MCL-135-Welding and Allied Processes - Part 2

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India
Welding and Allied Processes

Course Number: MCL135
Course Coordinator:
Dr. Abhishek Das
Assistant Professor
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Hauz Khas –110 016
 Types of Joints
 Types of Welds/ Beads
 Power Density in Fusion Welding
Formation of a Fusion Welded Joint
Considering a typical butt joint configuration
(with filler wire added), the following cross-
sectional zones can be observed:
1) Fusion Zone: consists of a mixture of filler metal,
if any, and base metal that was completely melted
and then solidified
2) Weld interface: a narrow boundary between
fusion zone and heat affected zone
3) Heat-affected zone (HAZ): this zone is affected
by the heat below the melting point, yet high
enough to cause microstructural changes in the
solid metal
4) Unaffected base metal zone: no change in
comparison to the base material
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For academic purpose only. The contents are only for students of MCL135 (IITD) 3
Typical Microstructure of a Fusion Welded Joint
Typical weld microstructure characteristics

Fusion Zone:
• It consists of a mixture of filler metal, if any, and Columnar grains
base metal that was completely melted and then in the fusion zone
solidified Coarse grains in HAZ
• A high degree of homogeneity is present among the near weld interface
component metals that have been melted during
welding Finer grains in HAZ
away from weld interface
• Solidification is similar to casting; mould is formed
by the unmelted edges/surface of the component Original cold-worked grains
being welded
• Epitaxial grain growth is observed
• The grains are roughly perpendicular to the weld
interface
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Weld interface:
Columnar grains
• A narrow boundary between fusion zone and in the fusion zone
heat affected zone
Coarse grains in HAZ
• This zone consists of a thin band of base metal near weld interface
that was partially melted during the welding
process but immediately solidified without Finer grains in HAZ
mixing with the metal in the fusion zone away from weld interface
• Chemical composition is generally same as that Original cold-worked grains
of the base metal
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Heat-affected zone (HAZ):
• This zone is between weld interface and base Columnar grains
material in the fusion zone
• This experience temperatures below melting Coarse grains in HAZ

point, but sufficient to change the microstructure near weld interface
and hence the mechanical properties
Finer grains in HAZ
• The amount of metallurgical damage in the HAZ away from weld interface
depends on (i) heat input and peak temperature,
(ii) distance from FZ, (iii) cooling rate, (iv) Original cold-worked grains
thermal properties of the metal, and (v) exposed
time to elevated temperature
• The mechanical properties are such that most of
the failures occur in this region
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Unaffected base metal zone:
Columnar grains
• As the distance from the fusion zone increases, in the fusion zone
the unaffected base metal zone is reached
Coarse grains in HAZ
• No metallurgical change in comparison to the near weld interface
base material
• However, the base metal around the HAZ is Finer grains in HAZ
likely to be in a state of high residual stress as a away from weld interface
result of shrinkage in the fusion zone Original cold-worked grains
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Major Welding Processes
Fusion welding
(widely used)
Arc Welding (AW) Resistance Oxyfuel gas Laser beam welding

Welding (RW) welding (OFW) (LBW)
Electron Beam welding
(EBW)
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Arc welding
• It is a fusion welding process in which the
melting and joining of metals is done by
the heat energy generated by the arc
between the work and electrode
• An electric arc is a discharge of electric
current across a gap in a circuit; it is
sustained by the presence of a thermally
ionized column of gas through which
current flows
• An electric arc is generated when the
electrode contacts the work and then
quickly separated to maintain the gap Schematic of electric arc welding processes
• A temperature of 5500°C or higher is
generated by this arc • This temperature is sufficient to melt most of the metals. The molten
metal, consisting of base metal and filler, solidifies in the weld region
• In order to have seam weld, the power source moves along the weld line
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Power source in arc welding
• Both AC and DC can be used

• AC machine less expensive to purchase and operate but generally restricted
to the welding of ferrous metals
• DC is advantageous as better arc control is possible
• Convection, conduction, radiation, and spatter account for losses that
reduce the amount of usable heat
• Power in arc welding is the product of the current I passing through the arc
and the voltage E across it
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Power source in arc welding - Polarity
• Polarity (direction of current flow is important):

• Straight polarity (DCEN)-
• Reverse polarity (DCEP) –
• AC current-
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Selection of appropriate
polarity is important for
successful welding as it
affects:
1. distribution of heat
generated by welding arc
at anode and cathode,
2. stability of the arc and
3. cleanliness of weld
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Selection of appropriate polarity is important for successful welding:
1. Distribution of heat generated by welding arc at anode and cathode -
 In general, more heat is generated at the anode than the cathode, In DC, 2/3 at anode due to fact impact of high
velocity electrons with anode generates more heat than that of ions with cathode as electrons possess higher kinetic
energy than the ions
 DCEN polarity is commonly used with non-consumable electrode welding processes so as to reduce the thermal
degradation of the electrodes
 DCEP polarity facilitates higher melting rate/deposition rate, in case of consumable electrode welding process, such as
SAW and MIG etc
2. Stability of the arc
 All those welding processes in which electrode is expected to emit free electrons required for easy arc initiation and
their stability, selection of polarity affects the arc stability.
 For example, in case of GTAW welding, tungsten electrode is expected to emit electrons for providing stable arc and
therefore DCEN is commonly used except when clearing action is receded in case of reactive metals e.g., Al, Mg, Ti.
3. Cleanliness of weld - Good cleaning action is provided by mobile cathode spot because it loosens the tenacious
refractory oxide layer during welding of Al and Mg. DCEP results in required for cleaning action.
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Heat Transfer in Arc Welding
• The heat input in arc welding is given by the equation

H = the heat input, l = the Weld length, E = the voltage applied,
I =the current (amperes), v = the welding speed, e = efficiency
• The heat input melts a certain volume of material, usually the electrode or
filler metal
• The welding speed can be expressed as
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Problem – Welding speed for different materials
• Consider a situation in which a welding operation is being performed with V = 20 volts,

I = 200 A, and the cross-sectional area of the weld bead is 30 mm2. Estimate the welding
speed if the workpiece and electrode are made of (a) aluminum, (b) carbon steel, and (c)
titanium. Use an efficiency of 75%.
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For the academic purpose only. The contents are only for students of MCL135 (IITD) 15
Understanding the generation of an electric arc
• Initially, good contact is made between cathode and

(-)
anode, thereafter, cathode/electrode is withdrawn
Electrode
• As a result, the metallic bridges started breaking,
increasing the current density per bridge. Electric Source
• Under such conditions, electrons are emitted from

Arc
both surfaces and are attracted towards the anode, i.e., Work (+)
workpiece
Arc welding scheme
• A welding arc is an electric discharge that develops
primarily due to the flow of current from cathode to anode
(i.e., a column of charged particles having good electrical
conductivity)
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Physics of Arc Welding
• In an electric arc, electrons released from the cathode are accelerated towards the anode
because of the potential difference between the workpiece and electrode
• These high-velocity electrons moving from the cathode toward the anode collide with
gaseous molecules and decompose them into charged particles i.e. electrons and ions
• Emission of Electrons: Ease of emitting electrons by a material assessed on the basis of
two parameters work function and ionization potential
• Work function –
• Ionization potential –
• The ionization potential of Al, Cu, Iron, and W is on higher side, e.g., 6.0, 7.9, 7.83 and 8.1
respectively. Na and K 5.1, 4.3
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Physics of Arc Welding
Common mechanisms through which electrons are emitted during arc welding are
 Thermo-ionic emission:
 Increase in the temperature of metal increases the kinetic energy of free electrons and as it goes beyond a certain limit,
electrons are ejected from the metal surface.
 This mechanism of emission of electrons due to heating of metal is called thermo-ionic emission.
 The temperature at which thermo-ionic emission takes place, most of the metals melt. Hence, refractory materials like
tungsten and carbon, having high melting points exhibit thermo-ionic electron emission tendency.
 Field emission:
 Free electrons are pulled out of the metal surface by developing a strong electromagnetic field
 High potential difference (107 V/cm) between the workpiece and electrode is established for the field emission purpose
 Secondary emission:
 High-velocity electrons moving from cathode to anode in the arc gap collide with other gaseous molecules
 This collision results in the decomposition of gaseous molecules into atoms and charged particles (electrons and ions)
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Physics of Arc Welding - Arc structure
• Arc structure: On establishing
Electrode
the welding arc, drop in arc
voltage is observed across the arc
gap. However, rate of drop in arc Cathode
voltage varies with distance from Spot Cathode
the electrode tip to the weld pool
Cathode drop zone
• Generally, five different zones Flow of - +
electrons
are observed in the arc gap
+ - Plasma
namely cathode spot, cathode - -+ (charged
particles)
drop zone/cathode space, Arc + --
Flow + -
column/plasma column, anode of ions Potential drop as a function of
-+ - + - Anode
drop zone/anode space and Anode drop zone distance from the cathode to anode
anode spot spot Work
Zones in arc gap of a welding arc
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• Cathode spot:
a region of cathode where from electrons are emitted, maybe
more than one spot moving with a speed on 5-10m/s
Three types: mobile, pointed, and normal
Mobile cathode spot is generally found during the welding of
Al and Mg. This type of cathode spot loosens the oxide layer
on reactive metal like Al, Mg and SS. Therefore, mobile
cathode spot helps in cleaning action when reverse polarity
is used i.e., workpiece is cathode
Pointed cathode spot is formed at a point only mostly in case
of TIG welding where pointed tungsten electrode is used
Ball shaped tip of coated steel electrode forms normal
cathode spot
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• Cathode drop zone/cathode space:

 a gaseous region adjacent cathode a very sharp drop of voltage
takes place as this region has the positive space charge
 Voltage drop in this region directly affects the heat generation
near the cathode which governs the melting rate of the electrode
in case of the consumable arc welding process with straight
polarity (electrode is cathode)
• Arc column/plasma column:
 This is the region between electrode and work where mostly
flow of charged particles namely free electrons and positive ions
takes place
 Voltage drop is not sharp and generated heat has a minor effect
on the melting of the workpiece and electrode
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• Anode drop zone/anode space:

anode drop region is a gaseous region also very close to
the anode (thickness ~ 10-3 cm) and a very sharp drop in
voltage takes place in this region
Sharp drop in voltage due to the electrons have to
penetrate the anode surface after overcoming the repulsion
of the thermo-ionically emitted electrons from the anode
surface
• Anode spot:
Anode spot is the region of an anode where electrons get
merged and their impact generates heat for melting
This area is larger than cathode spot Zones in arc gap of a welding arc
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Physics of Arc Welding - Arc characteristics
Experimentally found current-voltage characteristics of arc, for given

spacing and electrode materials
Up to 50 amps, shape of the arc is almost
cylindrical and surface to volume ratio
decreases with increasing radius  higher
conductivity than thin low current arc
Beyond 50 amps, arc bulges out and the
current path becomes more than the arc
gap  increases the resistance
Due to higher temperature and longer
current path, voltage drop remains constant
over a wide range of current values
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Characteristics of arc current for a change in arc length
AB represents a flat and CD

represents a sharply dropping
power source
 typical arc characteristics of two
different arc lengths (dashed line)
Stable operating points are given
by the intersection on the right-
hand side
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• The power of an arc varies with its length and there is an optimum length
for which the arc power is maximum
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Physics of Arc Welding – Arc initiation
• Two most commonly used methods to initiate an electric arc in welding

processes namely touch start and field start
(-) (-)
Electrode
Electrode
Power Source Power Source
Short circuit high potential difference

Work (+) Work (+)
Touch start Field Start
Short-circuit  high current flow  heating, High strength electric field (107 V)  electro-
melting & evaporation free electron + charged magnetic field emission  free electron + charged
particles  pulling up electrode  flow of current particles  flow of current
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Physics of Arc Welding – Arc Maintenance
• For maintaining of the arc two conditions must be fulfilled

1. Heat dissipation rate from the arc region should be equal to that of heat generated to maintain the
temperature of the arc, and
2. Number of electrons produced should be equal to that of electrons lost to the workpiece and
surroundings
• Loss of electrons to the weld pool and surroundings and few electrons reunite with ions,
must be compensated by the generation of new free electrons
• In case of DC power source, magnitude and direction of current do not change with time
hence maintaining the flow of electrons and so the arc becomes easy
• In case of AC power source, both magnitude and direction change with time and for a
moment flow of current becomes zero. Re-ignition needed – (i) by using low ionization
potential elements in coatings flux, and (ii) use of low power factor power source
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• Low Ionization Potential

Elements - In this method, low
Electrode
Electrode
ionization potential elements such as Coating without Coating with
low ionization low ionization
potassium, calcium and sodium are potential potential
added to the flux covering of the elements elements
electrode (coating). These elements Low density High density
release free electrons needed to have of charged + of charged + -
reasonably good electrical particles - particles - + -+
+ Plasma + Plasma
conductivity for maintaining welding - + -
- + -
arc even with a small potential - + +-
+ - -+ --
difference between electrode and - + - +
- + + - - + -+ -
workpiece
Work Work
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• Low power factor - In this

method, current and voltage are
made out of phase by using a
proper low power factor (0.3) so
that when current is zero, full
open circuit voltage is available
between electrode and workpiece
• It helps in the release of free
electrons to maintain flow of
already existing electrons which
is a prerequisite for maintenance
of the arc
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Major Welding Processes
Fusion welding
(widely used)
Arc Welding (AW) Resistance Oxyfuel gas Laser beam welding

Welding (RW) welding (OFW) (LBW)
Electron Beam welding
(EBW)
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Arc welding Electrodes
• Two types of electrodes are used: consumable and non-consumable

• Consumable electrodes:
Present in rod or wire form with 200 to 450 mm length and less than 10 mm diameter.
This is the source of filler rod in arc welding. The electrode is consumed by the arc during
the welding process and added to the weld joint as filler metal.
The consumable electrodes will be changed periodically as it is consumed for each welding
trials. This becomes a disadvantage for welder and reduces the production rate – low arc-on
time
• Non-Consumable electrodes:
The electrodes are not consumed during arc welding. Though this is the case, some
depletion occurs because of vaporization.
Filler metal to be supplied by means of a separate wire that is fed into the weld pool
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Arc shielding
• At high temperatures in arc welding, the metals being joined are chemically reactive
to oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen in the air
• As a result, mechanical properties of the weld can be degraded by these reactions
• Therefore, some means of arc shielding is needed to avoid interaction with
surrounding air
• The arc shielding is accomplished by covering the electrode tip, arc, and molten weld
pool with a blanket of gas or flux, or both which inhibit the exposure of the weld metal
to air
• By using shielding gas:
Common shielding gasses such as Ar, He, both of which are inert gas
• By using flux:
• A flux is used to protect the weld region from formation of oxides and other unwanted
contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate removal
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Arc shielding - Flux
• During welding, the flux melts and becomes liquid slag,
and covers the weld region
• Flux should be removed by chipping/brushing as it is
hardened upon cooling
• Additional functions of flux are (i) Provide protective
atmosphere for welding, (ii) Stabilize the arc, and (iii)
Reduce spattering
• The method of flux application differs for each process. The
delivery technique includes:
a. Pouring granular flux onto the welding operation
b. Using a stick electrode coated with flux material in which
the coating melts during welding to cover the operation
c. Using tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the
core and released as the electrode is consumed YouTube Channel: TWI Ltd.
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Arc Blow
• Arc blow is basically a deflection of a welding arc from its intended path, i.e., axis of the
electrode
• Deflection of arc during welding reduces the control over the handling of molten metal by
making it difficult to apply the molten metal at right place
• A severe arc blow increases the spattering which in turn decreases the deposition efficiency of
the welding process
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Arc Blow
• Arc blow is mainly encountered during DC arc welding due to interaction between different
electromagnetic fields in and around the welding arc
• There are two common situations of interaction between electromagnetic fields that can lead to arc blow:
 interaction between electromagnetic field due to flow of current through the arc gap and flow of current through plates
being welded. Electromagnetic field is generated around the arc in arc gap. Any kind of interaction of this field with
other electromagnetic fields leads to deflection of the arc from its intended path
 The lines of electromagnetic fields are localized near the edge of the plates as these can flow easily through the metal
than the air therefore distribution of lines of electromagnetic forces does not remain uniform around the arc
• Arc blow can be controlled by:

 Reduction of the arc length so as to reduce the extent of misplacement of molten metal
 Adjust the ground connection as per position of arc
 Shifting to A. C. if possible, so as to neutralize the arc blow occurring in each half
 Directing the tip of the electrode in direction opposite to the arc blow
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Major Arc Welding Processes
Arc welding
(widely used)
Consumable electrodes Non-Consumable electrodes
Gas Tungsten Arc Plasma Arc Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Flux cored arc Welding (GTAW) (PAW)
Welding (SMAW) welding (FCAW)
Gas Metal Arc Submerged Arc

Welding (GMAW) Welding (SAW)
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Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Process
• The welding stick (SMAW is sometimes called stick welding)

is typically 225 - 450 mm long and 2.5 - 9.5 mm in diameter
• In this process electrode movement is manually controlled
hence it is also termed as manual metal arc welding
(MMAW)
• Typically, current 30 to 300 amps at 15 to 45 V, Power < 10
kW; current can be DC or AC. DC preferred for better arc
stability
• In case of DC welding, heat liberated at anode is generally
greater than the arc column and cathode side
YouTube Channel: TWI Ltd.
• In case of DC welding, polarity determines the distribution
of the heat generated at the cathode and anode and
accordingly the melting rate of electrode and penetration into
the base metal are affected.
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• This process uses a consumable electrode consisting

of a filler metal rod which is coated with chemicals
that provide flux and shielding
• Generally, the filler metal has chemical composition
very close to base metal
• Electrode Coating: Coating consists of powdered
cellulose (cotton and wood powders) mixed with
oxides, carbonates, and they are combined using a
silicate binder
• This coating provides (i) protective layer to the weld pool, (ii) stabilizes the arc (with the help of low
ionization potential elements like Na, K), (iii) to control electrode melting rate, (iv) act as flux to protect
weld zone from oxides, nitrides and inclusions and produce a slag for weld pool protection, and (v) add
alloying elements / deoxidizers to improve weld strength.
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 In case of shielded metal arc welding, the protection to the weld pool is provided by covering of a) slag
formed over the surface of weld pool/metal and b) inactive gases generated through thermal
decomposition of flux/coating materials on the electrode
 Few fluxes (like cellulosic coating) provide large amount of inactive gases for shielding of weld while
other fluxes form slag in ample amount to cover the weld pool
 Shielding of the weld pool by inactive gases in SMAW is not found very effective due to two reasons
a) gases generated by thermal decomposition of coating materials don’t necessarily form proper
cover around the arc and welding pool and
b) continuous movement of arc and varying arc gap during welding further decreases the
effectiveness of shielding gas
• Applications: construction, pipelines, machinery structures, shipbuilding, job shop fabrication, and repair work
• used for carbon steels, low alloy steels, cast iron, but not generally used for reactive materials such as Al, Cu and
Ti alloys
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Constituent in flux Role on welding arc features

Quartz (SiO2) Increases current-carrying capacity
Rutile (TiO2) Increases slag viscosity, good re-striking
Magnetite (Fe3O4) Refines transfer of droplets through the arc
Calcareous spar (CaCO3) Reduces arc voltage, produces inactive shielding gas, slag formation
Fluorspar (CaF2) Increases slag viscosity of basic electrodes, decreases ionization
Calcareous- fluorspar (K2O Al2O3 6SiO2) Improves arc stability by easy ionization
Ferro-manganese and ferro-silicon Acts as deoxidant
Cellulose Produces inactive shielding gas
Potassium Sodium Silicate (K2SiO3 / Na2SiO3) Acts as a bonding agent
• Advantages are good weld quality can be achieved, arc stability, portability and low cost, making
SMAW highly versatile and probably the most widely used AW process
• Disadvantages of SMAW are the use of the consumable electrode stick, then, electrode change time,
reduces the arc-on time, current maintained in typical range
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 …..

Arc welding
(widely used)


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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
• Electrode is a consumable bare metal wire (0.8 - 6.5 mm dia)

• Bare wire is continuously fed from a spool using a welding
gun
• Shielding is accomplished by flooding the arc with a gas
 Inert gases (Helium, Argon, mixture of gases) mainly used for Al
alloys and stainless steels
 CO2 is used for welding low and medium carbon steels
• Also known as MIG (metal inert gas) welding or CO2

welding (when CO2 is used, metal active gas, MAG welding-
low cost and sightly high penetrating depth)
Advantages:
 The combination of bare electrode and shielding gas eliminates the formation of slag covering the weld
bead, hence no brushing involved
 Ideal for making multiple welding passes on the same joint
 it uses continuous weld wire rather than welding sticks, arc-on time is higher than SMAW
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The mode of Metal transfer depends :

 Welding current
 Electrode size
 Electrode composition
 Electrode stick out/Arc length
YouTube Channel: TWI Ltd.  Shielding gas
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Physics of Arc Welding - Arc Forces
• All the forces acting in arc zone are termed as arc forces (i) Gravity Force, (ii) Surface Tension Force,
(iii) Force Due to Impact of Charge Carriers, (iv) Force Due to Metal Vapours, (v) Force Due to Gas
Eruption, and (vi) Force Due to Electro Magnetic Field
• In respect of welding, influence of these forces on resisting or facilitating the detachment of molten metal
drop hanging at the electrode tip is important which in turn affect the mode of metal transfer and weld
metal disposition efficiencies
• Metal transfer is basically detachment and movement of molten metal drops from tip of the electrode to
the weld pool in work piece
• It has practical importance because two reasons (a) flight duration of molten metal drop in arc region
affects the quality of weld metal and element transfer efficiency, and (b) arc forces affect the deposition
efficiency
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(i) Gravity Force

 This is due to gravitational force acting on molten metal drop hanging at
the tip of electrode
 Gravitational force depends on the volume of the drop and density of metal
Electrode
 In case of flat /down hand welding, gravitational force helps in
detachment/transfer of molten metal drop from electrode tip
 In case of overhead welding, it prevents the detachment
Gravitational force (Fg)=𝜌𝑉𝑔

where 𝜌 (kg/m3) is the density of metal, V is volume of drop (m3) and g is
Work
gravitational constant (m/s2).
Gravitational force
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(ii) Surface Tension Force

 This force is experienced by drop of the liquid metal hanging at the tip of electrode due to
surface tension effect
 Magnitude of the surface tension force is influenced by the size of droplet, electrode
diameter and surface tension coefficient
Electrode
 This force tends to resist the detachment of molten metal drop from electrode tip and
usually acts against gravitational force
 In case of vertical and overhead welding positions, high surface tension force helps in
placing the molten weld metal at required position more effectively by reducing tendency
of falling down of molten weld metal
Surface tension force (Fs)=(2𝜋𝜎𝑅 )/4𝑅
where 𝜎 is the surface tension coefficient, R is drop radius and Re is the radius of electrode Work
tip
 An Increase in temperature of the molten weld metal reduces the surface tension Surface tension force
coefficient (𝜎), hence this will reduce hindering effect of the surface tension force on
detachment of the drop and so it will facilitate the detachment of drop from electrode tip
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(iii) Force Due to Impact of Charge Carriers

 As per polarity charged particles (ions & electrons), move
towards anode or cathode and eventually impact/collide with
them
Electrode
 Force generated owing to impact of charged particles on to the
molten metal drop hanging at the tip of electrode tends to hinder
the detachment
Force due to impact of charged particles (Fm)=𝑚( ⁄ )

Where m is the mass of charge particles, V is the velocity and t is
the time
Work
Force Due to Impact

of Charge Carriers
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(iv) Force Due to Metal Vapours

Molten metal evaporating from bottom of drop and weld
pool move in upward direction
Electrode
Forces generated due to upward movement of metal
vapours act against the molten metal drop hanging at the
tip of the electrode
Thus, this force tends to hinder the detachment of droplet
Work
Force Due to Metal

Vapours
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(v) Force Due to Gas Eruption

 Gases present in molten metal such as oxygen, hydrogen etc. may react with some of the elements (such as
carbon) present in molten metal drop and form gaseous molecules (carbon dioxide)
 The growth of these gases in molten metal drop as a function of time ultimately leads to bursting of metal
drops which in turn increases the spattering and reduces the control over handling of molten weld metal
Electrode
Electrode
Electrode
Electrode
Stages in force
generation due
Work Work Work Work to gas eruption
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(vi) Force Due to Electro Magnetic Field

 Flow of current through the arc gap develops the electromagnetic field
 Interaction of this electromagnetic field with that of charge carriers produces a force which tends to pinch
the drop hanging at the tip of the electrode also called pinch force
 The pinch force reduces the cross section for molten metal drop near the tip of the electrode and thus helps
in the detachment of the droplet from the electrode tip
Pinch force (Fp)=(𝜇𝐼 )/8𝜋; Where 𝜇 is the magnetic permeability of metal, I is the welding current flowing
through the arc gap
Pinch
Electrode
Electrode
force
Pinch
force Force Due to Electro
Magnetic Field
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Arc welding
(widely used)


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Mode of weld metal transfer from electrode to the work

1. Short Circuiting mode:
i. Produces very low heat due to the usage of low current and voltage
ii. The advancing electrode (or molten metal on its tip) makes direct contact with the
weld pool, and the short circuit causes a rapid rise in current
iii. On occurrence of short circuit, welding current flowing through the droplet to the
weld pool increases abruptly which in turn results in excessive heat generation that
makes the molten metal of the droplet thinner (low surface tension)
iv. Big molten globs form on the tip of the electrode and then separate, forming a gap
between the electrode and workpiece
v. This gap reinitiates a brief period of arcing, but the rate of electrode advancement
exceeds the rate of melting in the arc, and another short circuit occurs
vi. Arcing and short circuiting at a rate of 20 to 200 cycles per second
vii. Such transfer results in less spatter and well suited for thin section welding
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2. Globular Transfer
 Transfer mode characterized by a drop size diameter equal to or greater than the
diameter of the electrode wire, if the voltage and amperage are increased
 The droplet gets detached from the electrode until gravitational force on drop (due to its
own weight) exceeds the surface tension force other forces
 Strong gravity and weak electromagnetic forces then transfer the drops to the workpiece
at a rate of several per second
 Due to wobbling of the droplets at the electrode tip the arc stability is disturbed, and arc
becomes loud and erratic
 Heat affected zone is narrow but penetration becomes small and large spattering occurs
 No short-circuit takes place in this mode of metal transfer
IITD

3. Spray Transfer
 There is a transition current above which such transfer takes place
 Droplet size is small and directed axially in a straight line towards the weld pool,
with even higher currents and voltages (25 to 32 V and about 200 A)
 High deposition rate, deep penetration, less spatter and smooth weld bead
 Droplets vary between hundred per second to several hundreds per second
 The greater electromagnetic effects transfer the droplets easily across the arc in any
direction irrespective of the effects of gravity
 Another variety : Pulsed Spray Transfer – Power source should be capable of
producing pulsed current, hence regular interval but expensive, and droplet size
equal to diameter of the electrode
IITD
Spray Transfer and Pulsed Spray Transfer
YouTube Channel:
TWI Ltd.
IITD
Shielding gases for GMAW

 Inert gases are normally used with reactive metal like Al, Mg and while carbon dioxide can be used
for welding of steel for reasonably good quality of weld joints
 Application of CO2 in welding of reactive none-ferrous metal is not preferred as decomposition of
CO2 in arc environment produces oxygen. Interaction of oxygen with reactive metals like Al and Mg
(which show greater affinity to the oxygen) form refractory oxides having higher melting point than
the substrate which interferes with melting as well as increases the inclusion formation tendency in
the weld metal
 Ar  mode of metal transfer from globular to spray
 He  mainly used/produces globular mode
 CO2  a lot of Spattering
 Shielding gas also affects width of weld bead and
depth of penetration owing to difference in heat generation
IITD
Arc welding
(widely used)


IITD
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
• FCAW is an arc welding process in which the

electrode is a continuous consumable tubing
that contains flux and other ingredients (e.g.,
include deoxidizers and alloying elements) in
its core
• This arc is struck between the metallic
workpiece and the continuously-fed tubular
cored consumable filler wire, with both the
wire and the metallic workpiece melting
together to form a weld joint
• This is similar to GMAW, except that FCAW
uses a hollow, tubular electrode filled with flux
rather than a solid metal electrode.
IITD
There are two versions of FCAW:
1. Self-shielded FCAW: the arc
shielding was provided by the
flux core. The core also includes
ingredients that generate
shielding gases for protecting
the arc.
2. Gas shielded FCAW: Shielding
is done from externally supplied
gases. Since it uses both flux
and shielding gas (provided
separately), it is considered as a
hybrid of SMAW and GMAW

IITD
• Self-shielded FCAW suffers from a) poor slag detachability, b) porosity formation tendency, c)
greater operator-skill requirement, and d) emission of harmful noxious gases and smokes
imposes need of effective ventilation
• Further, excessive smoke generation in case of FCAW without shielding gas can reduce
visibility of weld pool during welding which can make the process control difficult
• Gas-shielded FCAW results in somewhat more sound weld with better mechanical properties
than self-shielded FCAW owing to the possibility of formation of a few weld discontinuities in
weld metal like porosity, slag inclusion etc.
• Gas-shielded FCAW provides much better protection to the welding pool and arc zone
• FCAW is commonly used for welding of mild steel, structural steel, stainless steel and nickel
alloys
IITD
Arc welding
(widely used)


IITD
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
• Automatic process and it uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, and arc shielding is
provided by a cover of granular flux, weld area shielded by fusible granular flux
• The flux is introduced just ahead of weld arc using a hopper. The blanket of granular flux
completely submerges the welding operation, preventing sparks and spatter
IITD
• Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
into the arc
• The portion of the flux closest to the arc is
melted and solidifies on top of the weld joint
forming slag
• The used flux remaining after welding can be
recovered and reused
• The solidified slag is chipped away by manual
means
• Application: steel fabrication for structural
shapes (e.g., welded I-beams); longitudinal
and circumferential welds for large diameter
pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels; welded
components for heavy machinery
IITD
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) - Flux
• Layer of slag over the molten weld metal results:

 Increased protection of weld metal from atmospheric gas contamination and so improved properties
of weld joint
 Reduced cooling rate of weld metal and HAZ owing to shielding of the weld pool by molten flux and
solidified slag in turn leads to a) smoother weld bead and b) reduced the cracking tendency of
hardenable steel
• There are four types of common SAW fluxes namely fused flux, agglomerated flux,
bonded flux and mechanical fluxes
 Fused fluxes: raw constituents-mixed-melted-quenched-crushed-screened-graded
 Bonded fluxes: raw constituents-powdered-dry mixed-bonded using K/Na silicates-wet mixed-
pelletized-crushed-screened
 Agglomerated fluxes: made in similar way to bonded fluxes but ceramic binder replaces silicate
binder
 Mechanically mixed fluxes: mix any two or three type of above fluxes in desired ratios
IITD
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) - Flux
Type of flux Advantages Limitations

Fused fluxes – Uniformity of chemical composition difficulty in
– No effect of removal of fine particles on flux – incorporating deoxidizers and ferro alloys
composition – melting due to need of high temperature
– Non-hygroscopic: easy handling and storage
– Easy recycling without much change in
particle size and composition
Bonded fluxes – Easy to add deoxidizers and alloying – Hygroscopic
elements – Gas evolution tendency
– Allows thicker layer of flux during welding – Possibility of change in flux composition due to
removal of fine particles
Agglomerated These are similar to that of bonded fluxes except that these use ceramic binders
fluxes
Mechanical – Several commercial fluxes can be easily – Segregation of various fluxes (i) during storage /
fluxes mixed & made to suit critical application to get handling, (ii) in feeder and recovery system, and (iii)
desired results inconsistency in flux from mix to mix
IITD
Advantages:
High productivity due to high deposition rate of the welding metal and capability weld continuously
without interruptions as electrode is fed from spool, and the process works under 100% duty cycle.
High depth of penetration allows welding of thick sections
Smooth weld bead is produced without stresses raisers as SAW is carried out without sparks, smoke
and spatter
Limitations: three main limitations of SAW

invisibility of welding arc during welding - difficult to ensure the location where weld metal is being
deposited
difficulty in maintaining mound of the flux cover around the arc in odd positions of welding and
cylindrical components of small diameter
increased tendency of melt through when welding thin sheet
IITD

MCL-135-Welding and Allied Processes - Part 2

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India

Welding and Allied Processes

Welding and Allied Processes

Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India

Typical weld microstructure characteristics

Typical weld microstructure characteristics

• This experience temperatures below melting Coarse grains in HAZ

Typical weld microstructure characteristics

Arc Welding (AW) Resistance Oxyfuel gas Laser beam welding

• Both AC and DC can be used

• Polarity (direction of current flow is important):

• Reverse polarity (DCEP) –

• The heat input in arc welding is given by the equation

• The welding speed can be expressed as

• Consider a situation in which a welding operation is being performed with V = 20 volts,

• Initially, good contact is made between cathode and

• Under such conditions, electrons are emitted from

• Arc structure: On establishing

Zones in arc gap of a welding arc

• Cathode drop zone/cathode space:

• Anode drop zone/anode space:

Experimentally found current-voltage characteristics of arc, for given

Characteristics of arc current for a change in arc length

AB represents a flat and CD

• Two most commonly used methods to initiate an electric arc in welding

Short circuit high potential difference

• For maintaining of the arc two conditions must be fulfilled

• Low Ionization Potential

• Low power factor - In this

Arc Welding (AW) Resistance Oxyfuel gas Laser beam welding

• Two types of electrodes are used: consumable and non-consumable

• Arc blow can be controlled by:

Consumable electrodes Non-Consumable electrodes

Gas Tungsten Arc Plasma Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Submerged Arc

• The welding stick (SMAW is sometimes called stick welding)

• This process uses a consumable electrode consisting

Constituent in flux Role on welding arc features

Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India

Welding and Allied Processes

Consumable electrodes Non-Consumable electrodes

Gas Tungsten Arc Plasma Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Submerged Arc

• Electrode is a consumable bare metal wire (0.8 - 6.5 mm dia)

• Also known as MIG (metal inert gas) welding or CO2

The mode of Metal transfer depends :

(i) Gravity Force

Gravitational force (Fg)=𝜌𝑉𝑔

(ii) Surface Tension Force

(iii) Force Due to Impact of Charge Carriers

Force due to impact of charged particles (Fm)=𝑚( ⁄ )

Force Due to Impact

(iv) Force Due to Metal Vapours

Force Due to Metal

(v) Force Due to Gas Eruption

(vi) Force Due to Electro Magnetic Field

Consumable electrodes Non-Consumable electrodes

Gas Tungsten Arc Plasma Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Submerged Arc

Mode of weld metal transfer from electrode to the work

Mode of weld metal transfer from electrode to the work

Mode of weld metal transfer from electrode to the work