LECTURE PLAN

UNIT II JOINING PROCESSES

Propo Actu High
Perta Mode Deliv
sed al est
S.N ining of ery
Lectu Topic Lectu Cogni
o CO(s Deliv Reso
re re tive
) ery urces
Date Date Level
Operating principle, basic
equipment, merits and
1 CO2 K2 MD1 T1
applications of: Fusion
welding processes:
Gas welding - Types and
2 CO2 K2 MD1 T1
Flame characteristics
Manual metal arc welding,
3 Gas Tungsten arc welding, CO2 K2 MD1 R1
Gas metal arc welding
Submerged arc welding,
4 CO2 K2 MD1 R1
Electro slag welding.
Operating principle and
5 applications of Resistance CO2 K2 MD1 T1
welding
Plasma arc welding ,
6 CO2 K2 MD1 T1
Thermit welding
Electron beam welding
7 Friction welding and CO2 K2 MD1 T1
Friction Stir Welding
Brazing and soldering
8 CO2 K2 MD1 T1
Weld defects: types,
9 CO2 K2 MD1 T1
causes and cure.
( Content Beyond Syllabus)
10 CO2 K3 MD1 R4
Explosion welding

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Actvity based learning Cross Word

84
 WELDING
Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials
by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of
pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of
filler material.

Welding is used for making permanent joints.

It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway

wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general
repair work and ship building.

Types
1) Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding

The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced
together by external pressure

(Ex) Resistance welding

2) Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding

The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify

(Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding

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 Classification of welding processes

(i) Arc welding (iv) Thermo Chemical

Carbon arc Welding
Metal arc Thermit Welding
Metal inert gas Atomic Hydrogen Welding
Tungsten inert gas
(v) Solid State Welding
Plasma arc
Friction
Submerged arc
Ultrasonic
Electro-slag
Diffusion
(ii). Gas Welding
Explosive
Oxy-acetylene
(vi) Radiant Energy Welding
Air-acetylene
Oxy-hydrogen Electron-beam
Laser
(iii). Resistance Welding
Butt (vii) Related Process
Spot Oxy-acetylene cutting
Seam Arc cutting
Projection Hard facing
Percussion Brazing
Soldering

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 GAS WELDING

Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler material and method
of moving torch. The temperature generated during the process is 33000c

When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and the torch combines with
molten metal and forms oxides, results in defective weld.

Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides. Common fluxes used are
made of sodium, potassium. Lithium and borax. Flux can be applied as paste,
powder, liquid, solid coating or gas.

Gas Welding Equipment

1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve

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 TYPES OF FLAMES
Neutral Flame

A neutral flame is named so because it effects no chemical change in the molten

metal and therefore will not oxidize or carburize the metal.

The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of:

(i) Mild steel
(ii) Stainless steel
(iii) Cast Iron
(iv) Copper
(v) Aluminium

Oxidizing Flame

The high temperature of an oxidizing flame (O2: C2H2 = 1.5: 1) would be an

advantage if it were not for the fact that the excess oxygen, especially at high
temperatures, tends to combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low strength
oxides. Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding
area to have a scummy or dirty appearance

For these reasons, an oxidising flame is of limited use in welding. It is not used in
the welding of steel

Carburizing Flame

A reducing flame does not completely, consume the available carbon; therefore,
its burning temperature is lower and the left over carbon is forced into the molten
metal.

A carburizing flame contains more acetylene. A carburizing flame is used in the

welding of lead and for carburizing (surface hardening) purposes.

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ARC WELDING

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 DEFINITION AND EQUIPMENTS
Arc welding uses an electric arc to coalesce metals. Arc welding is the most common
method of welding metals. Electricity travels from electrode to base metal to ground
A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)
Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
Electrode holder
Electrode
Protective shield
Gloves
Wire brush
Chipping hammer
Goggles

Metal arc welding (SMAW, MMAW)

To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought
into contact with the workpiece by a very light
touch with the electrode to the base metal then
is pulled back slightly. This initiates the arc and
thus the melting of the workpiece and the
consumable electrode, and causes droplets of the
electrode to be passed from the electrode to
the weld pool. As the electrode melts, the flux
covering disintegrates, giving off shielding gases
that protect the weld area
from atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux
provides molten slag which covers the filler metal
as it travels. Once part of the weld pool, the slag
floats to the surface and protects the weld from
contamination as it solidifies.

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 Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding
 Alternating Current (from Transformer)
1. More efficiency
2. Power consumption less
3. Cost of equipment is less
4. Higher voltage – hence not safe
5. Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals
6. Not preferred for welding thin sections
7. Any terminal can be connected to the work or electrode
 Direct Current (from Generator)
1. Less efficiency
2. Power consumption more
3. Cost of equipment is more
4. Low voltage – safer operation
5. suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
6. preferred for welding thin sections
7. Positive terminal connected to the work
8. Negative terminal connected to the electrode
Direct-current welding circuit may be either straight or reverse polarity.
When the machine is set on straight polarity, the electrons flow from the
electrode to the plate, concentrating most of the heat on the work. With reverse
polarity, the flow of electrons is from the plate to the electrode,
thus causing a greater concentration of heat at the electrode. Because of this
intense heat, the electrode tends to melt off; therefore, direct-current reverse
polarity (DCRP) requires a larger diameter electrode than direct-
current straight polarity (DCSP)
Alternate Current welding is actually a combination of DCSP and DCRP; AC
welding machines were developed with a high-frequency current flow unit to
prevent this rectification.
The high frequency current pierces the oxide film and forms a path for the
welding current to follow. Notice that ACHF offers both the advantages of DCRP
and DCSP. ACHF is excellent for welding aluminum.

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DIRECT CURRENT POLARITY

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 WELDING ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION
MILD STEEL COATED ELECTRODES
E7018-X
E Indicates that this is an electrode
70 Indicates how strong this electrode is when welded. Measured in thousands of
pounds per square inch.
1 Indicates in what welding positions it can be used.
8 Indicates the coating, penetration, and current type used.
(See Classification Table below)
X Indicates that there are more requirements.
(See Additional Requirements below)
Welding Positions
1 Flat, Horizontal, Vertical (up), Overhead
2 Flat, Horizontal
4 Flat, Horizontal, Overhead, Vertical (down)
Flat Position - usually groove welds, fillet welds only if welded like a “V”
Horizontal - Fillet welds, welds on walls (travel is from side to side).
Vertical - welds on walls (travel is either up or down).
Overhead - weld that needs to be done upside down.
Class Electrode Coating Penetration Current Type
Exxx0 Cellulose, Sodium Deep DCEP
Exxx1 Cellulose, Potassium Deep AC, DCEP
Exxx2 Rutile, Sodium, Medium AC, DCEN
Exxx3 Rutile, Potassium, Light AC, DCEP, DCEN
Exxx4 Rutile, Iron Powder, Medium AC, DCEP, DCEN
Exxx5 Low Hydrogen, Sodium Medium DCEP
Exxx6 Low Hydrogen, Potassium Medium AC, DCEP
Flux
According to their main constituents, fluxes are termed manganese silicate (MS)
types, containing mainly MnO and SiO ; calcium silicate (CS) types containing mainly
CaO, MgO and SiO; aluminate rutile (AR) types, containing mainly Al2O3 and TiO2,
aluminate basic types (AB), containing mainly Al2O3+CaO+MgO, and fluoride basic
(FB) types, containing mainly CaO, MgO and CaF2.

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Advantages and Limitations of Arc Welding
Advantages
Most efficient way to join metals
Lowest-cost joining method
Affords lighter weight through better
utilization of materials
Joins all commercial metals
Provides design flexibility
Limitations
Manually applied, therefore high labour
cost.
Need high energy causing danger
Not convenient for disassembly.
Defects are hard to detect at joints.

TIG WELDING

In arc welding we have seen coated electrodes are used, a protective envelop of
gases are formed around the weld zone to prevent from attack of atmospheric
oxygen and nitrogen .

In the TIG welding there inert gases are used . The arc is maintained between
the tip of tungsten (electrode) and work piece.

The tungsten non-consumable electrodes are used for tig weld. The filler rod is
additionally added to the weld joint.

In this process Alternating current (AC) or Direct Current (DC) may be used,
which depends upon the type of metal to be welded. The Direct Current with
straight polarity is used for welding copper or its alloys, stainless steel and reverse
polarity used for magnesium. The AC is used for welding steel, cast iron,
aluminium and magnesium.

Inert gas namely Helium or Argon is used

94
 Advantages of TIG Welding

1) This welding process is better controlled by welder, because of clear visibility of

produced arc and melting base metal.

2) High quality of welding is obtained on thin metal from TIG welding process.

3) No flux inclusion in welding joint, because no need of any kind of flux for welding.

4) All welding position can be performed by this process.

5) Minimum cleaning is required after welding.

Applications of TIG welding

1) Welding the sheet and thinner section metals.

2) Space ship vehicles motor chamber welding.

3) It can be used to weld copper, aluminum, nickel and their alloys, zirconium, titanium
etc.

4) Welding of bellows, instruments diaphragms, transistor cases joints.

Gas Metal Arc Welding

GMAW is a metal inert gas welding (MIG)
Uses consumable electrode
Filler wire is supplied from a spool
Weld area shielded by an effectively inert atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon dioxide
and various other gas mixtures
Metal can be transferred by 3 methods :
Spray transfer : results in weld beads with a minimum of spatter, deep penetration
and smooth weld beads
Globular transfer: occurs with higher voltage settings than Short Circuiting Transfer and
results in deeper penetration with a flatter weld bead.
Short circuiting : results in a smooth weld with shallow penetration that easily bridges
gaps or poor fit-up
Process capabilities
GMAW process is suitable for welding a variety of ferrous and non-ferrous metals
Process is versatile ,rapid and economical
welding productivity is double that of SMAW
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 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Advantages:

Joints can be produced with deep penetration.

Thick and thin metals are welded very effectively.

This welding process is very suitable for large scale production unit because, it
can be performed much faster than other types of welding process like TIG etc.

Large amount of metal can be deposited on the work piece.

MIG welding process can reduce the welding cost, because it produces neat and
clean metal deposit on the work piece. Spatter free and smooth welding surface is
produced.
Application:

largely used in automobile industry, aircraft parts welding, pressure vessel

manufacturing and many other places.

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 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Arc plasma is a temporary state of a gas. The gas gets ionized after the passage of
current and it becomes a conductor of electricity. In ionized state gas atoms break in
to ions, electrons and highly excited atoms.
The energy of the plasma jet and the temperature is dependent on the electrical
power used to create plasma arc.

A non-consumable tungsten electrode as cathode and water cooled copper nozzle

as anode is used in this welding process.

The initial arc is ignited with the high frequency arc. A pilot circuit is used to
produce initial ionization for the plasma jet. The water cooling for the torch body
must be provided for sufficient cooling otherwise premature overheating will
occur. The arc is compacted with the help of a small diameter nozzle. Which
squeezes the arc, increases the pressure, temperature and heat intensity, thus
stable arc is obtained.

There are two types of plasma arc torch is used, 1.Transferred arc torch, 2. Non-
transferred torch.

In the non transfer arc process the arc is produced between the tungsten
electrode (-) and water cooled nozzle (+). Plasma is produced as a flame. The arc
is totally independent of the work piece and it does not help in completion of
electrical circuit.

In the transferred arc process arc is produced between the work piece (+) and
electrode (-)
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Advantages and Applications

Advantages

# It has excellent weld quality.

# Arc is stabilized.

# It needs very simple type’s fixture.

# Root welding is not required.

# Penetration is uniform.

# It produces radio-graphic quality welding.

Application
# Welding of aerospace component.
# Nuclear and submarine pipe welding is done.

# Nickel and high nickel alloy welding.

# Melting the high melting point temperature metals.
# Titanium plate welding up to 8 mm thickness.
# Welding the stainless tubes up to 1/4” thickness.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Arc is setup between a bare electrode and W/P.

The arc, end of the electrode and molten pool remain completely hidden under a
blanket of flux.
Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux ,consisting of silica, lime, manganese
oxide, calcium fluoride and other compounds.
Flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle and thick layer of
flux covers molten metal
Flux acts as a thermal insulator ,promoting deep penetration of heat into the work
piece
Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire fed automatically through a
tube
Power is supplied by 3-phase or 2-phase power lines

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 Submerged Arc Welding …

Advantages
High deposition rates. The heat can be concentrated to weld thicker sections
with deeper penetration
High deposition rates, hence number of passes can be reduced
Welding is carried out without sparks, smoke flash or spatter
Can be used in on-site fabrication where high winds are expected

Dis-Advantages
Since the operator cannot see the welding, he cannot accurately judge the
progress of welding
The process is limited to flat position and on metal thickness greater than
4.8mm
Flux is subjected to contamination that may cause porosity
Applications
Fabrications of pipes, pressure vessels, boilers and bridge girders
Shipbuilding, automotive industry
Rebuilding of worn out parts

Electroslag welding
A piece of steel wool is placed between
the electrode and work piece to produce an arc.
Some amount of flux is added.
The electrical arc is stopped when a sufficient
amount of molten flux or slag is produced.
Then electrical current is passed through the
molten pool of slag.
The molten slag is sufficient to melt the filler
metal and work piece.
The electrode melts and fuses the base metal
also producing a weld bead. Thus the electro
slag welding is a progressive process of melting
and solidification from the bottom to upward.
The molten flux shields the weld metal as well
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as protects from atmospheric harmful gases
Advantages and Applications
Advantages
It can be used for welding work piece of thickness up-to 45 cm easily and more
economically than other types of welding process.
No need for special edge preparation.
In the time of electro slag welding the arc is invisible, so this welding
process gives spatter free welding joint.
Welding in the flat and overhead positions is also possible with this technique
and equipment.
High deposition rates
Limitations
Tends to produce larger grains
Welding Is carried out in vertical uphill position
Tendency to hot cracking in HAZ
Applications
Many range of alloy materials can be weld successfully.
Heavy plate thickness of butt joint welding.

Resistance Welding
Group of welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat obtained
from resistance of the work to the flow of electric current in a circuit and by
application of pressure. No filler is needed.

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 Resistance Welding
Spot welding joint is one type of electric resistance welding. Generally joining
the sheet to sheet, sheet to rolled sections, wire to wire etc. are done by
this spot weld process. The spot welding is very effective, which can replace the
rivet joints.

Two copper electrodes used in spot welding to produce sufficient heat to fuse and
join the metal. The lower arm is generally stationary and upper arm is movable
(upward and downward). The technical terms are rocker arms or electrode arms.
The electrodes of spot welding is cooled by water, the water is passing through
the inter looped water line.
Distance between welds( Min. weld spacing) = 8 x 2t mm
Weld Diameter = 3.5 √t to 5 √t
Reqt. of spot welding electrode
Should be a good conductor of electricity
Should be a good conductor of heat
Should have high mechanical strength and hardness at elevated temp.

Factors in Spot Welding

1.The welding current.
2. The time of current application.
3. The pressure of electrodes.
4. The shape or area of electrodes.
5. The surface condition of welded material.

Application
Automobile and Aircraft industries
Sheet metal parts such as cases, covers or trays
Can be welded up to 12.5mm thickness, replacing riveted joints

Advantages
In this welding process is free from fumes and spatter.
Generally it has nothing maintenance or no skilled persons are required for
maintenance.
No skilled persons are need to operate the spot welding.
Welding cost is minimum.
Disadvantages (common for all resistance welding)
The initial cost of equipment is high
Bigger job thickness cannot be welded 101
Seam Welding

Seam welding is the one type of resistance welding and also another
modification of spot welding.

The basic difference of spot weld and seam weld is that the formation of
electrode. They are usually power driven and rotate whilst gripping the work.

The current is supplied through the rotatable wheel and melt the metal.
Manufacturing of cylindrical container, drum, pipe, etc. is best suited by
these types of welding.

When the body of the plate is being performed into a tube, the overlapping edge
made in united piece which is called longitudinal welding and the
end position fitted of assembly work welding is called circumferential welding.

Generally two types of seam welding machines found

1) Circumferential Seam Welding Machine 2) Longitudinal Seam Welding

Machine.

In the seam welding operation, the sheets to be welded are properly overlapped
and positioned between the both rollers. The clamp may be provided for the
holding properly and applying the pressure.

A current is provided through rollers to the material in contact with them.

Sufficient heat is produced and material reaches the plastic stage. The welded
joint is established by pressure applied with both rollers and applied current.

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Advantages and Limitations
Advantages

Gas tight joints or liquid tight joints can be produced

A single seam weld or several parallel seams may be produced simultaneously

Dis-Advantages

Difficult to weld thickness greater than 3mm

Change in design of electrode wheels is required to avoid obstructions along the

path of the weld

Application

Except for copper and its alloys, most of the other metals can be welded

Besides lap welding, Butt seam can also be done

Percussion Welding

Percussion welding is a type of resistance welding method, wherein

coalescence is produced simultaneously over the entire area of abutting
surfaces by heating obtained from an arc produced by a rapid discharge of
electrical energy and the pressure percussively(rapidly) during or
immediately following the electrical discharge.

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Percussion Welding

The following steps are involved in percussion welding process

1. The work-pieces should be cleaned from dirt, grease, paint etc. foreign particles.

2. The work-pieces are clamped rigidly in the machine table.

3. The face to be welded is brought together face to face and light forces applied.

4. The work-piece brought together and made to touch in slightly and flow of current
is established. Then electrical arc is produced in the interface of the work-piece.

5. At this time light force is applied between each other. After a certain time, switch
of the current and hold the job till it cools down.

6. Applied force is released from both end.

Advantages
Because of the brevity of the arc, fusion is confined to the surface to be joined
and absence of any flash

Heat treated or cold worked metals can be welded without destroying their
properties
Limitations
Process is limited to butt welded joints only
Since control of path of the arc is difficult, joint is limited to 1.5 to 3.0sq.cm.
Applications

Butt welding of steel or other metals with out flash.

Joining the aluminium rods, bars or tubes to copper, steels or non ferrous alloys
to corrosion resistance alloys, threaded steel studs to aluminium.

Used in telephone industry for connecting leaded components to the terminals.

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Projection Welding

Projection welding is in group of resistance welding. In this welding

process weld joint is produced by heat obtained from electrical resistance by the
flow of current through the work, which is held under electrode pressure. The
resulting welds are localized in pre-determined points by projections.

The working principle of projection welding is more or less similar of spot welding.

Projections on the weld area are formed by embossing and machining. These
projections serve to concentrate the welding heat and facilitate fusion without
the need of large current

The two surfaces of metals to be welded are held together under pressure by
the flat electrodes. When an electrical current is flown through the weld
electrode, it causes the projecting metals to melt and fuse both the material
which is contacted. Thus the weld joint is made.

The joint strength depends on the nature of projection. There are three types
of projections are used in projection welding process.

1. The cone type 2. The button type 3. The spherical type

The button type projection is used for joining of thin flat sheet metals (24-13
gauge). The cone type projection is used on 12 to 5 gauge metal sheets. The
spherical type projection is used on higher thickness of metal.

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Advantages-Dis-Advantages-Applications

Advaantages

Many number of weld joint can be performed at a time.

Rust, coating, oil etc. interferes less with this welding process.

Electrode life is longer than spot welding electrode, because of less wear and
maintenance resulting from over heating.

It has better heat control for different material composition and thickness and
hence lowered distortion and shrinkage

Dis-Advantages

Metals that are not strong enough to support projections cannot be satisfactorily
welded (Copper, brass)

Forming of projection on the workpiece is an additional operation

For proper welding all projections should be of same height

Applications:

In sheet metal welding.

In ship building works.

In automobile workshop.

In refrigeration works.

Solid State Welding

Group of welding process wherein coalescence is produced at a temperature

essentially below the melting point of the base metal being joined, without the
addition of filler metal. Pressure is always applied.

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Friction Welding

Friction welding principle:

In this welding process the fusion is produced by rotating one of the weld
parts to be joined against the fixed surface of the other part.

Large amount of pressure will be applied at the end to complete the joint.
Pressure and rotation are maintained until the resulting high temp. makes
the component plastic.

copper to carbon steel, copper to aluminium, aluminium and its alloy, brass
to bronze, tool steel, stainless steel to aluminium, tungsten, etc.
Friction welding advantages:
It requires less time operation.

Changing of granular structure is less.

The weld joint may have not heat treated again.

It has no need for flux, filler. It is free of smoke, spatter and slag.

Simplicity of operation.

Friction welding applications:

Drill, tap, reamer etc. joining with shank.

To join steering shaft and worm gear, engine valves, power transmission shaft
etc.
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Production of bimetallic shaft joining.
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

A rotating tool is fed along a joint line between two workpieces, generating friction
heat and mechanically stirring the metal to form the weld seam

Applications: butt joints in large aluminum parts in aerospace, automotive, and

shipbuilding

• Advantages
• Good mechanical properties of weld joint

• Avoids toxic fumes, warping, and shielding issues

• Little distortion or shrinkage

• Good weld appearance

• Disadvantages
• An exit hole is produce when tool is withdrawn

• Heavy duty clamping of parts is required

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 Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic welding is a solid state of welding process where joint is produced by
the local application of high frequency vibratory energy to the work pieces which
are held together under pressure. The average frequency used in ultrasonic
welding is about 20 kHz and lower cases 10 kHz, but in some special
circumstances is used high frequency as 170 kHz.

Operation of ultrasonic welding

The work pieces are clamped between the sonotrode tip and anvil. The contacting
face of weld tip and anvil is made of HSS or High Speed Steel because wear can
occur during welding.

A transducer attachment converts the electrical frequency into ultrasonic high

frequency energy. High frequency energy is transmitted to the weld joint through
the welding tip. The tip oscillates on the weld joint.

The combined effect of pressure and high vibration causes movement of the
metal molecules to bring a sound joint. The metallic bonding is carried out in solid
state, without applying of heat or filler rod
1) No need of filler rod and flux

2)Good surface finish.

3) Very thin material can be weld.

4) Metals having different melting temperature can be welded without any hazard.
Applications of ultrasonic welding

1) It is best suited for thin cross sectional metals.

2) Welding of electrical and electronic components.

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4) Nuclear fuel component welding

 force
Diffusion Welding heat

atomic
movement

force

Diffusion welding method:

In diffusion welding process any surface can be welded except dead smooth
surface. Every metal surface have a peak and valley point. Initially the faces to be
welded are mated together and held under huge pressure such that the
roughness of metals are deformed .

The pressure which is applied for joining the surface is about 400 to 700 kg/cm2.

The weld metal surfaces are defused under huge amount of pressure. After
holding for a certain period the entire area of contact surface is bonded.

This whole process takes longer period.

Diffusion welded materials:
Zirconium alloys, Titanium alloys, nickel base alloys etc.
Advantages of diffusion welding process:
Due to cold welding process the base metal’s chemical or mechanical composition
is not changed.
Continuous clean weld joint is made without filler metal
Limitations
Difficulty in removal of oxides and contaminated layer
Long and time consuming process
Surfaces should be parallel and well prepared
Applications of diffusion welding:
Fabrication of composite materials. 110
This welding process has large use in atomic reactor plants.
Radiant Energy Welding
LASER BEAM WELDING
In laser welding process the heat is obtained from the application of a

concentrated coherent light beam which striking upon the weld metal, melts the

metal, establishing the weld joint.

Principle of laser welding

The Ruby Crystal is made of aluminium oxide with chromium dispersed
throughout it. Silver coated mirrors are fitted internally in the both side of crystal.
The one side of mirror has a tiny hole, through which the laser beam emerges.

A flash tube is placed around the Ruby Crystal, which is filled with xenon inert gas.
The flash is specially designed to operate at about thousands flashes per seconds.
The electrical energy is converted into light energy by flash tube.

The capacitor is provided for storage of electrical energy and it energizes the flash
tube.
As the ruby crystal is exposed to the intense light flashes, the chromium atoms of
Ruby Crystal are excited and pumped to a high energy level. Due to heat
generation, some of this energy is lost and chromium atoms drop to an intermediate
energy level and eventually drop back to their original state with the evolution of
radiation in the form of red fluorescent light.
As the red light emitted by one atom hits another and this is further enhanced by
the reflection of mirror to mirror and again chromium atoms are excited and finally
the leaves through the tiny hole of crystal’s mirror.
This narrow beam is focused by a optical focusing lens to produce a small intense of
laser on the job.

111
Advantages-Limitations-Applications

Advantage of laser welding

Materials which can not be weld by ordinary welding process can be welded by
laser welding process.
Due to its high beam energy both welding and cutting operation can be made
effortlessly.
No electrode contamination
Narrow heat affected zone
Disadvantages
Slow welding speeds
Limited to depths of approx 1.5mm
Materials such as magnesium tend to vaporize and produce surface voids

Application
Both welding and cutting is possible
High melting point and hard materials can be weld.
Space and aircraft industries
Dissimilar metals can be joined
Electron Beam Welding
A filament of tungsten or tantalum is heated to high temperature in a vacuum.
The electron is propelled from a negative pole or cathode to positive pole or anode.
The voltage is directly proportional to electron velocity.
Heat is directly proportional to electron velocity. So more electron velocity means more
heat is obtained.
The continuous strike of electron on the metal surface caused a kinetic energy which has
converted into the heat energy, which is sufficient to fuse the metal and join together.

112
Advantages-Limitations-Applications

Advantages

A high quality of weld joint is produced.

Different thickness of material can be welded easily.

Much deeper weld joint is obtained in single run.

Seam and butt welds can be performed metals as thin as 25µm.

Disadvantages

Cost of equipment is high

Time and equipment is required to create vacuum every time a job is made

Competent personnel is required

Workpiece size is restricted to work chamber dimension

Application:

It can give same performance as TIG and plasma welding.

This process is used in joining of reactor components.

It has large use in spaceship building.

It is used in automobile engine component welding.

THERMO CHEMICAL WELDING

Thermit welding principle:

The necessary heat for joining metal of thermit welding is obtained from chemical
reaction of metal oxide and metal reducing agent. Usually iron oxide is used as a
metal oxide and aluminium or magnesium is used as metal reducing agent.

The aluminium merging with the oxygen of metal oxide and setting free the iron,
which is deposited on joint portion into the mold. If theoretical temperature is about
0
3000 C of thermit, due to chilling effect of crucible the temperature is reduced to
0
about 2500 C. The thermit reaction is a non-explosive process

3Fe3O4 + 8Al → 9Fe + 4Al2O3 (719.3 Kcal)

Fe2O3 + 2Al → 2Fe + Al2O3 (181.5 Kcal)

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Advantages-Limitations-Applications

Advantages

Heat necessary for welding is obtained from chemical reaction and thus no costly
power supply is required.

On site welding is possible

Limitations

Applicable only for ferrous metals

The process is uneconomical, if used to weld cheap metals and light parts

Application :

It has large application in railway track repairing on the spot.

It is used in large frame like locomotive frame welding.

Thermit welding is used in crank shaft welding.

Brazing
Brazing is one of the joining method wherein coalescence is produced by
heating in a suitable temperature and by additional using a filler metal and having
a liquidus temperature above 4270C and below the solidus temperature of base
metals. Base metal is not melted.

In brazing process the metallic parts are joined by a non-ferrous filler metal or
alloys.

The filler metals are distributed through the closely fitted mating parts and joined
by the capillary action. Brazing is the semi-permanent joint, whereas welding is
permanent joint.
Brazing can be classified as
Torch brazing
Dip brazing
Furnace brazing
Induction brazing

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Brazing

How to braze:

1. Prepare the braze work piece and clean the joint portion and cleaned also filler
metal surfaces.

2. Provide the flux to the both base metal joint portion and filler metal surfaces.

3. Fitting or aligning the base metal parts to be make joint.

4. Heating up the joint portion of base metals.

5. Applying the filler metal on to the joint and flux may be applied if needed.

7. Cleaning or removing the flux residue from the brazing joint.

Brazing filler metal properties:

A) It should have the ability to wet the base metal and make a strong, sound bond
joint.

B) To Maintain the proper melting point temperature and flow properties which
allows the filler to spread through the joints.

C) It must give desirable mechanical and physical properties to the joints, like
strength, ductility, hardness etc.
Advantages of brazing joints:
A) Gas entrapment is very less, because the filler metal melt properly and spread
through out the surface and makes pressure tight joint.
B) Brazing joint can be carried in large number of dissimilar material.
C) Smooth surface or scale less surface can be obtained.
D) The joints posses good strength at the increased temperature.
E ) Thin walled sheets or light gauge sheets easily joint by brazing, which can not
be joined by welding.

Disadvantages
 Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding
 Cost of Joint preparation is more
 Can be used for thin sheet metal sections only.

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 Soldering

Solder joint is the process of joining of metals wherein joint is produced by

heating to a suitable temperature and used of filler metals having a liquidus
temperature not exceeding 4270C and below the solidus temperature of base
metals. In the solder joint the filler metals are spreads throughout in the properly
fitted joint surfaces by the capillary attraction force.

Used Primarily where heat is of concern

Soldering is used for,

Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans

Electrical Connections

Joining thermally sensitive components

Joining dissimilar metals

Soldering fluxes:

Selection of soldering flux:

1. The type of solder used.

2. Type of base metals and its degree of its surface cleanness

3. The process of soldering is used.

4. After the completion of soldering process, the ability to remove the flux residue.

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 Soldering Methods
There soldering methods are classified in the types of heating applications.
The various soldering methods are
1 Soldering iron
2 Dip
3 Resistance
4 Furnace
5 Spray
6 Ultrasonic
7 Induction
8 Torch method.

Defects
Lack of penetration

Porosity or Blowholes

Slag Inclusion

Undercut

Cracks

Weld Distortion

Lack of Penetration

If the molten base metal does not fill the depth of

base metal it is called lack of penetration. Whether
that penetration can be obtained depends upon the
accessibility of the heat source and filler rod to the
face area. The lack of penetration may also
depends on too long arc, always keep the arc as
short as possible.

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Defects
Porosity

If air is trapped inside the molten metal or trapping

air comes out through the molten metal it makes
small holes is called porosity or blow holes.

The current is the essential part for the porosity.

Too low a welding current is generally more frequent

cause of porosity.

Slag Inclusion

Slag or other non-metallic foreign matter entrapped in

the weld joint is called slag inclusion. The usual source is
the slag formed by the electrode coating and dirty surface.
The another cause of slag inclusions is inadequate removal
of the slag between the deposition of successive runs.

Undercut
Surface discontinuity from erosion of the base metal which may be
caused by either the burning away of the side walls of the joint
recesses or reduction in base metal thickness at the line where the
last bead is fused.

Excessive speed, wrong electrode angle and excessive weaving are

other factors contributing to undercutting.

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Defects …

Cracks

Cracks occur in the weld and /or base metal when localized stress is exceeded.
The crack generally associated with notches, discontinuity welding , with high
residual stresses and sometimes with hydrogen embrittlement.

Where the metal is hard there are generally observed cracks. The hot cracks are
formed in high temperature and cold cracks are formed after solidification is
completed. To avoiding the cracks the welder should avoid rapid cooling of the
weld.

Residual Stress

Rapid heating and cooling results in thermal stresses detrimental to joint strength.

Prevention

Edge Preparation/Alignment – beveled edges and space between components to

allow movement

Control of heat input – skip or intermittent weld technique

Preheating – reduces expansion/contraction forces (alloys) and removes

moisture from the surface

Heat Treatment – “soak” the metal at a high temperature to relieve stresses

Jigs and Fixtures – prevent distortion by holding metal fixed

Number of Passes – the fewer the better.

119
 Assignment (Quiz) K3
1. The MIG welding process is also known as …
A. Gas metal arc welding
B. Flux cored arc welding
C. Self-shielded welding

2. When was welding techniques discovered?

A. In ancient times
B. In the Middle Ages
C. In the Industrial Revolution

3. Which is the most dangerous occupational hazard occurring to welders?

A. UV radiation
B. Metal fumes
C. Cuts

4. What is the process of penetrating excessively in a localised metal area?

A. Under-cutting
B. Burn-through
C. Slope

5. In most cases, where should we place the power source of welding?

A. In a well-ventilated, uncluttered area
B. In an enclosed area
C. In the centre of the space

6. Dirt and moisture accumulated on the wire electrode’s surface might cause …
A. Cold lap
B. Porosity
C. Electrical shock

7. In metal arc welding processes, what are the temperatures of the negative
and positive electrode?
A. 2400°C and 2500°C
B. 2500°C and 2400°C
C. 2500°C and 2500°C

120
8. Which of the following sources can result in hazardous chemical fumes when
welding?
A. Anti-spatter nozzle sprays
B. Chlorinated degreasing solvents
C. Inert shielding gases

9. How many kinds of welding are there?

A. 10 to 20
B. 40 to 50
C. 70 to 8

10. Stubbing in welding is often caused by which factor?

A. Excessive resistance
B. Excessive voltage
C. Excessive wire feed speed.

11. When you increase stick-out, how will penetration change?

A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. Stable.

12. Which of the following organisations introduce written specifications for gas
metal arc welding filler metals?
A. CSA and WCB
B. CSA and AWS
C. CWB and AWS.

13. Excessive buildup of spatter in the gun nozzle would cause which of the following
issues?
A. Undercut on the weld edges
B. Insufficient gas coverage
C. A rise in stick-out.

14. TIG is one of the 3 basic kinds of welding. What does TIG stand for?
A. Tungsten Inert Gas
B. Tungsten In Gas
C. Tungsten Inside Gas

15. What could be a result of a poor connection of work lead?

A. Unstable arc
B. Excessive penetration 121
C. Unexpected wire feed speed
S.No PART A Question with Answer Blooms CO’S
Level
1 List the functions of flux in welding electrode? (May/Jun 2010, K1 CO2
12, Nov/Dec 2013, 14) The functions of flux are
• To remove the impurities and oxides present on the surfaces
of metal.
• To obtain a satisfactory bond.
2 Define Thermit welding. (Nov/Dec 2012,13) K1 CO2
It is a fusion welding process in which the weld is
effected by pouring superheated liquid thermit steel
around the parts to be united.
3 Define “carburising flame” in gas welding? (Nov/Dec K1 CO2
2012)
Gas welding is done by burning a combustible gas with
air or oxygen in a concentrated flame of high
temperature. In which there is an excess of acetylene is
needed the flame produced is called carburising flame.
4 Name various causes for the defect porosity in welding. K1 CO2
(May/Jun 2015)
• Presence of gases in the metal
• Moisture in the flux
• Rust on the welded edges or filler material
5 List the diameters and length of electrodes available in the K1 CO2
market? (Nov/Dec 2009)
• Standard lengths of electrodes are 250 mm, 300 mm and 450
mm.
• Standard diameters of electrodes are 1.6, 2, 2.5, 3.2, 4,
5,6,7,8 and 9mm
6 Define the principle of resistance welding? (Nov/Dec 2009) K1 CO2
The two metal parts to be joined are heated to a plastic state
by their resistance to the flow of electric current and the
mechanical pressure is used to complete the weld.
7 Discuss inclusions in welding be avoided? (May/Jun 2008) K2 CO2
Avoid multi-layer welding ,Reduce arc length ,Increase
electrode angle ,Avoid using large electrode.
8 Define the term “electrode” and mention its major K1 CO2
classifications. (Nov/Dec 2011)
Electrode is a solid rod in arc welding process to
produce electric arc by passing the current through the work
piece and electrode for melting the surfaces or edges are
joined without applying external force.
Types of Electrode:
(i) Consumable electrodes
Bare electrodes
Lightly coated electrodes
Heavily coated electrodes
(ii) Non -Consumable electrodes 122
S.No PART A Question with Answer Blooms CO’S
Level
9 Mention the application of friction welding. (May/Jun 2010) K1 CO2
 Aerospace industry.
 Automobile industry.

10 Distinguish between transferred and non-transferred in plasma K1 CO2

arc welding. (May/Jun 2013)
Transferred type: In transferred type, the tungsten electrode
is connected to the negative terminal and the work piece is
connected to the positive terminal. An electric arc is maintained
between the electrode and the work piece heats a co-axial
flowing gas and maintains it in a plasma state.
Non- Transferred type: In this type, the power is directly
connected with the electrode and the torch of nozzle. The
electrode carries the same current. Thus the ionizing is at high
velocity gas that is strewing towards the work piece.
11 List the minimum distance maintained between two successive K1 CO2
spot welds made by resistance welding? Why? (May/Jun 2013)
The minimum distance 150 mm and maximum distance
between two securing points 300 mm should be maintained
two successive spot welds or the acceptable distance is 16
times of thickness of metal to be welded because the shunt
current flowing through already formed weld spot reduces the
efficiency of the welding process.
12 Write the difference between brazing and soldering.(May/Jun K1 CO2
2014,15)
Brazing Soldering The process of joining two metals by using
filler metal (fusible alloy) is known as brazing. The filler metal
having liquid temperature is above 4270 C. The process of
joining two metals by using a harder filler metal (spelter) is
known as soldering. The filler metal having liquid temperature
is below 4270 C.
13 Sketch the different types of oxyacetylene flames. (May/Jun K1 CO2
2014)

123
 Part B with K level and CO’s

Blooms
S.No Questions CO’S
Level
1 Explain with neat sketch the components of oxy K2 CO2
acetylene gas welding equipment. (Nov/Dec 2014)

2 Describe the process of Electro slag welding and K2 CO2

identify their major

applications. (Nov/Dec 2014)

3 Explain the principle of thermit welding? Explain K2 CO2
the same with a neat sketch of the welding
arrangement. (May/Jun 2012& 2017)
4 Define welding defect and Explain any five welding K1 CO2
defects.

(May/Jun 2010 & 2017) .

5 Explain resistance welding in detail. K2 CO2

6 Discuss the fusion welding process with example K2 CO2

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 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

S.NO Link Academy

1 https://www.edx.org/course/manufacturing-systems-i EDX

2 https://www.edx.org/course/manufacturing- EDX
process-control-ii
3 https://www.edx.org/course/fundamentals-of- EDX
manufacturing-processes
4 https://www.mooc-list.com/course/fundamentals- NPTEL
manufacturing-processes-edx
5 https://alison.com/courses/manufacturing Alison

125
 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS

1. Rail road repairing using Thermit welding:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5uxsFglz2ig&list=PLsW8b6l6d-
lAazQojuwr_3xR9lKUbAZPj&index=5&t=0s

2. Soldering of Electronic Circuit Board:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qps9woUGkvI&list=PLsW8b6l6d-
lAazQojuwr_3xR9lKUbAZPj&index=8&t=0s

126
 Content Beyond Syllabus

Explosion Welding

Explosion Welding is a technically based industrial welding process. As any other

welding process, it complies with well understood, reliable principles. The process uses
an explosive detonation as the energy source to produce a metallurgical bond between
metal components. It can be used to join virtually any metals combination, both those
that are metallurgically compatible and those that are known as non-weldable by
conventional processes. Furthermore, this process can clad one or more layers onto
one or both faces of a base metal, with the potential for each to be a different metal
type or alloy.
Terminology
•As with other welding processes, the explosion cladding process applies special
terminology to many of the process variables.
•The Cladding Metal (also called the cladder) is the plate, which is in contact with the
explosive. It is typically the thinner component.
•The Base Metal is the plate onto which the cladding metal is being bonded.
•The Standoff Distance is the separation distance between the cladding metal and the
base metal when fixtured parallel to each other prior to the bonding operation.
•The Assembly Operation is the process in which the metals are fixtured into the
proper positions for bonding, including setting standoff distance and explosive load.
•The Bonding Operation is the period in which the explosive detonation occurs and in
which the actual bonding occurs.

127
PREPARATION: The first step of the cladding operation is the preparation of the two
surfaces that are to be bonded together. These surfaces are ground or polished to
achieve a uniform surface finish with a roughness Ra of 3 µm (140 RMS) or below,
dependent upon the metals combination and thicknesses.

ASSEMBLY: The cladding plate is positioned parallel to and above the base plate, at a
standoff distance which has been predetermined for the specific metals combination
being bonded. This distance is selected to assure that the cladding plate collides with the
base plate after accelerating to a specific collision velocity. The standoff distance typically
varies from 0.5 to 4 times the cladder sheet thickness dependent upon the choice of
impact parameters. The limited tolerance in collision velocity results in a similar tolerance
control of the standoff distance.
The standoff distance is controlled by support spacers at the plate edges and internally
as needed. Internal standoff devices are designed to be consumed by the jet.

BONDING OPERATION: The explosive composition and type is selected to yield a

specific energy release and a specific detonation rate (the speed at which the detonation
front travels across the explosive layer). The detonation rate must be subsonic to the
acoustic velocities of the metals.
The explosive, which is generally granular, is uniformly distributed on the cladding plate
surface filling the containment frame. It is ignited at a predetermined point on the plate
surface using a high velocity explosive booster. The detonation travels away from the
initiation point and across the plate surface at the specified detonation rate. The gas
expansion of the explosive detonation accelerates the cladding plate across the standoff
gap resulting in an angular collision at the specified collision velocity. The resultant
impact creates very high-localized pressures at the collision point.

128
 ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Unit Test I :
Internal Assessment Test I : 04/08/2020
Unit Test II :
Internal Assessment Test II :
Model Examination :

90
129
 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Hajra Chouldhary S.K and Hajra Choudhury. AK., "Elements of workshop
Technology", volume I and II, Media promoters and Publishers Private Limited,
Mumbai, 2008

2. Kalpakjian. S, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”, Pearson Education

India Edition, 2013

REFERENCES:

1. Gowri P. Hariharan, A.Suresh Babu, "Manufacturing Technology I", Pearson

Education, 2008

2. Paul Degarma E, Black J.T and Ronald A. Kosher, "Materials and Processes, in
Manufacturing" Eight Edition, Prentice – Hall of India, 1997.

3. Rao, P.N. "Manufacturing Technology Foundry, Forming and Welding", 4th Edition,
TMH-2013

4. Roy. A. Lindberg, "Processes and Materials of Manufacture", PHI / Pearson

education, 2006

5. Sharma, P.C., "A Text book of production Technology", S.Chand and Co. Ltd.,
2014.

OTHER RESOURCES:

OL. Online Resource – www.nptel.co.in

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 Mini Project Idea
!: Industrial Pencil Holder
All you’ll need is a square tube, 12-gauge steel sheet and spray paint. The main
tools, besides your welding machine, will be files, a hacksaw and a bench vise.
Steps:
1. Cut the steel tube into four sections. These will serve as the pencil and pen
holders.
2. File the top and bottom of each piece.
3. Cut the sheet steel into the base and tack weld the pieces of tubbing to it.
Photo: https://www.instructables.com/id/Simple-Industrial-Pencil-Holder/

2. Scrap Metal Box

Practice your MIG welding skills by making a scrap metal box. The supply list is
super short: 1/8” steel from any scrap yard.
Of course, you can choose a different size depending on how big of a box you want
to make.
Here are the tools you need for this project:
• Plasma cutter
• Clamps
• Sander
• Soap stone marker
• Measurement devices
Steps:
1. Measure the base and sides of the box, marking where to cut with the soap
stone.
2. Make 2 short sides and 2 long sides with the plasma cutter.
3. Label the pieces with your soap stone marker and smooth them out with a vertical
belt sander.
4. Use magnetic clamps to line up the base and side and tack weld them in place.
5. Fill in the seams with your MIG welder.
6. Clean and polish the box.

Photo: https://www.instructables.com/id/How-To-MIG-Weld-A-Box/

131
 Thank you

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