UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

MODULE 6: THE MENTAL SELF

Section 1: Cognition, Memory, and Intelligence

This section discusses the nature of cognition and metacognition, its underlying mechanisms, and how it
contributes to one’s sense of self. This further tackles the mechanism of human memory and the different types
of human intelligence.

• Cognition
• People are born with innate capabilities that empower them to manage themselves in various
settings and situations.
• Cognition is a crucial part of an individual’s development process which influences
behavior, just as how behavior also impacts it, assuming bi-directional connection. The way
information is taken in and how it is analyzed and processed is a function of human
cognition.
• Cognition is defined as the complex array of mental processes involved in remembering,
perceiving, thinking, and how these processes are employed (Ashcraft & Radvansky, 2010).
It is an umbrella term to cover all high-order thinking processes.
• Memory
• If cognition covers all higher-order thinking processes within an individual, a major focus
of its study is the function of memory. It is the faculty of the mind through which
information is acquired and retained for later use.
• Memory functions in 3 levels:
• Sensory memory is the level that allows information from the external
environment to be perceived by an individual through senses, usually in the form
of chemical and physical stimuli, often with focus and intent.
• Short-term, working memory is where information is temporarily stored, where
information is simultaneously remembered and is in a readily-available state,
typically from 10 to 15 seconds, up to one minute. It can store up to 5-9 items,
after which information is discarded if there is no conscious and deliberate effort
to retain it.
• When there is a deliberate effort to store information and it is done consistently
and with practice, then this information is transferred to long-term
memory. Information stored in long-term memory is often permanent and allows
for repeated retrievals across situations.

• Intelligence
• The term is referred to as an individual’s capacity for understanding, learning, planning, and
problem solving with logic, creativity, and self-awareness.
• It is characterized as the application of knowledge to be able to adjust to the environment.
• It is the process of applying knowledge in the proper context whenever the need arises.
• A number of theories have already been presented regarding intelligence.
 Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences
What is Multiple Intelligences Theory?

• Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the
intelligence they will ever have.
• This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of intelligence, sometimes
known as “g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive abilities.
• To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner introduced eight different types of intelligences
consisting of: Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-
Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist.
• Gardner notes that the linguistic and logical-mathematical modalities are most typed valued in school
and society.
• Gardner also suggests that there may other “candidate” intelligences—such as spiritual intelligence,
existential intelligence, and moral intelligence—but does not believe these meet his original inclusion
criteria. (Gardner, 2011).

1. Linguistic Intelligence (“word smart”)

Linguistic Intelligence is a part of Howard Gardner's multiple intelligence theory that deals with sensitivity to
the spoken and written language, ability to learn languages, and capacity to use language to accomplish certain
goals.
People with linguistic intelligence, such as William Shakespeare and Oprah Winfrey, have an ability to analyze
information and create products involving oral and written language such as speeches, books, and memos.
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)

Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical
operations, and investigate issues scientifically.
People with logical-mathematical intelligence, such as Albert Einstein and Bill Gates, have an ability to develop
equations and proofs, make calculations, and solve abstract problems.

3. Spatial Intelligence (“picture smart”)

Spatial intelligence features the potential to recognize and manipulate the patterns of wide space (those used, for
instance, by navigators and pilots) as well as the patterns of more confined areas, such as those of importance to
sculptors, surgeons, chess players, graphic artists, or architects.
People with spatial intelligence, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Amelia Earhart, have an ability to recognize
and manipulate large-scale and fine-grained spatial images.
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (“body smart”)

Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body (like the hand or
the mouth) to solve problems or to fashion products.
People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, such as Michael Jordan and Simone Biles, have an ability to use
one’s own body to create products, perform skills, or solve problems through mind–body union.
5. Musical Intelligence (“music smart”)

Musical intelligence refers to the skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns.
People with musical intelligence, such as Beethoven and Ed Sheeran, have an ability to recognize and create
musical pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone.
6. Interpersonal Intelligence (“people smart”)
Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people
and consequently to work effectively with others.
People with interpersonal intelligence, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teresa, have an ability to
recognize and understand other people’s moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self smart”)

Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself, to have an effective working model of oneself-
including own’s desires, fears, and capacities—and to use such information effectively in regulating one’s own
life.
People with intrapersonal intelligence, such as Aristotle and Maya Angelou, have an ability to recognize and
understand his or her own moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.
This type of intelligence can help a person to understand which life goals are important and how to achieve
them.
8. Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)

Naturalistic intelligence involves expertise in the recognition and classification of the numerous species—the
flora and fauna—of his or her environment.
People with naturalistic intelligence, such as Charles Darwin and Jane Goddall, have an ability to identify and
distinguish among different types of plants, animals, and weather formations that are found in the natural world.

Section 2: Human Learning

This section provides an overview of human learning, the factors that contribute to the learning process, and how
its shapes the individual self.

• Learning
• If cognition, memory, and intelligence are underlying mechanisms that allow people to perceive, process,
and apply information for daily adaptation, then learning is a natural consequence of these mechanisms.
• Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior as a result of
experience. This definition connote 3 things:
• The change is long-term
• The source of change comes from within the external structures of memory or knowledge of the
individual.
• The change is attributed to the personal experiences of the learner in his/her environment.
• People learn in many ways, and several theories and models have been forwarded to understand and
explain how learning occurs. One such theory is the social cognitive theory which emphasizes the value
of the social environment in one’s learning process that is built on observational learning. Based on this
theory, there are 4 stages in observational learning:
• When an individual focuses on information that he/she perceives to be interesting and useful
(Attention),
• Stores and gives a mental representation of the information (Retention),
• Recalls and rehearses the information given (Motor Reproduction), and
• Repeats the entire process constantly and consistently (Motivation), then learning happens.
• Learning happens even beyond the classroom; it happens in daily situations. According to the social
cognitive theory, there is an interaction of personal (cognition, personality, motivational,
orientation), environmental (family, schools and other settings, peers and social relationships),
and behavioral factors (feedback and consequence) that accounts for behavioral change.
 • The notion of learning is underlined by notions of self-efficacy and human agency. Self-
efficacy is defined as the extent to which people believe that they can confidently learn and
master a particular skill.
• According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy can be developed through the following:
1. Mastery experience. Accomplishing simple tasks that lead to more complex
tasks.
2. Social modelling. Observing an identifiable model who accomplishes the task.
3. Improving physical and emotional states. Being relaxed and calm before
pursuing a challenging task.
4. Verbal persuasion. Providing encouragement and feedback during the
accomplishment of a challenging task.
• Thus, in the learning process, students bare equally accountable for their performance as
much as their teachers. While teachers are considered agents of motivating the learning
process, students have the responsibility to be equally involved as well. It is in this
perspective that students are considered agents of their own learning, and they are expected
to invest in their own learning, and they are expected to invest in their own learning process.
• This leads to the question of how much of an investment should students make in the
learning process. There are 2 strategies in learning that students can use:

Surface learning. Students simply accept information presented to them and memorize
them in an isolated and unlinked manner.

Deep learning. The deeper understanding of information by creating significant

meaningful links across different concepts and how it can be applied in practical ways.

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Factors that Affect Learning

1. Intellectual factor:
The term refers to the individual mental level. Success in school is generally closely related to level of the intellect.
Pupils with low intelligence often encounter serious difficulty in mastering schoolwork. Sometimes pupils do not
learn because of special intellectual disabilities.
A low score in one subject and his scores in other subjects indicate the possible presence of a special deficiency.
Psychology reveals to use that an individual possess different kinds to intelligence. Knowledge of the nature of
the pupil’s intellect is of considerable value in the guidance and the diagnosis of disability.
The native capacity of the individual is of prime importance in determining the effectiveness of the, learning
process.

2. Learning factors:
Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of work or study, and narrowness of
experimental background may affect the learning process of any pupil. If the school proceeds too rapidly and does
not constantly check up on the extent to which the pupil is mastering what is being taught, the pupil accumulates
a number of deficiencies that interfere with successful progress.
In arithmetic, for instance, knowledge of basic addition is essential to successful work in multiplication. Weakness
in addition will contribute directly to the deficiency in multiplication. Likewise, failure in history may be due to
low reading ability or weakness in English.
Similarly, because of faulty instruction, the pupil may have learned inefficient methods of study. Many other
kinds of difficulty which are directly related to learning factors may interfere with progress.

3. Physical factors:
Under this group are included such factors as health, physical development, nutrition, visual and physical defects,
and glandular abnormality. It is generally recognized that ill health retards physical and motor development, and
malnutrition interferes with learning and physical growth.
Children suffering from visual, auditory, and other physical defects are seriously handicapped in developing skills
such as reading and spelling. It has been demonstrated that various glands of internal secretion, such as the thyroid
and pituitary glands, affect behavior. The health of the learner will likely affect his ability to learn and his power
to concentrate.

4. Mental factors:
Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of organic and kinesthetic elements. They are not to be
confused with emotions that are characterized by internal visceral disturbances. Attitudes are more or less of
definite sort. They play a large part in the mental organization and general behavior of the individual.
Attitudes are also important in the development of personality. Among these attitudes aw interest, cheerfulness,
affection, prejudice, -open mindedness, and loyalty. Attitudes exercise a stimulating effect upon the rate of
learning and teaching and upon the progress in school.
The efficiency of the work from day to day and the rapidity with which it is achieved are influenced by the attitude
of the learner. A favorable mental attitude facilitates learning. The factor of interest is very closely related in
nature to that of symbolic drive and reward.

5. Emotional and social factors:

Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as cooperation and rivalry, are directly
related to a complex psychology of motivation. It is a recognized fact that the various responses of the individual
to various kinds of stimuli are determined by a wide variety of tendencies.
Some of these innate tendencies are constructive and others are harmful. For some reason a pupil may have
developed a dislike for some subject because he may fail to see its value, or may lack foundation. This dislike
results in a bad emotional state.
Some pupils are in a continuing state of unhappiness because of their fear of being victims of the disapproval of
their teachers and classmates. This is an unwholesome attitude and affects the learning process to a considerable
degree. This is oftentimes the result of bad training.
Social discontent springs from the knowledge or delusion that one is below others in welfare.

6. Teacher’s Personality:
The teacher as an individual personality is an important element in the learning environment or in the failures and
success of the learner. The way in which his personality interacts with the personalities of the pupils being taught
helps to determine the kind of behavior which emerges from the learning situation.

7. Environmental factor:
Physical conditions needed for learning is under environmental factor. One of the factors that affect the efficiency
of learning is the condition in which learning takes place. This includes the classrooms, textbooks, equipment,
school supplies, and other instructional materials.
In the school and at the home, the conditions for learning must be favorable and adequate if teaching is to produce
the desired results. It cannot be denied that the type and quality of instructional materials and equipment play an
important part in the instructional efficiency of the school.
It is difficult to do a good job of teaching in a poor type of building and without adequate equipment and
instructional materials. A school building or a classroom has no merit when built without due regard to its
educational objectives and functions.
IDENTIFICATION

Cognition - It is defined as the complex array of mental processes involved in remembering, perceiving, thinking,
and how these processes are employed

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior as a result of

experience.

Surface learning. Students simply accept information presented to them and memorize them in an isolated and
unlinked manner. (one word only)

social cognitive theory A learning theory which emphasizes the value of the social environment in one’s learning
process that is built on observational learning

Sensory memory is the level that allows information from the external environment to be perceived by an
individual through senses, usually in the form of chemical and physical stimuli, often with focus and intent.

Self-efficacy is defined as the extent to which people believe that they can confidently learn and master a
particular skill.

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the intelligence
they will ever have.

Short-term, working memory is where information is temporarily stored, where information is simultaneously
remembered and is in a readily-available state, typically from 10 to 15 seconds, up to one minute.

Information stored in long-term memory is often permanent and allows for repeated retrievals across situations.
LTM

TRUE OR FALSE
Teacher’s personality is not as significant as intellectual factors in the learning process. F

Learning is defined as a temporary change in a person’s knowledge or behavior as a result of experience. F

Learning can happen even beyond the classroom; it happens in daily situations. T

In the learning process, students bare equally accountable for their performance as much as their teachers. T

Our Long term memory storage has limited capacity. F

People are born with innate capabilities that empower them to manage themselves in various settings and
situations. T

It is difficult to do a good job of teaching in a poor type of building and without adequate equipment and
instructional materials. T

Success in school is generally closely related to level of the intellect. T

Our short term memory can store up to 5-9 items, after which information is discarded if there is no conscious
and deliberate effort to retain it.