1.

Although the COVID-19 pandemic increased interest in science amongst the public, we also saw
considerable scepticism about science, distrust of experts, and spread of misinformation and
even disinformation. While the rise of the internet has certainly fuelled this phenomenon, it is
not new: in past decades, there has been denialism regarding established scientific consensuses
about evolution, vaccine safety, climate change, etc. Compare rationalism and empiricist
foundations of knowledge and the role of scepticism in the articles we read for “The True”
section (Plato, Descartes, Berkeley, Hume, and Elizabeth of Bohemia). What are the proper
philosophical foundations of knowledge and role of scepticism when it comes to scientific
knowledge in contemporary society?
2. The proper philosophical foundations of knowledge are a subject of ongoing debate
among philosophers. However, some of the most influential theories of knowledge
emphasize the importance of justification, truth, and belief. In general, a theory of
knowledge seeks to explain how we can have justified beliefs about the world that are
true.
3. When it comes to scientific knowledge in contemporary society, there is a role for
skepticism. Skepticism can be understood as a critical attitude that requires evidence to
support claims and resists uncritical acceptance of beliefs. In the context of science,
skepticism is a healthy and necessary attitude because scientific claims are always subject
to revision in light of new evidence. Scientists must be willing to subject their theories to
scrutiny and revision based on empirical data.
4. However, it is important to note that skepticism should not be taken to an extreme where
it rejects all claims and knowledge. In fact, scientific knowledge is based on a foundation
of empirical evidence that has been rigorously tested and confirmed. While skepticism
can help identify weaknesses in scientific claims, it should not be used to dismiss
scientific knowledge altogether.
5. Furthermore, there is a distinction between scientific skepticism and pseudoskepticism.
Pseudoskeptics reject scientific claims without providing evidence or alternative
explanations. Scientific skepticism, on the other hand, requires evidence and logical
arguments to support claims and is willing to revise beliefs based on new evidence.
6. In summary, the proper philosophical foundations of knowledge include justification,
truth, and belief. Skepticism has a role in scientific knowledge in contemporary society
by promoting critical thinking and subjecting scientific claims to scrutiny. However,
skepticism should not be taken to an extreme where it rejects all claims and knowledge,
and it is important to distinguish between scientific skepticism and pseudoskepticism.

7.

Contemporary denialism about science and the role of the internet

Contemporary denialism about science is a phenomenon in which certain groups or individuals
reject scientific consensus on a particular issue. Examples of denialism include climate change
denialism, vaccine hesitancy, and evolution denialism. Denialism often stems from a variety of
factors, including ideological beliefs, distrust of scientific institutions, and the influence of
misinformation and conspiracy theories.

The internet has played a significant role in the spread of denialism about science. The internet
has made it easier for individuals to access and share information, including misinformation and
conspiracy theories, that challenge scientific consensus. The echo chamber effect, in which
individuals seek out and consume information that confirms their existing beliefs, can further
reinforce denialism.

Moreover, social media platforms have played a significant role in the spread of denialism about
science. Algorithms designed to maximize engagement often prioritize content that is sensational
or controversial, leading to the amplification of misinformation and conspiracy theories.
Additionally, social media provides a platform for individuals and groups to organize and
amplify their messages, making it easier for denialist movements to gain traction.

The consequences of denialism about science can be severe, including public health risks,
environmental degradation, and the erosion of public trust in scientific institutions. To combat
denialism, it is essential to promote scientific literacy, critical thinking skills, and media literacy.
Additionally, scientists and science communicators can work to engage with the public and build
trust in scientific institutions by promoting transparency and open dialogue. Finally, technology
companies can take steps to curb the spread of misinformation on their platforms by
implementing algorithms that prioritize accurate information and by removing content that
spreads misinformation or conspiracy theories.

Notes
- Society based around a functionalist perspective that encourages religious point of view
as it assists in people having motive to follow the law and be a good citizen
- Positivism is an epistemological approach that challenges the idea of a higher power and
relies more on scientific ideas. It suggests that knowledge is acquired through research,
experiments, and common sense. The realist approach within positivism advocates that
truth is not inherent within society, meaning that laws or social norms don’t necessarily
mean truth. (Patrick)
- Although we have moved towards a more positivist view within society, the structure of
functionalism still remains where people do not necessarily trust science and often rely
on a higher power.

Rationalism
Knowledge through reason
(Descartes)(Plato?)
Empiricist
Knowledge through experience
(Hume)

“Intuition and deduction thus provide us with knowledge that is independent, for its
justification, of experience. This type of knowledge, since Kant, is commonly called “a
priori”.”

Szynkiewicz, M. (2020). May You Live in Interesting Times. Science vs. Pseudoscience in the Era
of the Internet. ETHICS IN PROGRESS, 11(1), 85-98. https://doi.org/10.14746/eip.2020.1.5
- In recent times, the internet has become an easily accessible, free, source of knowledge
to the public. Because of this, it is becoming the dominant choice of acquiring
information, compared to previous informants within the past. With the access to more
information always accompanies the spread of misinformation. This is significant for this
topic specifically as misinformation becomes detrimental when it involves the area of
science. Once shared, it becomes difficult for content to be controlled with the tools of
sharing, reposting, etc. These factors are directly related to the connection between
available information on the internet and one’s decision making. When there is an
overload of information available, consumers may find it difficult to pick through what is
viable and what is not. This is commonly seen within the information shared throughout
the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Biased info, too much information to sort through resulting in uneducated or premature
decisions

Miller B. L. (2020). Science Denial and COVID Conspiracy Theories: Potential Neurological
Mechanisms and Possible Responses. JAMA, 324(22), 2255–2256.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.21332
-

Staszak, S., Maciejowska, J., Urjasz, W., Misiuro, T., & Cudo, A. (2022). The Relationship
between the Need for Closure and Coronavirus Fear: The Mediating Effect of Beliefs in
Conspiracy Theories about COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health, 19(22), 14789. MDPI AG. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192214789
- Study showed that close-mindedness was a result of fear of coronavirus.
- People started sharing information about how treatments or methods with dealing with
coronavirus actually caused more harm and that authorities were doing it on purpose.
- Conspiracy theories used as a way to deter people from the truth. Although seen as an
innocuous form of pseudoscience, it may be weaponized due to large social media
outlets which can reinforce and misconstrue ideas.
 - People want to be given a piece of mind, therefore being more willing to believe in ideas
that justify their way of life before the pandemic. This may also occur if the explanation
given is not one that they agree with or that they are fearful of.
- People want to believe in things that are already consistent with their pre-existing
knowledge. This gives them a sense of control and security which is an explanation for
the belief of misinformation.
- Not wanting to change your lifestyle (i.e., less social gatherings, more awareness for the
health of others) can influence the unwanted change that is needed when believing
scientific facts, especially during the time of a pandemic. Therefore people are more
likely to falsify these facts in order to continue their pre-existing ways of life.

My own thoughts
- Fostering fear as a tool to convince people of things online
- People would rather trust strangers online with no evidence than scientific and medical
resources
Plato
- Learning as remembering
- “Do you observe, Meno, that I am not teaching the boy anything, but merely
asking him each time? And now he supposes that he knows about the line
required to make a figure of eight square feet; or do you not think he does?”
- Virtues are not profitable without wisdom; in fact, they can do us harm if we act on
them without sense.

Descartes
- The truth of his beliefs must be irrefutable
- Rejecting any opinion of his that is accompanied by doubt, even if that means
abandoning all that he believes to be true
- acquiring knowledge through scepticism.
- Essense of the soul is to think
- Rejecting the senses including vision, he uses judgement as a tactic of discernment
which is a necessary part of gathering our thoughts. (the wax)

Berkely
- Material things do not exist, only that which is within one’s own mind exists.
- Taking into account Descartes idea about everything appearing in a physical form is a
deception
- Senses must be perceived therefore without the perception, the sense ceases to exist.
- God allows us to perceive things for a period of time and once we no longer need to
perceive it, the material thing no longer exists to us
- All characteristics of material things depend on someone perceiving them.
 - Qualities are not universal; their perception is varied depending on the thing that is
perceiving it. Therefore, no quality is more existent outside of perception than another,
each depends on someone’s acknowledgement and do not exist outside of it.

Hume
- There is less room for misinterpretation when it comes to sensations as they are direct
- Without experience, we can only make guesses which only have accuracy to a certain
extent
- Because experience can only be gained through doing the thing, it is valuable
- Cause and effect

Markie, P., Folescu, M. (2023). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Rationalism vs.
Empiricism. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved from
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/

References

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choose-not-wear-mask

Staszak, S., Maciejowska, J., Urjasz, W., Misiuro, T., & Cudo, A. (2022). The Relationship

between the Need for Closure and Coronavirus Fear: The Mediating Effect of Beliefs in

Conspiracy Theories about COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and

Public Health, 19(22), 14789. MDPI AG. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192214789

Szynkiewicz, M. (2020). May You Live in Interesting Times. Science vs. Pseudoscience in the

Era of the Internet. ETHICS IN PROGRESS, 11(1), 85-98. https://doi.org/10.14746/eip.2020.1.5

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