Highway Surveys 3 In comparison with surveys for new locations, those for relocations cover a relatively narrow strip of territory. But it is necessary to measure and record many more topographic details. Among these are present paving, curbs, sidewalks, trees, guard rails, drainage structures, fences, walls, property lines, public utilities, buildings, land usage, intersecting high- ways, streams, railroads, and—in general— alll features which might affect the grade-line design or which might have to be removed and relocated. Measurements for topography and right-of-way data are customarily made by the transit party and recorded in the field book. Details are tied to the base line by “plus and offset," supplemented by range ties, Intersecting railroads, pole lines, ete. are located by stationing and angle of intersec- tion, Contours are not located in this form of topographic survey. Some highway departments use the “feld-sheet” method described in Art. 9-9. Cross-sectioning differs from railroad practice in that the process of cross-section leveling is used instead of slope stak- ing. The usual method is that given in Art. 6-7, though some engineers prefer to run profile levels first and then to do cross~ sectioning by recording rod readings as plus or minus from the given center-line elevations. Since no elevations are de- termined in taking topography, the cross-sections must give the needed information concerning elevations of existing curbs, walls, drainage structures, utilities, and building foundations. Other special methods are found in Art. 10-7. Though ground cross-sections are used principally for deter- mining earthwork end areas, they sometimes serve the purpose of plotting contours to assist in the design of ramps and grade separations, 10-5. Soil Surveys—Comprehensive soil surveys, rarely needed in railroad location, have become standard practice ‘among progressive State highway departments. Such surveys are superseding the former types of soil surveys which were often restricted to borings at bridge sites and cursory examina- tion of the route for surface indications of snow slides or unstable side slopes.312 * Highway Surveys Modern alignment standards often require that routes traverse topographic features formerly avoided; as a result, Jong heavy fills and deep cuts—sometimes through bedrock— are frequently necessary. Since the cost of a modern high- way may exceed one-half million dollars per mile, possible savings in construction and maintenance costs justify using fairly expensive methods of determining pertinent informa- tion about surface and subsurface soil conditions. Soils investigations for highways continue to grow more comprehensive in scope. This phase of highway engineering requires close cooperation with the soil physicist, the geologist, and even the seismologist. The modern tendency is to go beyond merely making auger borings along the proposed route and classifying the soil samples in the laboratory. Instead, the past geologic history of the area is investigated. From these studies, area soil maps are prepared which show the soil “pattern'’—land forms, types of soil deposits, swamp areas, drainage conditions, and related information. A proposed. route traversing the region covered by an area soil map is then the subject of a preliminary soil report which shows the rela- tionship of the soils to the engineering considerations of align- ment, grade, drainage, and grading and compaction processes. ‘The availability of materials for borrow, for subbase, or for concrete aggregates is also indicated. ‘The report may suggest alignment changes; it also contains specific recommendations regarding the extent of subsurface exploration needed to answer detailed questions for design and construction. In glaciated regions, erratic depths to bedrock may rgd the use of seismic methods of subsurface exploration. achusetts, for example, has developed a ae geologic “strip” map is prepared and the locations where seismic studies are recommended, such as at deep cuts and bridge sites, are shown on this map. Seismological field work has been done under a cooperative program of the Mass- achusetts Department of Public Works and the U.S. Geological Survey. Extensive use was made of seismic profiles in obtain- ing quantity estimates on the Massachusetts Turnpike.!* Seismic methods have become less costly with the develop- ment of a light-weight seismograph, the sound waves for ‘Superscript numbers refer to the bibliography at the end of this chapter.Highway Surveys 313 which are generated by the impact of a sledge hammer on a metal plate instead of by an explosive charge. Complete treatment of the subject of modern highway soil surveys is beyond the scope of a text on Route Surveying. For detailed information, see any modern text on Highway Engineering. Broader aspects of the subject are described in detail in References 3 through 7 in the bibliography. 10-6. Preparation of Plans.—Office procedure in design and preparation of plans for a major highway project involves @ multitude of operations. Some of these are quite routine and may be done by the sub-professional members of the surveying crews during rainy weather; others require special- ized training and experience. State highway departments usually follow certain “‘stand- ards” with regard to methods of design, sizes of drawing sheets, arrangement of work, and forms for estimating quanti- ties. No one scheme is best for all projects; a great deal depends on the size and type of the project and on the per- sonnel available. However, on Federal-Aid projects certain specifications of the B.P.R. relative to size of drawing sheet and form of layout must be followed. The final objective of the office work is to prepare a cost estimate and a complete set of plans showing clearly all in- formation needed (1) by the engineers in laying out the lines and grades to be used by the contractor in building the project, (2) by the contractor in estimating the nature and extent of all work to be performed, in order that he may prepare his bid, and (3) by the legal agents to assist in preparing the right-of- way descriptions and other data connected with land takings and easements. ‘A detailed description of office design methods not only would be too voluminous for inclusion in this book but also would encroach upon subjects more properly treated in a study of highway engineering. Consequently, only an outline of conventional office routine is given to show the relation between survey work and design. Since about 1956, the use of automation in location and design (see Chapter 13) has led to important changes in some of the steps described. Supplied with the reconnaissance report and all the data from the field surveys, the designers carry out these steps:314 - Highway Surveys 1. Design of typical sections: These are dimensioned drawings showing the proposed roadway cross-sections of the standard portions of the project. Shown are width, thick- ness, and crown of pavements; shoulder widths and slopes; positions of ditches, side slopes, curbs, median strips, guard rails, and other construction details. 2. Preparation of location map: Usually done on a series of 22”x36" Federal Aid Sheets, which show the profile as well as the plan. Common scales are 1” =100/ horizontally; 1’’=10' vertically. Plan shows survey base lines, topographic details, and all alignment and right-of-way data. Profile (sometimes drawn on separate sheets) shows the ground line, grade line as finally designed, drainage structures, and esti- mated earthwork quantities and balance points. 8. Plotting of cross-sections: Ground cross-sections, used for earthwork calculation and in grade-line design, are plotted directly from the cross-section leveling notes, A common scale is 1”=10’, Scale may be larger when end areas are to be determined by the “strip” method (Art. 6-6); smaller when found by calculating machine (Art. 6-4), 4. Establishing of profile grades: Grade line designed with regard to relative importance of economy of construction, balance of earthwork quantities, property damage, sight distances, safety of operation, drainage and soil conditions, aesthetics, and adaptability to future property development and to future highway or railroad grade separations. Fre- quent reference to plotted ground cross-sections is helpful in design. 5. Drawing of cross-section plans: Proposed roadway cross-sections drawn on ground cross-section sheets in con= formity with the designed profile grades. These sections show the pay lines for excavation, Widening and supereleva~ tion are allowed for. 6. Making of special detail drawings: Includes detail draw- ings of all types of drainage structures; of retaining walls, curbs, guard rails, and other appurtenances; and of compli- cated interchanges and intersections. In connection with the latter problems, standards often followed are those given in the AASHO Policy on Geometric Highway Design. 7. Preparation of right-of-way plans: Property maps of allHighway Surveys 315 parcels to be acquired or conveyed, showing locations, owners’ names, and ties to existing and proposed right-of-ways. 8, Estimate of quantities: Detailed estimate of quantities of grading, paving, and other construction work, prepared systematically with the aid of special “take-off sheets.” Summary of results, to serve as basis for engineer's cost esti- mate and to aid contractors in preparing bids. 9. Preparation of specifications: Detailed general and special provisions relating to proposal conditions, submission of bids, prosecution of work, construction details, and methods of measurement and payment. 10-7. Construction Surveys.—Generally, the types of sur- veying operations needed on highway construction are the same as those outlined for railroad construction in Art. 9-14; therefore, the descriptions will not be repeated here. In general, field layout and staking are somewhat more complex in highway work, owing to the multiplicity of lanes and the many ramps and intersections. Staking practices vary with the type of highway, the nature of the terrain, the magnitude and the cuts and fills, and the preferences of the particular organization. In the conventional method, tacked line stakes, marked with station and offset, are set no more than 50 feet apart on offset lines from the construction base lines. Their elevations are determined and recorded for future use in setting grade stakes. After the right-of-way has been cleared, a double line of slope stakes or “rough grading” stakes is set at 50-foot intervals. Finishing stakes are necessary for the final operations of side- slope trimming, subgrade preparation, and setting of forms for paving. After the grading has been completed, “blue-topped”” line and grade stakes are set on the subgrade near enough to the work to permit forms to be set truly by means of a short grade board. In mountainous terrain, where grading is very heavy and there are complications in the form of variable slopes and benches, the customary method of setting construction slope stakes is very clumsy. Instead, a “traverse method” may be used to great advantage. Because of its specialized applica tion, the traverse method will not be described. (See Refer- ence 8 for details).316 = Highway Surveys ‘The use of freeway design, in which double roadways are often at different levels separated by a median of varying width, complicates not only the construction staking but also the calculation of grading quantities. Good results can be obtained by substituting a contour grading plan for the usual voluminous set of cross-section sheets. In essence, “contour grading” consists in superimposing contour lines of the pro- posed construction on the existing contour map, thereby form- ing a series of areas bounded by closed contours. The areas are planimetered, and the volumes of the horizontal slices of earthwork are determined by the average-end-area method. This method is subject to further refinement and greater accuracy if partial contour intervals are taken into account. As a result of some time studies, it is estimated that earthwork calculations, together with the drafting and survey operations, can save about 40 per cent in man-hours.’ Even this saving is small, however, compared with that resulting from the use of electronic computers (see Chapter 13) Warped surfaces at intersections require specially worked out staking arrangements in order to produce smooth riding surfaces. Record plans of all work ‘as built” are worked up as con- struction proceeds. Since pavement is usually paid for on the basis of surface area, the final measurement of the length of the project is somewhat greater than the horizontal survey measurement. 10-8. Examples of Modern Practice—Examples of good practice in highway location and interchange design are so numerous as to permit reference to only afew. The following examples illustrate various types of problems: 1, “Difficult Location Problems on 476-Mile Blue Ridge Parkway.” (Shows application of railway surveying methods to new highway location in mountainous terrain. Alignment includes spirals and double spirals, eleven tunnels, grade separations, and grade compensation for curvature.) Civil Engineering, Vol. 17, No. 7, July, 1947, pp. 378 ff. 2. “North Santiam Highway Follows Difficult Route Near Cascade Summit.” (Costly 15.6-mile Oregon highway in- volves heavy cuts and fills; stability of fills affected by possibleHighway Surveys 317 sudden drawdown of flood-control reservoir.) Civil Engineer ing, Vol. 18, No. 8, August, 1948, pp. 507 ff. 3. “Application of Coordinate Methods to Freeway Plan- ning and Construction.” (Describes precise surveying methods used to solve complex design and right-of-way prob- Jems on freeway construction in urban areas.) California Highways and Public Works, Nov.—Dec., 1946. 4, “Evolution of the Pennsylvania Superhighway.” (Entire issue devoted to the history, financing, design and construc tion of the nation’s first modern toll highway.) Roads and Streets, Vol. 82, No. 10, October, 1939. 5. “New Jersey Turnpike.” (A group of articles covering the planning, financing, design, and construction of this 118- mile expressway.) Civil Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 1, January, 1952, pp. 1-69. 6. “New York State Thruway.” (A group of articles covering the planning, financing, and design of the first 427- mile section of this modern toll highway.) Civil Engineering, Vol. 23, No. 11, November, 1953, pp. 735-752. 7, “Tough Terrain Conquered by Builders of West Virginia Turnpike.” (Describes a difficult location problem in which a modern $8-mile highway, having geometric design standards suited to speeds of 60 mph or higher, replaced a tortuous route 107 miles long that had some grades of 9% and some curves of 50-ft radius.) Civil Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 2, February, 1954, pp. 74-80. 8, “Big Freeway Will Link Los Angeles, San Diego, Mexico.” Describes 165-mile San Diego Freeway being constructed to Sane width at an ultimate cost close to one-half billion dollars.) Engineering News-Record, Vol. 161, No. 22, Nov. 27, 1958, pp. 30 ff. 9. “I-80 Spans Mid-America from Coast to Coast.” (Describes the 2,900-mile highway which by 1972 will link New York City and San Francisco, with termini marked by two of the world’s greatest bridges.) Engineering News- Record, Vol. 175, No. 5, July 29, 1965, pp. 28-32.318 2 Highway Surveys 10-9. Use of Aerial Surveys.—It is noteworthy that high- way engineers have been active in adapting aerial surveys to ever-widening fields of usefulness in the planning, location, and design of highways. In fact, the science has progressed to such a point that E, T. Gawkins, commenting upon the results of experience in New York State, wrote:”” «+» aerial surveying . . . will in most cases obviate the need for one more reconnaissance surveys and all the labor required for pre- liminary estimates of several alternate routes. Once the line has been selected from the use of aerial surveys, field surveying can be reduced to include only those necessary steps such as laying out of base line, setting of stakes, determination of right-of-way limits on the ground, and taking of sections for earthwork estimates prior to the award of the contract—the steps that will always be required for the construction of ‘a highway. The most suitable relationship between ground-survey and aerial-survey methods has yet to be worked out. Possible combinations of these two methods are suggested in Chapter 12, Their relative use is largely an economic question involv- ing the size of the project, the character of the terrain, and the availability of existing photographs to suitable scale. ‘Most of the United States has been photographed from the air at least once. The work has been done by several agencies and for a variety of purposes. Consequently, not all the photographs are suitable for highway-location purposes. Up-to-date information on the existence and nature of avail- able aerial photographs may be obtained from the Map Information Office of the United States Geological Survey. ‘The Bureau of Public Roads lists the six stages of highway location as follows: First Stage—Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between terminal points. Second Stage—Reconnaissance survey of all feasible route bands. Third Stage—Preliminary survey of the best route. Fourth Stage—Location of the highway on the ground. Fifth Stage—Construction of the highway. ‘Sizth Stage—Operation and maintenance of the highway. The earliest use of aerial photography in highway location was as a supplement to the usual ground reconnaissance' Highway Surveys 319 surveys. Improvements in the art have now enabled photo- grammetry to supplant ground methods for reconnaissance studies of large areas. ‘The first stage, according to present practice, consists of stereoscopic examination of small-scale aerial photographs covering a broad area between the terminal points. Inter- mediate controls related to topography and land-use are disclosed and broadly considered. The result of these studies is the determination of all bands within the area which might contain a feasible location for the highway. In the second stage, large-scale aerial photographs are taken along each of the feasible route bands. The photographs are examined stereoscopically, as before, but their larger scale permits the controls of topography and land-use to be given special scrutiny. All possible route bands are compared, after evaluating the several controls, and the best one is chosen for more-detailed surveys. Thus, the use of aerial photographs in two stages of reconnaissance will have dis- closed the best route without costly ground surveys of several alternate routes. The third stage of location includes the making of a topo- graphic map of the selected route band, and the projection of a geometric location by the familiar paper-location method (see Art. 9-11). As indicated in the quotation on page 318 photogrammetric methods are being used to an increasing degree in studies following reconnaissance, especially in the preparation of topographic maps. A reproduction of an original aerial photograph, and the resulting topographic map, are shown in Fig. 12-3. Fig. 12-4 shows a newer develop- ment—the photo-contour map. ‘The fourth stage will always be done by ground surveying, since aerial methods cannot conceivably be extended to the processes of running in curves or setting stakes for grading and other construction operations. Information of great. value in connection with the fifth and sixth stages can also be obtained from aerial photographs. In the over-all problem of route location, both photogram- metric and ground surveying methods will be used. For practical examples of their interrelationships the engineer should study the up-to-date practices described in Chapter 12.320 3 Highway Surveys BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Murphy, V.J., “Seismic Profiles Speed Quantity Esti- mates for Massachusetts Turnpike,” Civil Engineering, Vol. 26, No. 6, June, 1956, pp. 374-375. 2, Licbenow, W.R., “Subsurface Bedrock Along Highway Route Mapped by Seismograph,” Public Works, July, 1960, pp. 111-112, 3. “Highway-Materials Surveys,” Bulletin 62, Highway Research Board, 1952, 4, “Mapping and Subsurface Explorations for Engineering Purposes,” Bulletin 65, Highway Research Board, 1952. 5. “Engineering Applications of Soil Surveying and Map- ping,” Bulletin 83, Highway Research Board, 1953. 6. “Air Photo and Soil Mapping Methods: Appraisal and Application,” Bulletin 180, Highway Research Board, 1958. 7. “Soil and Materials Surveys by Use of Aerial Photo- graphs,” Bulletin 213, Highway Research Board, 1959. 8. Construction Manual, State of California, Dept. of Public Works, Div. of Highways. 9. Kane, C.V., “Contour Grading,” California Highways and Public Works, Sept.-Oct., 1952, pp. 1-5. 10. Gawkins, E.T., “Aerial Mapping Cuts Cost of Highway Location in New York,” Civil Engineering, Vol. 17, No. 2, February, 1947, pp. 80-82. 11. Pryor, W.T., “Photogrammetry as Applied to Highway Engineering,” Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol. 17, No. 1, March, 1951, pp. 111-125.chapter ll Surveys for Other Routes 11-1. Foreword.—Reference to the broad definition of transportation stated in Art. 1-2 suggests that the following additional types of transportation may involve surveying operations similar to those already described for railroads and highways: 1, Transportation (transmission) of power and messages by means of overhead tower or pole lines, or by lines in under- ground conduits. 2. Transportation of liquids and gases through closed conduits under pressure, such as pipe lines for water, gasoline, oil, and natural gas; through closed conduits by means of gravity, such as sewers and aqueducts; and through open channels, such as canals and flumes, 3. Transportation of materials (sand, gravel, stone, or selected borrow) to the site of large construction projects, by means of cableways and belt conveyors. Whenever any of the foregoing are projects of considerable magnitude and involve termini a fairly long distance apart, the required surveying operations may properly be included in the term route surveying. Special types of surveys are necessary in the case of tunnel location and construction. These are noted briefly in Art. 11-6. 11-2, Similarity to Railroad and Highway Surveys.—Sur- veys for all routes of transportation and communication are similar in general respects to those described in Chapters 9 and 10 for railroads and highways. This is because all routes have certain location controls (Art. 9-3); in fitting the line to those controls the natural sequence of field and office work approximates that outlined in Art, 1-8, The particular differences that do occur are caused by requirements peculiar to a specific type of route. The engineer acquainted with railroad or highway surveying should have no difficulty in 321322 ae. Surveys for Other Routes adapting his knowledge to surveys for other routes, once the uses to which the surveys are to be put are known. Surveys for some other routes are described briefly in the succeeding articles. 11-3. Transmission-Line Surveys.—The location of a power transmission line is controlled less by topography than is the location of other types of routes. Power loss due to voltage drop is proportional to the length of the conductor; consequently, high-tension transmission lines run as directly as possible from generating station to substation. Changes in direction, where required by intermediate controls, are made at angle towers instead of along curves. A trunk telephone or telegraph line is usually located within the right-of-way of a highway or of a railroad, in which case the curves of the right- of-way must be followed. Unless aerial photographs are used, the field and office work for transmission-line location involves, after a study of avail- able maps, the following operations: 1, Reconnaissance for the location of intermediate features to be avoided, such as buildings, cemeteries, extensive swamps, stands of heavy timber, and particularly valuable improved land; and for the location of intermediate controls fixing points on the line, such as the most advantageous crossings of impor- tant highways, railroads, and streams. 2. A transit-and-tape (or a stadia) traverse. ‘The traverse may be either a preliminary line or the final center line, the selection depending on the difficulty of the problem. In stak- ing the long straight sections between intermediate controls, the deflection-angle method of by-passing obstacles on tan- gents (described in Art. 9-13) is particularly useful. Contours are not located; however, all topographic features and right- of-way data are measured with respect to the traverse, as described in Art, 10-4, 3. Levels sufficient in extent to aid in locating the towers. ‘These may be merely “‘spot'’ elevations or those for a complete profile along the traverse line. On final location in difficult terrain, it is advisable to take levels along two lines, one on each side of the center line, in order to obtain proper conductor clearance when spotting the positions of the towers. __FaSurveys for Other Routes 323 4. Office studies, including the features common to all route location: drawing of the map, description of right-of-way ease- ments, estimate of quantities and cost, and preparation of specifications. A special problem in transmission-line design is the location of the towers. This location work may be done with the aid of special transparent templates, as described after step 5. 5, Construction surveys. These are relatively simple on transmission-line construction, since there is practically no grading. Stakes are needed only for clearing the right- of-way and for building tower footings. However, the sur- veyor's assistance is also valuable in planning other details related to construction, such as in spotting cable reels and locating suitable dead-end and pulling points. A convenient method of spotting tower locations on the profile is to use a transparent template, the lower edge of which is cut to the curve (approximately parabola) that will be taken by the conductor cables. Obviously the curve must be modified to fit the scale of the profile. ‘Two other curves are inscribed on the template parallel to the curve of the lower edge. The axial distance from the lower edge to the middle curve equals the maximum cable sag for a par- ticular span; that from the middle curve to the upper curve equals the specified minimum ground clearance. ‘The template is used as shown in Fig. 11-1, First a point X is located at a suitable position for a tower; then the lower edge of the template is placed on this point and the template is moved until the middle curve touches the ground324 a Surveys for Other Routes line, The other point Y at which the lower edge of the tem- plate intersects the ground line is the possible location of the next tower. One template fits a considerable range of spans with sufficient accuracy. After the towers at certain controlling points have been located, the location of the intermediate towers is a matter of sh ee je ot ic i hot eee with the least number of towers. (Os taapem tact ae Giarchi work, aerial photo- graphs are now commonly used, at least for reconnaissance, and they are sometimes used for all phases of the survey work except final staking. The growing file of available aerial photographs (Art. 10-9) often makes this method feasible where it was formerly prevented by economic considerations. 11-4. Surveys for Pressure Pipe Lines and Underground Conduits.—Surveys for the location of long pressure pipe lines are almost as simple as those for transmission lines. In fact, the descriptions contained in steps 1 and 2 in Art. 11-3 apply also to pipeline surveys. However, since pressure pipe lines are usually located underground, greater attention is paid to foundation conditions and especially to avoiding costly rock excavation and frequent stream crossings. Acces sibility to power for operating booster pumping stations is also an important intermediate control. Grades and undulations in the profile are relatively unim- portant, especially on small-diameter steel pipe lines; conse- quently, detailed profile levels may be omitted and replaced by spot elevations at proposed pumping stations and at the high and low points along the line. On construction, line stakes are more important than grade stakes. In fact, grade stakes for steel pipe lines may be needed only at pumping-stations and at crossings of high- ways, railroads, and streams. Along intervening sections, at least in easy terrain, several sections of pipe are welded together on the ground before being laid in the relatively uni- form trench dug by the trenching machine. Large reinforced-conerete pipe lines require much more careful attention to undulations in the profile, since there is aSurveys for Other Routes 325 practical limit to the change in direction possible at each joint, and beyond that limit special pipe sections are necessary. ‘As in the case of transmission lines, right-of-way for a pressure pipe line usually takes the form of easements for its construction and operation, ‘Aerial surveys are particularly useful in the location of long pipe lines. Only mosaics are used, since contours are not essential. As a rule, a stereoscopic study of the photographs will give enough information for the preliminary location. After this the line may be “walked over" prior to deciding upon the final location, It is possible, however, to rely upon aerial photographs to an even greater extent.:?* For example, in building one of the longest pipe lines from the southwestern part of the United States to the industrial middle west, no surveyor went on the job until the sections of pipe were ready to be laid; yet, the right-of-way agents completed much of their work before that time. Surveys for underground conduits containing power lines on private right-of-way are much the same as those for pres~ sure pipe lines. ‘Underground communication circuits are commonly placed in conduits located beneath the highway pavement, Access for maintenance is by means of manholes. Coaxial eables used for telephone, broadeast, and television circuits may be drawn through existing conduits, However, they are also placed directly in a shallow ploughed trench beside the high way. In neither case is any extensive survey work required. 11-5. Surveys for Construction at the Hydraulic Gradient. Surveys for hydraulic construction in which flow is by gravity require very careful attention to elevations, owing to the flat grades used. If the flow is in an open channel, as in a canal, the alignment may have to be circuitous in order to obtain proper velocity and to avoid costly grading. A more direct alignment is possible if the construction is below the ground surface, such as in the case of a grade-line tunnel, aqueduct, or sewer. Surveys for surface construction may be identical with those for railroad location, the principal modification being that a narrower strip of topography will suffice. ‘This condition is ‘*Superseript numbers refer to the bibliography at the end of this chapter.326 P caused by the necessity for keeping the gradients between relatively narrow limits. Stations on the preliminary traverse are kept close to the final location by setting them near the “grade contour.” The grade contour is the line on the ground (starting at a con- trolling point) along which the grade changes at the rate best suited to the construction. In locating the stations, it is obviously necessary that the leveling be kept up with the transit work. In simple irrigation-ditch construction in easy terrain, a line may be located on the grade contour in the field by tape and level, without need for the transit. On a contour map the grade contour is found by starting at a controlling point and stepping from contour to contour with dividers set at a distance equal to the contour interval divided by the desired rate of grade. The closer the final alignment follows the grade contour, the lower will be the grading quantities. Since economy of grading is an important factor in canal construction, careful cross-sections are taken at short inter- vals, Construction surveys for canals are very similar to those for highways, but all stakes must be set on offset lines. ‘There are cases in which aerial surveys have been used in. studies for canal location—for example, on the proposed Florida Barge Canal. ‘They have also been used in studies for levees and dikes to control meandering rivers. Difficulty of access for ground-survey parties is an important consideration favoring the use of aerial-survey methods. However, the small contour interval needed on maps for canal studies does not ordinarily permit the location of contours by photo- tric methods. Mosaics are useful for general studies; but for detailed location the best method probably is to make an accurate planimetric map from the aerial photographs and then to add the contours by the plane-table method. For gravity-flow structures below the ground surface, it is entirely suitable to use railroad surveying methods, supple- mented by adequate subsurface exploration. A most impor- ‘tant aspect of the office studies for such construction is to decide whether cut-and-cover construction or tunnel con- struction is the better. Often a combination of the two pro- vides the most economical solution. Surveys for Other RoutesSurveys for Other Routes 327 11-6. Tunnel Surveys.—In mountainous terrain, it is ‘sometimes necessary to use tunnels on route alignment. Surveying operations for locating tunnels vary greatly in complexity. Preliminary studies are best made by using aerial photography, especially in regions which have experi- enced earth movements. Even detailed field studies may not disclose old earthquake faults, but good photographs quickly reveal them. As an example, some topographically-favorable tunnel sites considered for Interstate Highway 70 under the Continental Divide, west of Denver, were found to follow major fault zones*, a fact which resulted in the choice of a different location.‘ ‘The final alignment of a short tunnel may be fixed by locating a transit line on the ground directly over the tunnel. ‘As a rule, however, an indirect precise traverse is necessary. In the case of subaqueous tunnels or long tunnels to be driven through rugged mountain ranges, triangulation control must beused. This is a subject outside the scope of route surveying. ‘The traverse or triangulation control provides only the data for calculating the tunnel alignment; elevations must be determined by careful spirit leveling between the proposed portals. Locating the portals, adits, and shafts by means of the accurate control surveys is only one of the surveyor's impor- tant tasks. His work in controlling the accuracy of the tunnel driving is fully as important; it must be done with the highest precision, for it cannot be verified conclusively until the head- ings are holed through—and then it is too late to make adjust~ ments, Surveying for tunnels driven through rock involves special- ized operations not found in other types of route surveying. Among these are: 1. Carrying the alignment down shafts by means of heavy bobs damped in oil and suspended from piano wires. The equipment also includes lateral adjusting devices for the sheaves and scales for measuring the swing of the wires. 2. Transferring the alignment from the wires to plumb bobs suspended from riders, or “‘skyhooks,” mounted on scales attached to the roof of the tunnel. 3. Extending the alignment into the tunnel on “spads”328 “. Surveys for Other Routes driven in plugged holes in the roof. The transitman usually works on a suspended platform, out of the way of the muck cars, 4. Carrying the alignment to the working face, or “painting the heading,” for locating the drilt holes. 5. Transferring grade down shafts by means of weighted tapes or by taping down elevator guides, 6. Carrying temporary grade into the tunnel by means of inverted rod readings on the wood plugs in which the spads are driven. 7. Cross-sectioning twice; first for locating “tights” (points needing trimming), and finally for obtaining permanent graphical records of the sections and for computing pay yardage and overbreak. Several ingenious devices for cross-sectioning have been used, such as pantographs and “sunflowers.” The latter are designed to locate breaks in the tunnel cross-section by polar coordinates. Since 1965 several different commercial laser instruments® have become available for accurate line-and-grade control in the construction of tunnels and underwater pipelines. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. MacDonald, G-E., “Surveys and Maps for Pipelines,” Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 121, 1956, pp. 121-134. 2. Guss, P., “Aerial Photography Aids Pipeline Location,” Civil Engineering, Vol. 31, No. 6, June, 1961, pp. 48-51. 3. Mitcham, T.W., “Tunnel-Site Selection by Use of Aerial Photography,” Civil Engineering, Vol. 31, No. 8, August, 1961, P. 64. 4. “Road Tunnel Will Pierce Divide,” Engineering News- Record, Vol. 167, No. 7, Aug. 17, 1961, p. 25. 5. Bengston, D., “Construction Control with Lasers,’ Civil Engineering, Vol. 38, No. 4, April, 1968, pp. 72-74.chapter 12 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying 12-1. Foreword.—The uses of aerial photographs in route surveying justify devoting a separate chapter to aspects of the subject not covered in textbooks on photogrammetry. Aside from a brief review of certain definitions and mapping proc- esses, this chapter avoids repeating the technical principles of photogrammetric mapping as described in books on the sub- ject* Instead, the emphasis is on the special applications of this new science to route location, and on their advantages, limitations, and economic value. Some new developments that involve photogrammetry appear in Chapter 13. 12-2. Definitions.—Definitions of photogrammetric terms to be used in this chapter are given in this article. For a more comprehensive list the engineer is referred to the Manual of Eisoronmaiy of the American Society of Photogrammetry.* of obtaining reliable jents by means of photography. ‘The subject is sub- divided into terrestrial p eee eee Sree metry. In terrestrial photogrammetry the photographs-are taken from one or more ground stations; in aerial photogram- metry, from an aeroplane in flight.Terrestrial_photogram- horizontal 4 metry utilizes plolomapha ot oblique~photographs, whereas acrial photogrammetry-utilizes vertical photographs or oblique photographs. Sit i ly referred -to-in this chapter are considered to have-been made with the camera axis vertical, oF a nearly vertical as practi- in.an aircraft. ~~ ‘The photographs used may be contact prints, made with the negatives in contact with sensitized photographic paper; ratio prints, the scales of which have been changed from those of the negatives by enlargement or reduction; or stereoscopic pairs (stereo-pairs), in which two photographs of the same area are taken in such a manner as to afford stereoscopic vision. “Superscript numbers refer to the bibliography at the end of this chapter. 329330 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying An important property of a photograph is its scale, which is the ratio of a distance on the photograph to a corresponding distance on the ground. The scale of a photograph varies from point to point because of displacements caused by camera tilt and topographic relief. These displacements must be cor- rected for, if the photograph is to be used for precise measure~ ments. ‘A fight trip 4 in ot eeaacel Jal photo: graphs taken along a single course. The eeoey for stereoscopic examination and for the construction mosaics... A mosaic is an assemblage of aerial photographs the edges of which have been trimmed an poe ieee aoe ale a ee ous photographic representa surface, If the photographs aS sean sisi lee to ground control points, the resulting mosaic; if they have first been brought to.a uniform-scale and fitted to ground control stations, the map is a controlled mosaic. A planimetric map is one which shows the horizontal posi- tions of selected natural and cultural features, whereas a topographic map also shows relief in measurable form, usually by contours. ‘The term base map is used to define a large-scale planimetrie map compiled from aerial photographs. A e2py of the base map may be used for the addition of contours and other data located by means of the plane table and/or photo- grammetric methods. Sete aaa 12-3. Uncontrolled Mosaics.—In-making_an-uncontrolled mosaic, contact prints covering the area to be studied_are trimmed and assembled by matching like images and are then fastened to a rigid or flexible backing. If the mosaic is for temporary use in the field, the prints are mounted on linen or other material that will permit the map to be rolled up. For this purpose semi-matte prints are preferred because they take pencil lines readily and are not scratched as easily as glossy prints, For more permanent use, properly matched glossy prints may be stapled or pasted to a rigid backing. If desired, the assembly may be photographed to preserve one or more copies of the complete map, after which the mosaic is dis-_ Aerial Photography in Route Surveying 331 mantled so that the contact prints may be used for stereoscopic study. Such a mosaic is relatively inexpensive and, though subject to errors because of scale variations and displacements, it is ‘extremely valuable for reconnaissance (Art. 12-9) and mis- eellaneous uses (Art. 12-12). 12-4. Importance of Stereoscopic Vision.—Most aerial photography is done by flying parallel flights across an area. During the flights, photographs are taken at intervals such that adjacent photographs will overlap approximately 30 per cent at the sides and 60 per cent in the direction of flight. ‘This insures that the center (principal point) in each photo- graph will appear in the adjacent | picture taken in the line of flight, thus Berne fing-what is called “stereoscopic overlap.” By properly orienting the overlapping photographs (stereo- pairs) and viewing them through a stereoscope, the process known as “stereoscopic fusion” takes place. _sions> (A simple demonstration of stereoscopic fusion is shown in Fig, 12-1.) In effect, two positions of the-camera Iens_several_thousand_feet_apart—ate—substituted—for~the observer's eyes. In the resulting image (known as the ‘stereomodel”), relative heights of hills and structures, depths of canyons, and slopes of terrain are determinable. Used in this way, the old principle of stereoscopic vision has become probably the most important basic tool for studying the manifold problems of route-location. 12-5. Controlled Mosaies.—The utility of a mosaic may be greatly increased by bringing the photographs to a uniform “Reale: aoerecting then for fil, and f fitting them in their correct relative positions. ‘This eee _SBESansparmr ts ying methods. Control stations, properly distributed over the area, are first selected with the aid of the stereoscope. They should be definite points easily recognized on the photographs and accessible on the ground. Buildings, fence corners, or road intersections usually serve this purpose. Preparatory to planning the ground control surveys, the selected control points are marked on each photograph by a circled prick point.332 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying traverse, ‘ireuits fro in elevations-of-the-control_points may be cemputed. Ground control is costly and should therefore be no more precise or extensive than is required for the purpose. In research aimed at reducing the cost of ground control for surveys of very large areas, great progress in use of air-borne radar, and shoran techniques, has been made. See also Art. 13-2. In making the finished mosaic, the contaet-prints are ratioed (brought to the same predetermined scale), rectified (corrected for tilt), and fitted on a base ) the plotted ground-eon~ trol points. ‘There are several methods of doing-this;all of which ate highly technical and require special equipment. Only the central part of each photograph is used in compiling the mosaic, and the trimmed edges are feathered on the under- side. In addition, prints having the same tone, or degree of exposure, are selected. The finished mosaic then has the appearance of a single large photograph. 12-6. Planimetric Maps.—A planimetric map, on which are shown the accurate positions of such-natural and cultural features as watercourses, forests, highways, and buildings, may be constructed from aerial photographs which are tied to adequate ground control. The first step is to make a control plot on which the ground control points are located from their computed coordinates. Photographic control points (“‘pic- ture points””) must also be located on the plot to permit proper matching of the photographs. These are points that are clearly visible on two or more photographs but are not tied in by the ground surveys. They are usually located on the con- trol plot by an analytic or graphical method of radial tri- angulation. ‘The positions of details may be transferred from the photo- graphs to the plot either by a relatively simple tracing method or by a stereographic method that-employs special plotting instruments. The tracing method yields good results only if the photographs are relatively free from relief or tilt dis- placements. In this method each photograph is fitted as closely as possible to the plotted control points, and the selected details are traced onto the plot. The positions ofAerial Photography in Route Surveying 333 details which show on two photographs may have to be adjusted to compensate for slight differences in their traced locations. A ;-free-from the effects of tilt displace ment, vith the a ‘complex Mechanical instruments-ealled “stere ers." Those most widely used include the acablepeopeciion map compilation plotters: Balplex, Kelsh, Multiplez, and Nistri Photocartograph; and the more=tostly optical train instruments: Galileo-Santoni Stereocartograph, Nistri Photostereograph, Wild Autograph, and Zeiss Stereoplanigraph- Hold a card at right angles to the page and along the dotted line. Closing one eye at a time, adjust the head so that letter X (but not O) can be seen with the left eye, and conversely with the right eye. ‘Then open both eyes and focus them beyond the page. The four dots above the let- ters will fuse and appear as two. Moreover, the lower dot will seem to be floating in space relative tothe upper dot. To prove that all four dots are in the image, notice that the letters X and O are ‘superimposed. Fig. 12-1. Stereoscopic fusion ‘These instruments employ the principle of the floating mark. In the stereoplanigraph and related instruments, the photo- graphs of a stereo-pair are viewed through two movable334 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying Fig. 12-2. Pair of Multiplex projectors forming a stereoscopic model. (Courtesy U.S. Geological Survey.) optical trains, each having a small dot or mark etched on a lens of the optical system. When the photographs are viewed, the two marks appear to fuse to form a single mark apparently floating in space above or below the stereomodel, as demon- strated in Fig. 12-1. (In a double-projection plotter, of the type shown in Fig. 12-2, a pin point of light projected through a hole in a tracing-table platen forms the floating mark.) By proper manipulation of the instrument the floating mark canAerial Photography in Route Surveying 335 ‘be made to rise or sink vertically. In planimetric mapping, the general procedure is to operate the plotter so that the floating mark appears to be touching the surface of the ground (or other feature to be mapped) in the stereomodel, and then to mark the corresponding points on the manuscript map. In some stereoplotters the coordinates of the point viewed are read from scales. More-complex instruments have a special arrangement of levers, gears, and shafts which permits the path of the floating mark to be plotted directly (Art. 12-7). Some types-of-stereoplotters, particularly the optical-train instruments, are_able to extend ground control accurately through-a-chain of stereomodels by a process known as bridg- ing, which_is_an_application-of-aerotriangulation. Aerotri- angulation and the linkage of stereoplotter to electronic com- puter are described in Art. 13-9. il i tographs may be Many details appearing on the aerial pho! transferred to the planimetric map without commensurate increase in cost—in contrast to the situation in ground survey= ing. Moreover, only the relevant details need be transferred. "Thus, several different planimetric maps may be constructed from the same photographs, the features shown on a map depending on the use to be made of the map. 12-7. Topographic Maps by Photogrammetric Methods. A stereoscopic plotting instrument may also be manipulated in such a way as to measure the differences in elevation between points.on the stereo-pairs. In principle, the first step in doing) this is to adjust the instrument until the floating mark rests on a control point of known elevation. The frame carrying the two eyepieces is then moved in the z-and y-directions until the mark is at the detail being measured but is apparently floating in space above or below it. The mark is then made to rise or sink until it is at the same elevation as the detail. Thi done by narrowing or increasing the distance between the eyepieces. Scale readings made during the procedure can be converted to give the z- and y-coordinates of the particular detail viewed and its elevation with respect to the control point, The principle can be extended to the drawing of con- tours, thus converting the planimetric map into a complete topographic representation.336 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying As instruments improve, the accuracy of maps made by photogrammetrie methods approaches that obtained: Secageal surveys. For example, the National Map Accuracy Standards for horizontal accuracy (scales larger-than 1:20,000) require that “not more than 10 per cent of the points tested shall be in error by more than yy inch for maps on scales of 1:20,000 or smaller, zy inch,” As to vertical accuracy, “not more than 10 Fig. 12-3. Reproduction of an serial photograph, and a photo- grammetric map. (Courtesy Jack Ammann Photogrammetric Engineers, Ine.)‘ ‘i A | Aerial Photography in Route Surveying 337 per cent of the elevations tested shall be in error more than ii all”? pike extension h “ic toa i i rt elevations, and 5-ft contours. Even more-rigid requirements are sometimes specified. For example, topographic maps with ASTIN aT | a aN RBM | 39 oe jx <<| 338 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying a contour interval of 1 ft, at a scale of 1 in.=40 ft, have been prepared for the highway commission of one eastern state. The accuracy required was that 90 per cent of the contours be dependable within } ft.8° A reproduction of a portion of an aerial photograph is shown in Fig. 12-3(a), and a photogram- metric map of the area covered by the photograph is shown in Fig. 12-3). 12-8. Orthophotography.—A_new_ improvement over con- ventional stereoscopic ainhoeremntos Soe rai te ee with the development of equipment to produce the equivalen of an orthographic photograph, i.¢., a uniform-scale photo- graph free from distortions due-to tilt-and-relief. The U.S. Geological Survey accomplished this by means of a machine called the orthophotoscope,® The original incentive came from the acute need for geologic use of uniform-scale maps on which the full wealth of planimetric detail is provided by photo- graphic images. ‘At about the same time a different system of producing topographic maps based on orthophotography was developed commercially by the R.M. Towhill Corporation of Honolulu.” ‘The product, called the Photo-Contour Map (Fig. 12-4), is not a mosaic with contours superimposed. Because of the method by which the photographic perspective is rectified, it is an orthographic projection at the same scale as the con’ ontour plotting. The finished map is a photo copy on which contours are shown as black or white lines, or a combination of both. ‘The tone of the photograph usually determines which is pre- ferable. ‘The Photo-Contour Map is practically self-checking. Inaccurate work in compiling is revealed by obvious mis- matches in contours and planimetric features. Inspection of Fig. 12-4 shows that all contours properly track the visible drains and roads. In_general, Photo-Contour Maps cost more than topo- graphic maps made by conventional, photogrammetric stric methods (see Art. 12-11). However, where a proposed route location passes through areas having dense planimetricdetail, they may eee costly because of saving in drafting, time. 12-9. Photogrammetry for Reconnaissance.—Before_mak- ing the detailed projection of a route ‘between selected termini,339 ‘ial Photography in Route Surveying340 Aerial.Photography in Route Surveying there must be general studies dealing with intermediate con- trols and interpretation of terrain. These studies may_be summarized in the one word reconnaissance. If the controls usually present are examined (see Art. 9-3), they will be seen to fall into two principal types: (1) topography. Both types of controls are recorded in great detail on aerial photographs. In fact, it is-now-generally agreed that such photographs provide the best means of mak- ing the type of careful reconnaissance so aptly emphasized by Wellington (Art. 1-9). For the first stage of reconnaissance, as described in. Art. 10-9, small-scale photographs of the region between the termini will enable the designer to select the important con- trols and locate all feasible route bands. The scale of these photographs will depend on the distance between the termini and the importance of the intervening terrain. In practice, scales as small as 1 in. =2,000 ft (1:24,000) are quite suitable. ‘The best procedure i is to lay up an uncontrolled mosaic and to study it in conjunction with stereoscopic examination of stereo-pairs. ‘The result will be the selection of several bands of terrain between the termini within each of which lies an apparently feasible location. These bands may be from 1,800 feet to 1 mile or more in width, ‘The second stage of reconnaissance has for its purpose the comparison of the route bands and the selection of the most promising one. In some instances the choice will become apparent during the first stage, but in more-difficult cases it may first be necessary to study larger-scale photographs. ‘These may be prepared with little extra cost by enlarging the original photographs up to a practical maximum of about four diameters. Even when the original photographs are taken in the summer, these enlargements are usable, since heavy foliage does not detract seriously from their value in reconnaissance studies. In both stages of reconnaissance the aerial photographs should-be-supplemented-by-other available maps. One in- genious method is to make photographic enlargements of U.S.G.S. sheets on a transparent-film base, to serve as an over- lay at the same scale as the mosaic.'? Used in conjunction with the stereo-pairs, this method adds a quantitative factorAerial Photography in Route Surveying 341 to the study. Inaccuracies in the maps or scale distortions in the photographs affect all route bands equally and are not large enough to invalidate this procedure. Many of the mis- cellaneous values disclosed by aerial photographs (Art. 12-12) will become apparent in these studies and will also contribute toward the selection of the best route band. Field inspection at critical locations may be needed to resolve some difficulties. 12-10. Photogrammetry for Detailed Location Studies—The__ _type of photogrammetric application used for detailed location depends on_the type of transportation route involved. It is possible to establish the location of a transmission ora long pressure pipe line simply from the study of mosaics and stereo- pairs. However, the accurate location of a highway, a rail- road, or other route on which grades and right-of-way costs are moré important requires a complete topographic map showing contours at-net more than 6-ft intervals. In some instances contours may be drawn by stereoscopic plotting only on certain portions of the planimetric map, the remaining contours being fixed by plane-table or other ground- survey methods. This might be true, for example, in ex- tremely flat areas or where dense ground cover prevents obtain- ing the specified accuracy of contour location from photo- graphs.” . Complete topographic maps, made as outlined in Art. 12-7, vary in scale from 1 in.=200 ft, with a 5-ft or 10-ft contour interval, to 1 in.=40 ft, with 1-ft contours. To meet the National Map Accuracy Standards the scale of the contact prints cannot ordinarily exceed four times.the map scale, although the maps to-a scale of 1 in.=200 ft prepared for the Pennsylvania Turnpike extensions‘? were made from prints having a taking scale of about 1 in.=1,000 ft. (The selected route band in these examples was 1 mile wide.) Other practical examples from states that have used photo- grammetric maps on highway projects are: California"—Taking scale 200 ft per inch. Map scale 1 in, =50 ft, with 2ft contours. Connecticut!"—Taking scales 500, 200, and 100 ft per inch. Corresponding map scales 1 in,=200 ft (5-ft contours), 1 in, = 100 ft (2-ft contours), 1 in. =40 ft (I-ft contours),342 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying Massachusetts‘*—Taking scale 600 ft per inch for rural locations; 400 ft per inch for urban work. Map scales 1 in. =200 ft (5-ft contours) and 1 in.=100 ft (2-ft con- tours). Ohio"—Taking scale 200 ft per inch. Map scale 1 in.=50 ft, with 2-ft contours. Once the topographic maps are prepared, trial lines are laid down on them with a spline, and the best route is following the usual paper-location procedure, as outlined in Art. 9-11. With the advent of automation, more-sophisti- cated methods of alignment design are now available. These are described in Art. 13-9. ‘An important feature of the paper-location study is the estimate of grading quantities. If topographic maps made from aerial photographs actually meet the National Map Accuracy Standards; there isno-reason why adequate quantity estimates cannot be prepared from them. Recently, highway engineers are finding that this is true. For example, in Massachusetts on a 2-mile relocation the difference between quantities computed from surveyed cross-sections and from sections plotted from aerial topographic maps was only 2.6 per cent in embankment and 3.3 per cent in excavation.!> A similar comparison on a 7,600-ft project in Connecticut showed discrepancies of 1.4 per cent in cut and 1.2 per cent in fill. On a 30-mile project in California" the variation in the excavation quantities was less than 2.5 per cent. ‘The foregoing results lead to the belief that-in-highway construction we may eventually make contract payment for excavation on the basis of quantities derived from photogram- metric studies. A step in this direction was taken in Ohio’ on a 4.12-mile relocation for which a complete set of construc- tion plans was prepared by photogrammetric studies and these plans were used immediately for award of the construction con- tract by the usual competitive method. Since that example, Ohio has had excellent results with photographic measurement of cross-sections for pay quantities.” Research shows that by adjusting photogrammetric sections to field elevations along a route center-line and taking cross sections from a stereomodel, the resulting quantities are within limits con-Aerial Photography in Route Surveying 343 sidered satisfactory for purposes of payment.*** The linkage of stereoplotter and electronic computer (Art. 13-9) is a further step toward this goal. 12-11. Costs of Photogrammetric Mapping.—In addition to possessing many-other-advantages, photogrammetric maps can often be prepared at far less cost than maps made by con- ventional ground-survey methods. The tabulation on page 344 is instructive in this regard. In preparing the tabulation, the cost. data for projects not listed inthe bibliography were obtained from commercial organizations specializing in photogrammetric mapping. It is important to observe that the cost per mile of photogram- metric maps depends principally on the scale and the contour interval. ‘The length of the project—for given specifications — has practically no effect on unit costs. Also mapping costs have not increased significantly over the years despite the large increase in construction costs. This is due to better equipment, improved techniques, and more competition among 4 greater number of mapping companies. An important fac- tor in keeping costs down is the ability of modern stereo- plotters to extend sparse ground control by bridging. On a cost-per-mile basis, comparable maps made by ground urvey methods will rarely cost Jess, and will usually cost much more, than photogrammetric maps. However, a fairer com- parison of costs should take into account the fact that maps compiled from ground surveys rarely cover as wide a strip of topography as those made photogrammetrically. On work in Massachusetts, for example, the average cost. of aerial topographic maps was $680 per mile for a strip 6,000 ft wide; whereas costs for ground surveys and plotting were about $1,500 per mile for a strip only 500 ft wide. Regardless of whether photogrammetry produces savings in mapping costs, it is likely to yield substantial savings in construction costs. These savings accrue not only from time savings but also from reduction in grading quantities and construction difficulties because the wider strip of topography and the astute use of stereo-pairs may result in the projec- tion of a better location than is possible by former methods, Asan example, on a highway project in Mississippi, excavationAerial Photography in Route Surveying 344 ‘ware yoo]q Tur bs 61S, PLM EW J—Sanoquoy 1f-g—yoog 1-008 * opt 43 000" ding pts 43 OOS‘ faTwos 95-06 198 “d ‘8 “ON "ON 18 “d ON “PU @PLM 1 000'F—Sinoju0,) 1f-1—2D0y' 1f-0f — :uoxywarfioadgy s770N ropedsy SRSASRIAR A goersnnada 3 2 ro auay sad 03 ¥6e'r 080‘ 189% 0c6‘T 000s an 42d 980, aboop yy amis’ WOHBIOT ONOY-ABMYSIFY 10y Sd! WHoUUITIZO}OYg UO BEC SOQAerial Photography in Route Surveying 345 quantities averaged 42,872 cu yd per mile as determined from a ground survey location, whereas another location, worked out later with the aid of aerial photographs, was selected with excavation quantities averaging only 27,536 cu yd per mile. Similar comparisons on highway projects in Central America and Alaska showed phenomenal savings in construction costs in addition to improvements in alignment and gradients.'* ‘The comments made in Art. 1-13 relative to costs and ultimate accuracies are especially pertinent in aerial photog- raphy and mapping. Photographs should be taken at a scale suited to resolving the smallest detail that must actually be shown on the map; otherwise additional field surveys will be needed and costs will mount. The topographic map itself should be drawn with the smallest horizontal scale and largest contour interval that will serve the requirements. Greater accuracy and larger scales than are needed are wasteful and costly. 12-12, Miscellaneous Uses of Aerial Photographs.—The technical utility and economic advantages of aerial photo- graphs, as described in the preceding articles, carry enough weight to justify their employment on all important route- location projects, However, it is worth emphasizing that aerial photographs possess other inherent values which may result as by-products from their primary uses. Often, these miscellaneous uses will require little additional cost or effort. ‘The auxiliary uses of aerial photographs are many and varied. They may be found in any stage of route location, from the preliminary planning to studies made after the route is in operation. The following valuable uses have been re- ported: For Preliminary Planning Interpretation of terrain, Drainage patterns. Soil types. Land use as affecting costs of right-of-way. Location and extent of wooded areas, swamps, rock outcrops, snow-slide and erosion scars, and borrow material and granular deposits for use in construction, For Detailed Studies Size of drainage areas for culvert determination, Plan- ning of interchanges, using oblique photographs. Large-scale site maps for bridges, intersections, and346 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying other detailed studies, prepared from one pair of photographs with a stereoscopic plotting instrument. For Construction Determination of best means of access. Type of clearing. Possible effect of terrain and climatic conditions on choice of construction equipment. Progress reports, using series of oblique photographs taken in sequence along route at convenient time intervals.” After Construction Traffic studies, including traffic counts, speeds, and densities, congestion, railroad grade-crossing elimina- tion, efficiency of existing parking facilities, and location of new parking areas. Road-inventory studies, includ- ing changes in use of abutting land and pavement-con- dition surveys."* General Public-relations purposes in general,” such as illustrations at public hearings and legislative reviews pertaining to proposed route location and land takings, using oblique photographs that are easier for the layman to understand (see the Frontispiece). 12-13. Limitations of Photogrammetry.—Photogrammetry for purposes of route location is not without its limitations. Clarity in photographs requires good atmospheric conditions— freedom from clouds, mist, smoke, or severe haze. In some parts of the world such ideal conditions may occur only one or two days in the year. The interrrelationship between aerial photographs and ground control requires careful planning as to their timing. A hasty decision to take aerial photographs, solely in the belief that they always save time, invites inefficiency and may raise costs. It is virtually impossible to determine precise elevations from photographs taken when there is heavy snow cover or dense vegetation. Consequently, for contour mapping the photographs should be taken when the ground is bare and the trees are defoliated. Regions having dense forests of differentAerial Photography in Route Surveying 347 types and heights of evergreens obviously present a difficult problem. Reference 19 offers a possible solution. Photogrammetric methods should not usually be used for maps requiring elevations with an error of less than 1 ft. For example, contour mapping by photogrammetry is questionable for canal location in areas when contours are widely spaced and where high precision is needed. In such circumstances is would be better to draw a planimetrie map by photogram- metric methods and then add contours and spot elevations by appropriate ground surveying methods. If the area to be mapped is small or if only a narrow strip of topography is needed, photogrammetry may then be re- stricted by economics rather than by technical limitations. Finally, projects such as highway relocation require addi- tional data about details that can only be obtained by ground methods. Among these are: precise location of hydrants, water gates, and property-line markers; utility-pole numbers; type, critical elevation, and house number of buildings; size and invert elevation of culverts; and all the information regard- ing existing subsurface installations that are needed for design drawings and construction planning. 12-14. Summary of Advantages of Aerial Photography in Route Surveying.—To summarize the information in this chapter, it is apparent that the salient advantages of acrial photography in route surveying are: 1, The larger area and wider route bands covered by the photographs give greater flexibility in route location and practically insure that no better location has been overlooked. 2, Practically all the studies preceding construction can be made without encroaching on private property or arous- ing premature fears in regard to the extent of property damage. Land speculation is thereby reduced.” More- over, the eventual acquiring of right-of-way is expedited because property owners can see clearly on the photo- graphs the effects of the takings. 3. On a large project the elapsed time between starting the survey work and construction can be greatly shortened. Should weather conditions provide only a short field348 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying season, ground control and photography can be done then, the map compilation being left for indoor work dur- ing the winter months. In contrast to plane-table work, the stereoscopic plotting of contours is independent of weather and can be done on a day-and-night schedule if necessary. 4. Over-all survey and mapping costs may be considerably less than by ground methods. 5. Maps made by photogrammetric methods possess a more uniform accuracy than is usually found in those compiled from ground surveys. 6. What was formerly thought to be the ultimate goal of aerial photography—the compilation of detailed topo- graphic maps—is being extended to even more useful purposes, such as quantity estimates and complete con- struction plans. 7. Photogrammetry is of direct value in reducing the short- age of engineering services by releasing engineering personnel from routine survey work for more-advanced employment in design. 8. Aerial photographs have many auxiliary uses and con- tain more information about a variety of significant fea- tures than the engineer can obtain by ground methods except at greatly increased cost. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Moffitt, F.H., Photogrammetry, 2d ed., Scranton: Inter- national Textbook Company, 1967. 2. Manual of Photogrammetry, 3d ed., American Society of Photogrammetry, Washington, D.C., 1965. 3. Hoover, C.R., “Development of an Optical Radar System for Surveying Purposes,” Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 31, No. 4, August, 1950, pp. 518-524. 4. Ross, J.E.R., “Shoran, Application to Geodetic Tri- angulation,” The Canadian Surveyor, Vol. 10, No. 3, Jan- uary, 1950, pp. 9-18. 5. Aslakson, C.L, ‘The Importance of Shoran Surveying,” Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 120, 1955, pp. 225-234.Bibliography 349 6. Williams, F.J., “Photogrammetry Locates 208 Miles of Pennsylvania Turnpike Extensions,” Civil Engineering, Vol. 20, No, 12, December, 1950, pp. 761-763. 7. Gilbert, G.B., “Photogrammetry Aids the Pennsyl- vania Turnpike,” Proceedings ASCE, Vol. 80, Separate No. 577, December, 1954. 8. Hooper, C.J., “Photogrammetry and Its Uses in High- way Planning and Design,” Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol. XVI, No. 1, March, 1951, pp. 133-137. 9. Quinn, A.O., “Photogrammetry Aids Highway Engin- eers,” Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol. XVIII, No. 5, De- cember, 1952, pp. 787-790. 10. Meyer, R.W., “Aerial Photography Streamlines Ohio's Highway Program,” Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol. XIX, No. 5, December, 1953, pp. 771-776. 11. Telford, E.T., “Photogrammetry as Applied to High- way Engineering,” Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol. XVII, No. 1, March, 1951, pp. 175-180. 12. 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