Department of Mechanical Engineering

Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India

 …..

Welding and Allied Processes

Course Number: MCL135
Major Welding Processes
Solid-state welding
(widely used)

High heat input Low heat input

Friction Welding Ultrasonic Welding

(FRW) (USW)

Diffusion Welding Cold pressure

(DFW) Welding

Forge welding Explosion Welding

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Solid-state welding

• In solid-state welding, coalescence of the part surfaces is achieved by (1) pressure alone
or (2) heat and pressure. If both heat and pressure are used, the amount of heat by itself
is not sufficient to cause melting of the work surfaces.
• To metallurgically bond two similar or dissimilar metals, the two metals must be brought
into intimate contact so that their atomic forces attract each other.
• The essential ingredients for a successful solid-state weld are (1) the two surfaces must
be very clean (free of oils, dirt, chemical films, gases etc.), and (2) they must be brought
into very close physical contact with each other to permit atomic bonding
• Some of the solid-state welding processes are applicable to join dissimilar metals,
without concerns about relative thermal expansions, conductivities, and other problems
that usually arise when dissimilar metals are melted and then solidified during fusion
welding.

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Major Welding Processes
Solid-state welding
(widely used)

High heat input Low heat input

Friction Welding Ultrasonic Welding

(FRW) (USW)

Diffusion Welding Cold pressure

(DFW) Welding

Forge welding Explosion Welding

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Friction Welding (FRW)

• Friction welding (FRW) is a solid-state welding process in which coalescence is achieved by frictional
heat combined with pressure (developed between two surfaces by mechanically induced surface motion)
• The friction is induced by mechanical rubbing between the two surfaces, usually by rotation/linear motion
of one part relative to the other, to raise the temperature at the joint interface to the hot working range of
the metals involved
Principle of friction welding
In reality, an apparently smooth surface consists of many microscopic
projections, called asperities
When one surface moves relative to another, these asperities interact
generating friction – the force resisting motion between two or more
interacting surfaces
Interaction of these asperities through elastic and plastic yielding
generates heat
The generated heat causes the materials to soften. While in the softened state, the mechanical motion of the
process mixes the materials to create a bond.
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Friction Welding (FRW)

Friction welding offers many advantages to the manufacturing sector

 Remaining in the solid-state, therefore avoiding many of the defects associated with fusion welding, such as
pores and solidification cracks
 Producing comparably low temperatures when compared to fusion welding, which reduces intermetallic
formation, allowing for a wide range of similar and dissimilar materials to be joined
 Not requiring a filler metal, flux and shielding gas, no special edge preparation in most applications
 Being able to produce welds with mechanical properties that are comparable or superior to the parent material
for a range of similar and dissimilar material combinations
Disadvantages
 Contact based joining process, accessibility is an issue
 May not be suitable for complex shaped parts
 After welding, additional cleaning or machining operation need to obtain smooth geometry

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Friction Welding (FRW)

• The way by which the frictional heat and material mixing occurs is very dependent on the friction
welding process utilized
• There are four primary processes
Friction Welding
(FRW)

Rotary Friction Linear Friction Friction Stir Welding Friction Stir Spot
Welding (RFW) Welding (LFW) (FSW) Welding (FSSW)

Source: TWI Ltd.

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Friction Welding (FRW)

There are two principal drive systems,

distinguishing two types of FRW:
Rotating
1) Continuous-drive friction welding Stationary
part
part
proper hot working temperature 
braking is applied to stop the rotation
abruptly  the parts are forced together at
forging pressures
2) Inertia friction welding
The rotating part is connected to a
flywheel  flywheel is disengaged from
the drive motor kinetic energy used for
frictional welding

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Rotary Friction Welding (RFW)

• Process steps 3. Rotation is stopped Typical joint configurations

1. Two parts are not in contact and axial force is applied

Rod Tube Rod to tube

2. Parts brought in contact to
generate friction and heat
4. Creation of weld

Rod to plate Tube to plate Tube to disc

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Rotary Friction Welding (RFW)

Sequence of operation in the friction-welding process

Source: Manufacturing Engg &

Tech by Kalpakjian & Schmid

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Rotary Friction Welding (RFW)

The weld zone size and shape depend on (a) the amount of heat generated (surface
roughness), (b) material properties (thermal conductivity), (c) rotational speed, and (d)
axial pressure

The shape of the weld zone as a function of axial force and rotational speed

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Rotary Friction Welding (RFW)

difference in thermal
conductivity and
yield strength
between the two
metals

A macroscopic section of a titanium alloy

rotary friction weld Belkahla et al. Int J
Adv Manuf
Technol 116, 2285–
2298 (2021)

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Rotary Friction Welding (RFW)

YouTube Channel: TWI Ltd.

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Friction Welding (FRW)

• The way by which the frictional heat and material mixing occurs is very dependent on the friction
welding process utilized
• There are four primary processes
Friction Welding
(FRW)

Rotary Friction Linear Friction Friction Stir Welding Friction Stir Spot
Welding (RFW) Welding (LFW) (FSW) Welding (FSSW)

Source: TWI Ltd.

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Linear Friction Welding (LFW)

Aerospace application –titanium alloy Source: TWI Ltd.

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Linear Friction Welding (LFW)

• Process parameters:
• Oscillation frequency & amplitude
• Applied force/Normal force
• Burn-off/Axial shortening/Upset
• Ramp-up time (time taken for the amplitude and
frequency to reach a steady-state level)
• Oscillation decay time (time taken to decay the
amplitude and frequency to a stop)
• Forging force (the force used to help consolidate
the weld post-oscillatory motion)
• Forging force time (the time the forging force is
applied)
• Microstructure: BM, HAZ, TMAZ, WZ

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Friction Welding (FRW)

• The way by which the frictional heat and material mixing occurs is very dependent on the friction
welding process utilized
• There are four primary processes
Friction Welding
(FRW)

Rotary Friction Linear Friction Friction Stir Welding Friction Stir Spot
Welding (RFW) Welding (LFW) (FSW) Welding (FSSW)

Source: TWI Ltd.

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

YouTube Channel: TWI Ltd.

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
• FSW works by using a non-consumable tool,
which is rotated and plunged into the interface of
two workpieces

Source: TWI Ltd.

• The tool is then moved through the interface and
the frictional heat causes the material to heat and
soften
• The rotating tool then mechanically mixes the
softened material to produce a solid-state bond
• The rotating tool is stepped, consisting of a
cylindrical shoulder and a smaller probe
projecting beneath it
• FSW is mainly used in industry to join aluminum
alloys of all grades, other materials, e.g., Cylindrical threaded
magnesium, titanium, copper, and steel alloys pin type probe
also explored

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

• Parts to be joined are clamped firmly

• A rotating hardened steel tool is driven into the
joint and traverse motion is applied along the joint
line between the parts
• FSW is mainly used in industry to join aluminum
alloys of all grades, e.g., Al alloy plates up to 75
Butt welds
mm thick can be welded by this process
• other materials, e.g., magnesium, titanium, copper,
and steel alloys also explored
• Widely used weld configuration for FSW: butt and
overlap welds
• An exit hole is produced when tool is withdrawn
Overlap welds
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Friction Welding (FRW)

• The way by which the frictional heat and material mixing occurs is very dependent on the friction
welding process utilized
• There are four primary processes
Friction Welding
(FRW)

Rotary Friction Linear Friction Friction Stir Welding Friction Stir Spot
Welding (RFW) Welding (LFW) (FSW) Welding (FSSW)

Source: TWI Ltd.

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW) –Process parameters

 Tool rotation and traverse speeds

• In general, it can be said that increasing the rotation speed or decreasing the traverse speed will result in
a hotter weld
• In order to produce a successful weld it is necessary that the material surrounding the tool is hot enough
to enable the extensive plastic flow required and minimize the forces acting on the tool
• If the material is too cold then voids or other flaws may be present in the stir zone and in extreme cases
the tool may break.
 Tool tilt and plunge depth
• Plunging the shoulder below the plate surface increases the pressure below the tool and helps ensure
adequate forging of the material.
• Tilting the tool by 2–4 degrees, such that the rear of the tool is lower than the front, has been found to
assist this forging process.
• The plunge depth needs to be correctly set, both to ensure the necessary downward pressure is achieved
and to ensure that the tool fully penetrates the weld.
 Tool design/geometry

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW) -Tools

• Key criteria for FSW tool selection – (i) weld length, (ii) welding depth, (iii) material to be
welded, and (iv) tool geometry

the trailing edge of the shoulder penetrates the workpiece

and applies additional forging pressure

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW) -Tools

• Cost-effective
• Extended tool life
• Weld quality
• Flow of material
• Heat generation
• Material thickness
• Joint geometry
• Welding force Design iterations explored during Tool shoulder designs (shown with a
a large FSW tool development plain probe): a) Concave; b) Scroll.
• Welding speed
• Widening weld region

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW) – Welding forces

A number of forces will act on the tool:

A downward force is necessary to maintain
the position of the tool at the material surface
A traverse force acts parallel to the tool
motion
The lateral force may act perpendicular to the
tool traverse direction
Torque is required to rotate the tool, the
amount of which will depend on the
downforce, friction coefficient, and the flow
strength of the material in the weld region
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Friction Stir Welding (FSW) – Bobbin Tool

• A double-sided friction stir welding

tool (known as a bobbin tool)
Rectangular in cross-section, as
opposed to the triangular zone
Eliminates weld roots and root defects
Low Z forces on fixture and machine
No backing bar required
Low distortion due to uniform heat
input
Simple control
Tolerance to thickness variation
Adaptive bobbin tool – gap adjustment

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW) – Bobbin Tool

Source: TWI Ltd.

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW) – Key benefits

Metallurgical benefits: Environmental benefits: Energy benefits:

• Excellent weld quality • No shielding gas is required • Welds are produced with far less
• Applicable to a wide range of • No surface cleaning is required energy than other processes
materials, including both • No solvent degreasing is used • Enables weight reduction in
wrought and cast alloys, as well • No fumes, gases, or smoke are aircraft, automobiles, and ships
as some “nonweldable” by produced
fusion methods • No arc glare or reflected laser
• Low distortion of the workpiece beams
• High joint strength and good • Consumable materials saving
fatigue properties
• No loss of alloy elements
• Fine microstructure
• No cracking or porosity
• Low shrinkage

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Friction Stir Welding (FSW) - Microstructure
Retreating side
a) Advancing side in FSW process is the
location from where the solid material
starts to transform into semi-solid and
flows around the tool pin plunged into
the material.
Advancing side
b) Then, the semi-solid material retreated
and cooled in the retreating side

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2020.100752

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