Revolutionary Figure(s):

 Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was a Polish astronomer who formulated a model of the universe
that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at its center.

 Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was a Danish astronomer who made precise observations of the planets and
stars.

 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was a German astronomer who discovered the laws of planetary motion.

 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer who used a telescope to
observe the planets and stars.

Key Events and Discoveries:

 In 1543, Copernicus published his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Celestial Spheres), which presented his heliocentric model of the universe.
 Brahe made precise observations of the planets and stars, which helped to confirm Copernicus's
model.

 Kepler discovered the laws of planetary motion, which further supported the heliocentric model.

 Galileo used a telescope to observe the planets and stars, and his observations provided further
evidence for the heliocentric model.

How These Discoveries Challenged Existing Beliefs:

 The prevailing belief at the time was that the Earth was the center of the universe and that the Sun and
planets revolved around it.

 The heliocentric model challenged this belief and overturned centuries of astronomical knowledge.

 This led to a major shift in scientific thinking and marked the beginning of the Scientific Revolution.

The Impact on Science and Society:

 The Copernican Revolution had a profound impact on science and society.

 It led to a new understanding of the universe and our place in it.

 It also challenged traditional beliefs about religion and cosmology.

 The Scientific Revolution that followed the Copernican Revolution led to many other advances in
science, including the development of new technologies and the discovery of new laws of nature

 Revolutionary figure(s) behind the movement:

 • Charles Darwin, a British naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.


 • Alfred Russel Wallace, a British naturalist who independently came up with the theory of
evolution by natural selection.

 Key events and discoveries:

 • Darwin’s voyage on the HMS Beagle, during which he collected evidence for evolution, such as
the different finches on the Galapagos Islands.

 • The publication of Darwin’s book “On the Origin of Species”, which outlined his theory of
evolution by natural selection.

 • The discovery of DNA, which showed how genetic mutations can lead to changes in organisms.

 How these discoveries challenged existing beliefs:

 • The theory of evolution challenged the belief that species were fixed and immutable.

 • It also challenged the belief that humans were created by a divine being.

 The impact on science and society:

 • The theory of evolution has had a profound impact on science and society.

 • It has led to new understandings of the natural world and our place in it.

It has also been used to justify racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination

* Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist, is considered the founder of psychoanalysis*
Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, was a student of Freud's and developed his own theory of analytical
psychology.
 * Alfred Adler, an Austrian physician, was also a student of Freud's and developed his own theory of
individual psychology

**Key events and discoveries:**

* In 1895, Freud and his colleague Josef Breuer published their book Studies on Hysteria, which
introduced the concept of psychoanalysis.

* In 1900, Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams, which explored the meaning of dreams and
their role in the unconscious mind.

* In 1923, Freud published The Ego and the Id, which introduced his theory of the three parts of the
personality: the id, ego, and superego.

**How these discoveries challenged existing beliefs:**

* Freud’s theories challenged the traditional view of the mind as a conscious, rational entity.

* He argued that the unconscious mind is a powerful force that can influence our thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors.

* He also believed that childhood experiences play a major role in shaping our personality.

**The impact on science and society:**

* Freud’s theories have been controversial, but they have also had a profound impact on science and
society.

* His work has been influential in the development of psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy.

* His ideas have also been used to interpret literature, art, and culture.