MODULE 8

Concepts of Individual Differences in Learning

Introduction
This chapter presents the various definitions and concepts related to intelligence and to
individual differences. It also tries to explain what intelligence is all about, using the theories
advanced by the experts in this area. Hence, you will also get to know the different theories
covering intelligence, and in the ways they are similar or different. As you will see later, the
different theories of intelligence are further classified according to how they are viewed and
studied by their proponents. The theories will also give you an idea on the role of intelligence
in students’ academic performance.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Gain concepts on intelligence and individual differences.

2. Identify and discuss the different theories about intelligence.
3. Analyze concepts of individual differences in learning according to different theories
of intelligence:
structural and process.

Pre-test

Directions: Read and analyze each statement carefully. If you think you agree to the
statement, write True and if you disagree, write False on the line before the statement.
________ 1. Intelligence is a basic ability that affects performance in all cognitively-oriented tasks.
________ 2. Heredity is the main factor that explain individual differences.
________ 3. Understanding the nature of intelligence is a simple endeavor.
________ 4. A study of the different theories of intelligence will help you better understand its
nature.
________ 5. Intelligence has always been related to learning, either in the formal or informal
settings.
________ 6. Uni-factor theory is the oldest theory regarding the nature of intelligence.
________ 7. Ability to see differences and similarities among objects refers to memory factor.
________ 8. Edward Thorndike’s multi-factor theory asserts that there is no such thing as general
ability.
________ 9. Spearman contends that intelligence can be described as compromising abilities at
varying levels of generality.
________10. Jean Piaget`s theory of intellectual development asserts that the developing child
builds intellectual structures or schemas.

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INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Each person has his own unique characteristics. Each of them has his own individuality
contributing to differences within and among individuals. It is important for teachers to know
variables such as physical characteristics, intelligence, perception, gender, ability, learning
styles, which are individual differences of the learners. An effective and productive learning-
teaching process can be planned by considering these individual differences of the students.
The two main factors that explain individual differences are environment and heredity. These
two functional factors create a wondrous explanation on how every person live and work with
its pleasure.
Intelligence is a significant source of variation among individuals. Individual differences
in intelligence bear on differences in other areas, like emotional intelligence, academic
performance, learning styles and the like.
As would-be teachers, this means that individual differences could be better
understood by the study of intelligence.

CONCEPTS ABOUT INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence has been defined in many ways such as in terms of one's capacity for
logic, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, learning, emotional
knowledge, memory, planning, creativity, and problem solving. From "Intelligence: Knowns
and Unknowns" (1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American
Psychological Association: Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand
complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage
in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. The following are
the themes about the nature of intelligence:

a. The capacity to learn.

b. The total knowledge acquired.
c. The ability to adapt to new situation.
Components and Theories Understand Intelligence

a. It is adaptive – It involves modifying and adjusting one’s behaviors to accomplish

new tasks carefully.
b. It is related to learning ability – Learning information quickly and ease is greater for
intelligent people rather than to less intelligent.
c. Effectively use of prior knowledge to analyze current situations.
d. Mental processes that involves complex interaction.
e. Different arenas – the social tasks or academic tasks.
f. Culture-specific – intelligent behavior in one culture, may not necessarily be
intelligent behavior in another culture
Concepts of Intelligence. According to theories of intelligence, intelligence is the
combination of the ability to:

a. Learn. This includes all kinds of formal and informal ways of learning through
experience, training, and education. It is the acquisition, retention, and use of
knowledge. acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge.
b. Recognize Problems. This includes recognizing a problem situation and
transforming it into more defined problems that need to be addressed.
c. Solve Problems. This includes the use of knowledge in solving problems,
accomplishing tasks, fashioning products, and doing complex projects.
d. Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned to come
up with a useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world around them.

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THEORIES ABOUT INTELLIGENCE

Theories defined as the explanation to a phenomenon which is tentative. It should be
expecting a ration of data-gathering that will help build up the evidences to support that
theory.
Faculty Theory
• Faculty theory is the oldest theory regarding the nature of intelligence.
• This theory states that mind is made up of different faculties like reasoning,
memory, discrimination and imagination and the likes.
• These faculties are independent of each other and can be developed by vigorous
exercise.
• Faculty theory has been criticized and proved that mental faculties are not
independent.
One-factor or Uni-factor Theory
• It emphasizes that abilities are reduced to a capacity of common sense.
• The abilities are correlated and can share many things in common.
• It does not recognize differences among people.
• It does not recognize the abilities of different levels.
Two-factor Theory
• It was proposed by Charles Spearman (1863-1945).
• This theory proposes that intellectual abilities were comprised of two factors:
General ability or common ability known as ‘G’ factor and Group of specific
abilities known as ‘S’ factor.
• The g factor is a universal inborn ability, while the s factor is acquired from the
environment.
Multi-factor Theory
This theory was proposed by Edward Thorndike. This theory contends that there was
nothing like General Ability. It says that each mental activity or ability requires an aggregate
of different set of abilities.
Attributes of Intelligence:

a. Level— it refers to the level of difficulty of a task that can be solved.

b. Range—it refers to several tasks at any given degree of difficulty.
c. Area—this means that the total number of situations at each level to which the
individual can respond.
d. Speed—it is the rapidity with which individual respond to the items.

Group Factor Theory

This theory was proposed by Louis l. Thurstone. It emphasizes that intelligent
activities are not an expression of innumerable highly specific factors, as Thorndike claimed
nor is it the expression primarily of a general factor that pervades all mental activities. It is the
essence of intelligence, as stated by Spearman. Thurtone’s theory asserts that certain mental
operations have in common a ‘primary’ factor that gives them psychological and functional
unity and that differentiates them from other mental operations.

Thurstone’s primary factors:

1. Number Factor (N) - Ability to do Numerical Calculations rapidly and accurately.

2. Verbal Factor (V) – Ability to do verbal comprehension.
3. Space Factor (S) – Ability to manipulate imaginary objects.
4. Memory Factor (M) – Ability to memorize quickly.
5. Word Fluency Factor (W) – Ability to think of isolated words at a rapid rate.

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6. Reasoning Factor (R) – Ability to discover a rule or principle that involves a group
of materials.
7. Perception – Ability to see differences and similarities among objects.

Structure of Intellect
This was proposed by Joy Paul Guilford. He proposed the 3- dimensional structure of
intellect model.
Guilford asserts that every intellectual task can be classified according to its combination
namely.
a. Content – It has five categories namely visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, and
behavioral.
b. Mental operations – It was classified into six categories namely cognition, memory
retention, memory recording, divergent production, convergent production, and
evaluation.
c. Products resulting from operations – It was classified into six categories products
namely units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications.
Hierarchical Theory
This theory proposed by Philip E. Vernon. Vernon’s asserts that the levels of intelligence
may fill the gaps between two extreme theories, the two-factor theory of Spearman, which
did not allow for the existence of group factors, and the multiple-factor theory of Turstone,
which did not allow a ‘‘g’’ factor. Intelligence can be defined as covering abilities at
contrasting levels of generality:

a. The highest level: “g” (general intelligence) factor with the largest source of variance
between individuals (Spearman).
b. The next level: major group factors such as verbal-numerical-educational ability.
c. The next level: the minor group factors are separated from major group factors.
d. The bottom level: “s” (specific) factor of Spearman.
Cattel-Horn Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Theory
The fluid aspect of this theory says that intelligence is a basic capacity due to genetic
potentiality. While this is affected by the past and new experiences, the crystallized theory is
a capacity resultant of experiences, learning and environment.

Multiple Intelligences Theory

This theory was proposed by Howard Gardner in which identified the eight components of
intelligence. He argues boldly and cogently that we are all born with potential to develop a
multiplicity of Intelligence, most of which have been overlooked in our testing society, and all
of which can be drawn upon to make us competent individuals. He also asserts that these
intelligences are most often overlooked and not tested by researchers and psychologists, like
those skills and abilities valued in different cultures.

Intelligence Component Description Using of intelligence

Bodily Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Verbal/Linguistic
Logical/mathematical
Ability to use one’s physical Dancers, athletes
body.
Ability to sense other Politicians
people’s feelings.
Ability to know of one’s own Psychologist
mind and body.
Ability to communicate well. Writers
Ability to learn and handle Mathematicians
logical arguments

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Musical/Rhythmic Ability to learn and perform Musicians, composers

music.
Naturalistic Ability to recognize patterns Naturalists
in nature.
Visual/Spatial Ability to imagine and Surgeons
manipulate visual objects.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

It was proposed by a psychologist Robert Sternberg. This theory asserts that real world
environment is relevant to one’s life. He also asserts that intelligent plays in three types,
namely:

a. Analytical Intelligence - It enables us to solve problems and to acquire new

knowledge.
b. Creative Intelligence - The abilities to deal with innovative situations and to benefit
from experience. The ability to quickly relate novel situations to familiar situations
encourages adaptation.
c. Practical Intelligence - Ability to enable people to adapt to the demands of their
environment.
David Perkin’s Analysis of Research Studies on the Measurement of IQ and
Programs for Developing Better IQ.
Three types of Intelligence

a. Reflective Intelligence -It refers to a person's ability to use and manipulate their
mental skills. This includes self-monitoring and self-management.
b. Experiential Intelligence -It refers to the knowledge you obtain through experience.
c. Neural Intelligence – It involves the genetically determined abilities of a person's
neurological system.
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development
• It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.
• It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address
learning of information or specific behaviors.
• It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences,
rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts,
ideas, and the like.
Stages of Intellectual Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (approx. 0-2 years):

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an
object still exists, even if it is hidden. The child learns through reflexes, senses, and
movement.
2. Preoperational Stage (approx. 2-7 years):
During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the
ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself.
Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of
others.
3. Concrete Operations Stage (7-11):
Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even
though its appearance changes. The child starts to build logical structures that build
his physical experiences.
4. Formal Operations Stage (11-15):
During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and
logically test hypotheses.

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ACTIVITY: THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

Name: ________________ Yr. & Sec. _________________ Date: _________

Direction: Discuss one theory of intelligence which you consider very important for teachers
to know about and understand. Go by these guide questions.

1. What are the reasons why you think the theory you have selected is important for
teachers to know and understand? Discuss exhaustively. (If you want to know more
about the theory you have selected, you may rad other books)

2. Examine the intelligence theory more closely. Cite the ways you think the theory will
be helpful in your teaching especially methods and techniques you will be using, as
well as the instructional materials you will use.

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Assessment

Name: _____________ Yr. & Sec. _________________ Date: _____________

Directions: Considering that you know and understand already the theories that explain the
nature of the intelligence, categorize the following theories listed below as to factor theories
and cognitive theories of intelligence. Distribute them into their appropriate category.
Faculty Theories
Guilford’s Model of the Structure of Intellect
Uni-factor Theory
Vernon’s Hierarchical Theory
Spearman’s Two-factor Theory
Cattell-Horn’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Theory
Thorndike’s Multi-factor Theory
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Thurstone’s Primary Abilities/Group Factor Theory

CATEGORIES OF THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Cognitive Theories Factor Theories

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