cover the topic of parental involvement (The Net Industries, 2013). On the
whole, teacher training programs provide both time and curriculum space to parental
involvement (Epstein, 2013). ut effective family-school partnership should extend further than
merely addressing these obstacles and should include discussing and determining the rights,
roles, responsibilities,, and resources of the families, school staff, and (NASP, 2005). Florez
(2011) observes

that the traditional tension between the teachers and the learners and between the teachers and
the family should be replaced by conversation. In addition, the teachers should consider the
social and cultural contexts of the individual families and their offspring. As a professional
obligation, hers should develop constructive attitudes, philosophies, communication , and
practical skills to build productive relationships with lies (Getswicki, 2010). Among others, a
sincere understanding of parenting is essential to determine positive

home-school partnerships (Epstein et al., 2002).

IMPACT OF COMMUNICATION

Effective communication between parents and teachers can have a positive impact on children's
academic and personal growth . When teachers and parents work together, they can gain a more
complete picture of the child's interests, needs, learning progress, and uniqueness, which can
help them tailor their instruction and support to better meet the child's needs. This can lead to
improved academic performance, as well as better behaviour and social-emotional development.
Communication can also help to build a relationship based on mutual respect and understanding
between teachers and parents, which can contribute to a positive school environment.
Additionally, communication can facilitate early intervention in students with learning and
conduct problems, resulting in the improvement of their learning problems. Overall, effective
communication between parents and teachers is considered very important for the surrounding
systems of family, school, and broader society …..
……..

1. Improved academic performance can be achieved When parents and teachers communicate
regularly, they can work together to identify and address any academic struggles or challenges
that the student may be facing. This can help to improve the student's academic performance and
prevent them from falling behind.

2. Increased student motivation and engagement will be in place When parents are involved in
their child's education and communicate regularly with teachers, students are more likely to feel
motivated and engaged in their schoolwork. This can lead to better academic outcomes and a
more positive attitude towards learning.

3. Better behaviour and social skills: Parent-teacher communication can also help to address any
behavioural or social issues that the student may be experiencing. When parents and teachers
work together to address these issues, students are more likely to develop positive social skills
and behaviour.

4. Stronger family relationships: Effective communication between parents and teachers can also
help to strengthen family relationships. When parents are involved in their child's education, they
are more likely to feel connected to their child's school and each other.Overall, the impact of
parent-teacher communication is significant and can have long-lasting effects on students'
academic and personal development.

2.3 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL LEARNING

theory is a set of principles that are systematically designed. And these principles seek to
make connections between real events. Theory is a history that explains a common thread,
preparing a conceptual work plan (Isti'adah 2020, 26). Learning is an activity that occurs in every
human being, consciously or not, it will continue until the human leaves the earth. learning
process itself can be carried out anywhere and anytime, even through personal experience which
will certainly affect the person's behavior. The learning outcomes can be in the form of attitudes,
values, skills, and so on. This can be obtained based on the way someone is trying to get all the
new knowledge (Suyadi and Al-Mahirah, Education Journal, 2020, 2). In the learning process,
there are two camps, namely the first educators who teach or become facilitators and secondly
students as students who are ready to accept all the learning materials delivered by the educators.
Both parties have a reciprocal relationship in determining the success or failure of the learning
process (Suyadi, At-Tarbiyat Journal,2019, 5).

Humans are called social beings, meaning that they always need other people to fulfill all
their needs. Through reason, humans realize all knowledge that becomes a tool to adapt to their
environment. The ability to reason or think, live in harmony in diversity, and work up to the
skills to control emotions and feelings are skills that every human being should have (Ulum,
Journal of Islamic Basic Education, 2018, 4). So all of these skills are owned by everyone but the
flow of developing it varies. The process of psychomotor development is obtained through
education. Social learning is the ability to achieve maximum harmony in various parties. The
things contained in social skills include tolerance, adaptability, communication, and
participation. And social skills are things that must be learned. Therefore, social skills are
important for students to learn, so that they can live in a society with a more positive and wider
environment ranging from family, and friends to the community. And this learning can be
obtained through these interactions (Maryani, Research Journal, 2019, 8).Hurlock divides forms
of social behavior in children such as imitation, which is to be in harmony, namely according to
their group, children imitate the behavior of people they admire . According to Ahmad Susanto,
children imitate the teacher's attitude which is adjusted to the learning material. The behavior of
educators in general is another form of appearance of his personality. For young children,
educators are important figures in the process of growth, development, and coaching in the
behavior of students (Yanto and Syaripah, Journal of Basic Education and Learning, 2017, 66.)

2.3.1 SCOPE OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura (1925–2021) is the father of social learning theory. In the 1960’s, he conducted a
now-famous experiment called the Bobo doll experiment, which led to his official writings on
social learning theory in 1977. The Bobo doll experiment was a group of tests performed from
1961 to 1963. The experiments involved studying children’s behavior after they watched an adult
act aggressively toward a doll-like toy with a low center of mass that rocked back after being
knocked down. The most important element of the experiment was noting how the children
behaved after seeing the adult get rewarded, punished, or face no consequence for physically
abusing the Bobo doll. These experiments helped show how children can be influenced by
learning to internalize or imitate the behavior of others. Albert Bandura’ then applied these
insights to the behavioral development of students

Social learning theory is increasingly cited as an essential component of sustainable natural

resource management and the promotion of desirable behavioural change. (Muro & Jeffrey
2008). This theory is based on the idea that we learn from our interactions with others in a social
context. Separately, by observing the behaviors of others, people develop similar behaviors.
After observing the behavior of others, people assimilate and imitate that behavior, especially if
their observational experiences are positive ones or include rewards related to the observed
behavior. SLT has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. It is
rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory. This theory has often been
called a bridge between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories because it
encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. (Muro & Jeffrey 2008). However, in this
regard, Bandura believes that direct reinforcement cannot account for all types of learning. For
that reason, in his theory, he added a social element, arguing that people can learn new
information and behaviors by watching other people.

This theory is essentially a learning theory about behavior, but by channeling or emphasizing
the effects of behavior, as well as mental processes in depth. This learning theory uses the
explanation of external and cognitive reinforcement through learning from the behavior of
others. Based on the perspective of social learning, "a person is emphasized on self-ability and
environmental stimuli that lead to the realization of a positive behavior. However, the role of
psychology as we know it is as a continuous interaction and there is a relationship between the
person and the environment. Social learning theory is focused on understanding that the reality
of life that occurs in the environment is not random. So the environment can change, and human
behavior can determine the environment that changes it or itself that affects the environment.
which is often chosen and changed by each individual through or hor her So the analysis of
social learning is a continuous relationship between environmental variables, personality
characteristics, and a person's behavior that causes open or closed according to each individual
(Dahar 2011, 22). The first social learning theory was developed by Bandura through
experiments with puppet media called the Bobo Doll experiment Furthermore began to expand
widely in explaining children's feelings of fear and how children overcome their fears. This
social learning theory holds that every child can understand fear through the process of
observation from other children and from their past experiences which are used as learning if the
child is aware of this theory explains that everyone can learn by watching other people's behavior
from behavior to lifestyle through their experiences by seeing the same conditions or situations.
So it means that in the process there is an observation of the subject or figure that he sees which
causes a modeling stage process to occur, namely imitation.

In his theory, Albert Bandura focuses on two concepts that he considers important and have an
influence on human attitudes and actions, among others, first, observational learning (modeling)
which is more popularly known as social learning theory, and self-regulation (personality
psychology). A modeling study has stages namely attention, retention, reproduction as well as
motivation (Dahar 2011, 23). Albert Bandura suggests that the environment, behavior, and
internal events in learning influence each other in the formation of a person's character behavior.
The existence or different social acceptance also affects the individual's self-conception. The
relationship of these symbolic codes into three schemes like a triangle, namely, the environment,
behavior, and personal factors.

In 1986, Bandura published his second book Social foundations of thought and action: A
social cognitive theory,
which expanded and renamed his original theory. He called the new theory Social Cognitive
Theory (SCT). Bandura changed the name Social Learning Theory to Social Cognitive Theory to
emphasize the major role cognition plays in encoding and performing behaviors. In this book,
Bandura (1986) argued that human behavior is caused by personal, behavioral, and
environmental influences. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) holds that portions of an individual’s
knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social
interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. The theory states that when people
observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that behavior, they remember
the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Observing a
model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior they already learned (Bandura, 1986,
2002).

In other words, people do not learn new behaviors solely by trying them and either succeeding or
failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of
others. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the
outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media
provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings.

2.3.2 ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Self-Regulation

Self-regulation and self-efficacy are two elements of Bandura’s theory that rely heavily on
cognitive processes. They represent an individual’s ability to control their behavior through
internal reward or punishment in the case of self-regulation, and their beliefs in their ability to
achieve desired goals as a result of their own actions, in the case of self-efficacy.

Self-regulation is a general term that includes both self-reinforcement and self-punishment.

Self-reinforcement works primarily through its motivational effects. When an individual sets a
standard of performance for themselves, they judge their behavior and determine whether or not
it meets the self-determined criteria for reward. Since many activities do not have absolute
measures of success, the individual often sets their standards in relative ways. For example, a
weight-lifter might keep track of how much total weight they lift in each training session, and
then monitor their improvement over time or as each competition arrives. Although competitions
offer the potential for external reward, the individual might still set a personal standard for
success, such as being satisfied only if they win at least one of the individual lifts. The standards
that individuals set for themselves can be learned through modeling. This can create problems
when models are highly competent, much more so than the observer is capable of performing
(such as learning the standards of a world-class athlete).

Self-Efficacy

Social Cognitive Theory posits that learning most likely occurs if there is a close identification
between the observer and the model, and if the observer also has a good deal of self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is the extent to which an individual believes that they can master a particular skill.
Self-efficacy beliefs function as an important set of proximal determinants of human motivation,
affect, and action-which operate on action through motivational, cognitive, and affective
intervening processes (Bandura, 1989).

Self-efficacy can be developed or increased by:

• Mastery experience: which is a process that helps an individual achieve simple tasks that lead
to more complex objectives.

• Social modeling: provides an identifiable model that shows the processes that accomplish a
behavior.

• Improving physical and emotional states: refers to ensuring a person is rested and relaxed prior
to attempting a new behavior. The less relaxed, the less patient, the more likely they won’t attain
the goal behavior.

• Verbal persuasion: is providing encouragement for a person to complete a task or achieve a

certain behavior. (McAlister, Perry, & Parcel, 2008). For example, students become more
effortful, active, pay attention, highly motivated and better learners when they perceive that they
have mastered a particular task (Bandura, 1993). It is the duty of the teacher to allow students to
develop and perceive their efficacy by providing feedback to understand their level of
proficiency. Teachers should ensure that the students have the knowledge and strategies they
need to complete the tasks. Self-efficacy development is an exploring human agency and human
capability process.Young children may not have fully developed a sense of what they can and
cannot do. So, adult guidance can support young children in developing self-efficacy. For
example, they can climb to high places, wander into rivers or deep pools, and wield sharp knives
before they develop the necessary skills for managing such situations safely.

2.4 STAGES OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The basis behind social learning theory is that people observe the behavior, attitudes, and
consequences of others and then use that information to form their actions. The key concepts
behind this process include four basic learning requirements. These four concrete stages of social
learning within social learning theory include attention, retention and memory, initiation and
motor behavior, and motivation.

Attention. :In social learning theory, attention refers to the process of selectively focusing on
certain aspects of the environment or social situations. According to Albert Bandura, the
prominent psychologist behind social learning theory, attention is a crucial cognitive process that
influences how individuals acquire new behaviors and information from observing others.
Bandura suggests that attention is determined by several factors that can either enhance or inhibit
observational learning. These factors include:

1. Characteristics of the Model: Individuals are more likely to pay attention to someone who is
perceived as competent, attractive, or prestigious. For example, people may pay more attention
to a skilled athlete or a popular figure, as their actions are considered more valuable and worthy
of emulation. The model could even be a family figure, teacher, friend, or senior in school.

2. Characteristics of the Observer: Personal characteristics and cognitive abilities of the observer
also affect their attention. Factors such as motivation, interest, and previous experience with the
behavior or subject matter influence the extent to which individuals attend to the observed
model. For example, if someone is interested in learning how to play a musical instrument, they
are more likely to pay attention to a talented musician.

3. Nature of the Task: The difficulty or complexity of the task being observed can influence
attention. If a behavior or task is perceived as too challenging or irrelevant, individuals may be
less likely to pay attention to it. On the other hand, if the task is deemed valuable or interesting,
attention will be increased.
4. Reinforcement and Consequences: The outcomes or consequences associated with the
observed behavior also affect attention. If a behavior leads to positive consequences or rewards,
individuals are more likely to attend to and learn from it. Conversely, if a behavior leads to
negative consequences, attention may be diminished.

Overall, attention plays a pivotal role in social learning theory as it determines what individuals
focus on and subsequently learn from their observations of others. By selectively attending to
certain models and behaviors, individuals can acquire new skills, behaviors, and information
through observation and imitation.

For a lesson or experience to have an impact on an observer, the observer must be actively
observing their surroundings. It helps if the observer identifies well with the model or feels
positive feelings about it. In addition, it helps if the observer is invested in the process of
observing or feels strong feelings about the experience that they are observing. Factors that
might affect attention include complexity, distinctiveness , and functional value.

Retention and memory: Social learning theory provides a bridge between the behaviorist
approach and the cognitive approach to learning theory (Social Learning Theory, 2014). With
the constant flow of information, it is not enough to simply pay attention to the social context of
learning. True learning requires external stimuli and bits of information to be encoded into the
student's memory, able to be retrieved and applied to external life situations. Social interaction is
a complex system of collaborative parts, each performing a different function that may or may
not affect lasting memory. By providing reinforcing stimuli in the form

of graphical representations, annotations via peercomments, and the ability to interact with
information in a live setting, social media enhances student opportunities for memory creation
and memory retention. Retention and memory are crucial concepts in social learning theory,
which aims to understand how individuals acquire knowledge and skills by observing others in
social environments.

Retention also refers to the process of storing and retaining the information we acquire through
observation and learning. It involves encoding the observed behavior or information in our
memory systems so that we can access and retrieve it later when needed. Retention is essential
because without a properly encoded memory, learning from social experiences would be futile.
Memory, on the other hand, is the cognitive ability that enables us to retain, store, and retrieve
information. In the context of social learning theory, memory plays a fundamental role in the
learning process. It allows individuals to store and process the observed behavior, making it
available for later recall and imitation.

According to social learning theory, there are different levels of memory involved in the learning
process. These include:

1. Implicit memory: This type of memory involves automatic and unconscious retention of
information. When individuals observe others and imitate their behavior, they often do so
without conscious awareness. Implicit memory allows individuals to imitate behavior without
necessarily recalling the specific details of the observation. It is especially significant in the
acquisition of skills through observation and practice.

However, implicit memory is nevertheless exceedingly important to us because it has a direct

effect on our behavior. Implicit memory refers to the influence of experience on behavior, even
if the individual is not aware of those influences. There are three general types of implicit
memory: procedural memory, classical conditioning effects, and priming.

Procedural memory refers to our often unexplainable knowledge of how to do things. When we
walk from one place to another, speak to another person in English, dial a cell phone, or play a
video game, we are using procedural memo ry. Procedural memory allows us to perform
complex tasks, even though we may not be able to explain to others how we do them. There is no
way to tell someone how to ride a bicycle; a person has to learn by doing it. The idea of implicit
memory helps explain how infants can learn. The ability to crawl, walk, and talk are procedures,
and these skills are easily and efficiently developed while we are children even though as adults
we have no conscious memory of having learned them.

A second type of implicit memory is classical conditioning effects, in which we learn, often
without effort or awareness, to associate neutral stimuli (such as a sound or a light) with another
stimulus (such as food), which creates a naturally occurring response, such as enjoyment or
salivation. The memory for the association is demonstrated when the conditioned stimulus (the
sound) begins to create the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (the food) did before the
learning.

The final type of implicit memory is known as priming, or changes in behavior as a result of
experiences that have happened frequently or recently. Priming refers both to the activation of
knowledge (e.g., we can prime the concept of “kindness” by presenting people with words
related to kindness) and to the influence of that activation on behavior (people who are primed
with the concept of kindness may act more kindly).

One measure of the influence of priming on implicit memory is the word fragment test, in which
a person is asked to fill in missing letters to make words.

Explicit memory: In contrast to implicit memory, explicit memory involves conscious and
intentional recall of information. It allows individuals to remember specific details, facts, or
events that they have observed or learned. Explicit memory plays a crucial role in the retention
and retrieval of complex social behaviors and verbal information. Explicit memory refers to
knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered. , there are two types of explicit
memory: episodic and semantic. Episodic memory refers to the firsthand experiences that a
person has had. Semantic memory refers to knowledge of facts and concepts about the world
(e.g., that the absolute value of −90 is greater than the absolute value of 9 and that one definition
of the word “affect” is “the experience of feeling or emotion”). tion. A recall memory test is a
measure of explicit memory that involves bringing from memory information that has previously
been remembered. People recall memory when they take an essay test because the test requires
them to generate previously remembered information. A multiple-choice test is an example of a
recognition memory test, a measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether
information has been seen or learned before. Social learning theory emphasizes that attention,
retention, and memory work together in a cyclical process. Attention directs individuals' focus to
relevant social cues, retention encodes the observed information into memory, and memory
enables individuals to retrieve and imitate the observed behavior when appropriate.

By understanding the concepts of retention and memory in social learning theory, we can gain
insights into how individuals learn from social experiences and how observational learning
influences behavior and cognition. For any learned experience to make a lasting impact, the
observer needs to be able to remember it later. Once the observer can recall the experience, it
also helps if they go over the experience, either revisiting it cognitively in their mind or even
acting it out physically. For example, a toddler may learn from an adult not to throw things and
later they may be observed teaching one of their stuffed animals that it's not okay to throw.

Initiation and motor capability. To carry out the lesson learned, the observer needs to be able
to reenact it. Learning the necessary skills is an important part of the process before a behavior
can be modeled. When a person has effectively paid attention to modeled behavior and repeats or
demonstrates it, they have achieved the necessary skills.

In social learning theory, initiation and motor capability are important concepts that explain how
individuals acquire new behaviors through observation and imitation. These concepts were
introduced by psychologist Albert Bandura, who emphasized that individuals learn not only
through direct reinforcement or punishment but also by observing others and imitating their
actions. Initiation refers to the motivation or willingness to engage in a behavior that has been
witnessed. It involves the decision-making process and the determination to replicate an
observed behavior. According to Bandura, people are more likely to imitate a behavior if they
perceive that the model is competent and the behavior is likely to lead to positive outcomes. For
example, a child might witness their parent successfully solving a math problem and decide to
emulate their parent's problem-solving strategies.

Motor capability, on the other hand, refers to the individual's ability to physically perform the
observed behavior. It involves the cognitive and physical skills required to imitate the behavior
accurately. For example, watching someone play a musical instrument and then attempting to
play the same instrument requires the development of motor capability to coordinate finger
movements and produce the desired sounds.

Initiation and motor capability interact with each other in the social learning process. A person
may have the desire to imitate a behavior, but without the required motor capabilities, they may
not be able to accurately replicate it. Conversely, even if an individual possesses the necessary
motor skills, they may not initiate the behavior if they lack the motivation or desire to do so.

Bandura's social learning theory also highlights the role of self-efficacy, which is an individual's
belief in their competence to successfully perform a behavior. The perception of self-efficacy
influences both initiation and motor capability. If individuals believe they are capable of
performing the behavior and expect positive outcomes, they are more likely to initiate the
behavior and develop the necessary motor skills to imitate it. The concept of initiation and motor
capability in social learning theory has important implications in various domains, such as
education, parenting, and the development of prosocial behaviors and attitudes. By
understanding how initiation and motor capability contribute to the social learning process,
educators, parents, and social influence agents can effectively promote desired behaviors and
skills by providing appropriate models, creating a supportive environment, and fostering self-
efficacy beliefs. Even if an observer has focused on a lesson, remembered all the details, and
learned the necessary skills to do it, they still need to have the motivation to make it happen. The
source of motivation could include anything from external rewards and bribes, observations that
similar behavior is rewarded, desire to be like the model who demonstrated the behavior, or
internal motivation to improve or learn. Other factors that impact motivation include personal
characteristics, past experiences, promised incentives, positive reinforcement, and punishment.

There are three core principles at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people
can learn through observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part
of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it
does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

Observation is a crucial component of social learning theory. In social learning theory,

individuals learn by observing the behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of others. This process
involves perceiving and attending to the actions and behaviors of others, and then using those
observations to guide their own behavior. According to social learning theory, individuals are
more likely to imitate or learn from others if they perceive them as being similar to themselves, if
the observed behavior leads to positive outcomes, and if they believe they are capable of
performing the behavior themselves. This means that observation helps individuals understand
which behaviors are considered appropriate or socially acceptable in a given context.
Observation can occur through various means, such as direct observation of behavior in real-life
settings, observing behaviors in the media (e.g., television shows, movies), or through social
media platforms where individuals share their experiences and behaviors. These observations can
influence an individual's attitudes, beliefs, and future behaviors.

For example, if someone observes their friend getting praised for helping others, they are likely
to learn that helping behavior is valued in their social group. This observation may encourage
them to engage in similar helping behaviors themselves. Similarly, if someone observes a
celebrity endorsing a product, they may be more likely to purchase and use that product based on
their observation of the celebrity's behavior. Observation in social learning theory is not limited
to positive behaviors. Individuals can also learn from negative behaviors they observe in others.
For instance, observing someone experiencing negative consequences due to substance abuse
may discourage an individual from engaging in similar behavior themselves.

Observation is a crucial component of social learning theory as it allows individuals to learn

by watching and imitating the behaviors of others. It helps individuals understand which
behaviors are appropriate or valued in a given context and can influence their attitudes, beliefs,
and future behaviors. In social learning theory, modeling refers to the process of learning by
observing and imitating others' behavior .Models play a pivotal role in the development of
children, and often the observed behavior impacts many of the attitudes, behaviors, and ideas a
child adopts during their development. Based on Bandura’s experiment, children learn and retain
the behavior they’re exposed to, which potentially determines their individual views, ranging
from emulating masculine and feminine behaviors, developing antisocial or social personalities,
and adopting specific attitudes and behaviors in the long term.

There are several types of modeling that are identified in observation in social learning theory:

1. Live Modeling: Live modeling involves observing and imitating the behavior of real-life
individuals. For example, a child may imitate the behavior of their parents or older siblings.
Perhaps one of the most influential models in the life of a child is the role of the teacher.
Teachers play a critical role in a child’s learning process, and Bandura’s theory supports the idea
that reinforcement is perhaps the most important element of observational learning. Children are
more likely to learn and repeat behavior based on factors including being complimented or
rewarded, or by virtue of motivation to continue exhibiting the learned behavior. A teacher not
only contributes to a child’s educational foundation, but also aids in providing the
encouragement and reinforcement needed to persist in all aspects of their lives through childhood
and into adulthood.

2. Symbolic Modeling: Symbolic modeling involves observing and imitating the behavior of
people portrayed in media, such as television shows, movies, or books. This type of modeling
allows individuals to learn from characters or personalities they see in fictional or non-fictional
contexts.

3. Verbal Modeling: Verbal modeling involves learning by listening to verbal instructions or

descriptions of behavior. For example, a teacher or parent may provide instructions on how to
complete a task, and the learner imitates the behavior based on those instructions.

4. Self-Modeling: Self-modeling involves observing and imitating one's own behavior. This can
happen through self-reflection or by watching recordings of oneself engaging in certain
behaviors. Self-modeling can be a powerful tool for self-improvement and self-regulation.

5. Vicarious Modeling: Vicarious modeling involves observing and imitating the behavior of
others, even without direct interaction. This occurs when individuals learn from the
consequences of others' behavior. For example, observing the negative consequences of certain
actions in others may deter an individual from engaging in that behavior.

Overall, these different types of modeling in social learning theory highlight the various ways in
which individuals can learn from and imitate the behavior of others, whether it be through direct
observation, symbolic representation, verbal instructions, self-reflection, or vicarious learning.
2.4 APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning theory can have several real-world applications. For example, it can be used to
help researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through
observational learning. By studying media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding
of the factors that might lead children to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on
television and in the movies. social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive
behaviors. Researchers can use social learning theory to investigate and understand ways that
positive role models can be used to encourage desirable behaviors and facilitate social change.
Today, both teachers and parents recognize how important it is to model appropriate behaviors.
social learning theory can be applied to almost any social and behavior change communication
program that aims to influence social behaviors, particularly behaviors that are complex or
involve interactions with other people. It can be especially useful when a particular behavior is
difficult to describe, but can be explained through demonstration or modeling. Additionally,
social learning principles can be used to change perceptions of the social environment, making
behaviors seem more common and providing social support to people who are considering a
behavior change.

Social learning in education is conducive to instructing numerous students in one classroom, as

this learning can occur at multiple levels and through various situations. Children are constantly
observing others, making this type of learning both reciprocal and continuous. . classroom
strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also rooted in social
learning theory

Teachers can support students’ learning by framing personal experiences as meaningful content,
facilitating community through peer assessment, using group work to develop shared practices,
and extending the purpose of subject teaching to influence students’ identities (Restad, 2021).

As Bandura observed, life would be incredibly difficult and even dangerous if you had to learn
everything you know from personal experience. Observing others plays a vital role in acquiring
new knowledge and skills. By understanding how social learning theory works, you can gain a
greater appreciation for the powerful role that observation plays in shaping the things we know
and the things we do While it’s one thing to study social learning, it’s another to really
incorporate it into your classroom. It’s important to understand strategies for how to incorporate
this theory and help students succeed with it. Empathy and care are crucial to making sure this
learning theory achieves positive results in your classroom. Teachers should always remember
that they can focus on reinforcement to shape behavior, model appropriate behavior, and build
self-efficacy as part of their classroom model.

The flipped classroom model. A flipped classroom model involves changing traditional learning
schedules. Instead of a teacher lecturing during the school day, students watch an instructional
video or read material at home. Then in class, they apply what they learned through activities or
assignments that might have been homework. Teachers act as guides and coaches, helping them
continue their learning. This embodies the social learning theory because students can observe
the behaviors and actions of other students during the learning and activities, seeing when they
are getting praised and encouraged, and apply those observations to their learning. Teachers can
incorporate this model by recording themselves lecturing on a certain subject so that students can
watch that video as their homework, then ask questions and work on assignments the next day.
The idea of flipped classroom is considered a recent one in the field of education & it has gained
much attention

and popularity among educators worldwide. The founders of flipped classroom are Jonathan
Bergmann and Aaron Sams, they used teacher-created video/video tutorials as an instructional
tool to teach chemistry high school in 2007. . It is difficult

to define term flipped classroom because it appears different at every teaching learning situation.
A fourth-grade teacher will apply a flipped classroom in a different manner than a high school
English teacher. However, some similarities can be seen across the educational field, Lage et al
[3] defined the flipped classroom in simplest terms. “Inverting the classroom means that events
that have traditionally taken place inside the classroom now take place outside the classroom and
vice versa” Thus the flipped classroom only means re-ordering of classroom and home activities.
Flipped classroom is an instructional strategy and a type of blended learning that reverses the
traditional

learning environment by delivering instructional content, often online, outside of the classroom.
It moves
activities, including those that may have traditionally been considered homework, into the
classroom. In a flipped classroom, students watch online lectures, collaborate in online
discussions, or carry out research at home and engage in concepts in the classroom with the
guidance of a mentor. Flipped classroom is a student-centred approach where the students
actively participate in classroom activities. Here, the instructor plays the role of a facilitator,
motivator, guide, and offers instant feedback on students' performance [10].The flipped
classroom permits the students to view and examine the video tutorials outside classroom
without any bondage of time, need, and place. The students can study and learn at their own
pace. In flipped classroom, the students don‟t have to listen long boring lectures in the
classroom, but will get much more time and opportunity to find a solution to problems
independently or collaboratively through correspondence learning with peers.

It is helpful in understanding of Difficult Topics: In conventional classroom, instructions were

carried out through lecture method, after finishing their school work; students go to their homes
and try to apply what they have learned without any assistance. At home they can often get stuck
and fail to complete the assigned task. At this juncture the students are left with few options.
Under such conditions, they usually waste lot of time and energy on the task for which they are
not prepared. They may give up, call a friend for assistance, seek the teacher‟s help the next day,
or in most awful case cheat to complete the assigned task.

But the flipped classroom has an added advantage that the work to be done at home is simply to
watch a video tutorial at home and come back to school next day and discuss the complexities of
the topic with his

teacher and in long run these discussions promote higher-order thinking among the students of
the class.

Self paced learning strategy: In a flipped classroom, students can have better command over their
own learning. By offering students online recorded video lectures at home, they get more
freedom to learn at their own pace and ability. Students can repeatedly watch the online lectures
of their teachers from different disciplines and write down queries related to any content they
watched and discuss those queries with their teachers and peers in class. Such practice provides
students more time to comprehend certain concepts and get more time analyse the
material/content without being left behind, and receive instantaneous support
from teachers and classmates. As a matter of fact this method can not only improves student‟s
achievement, but improve their behavior & attitudes in class as well. It encourages students to
teach and learn concepts by seeking collaboration and cooperation among each other and their
teachers. Allowing students to partake in their own learning, they are able construct their own
knowledge, which in turn boosts their self-confidence. Moreover, the teachers also gain the
insight to spot the errors in thought process and concept application.

Gamification and simulations. Gamification and simulations help teachers turn their classroom
into a more interactive experience, turning assignments and activities into games. Gamification
can involve turning an activity into a competitive game with rewards for winners, creating that
unique and novel spark that will attract the interest of students.

Simulations in the classroom help add interest and fun to a classroom situation. A mock trial, a
mock city, a digital simulation—these are great ways to enhance a classroom setting and keep
students engaged. Meanwhile, they can learn by researching for the assignment while interacting
with and learning from their peers. Teachers can begin by testing out a unit that includes a simple
game or simulation, then add new games or simulations at larger scales.

Peer coaching. Peer coaching is a great way to help students learn from each other. Students
connected to each other can observe and learn, helping each other along the way. It’s important
to be careful when instituting peer coaching, as you don’t want students to feel uncomfortable or
insecure about another student helping them. Peer tutoring can work well for math learning,
paper writing and editing, and more. To successfully institute peer coaching, carefully observe
students to determine which pairs would be a good match. Older students can also fill this role,
passing on what they have learned from adults as they themselves learn to teach.

2.5.2 IMPACT OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

2.5.3 INCORPORATION OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN CLASSROOM/SCHOOL
2.6 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Ellis, M., Lock, G., & Lummis, G. (2015). Conducted research on Parent-Teacher
Interactions: Engaging with Parents and Carers. The participants in this study were parents and
teachers from four low-fee, independent, Protestant, metropolitan Perth primary schools with a
2008–2009 median socio-economic score (SES) (Page 5). A total of 67 participants took part in
the study, comprising 36 parent participants and 31 teacher participants (Page 5) (Page 6). The
demographic information regarding the parents and teachers who participated in this research
indicated that they were predominantly Australian citizens who had completed further education
such as Technical and Further Education or tertiary education, had time available to be involved
in the school, and ranged from being new to established members of either the local school or
teaching community

The research methods used in this study were focus groups and individual, in-depth, semi-
structured interviews (Page 4). The focus groups allowed participants to offer their points of
view, experiences, and/or perspectives on a given topic, while the interviews were used to collect
information about the participants’ insights and experiences of the world in which they operated,
and the meaning that they gave to these experiences. The data collected from these methods were
used to identify themes and patterns in the stories shared by the participants. The method of data
collection used in this study was a combination of focus groups and individual, in-depth, semi-
structured interviews. During the first phase of data collection, parents and teachers responded to
a set of guiding questions in focus group sessions. In the second phase, individual parents and
teachers were interviewed in-depth about their experiences of positive and less-than-satisfactory
parent-teacher meetings. The data collected from these methods were used to identify themes and
patterns in the stories shared by the participants. The study derived four conclusions. First,
parent-teacher interactions were either collaborative or non-collaborative. Second, particular
activities underpinned these collaborative and/or non-collaborative practices. Third, specific
outcomes were afforded to students as a result of these collaborative and non-collaborative
practices. Fourth, people who have a career, or are about to embark on a career, as a teacher need
to be made aware of these collaborative and non-collaborative practices.

Although, The study did not include the method of data analysis and the total number of male
and female participants from both parties did not tally with the total number of participants.
There was no leading question or hypothesis to guide the study. Also, there was no application
model used for parent-teacher interaction which this study intends to capture to bridge the
existing gap.

Heidi Abadeh (2015) conducted a study on Home-School Communications: Multicultural

Parents of Children with Disabilities. A nonexperimental, descriptive research design was used
in this study. This type of

research design provides a snapshot of a phenomenon at a particular point in time. When this
type of research design is used, the independent variable is not manipulated and no treatment or
intervention is provided for the participants. Participants in the study were Arab Americans,
generally between 25 and 45 years of age. Data collected from the survey were analyzed using
IBM-SPSS. A principal

components factor analysis was used to test the survey for construct validity. Cronbach alpha
coefficients were used to determine the internal consistency of the four subscales that emerged
from the factor analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to provide a profile of the sample. The
research hypothesis was tested using t-tests for independent samples. The study was conducted in
a single school district limiting the effectiveness of the present study. Correlative research would
have been better for the research.

Minke, Kathleen M.; Sheridan, Susan M.; Kim, Elizabeth Moorman; Ryoo, Ji Hoon; and
Koziol, Natalie A.(2014) conducted a study on congruence in parent-teacher relationships. The
participants in the study were 206 kindergarten through grade 3 children with an average age of
6.51 years (SD 1.12) from 21 Midwestern elementary schools. The majority of children were
male (73.8%) and, as reported by parents, 72.4% were White, 8.2% were Black, 5.1% were
Hispanic/Latino, 0.5% were American Indian/Alaska Native, and 13.8% were other ethnicities.
Most children spoke English at home (95.4%), 3.1% spoke Spanish at home, and 1.5% of parents
reported other languages. Of participating children, 43.2% were identified as having a disability
according to teacher reports of special education services, teacher-reported clinical diagnosis, or
parent-reported clinical diagnosis. total number of participants in the study was 288. There were
206 parent participants and 82 teacher participants. Congruence between parent and teacher
reports of their relationship quality was determined through ratings made by parents and teachers
on the Parent-Teacher Relationship Scale (Vickers & Minke, 1995). Descriptive data from scales
were used to measure these variables. The models were evaluated similarly to that of traditional
ANOVA (models 2 and 3) and MANOVA (models 1, 4, and 5). A likelihood ratio test statistic
(LRT; or, symbolically, 2log()) was used to determine whether the omnibus effect of the
categorical predictor, PTRS congruence, on the outcome(s) was significant. Univariate tests were
evaluated for all MANOVA models demonstrating a significant omnibus effect. The result of the
finding mentioned is that in the sample studied, children whose parents and teachers reported
congruent but nonpositive relationships had lower mean reading and math scores compared to
those who shared a positive view of the relationship, although the difference was not statistically
significant.

By way of critique, results should be interpreted as preliminary, keeping in mind the nature of
the sample

used. Students were nominated for participation based on teachers’ rankings of their behavior
problems. Therefore, the sample does not represent relationships where

the child is judged to be doing well behaviorally. It should also be recalled that the present
sample consisted of primarily White, English-speaking families and
teachers. Results may not be generalizable to other populations.

Christopher, M.(2009). Carried out an investigation that examined associations between

early adolescents’ relationships with parents and teachers and indicators of school adjustment.
The research method used in the study was a survey research, The participants in the study were
adolescents attending middle school in a large Midwestern city. The majority of participants
were students of color, primarily Latino, and from low-income backgrounds. The study focused
on 104 of the 129 youth who participated, for whom complete data on all measures were
available. The data was collected through student surveys that were administered by two
graduate assistants during a homeroom advisement period in the morning on consecutive days
for 1 week. All items were read aloud to students by the graduate assistants to ensure participant
understanding. Data relating to students’ academic performance were gathered from student
records at the end of the school year. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to
examine the main effects of parent and teacher relationships on the school adjustment and
functioning variables. Academic achievement was entered as a control variable on the first step
of each equation. The parent relationship variables were entered on the second step of each
equation followed by the teacher relationship variables, which were entered on the third step.
These models allowed for an evaluation of the relative contribution of each set of predictor
variables as well as an evaluation of the overall contribution made by all predictors. The data
was analyzed using SPSS (Version 14.0). The study found that positive parent-child and teacher-
student relationships were associated with better school adjustment and functioning among
students of color in a low-income urban environment. The study also found that increased
positive involvement, one-on-one interaction, and support from teachers can improve the school-
related adjustment of students of color. However, this might not be relevant in the environment
in which the current study is being carried out. A, Also, the data is correlational and does not
offer evidence of causality. Finally, the study was about early adolescents which is quite
different from what the present study intends to find out.

Douglas R. Powell, Seung-Hee Son, Nancy, B. Robert R. San Juan (2010) conducted a study
on Parent–school relationships and children's academic and social outcomes in public school pre-
kindergarten. The study used a quasi-experimental design with a pretest-posttest comparison
group (Page 18). The child assessments and parent interviews were conducted by graduate
research assistants, and the fidelity of the parent interviews was regularly assessed by one of the
study's investigators. At the beginning of the academic year, all parents of children enrolled in
each of the 13 classrooms were invited to participate in the study, and complete data were
secured for 76% of the original sample of parents and their children. The participants in the study
were parents and their children enrolled in 13 pre-kindergarten classrooms in a Midwestern city
in the United States. The study included a total of 180 parents who consented to participate, and
complete data were secured for 76% of the original sample of parents and their children.

The study used multiple methods of data collection, including child assessments, teacher reports,
and parent interviews. study used hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to analyze the data. The
researchers calculated effect sizes with the t statistics and the degree of freedom provided in
HLM output using the formula Cohen's d = 2t/df. They used Cohen's guidelines to interpret the
effect sizes. found that parental school involvement and parent perceptions of teacher
responsiveness significantly predicted school readiness outcomes in a large urban school district.
These two dimensions of parent–school relationships deserve attention in efforts to expand and
improve the quality of pre-kindergarten education.

One limitation of the study is that it was conducted in a single urban school district, which may
limit the generalizability of the findings to other contexts like Nigeria. Additionally, the study
relied on self-reported measures of parent–school relationships, which may be subject to social
desirability bias. Finally, the study did not examine the long-term effects of parent–school
relationships on children's academic and social outcomes beyond the pre-kindergarten year.

Daniel Ampem, Darko-Asumadu, Solomon Sika-Bright (2020) conducted a study on

Parental Involvement and Pupils’ Academic

Performance. The study adopted a descriptive research design employing a concurrent mixed
method, Who were the participants

The population for the study comprised students in Kwaprow Basic School. The total number of
students in the Kwaprow JHS was 258. The population comprised students from high and low
academic performance levels. A sample of 120 students was selected from the population. The
sample included male and female students in the first, second, and third years of Junior High
School. The study relied on primary data with questionnaires and interviews as research
instruments. The questionnaire was developed for this research to get responses and views from
students. The questionnaires employed both open and closed-ended questions. An interview
guide was used to elicit responses from parents and teachers. The gathered data were coded,
edited, and analyzed using the Statistical Product for Service Solution software version 21.
Descriptive and inferential statistics such as frequency tables, percentages, cross-tabulation, chi-
square test, and Pearson correlation coefficient were used to establish the relationship between
the socio-economic status of parents and the mediating role of parental involvement. Responses
gathered from the interviews were transcribed and analyzed using narrative analysis to
complement the quantitative data. The study found that parental socio-economic status and
parental involvement significantly influenced the academic performance of students. The study
also found that students whose parents had received formal education performed better than
those whose parents had no formal education. As a way of critique, the use of self-reported data
from students may be subject to bias or inaccuracies. possible limitation is the use of self-
reported data from students, which may be subject to bias or inaccuracies. study relied on cross-
sectional data, which may not allow for causal inferences to be made about the relationship
between parental involvement, socio-economic status, and academic performance.

Raymond J. Ankrum (2016) Conducted a study on Socioeconomic Status and Its Effect on
Teacher/Parental Communication in Schools. The research method used in this study was a
Likert survey. The participants in this study were certified teachers. The survey was voluntary,
and participants could choose to either partake in the research or not partake, with no penalty or
judgment. In total, 42 out of 115 participants responded to the survey. The data in this study was
collected through a Likert survey, which was administered online. The survey link was sent to
school leaders from various regions of the country, who then sent the link to the participants on
their staff as directed by the researcher. Data in this study was collected and analyzed using
Google Forms. The study suggests that partnerships between schools, families, and communities
can create the conditions for student success and that relationships between these parties must be
characterized by mutual trust and respect. So many inconsistencies in the article including: The
study only used three questions in the survey, which is less than the standard number of
questions in a Likert survey. This may have limited the scope of the study and the depth of the
data collected. It did not capture the race of the participants, which could have provided valuable
insights into how different demographics view issues related to parenting and school
involvement. The study had a modest sample size of 42 out of 115 participants, which may not
be representative of the larger population. The study was cross-sectional, which makes
directionality unclear. That is, family interaction patterns could shape family relationship quality
or relationship quality could determine interaction patterns.

W Stanley, Siebert Xiangdon, Wei Ho Lun Wong, and Xiang Zhou (2018) investigated on
Student Feedback, Parent-Teacher Communication, and Academic Performance. The research
method used in the study is a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT). This is mentioned on page 9,
where it states that the trials lasted for two school terms and involved two experiments to test the
effectiveness of teacher-student feedback and teacher-student-parent communication. The
participants in the study were students from 10 elementary schools in Shaoyang County, Hunan
Province. A total of 4,429 students took the baseline Math and Chinese tests. The number of
participants varied depending on the intervention group. The Feedback Classes had 1,133
students at the start, with 962 remaining for the end-line test. The Feedback and Parent
Communication Classes had 1,353

1,353 students initially, with 1,154 remaining for the online test. The Control Classes had 1,943
students initially, with 1,723 remaining for the online test. The method of data collection in this
study involved using test scores obtained from uniform math and language tests administered by
the local education bureau. These raw scores were converted into standardized scores for
analysis. The baseline average and standard deviation of the raw scores in the control group were
used to standardize both the baseline and end-line test scores of all students. The data was
analyzed using a statistical approach. The outcome measures of the study were test scores, which
were converted into standardized scores to make them comparable. Two intervention variables
were constructed to represent the intervention status of the students. The study found that the
combined intervention of student feedback and parent-teacher communication led to significant
improvements in math and language test scores, as well as higher attendance rates and lower
dropout rates. As a way of critique, First, the study was conducted in a specific rural area of
China, which does not apply to the demographic location in which this study is carried out. The
study faced challenges in achieving balance in the baseline characteristics of the sample due to
uneven school sizes in the county. While the researchers attempted to address this issue through
statistical methods, it may still affect the validity of the results. Also, there was attrition of
students over the study period, which may have introduced bias into the results. Finally, the
study only measured the short-term effects of the interventions and did not examine their long-
term impact on academic outcomes or other outcomes such as social learning.
2.5 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Students learn a great deal simply by observing others; Describing the consequences of
behavior increases appropriate behaviors, decreasing inappropriate ones; this includes discussing
the rewards of various positive behaviors in the classroom;

Modeling provides an alternative to teaching new behaviors. To promote effective modeling,

teachers must ensure the four essential conditions exist: attention, retention, production, and
motivation (reinforcement and punishment); Modeling also includes modeling of interest,
thinking process, attitudes, instructional materials, media (TV and advertisement), academic
work achievement and progress, encouragement, emotions, etc. in the physical, mental and
emotional aspects of development Instead of using shaping, an operant conditioning strategy,
teachers will find modeling is a faster and more efficient means of teaching new knowledge,
skills, and dispositions; Teachers must model appropriate behaviors and they do not model
inappropriate behaviors; Teachers should expose students to a variety of models including peers
and other adult models; this is important to break down stereotypes;
Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing a task; it is important for students
to develop a sense of self-efficacy. Teachers can promote such self-efficacy by having students
receive confidence-building messages, watch others be successful, and experience success on
themselves; Teachers should help students set realistic expectations ensuring that expectations
are realistically challenging. Sometimes a task is beyond a student’s ability; Self-regulation
techniques provide an effective method for improving student behaviors.

3.