JOINING PROCESSES

Introduction
 Welding which is the process of joining two metallic
components for the desired purpose, can be defined as the
process of joining two similar or dissimilar metallic
components with the application of heat, with or without the
application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal.
 Heat may be obtained by chemical reaction, electric arc,
electrical resistance, frictional heat, sound and light energy.
 If no filter metal is used during welding then it is termed as
‘Autogenous Welding Process'.
 During ‘Bronze Age' parts were joined by forge welding to
produce tools, weapons and ornaments etc., however, present
day welding processes have been developed within a period of
about a century.

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Applications:
 Although most of the welding processes at the time of their developments could
not get their place in the production except for repair welding, however, at the
later stage these found proper place in manufacturing/production. Presently
welding is widely being used in fabrication of
◦ pressure vessels,
◦ bridges, building structures,
◦ aircraft and space crafts,
◦ railway coaches and general applications. It is also being used in shipbuilding,
automobile, electrical, electronic and defense industries, lying of pipe lines and
railway tracks and nuclear installations etc.
◦ General Applications:
Welding is vastly being used for construction of transport tankers for
transporting oil, water, milk and fabrication of welded tubes and pipes, chains,
LPG cylinders and other items. Steel furniture, gates, doors and door frames,
body and other parts of white goods items such as refrigerators, washing
machines, microwave ovens and many other items of general applications are
fabricated by welding.
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Fusion welding
 Definition : Fusion Welding is defined as melting
together and coalescing materials by means of heat
 Energy is supplied by thermal or electrical means
 Fusion welds made without filler metals are known as
Autogenous welds

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Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
 Welding process that uses fuel gas combined with oxygen to
produce flame
 This flame heat melts the metals at the joint
 Acetylene fuel is used in gas welding process

 Primary combustion process

C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + heat

 This reaction dissociates into carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

 Secondary combustion process

2CO + H2 + 1.5 O2 → 2CO2 + H2O + heat
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Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing flame. The
gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.
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Types of flames
 Neutral flame: The proposition of acetylene and oxygen in the
gas mixutre is 1:1 (no excess oxygen)
 Oxidising flame: With the greater oxygen supply, for steel it is
harmful. For copper and copper alloy it is desirable.
 Carburising flame: With excess acetylene. For low heat
application such as brazing, soldering.
Filler Metals :

 Additional material to weld the weld zone

 Available as rod or wire
 They can be used bare or coated with flux
 The purpose of the flux is to retard oxidation of the surfaces
being welded, by generating a gaseous shield around the weld
zone.
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Torch Used in Oxyacetylene
Welding
Fig : (a) General view of
and (b) cross-section
of a torch used in
oxyacetylene valve is
opened and the flame
adjusted. (c) Basic
equipment used in
oxyfuel-gas welding.
To ensure correct
connections, all
threads on acetylene
fittings are left-
handed, whereas
those for oxygen are
right-handed.
Oxygen regulators
are usually painted
green acetylene
regulators red.

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Welding practice & equipment
STEPS :

 Prepare the edges to be joined and maintain the proper

position
 Open the acetylene valve and ignite the gas at tip of the
torch
 Hold the torch at about 45 degree to the work piece plane
 Inner flame near the work piece and filler rod at about 30 –
40 degree
 Touch filler rod at the joint and control the movement
according to the flow of the material

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Flame Cutting and Drag Lines
(a) Flame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-
section of the torch nozzle.
(b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate showing drag lines.

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Pressure-Gas Welding Process
 In this method the two components to be welded are heated at
their interface by means of a torch using, typically, an
oxyacetylene gas mixture.
 After the interface begin to melt, the torch is withdrawn.
 An axial force is then applied to press the two components
together and maintained until the interface solidifies.

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Arc welding process : Consumable
electrode
 Process goes with the consumable electrode or non
consumable electrode
 Arc produced between the tip of the electrode & work piece
 Arc temperature about 3000 degree
 Oldest ,simple & versatile
 50% of industry uses this process
 heat generated heats the electrode & immediate area of the
base projected by arc
 weld forms when molten metal ,mixture of base metal and
electrode metal and substance from the coating on the
electrode solidifies
 electrodes are in the shape of thin, long stick, so the process is
known as stick welding
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Arc welding

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 Shielded metal arc welding
process

Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded

metal-arc welding process. About 50% Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-
of all large-scale industrial welding arc welding process ( also known as stick
operations use this process. welding, because the electrode is in the shape
of a stick).

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Submerged arc welding

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Submerged arc welding
 Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux ,consisting of silica, lime,
manganese oxide, calcium fluoride and other compounds.

 Flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle

 Thick layer of flux covers molten metal

 Flux acts as a thermal insulator ,promoting deep penetration of

heat into the work piece

 Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire fed

automatically through a tube

 Power is supplied by 3-phase or 2-phase power lines

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Submerged arc welding (SAW)

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Gas metal arc welding
 GMAW is a metal inert gas welding (MIG)
 Weld area shielded by an effectively inert atmosphere of argon,
helium, carbon dioxide, various other gas mixtures
 Metal can be transferred by 3 methods :
◦ Globular transfer
◦ Spray transfer
◦ Short circuiting
Process capabilities
 GMAW process is suitable for welding a variety of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals
 Process is versatile, rapid, economical, welding productivity is
double that of SMAW

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GMAW (MIG)

Fig : Schematic
illustration of the
gas metal-arc
welding process,
formerly known as
MIG (for metal
inert gas) welding.

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1. Globular Transfer (metal transfer method)
 Discrete metal drops close to or larger than the electrode
diameter travel across the arc gap under the influence of gravity.
 Figure shows globular transfer during GMAW of steel at 180A
and with Ar–2% O2 shielding.
 The welding currents are high, with greater weld penetration
and welding speed than in spray transfer.
 This operation thus results in considerable spatter.

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2. Spray Transfer Mode (metal transfer method)

 Above a critical current level, small discrete metal drops travel across
the arc gap under the influence of the electromagnetic force at much
higher frequency and speed than in the globular mode.
 Figure shows spray transfer during GMAW of steel at 320A and with
Ar–2% O2 shielding.
 The transfer is spatter free and very stable.

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3. Short-Circuiting Transfer Mode (metal transfer
method)
 The molten metal at the electrode tip is transferred from the
electrode to the weld pool when it touches the pool surface, that is,
when short circuiting occurs.
 Low currents and voltages are used, with carbon-dioxide rich gases
and electrodes made of small diameter wire.
 The temperatures involved are relatively low, hence this method is
suitable only for thin sheets and sections.

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Equipment used in Metal-Arc
Welding Operations

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Flux–cored Arc Welding
 Flux cored arc welding is similar to a gas metal arc
welding
 Electrode is tubular in shape and is filled with flux
 Cored electrodes produce more stable arc improve
weld contour and produce better mechanical
properties
 Flux is more flexible than others

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Flux–cored Arc Welding

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 Electro gas Welding
 EGW is welding the edges of sections vertically in one pass with the
pieces placed edge to edge
 Weld metal is deposited into weld cavity between the two pieces to
be joined
 Mechanical drives moves shoes upwards
 Single and multiple electrodes are fed through a conduit and a
continuous arc is maintained using flux-cored electrodes at up to 750
A
Process capabilities :
 Weld thickness ranges from 12mm to 75mm
 Metals welded are steels, titanium, aluminum alloys
 Applications are construction of bridges, pressure vessels, thick
walled and large diameter pipes, storage tanks and ships.
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Electro-gas welding (EGW) is a continuous vertical position arc
welding process developed in 1961, in which an arc is struck between a
consumable electrode and the workpiece. A shielding gas is sometimes
used, but pressure is not applied. A major difference between EGW and
its electroslag welding is that the arc in EGW is not extinguished,
instead remains struck throughout the welding process. It is used to
make square-groove welds for butt and t-joints, especially in the
shipbuilding industry and in the construction of storage tanks.

In EGW, the heat of the welding arc causes the electrode and workpieces
to melt and flow into the cavity between the parts being welded. This
molten metal solidifies from the bottom up, joining the parts being welded
together. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a
separate shielding gas, or by the gas produced by the disintegration of a
flux-cored electrode wire. The electrode is guided into the weld area by
either a consumable electrode guide tube, like the one used in electroslag
welding, or a moving head. When the consumable guide tube is used, the
weld pool is composed of molten metal coming from the parts being
welded, the electrode, and the guide tube. The moving head variation
uses an assembly of an electrode guide tube which travels upwards as
the weld is laid, keeping it from melting.
Electroslag Welding
 Similar to Electro gas welding
 Difference is Arc is started between electrode tip and
bottom part of the part to be welded
 Flux added first and then melted by the heat on the arc
 Molten slag reaches the tip of the electrode and the arc
is extinguished
 Heat is then continuously produced by electrical
resistance of the molten slag
 Single or multiple solid as well as flux-cored electrodes
may be used
Slag is usually a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. However, slags can contain
metal sulfides and elemental metals. While slags are generally used to remove waste in
metal smelting, they can also serve other purposes, such as assisting in the
temperature control of the smelting, and minimizing any re-oxidation of the final liquid
metal product before the molten metal is removed from the furnace and used to make
solid metal.
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Electroslag Welding

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Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (Non-consumable Electrode)
 The tungsten arc process is being employed widely for the precision joining of
critical components which require controlled heat input.
 The small intense heat source provided by the tungsten arc is ideally suited to
the controlled melting of the material.
 Since the electrode is not consumed during the process, as with the MIG
welding processes, welding without filler material can be done without the need
for continual compromise between the heat input from the arc and the melting
of the filler metal.
 As the filler metal, when required, can be added directly to the weld pool from
a separate wire feed system or manually.
 All aspects of the process can be precisely and independently controlled i.e. the
degree of melting of the parent metal is determined by the welding current with
respect to the welding speed, at the same time as the degree of weld bead
reinforcement is determined by the rate at which the filler wire is added to the
weld pool.

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 Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding
The gas tungsten-arc welding process,
formerly known as TIG (for tungsten inert
gas) welding

Equipment for gas tungsten-arc

welding operations.

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Plasma-Arc Welding
 Plasma is ionized hot gas, composed of nearly equal numbers of electrons
and ions.
 Transferred method:
◦ In the transferred arc method the part being welded is part of the
electrical circuit.
◦ The arc thus transfers from the electrode to the workpiece, hence the
term transferred.
 Non-transferred method:
◦ In the non-transferred method, the arc is between the electrode and the
nozzle, and the heat is carried to the workpiece by the plasma gas; this
technique is also used for thermal spraying.
 Advantages:
◦ Greater energy concentration
◦ Better arc stability
◦ Less thermal distortion
◦ Higher welding speeds. 32
 Plasma-Arc Welding
Two types of plasma-arc welding processes:
(a) transferred, (b) non-transferred.
Deep and narrow welds can be made by this process at high welding speeds.

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Cold Welding
 Pressure is applied to the work-pieces through dies or rolls
 Preferably both work pieces should be ductile
 The work pieces should cleaned thoroughly
 Can not join dissimilar metals

Fig: The roll bonding or cladding

process

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 Ultrasonic Welding
 Surfaces of the two components are subjected to a
Fig: a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine
static forces and oscillating shearing force
for lap welds. The lateral vibration of the tool tip
 Produces a strong, solid-state bond cause plastic deformation and bonding at the
 Versatile and reliable for joining metals interface of the work piece b)Ultrasonic some
welding using a roller

Ultrasonic welding is an industrial

technique whereby high-frequency
ultrasonic acoustic vibrations are
locally applied to workpieces being
held together under pressure to
create a solid-state weld. It is
commonly used for plastics, and
especially for joining dissimilar
materials.
In ultrasonic welding, there are no
connective bolts, nails, soldering
materials, or adhesives necessary to
bind the materials together
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Friction Welding
 Developed in the 1940’s
 Parts are circular in shape
 Can be used to join a wide variety of
materials

Fig: Sequence of operation in the friction welding process 1)Left-hand component is rotated at high
speed. 2) Right-hand component is brought into contact under an axial force 3)Axial force is increased;
the flash begins to form 4) Left-hand component stops rotating; weld is completed. The flash can
subsequently be removed by machining or grinding

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 Friction Welding
 Process can be fully automated
 Can weld solid steel bars up to 250mm in outside
diameter

Fig: Shape of friction zone in friction welding, as a function of the force applied and the rotational
speed

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Inertia Friction Welding
 Modification of Friction Welding
 Energy is supplied by a fly wheel
 The parts are pressed together by a normal force
 As friction at the interface increases, the fly wheel slows down
 The weld is completed when the flywheel stops

Fig : The principle of the friction stir welding

process. Aluminum-alloy plates up to 75mm
(3in) thick have been welded by this process

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Resistance Welding
 Developed in the early 1900’s

 A process in which the heat required for welding is produced

by means of electrical resistance across the two components

 RW does not requiring the following:

◦ Consumable electrodes
◦ Shield gases
◦ Flux

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Resistance Spot Welding
 RSW uses the tips of two opposing solid cylindrical electrodes

 Pressure is applied to the lap joint until the current is turned

off in order to obtain a strong weld

 Surfaces should be clean

 Accurate control of and timing of electric current and of

pressure are essential in resistance welding

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Resistance Spot Welding

Fig: (a) Sequence in the

resistance spot welding
b)Cross-section of a spot
weld, showing the weld
nugget and the indentation of
the electrode on the sheet
surfaces. This is one of the
most commonly used
process in sheet-metal
fabrication and in
automotive-body assembly

41
Resistance Spot Welding

42
Resistance Welding
 Heat generated in resistance welding is given by the general
expression
H = K I Rt
2

◦ H= Heat generated in joules (watt-sec)

◦ I= Current, in amp
◦ R= Resistance in ohms
◦ t= flow time of the current in seconds
◦ K= energy loss due to radiation and conduction (less than unity)

 Total resistance:
1. Resistance of the electrodes
2. Resistance of the Electrode-workpiece contact
3. Resistance of the individual parts to be welded
4. Resistance of the workpiece-workpiece contact
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Resistance Seam Welding
 RSEM is modification of spot welding wherein the electrodes
are replaced by rotating wheels or rollers
 The electrically conducting rollers produce a spot weld
 RSEM can produce a continuous seam & joint that is liquid and
gas tight

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 Fig : (a) Seam-
Welding Process in
which rotating rolls act
as electrode (b)
Overlapping spots in a
seam weld. (c) Roll
spot weld (d)
Resistance-welded
gasoline tank

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High-Frequency Butt Welding
Two methods of high-frequency (up to 450 kHz) butt welding of tubes

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 Resistance Projection Welding
 RPW is developed by
introducing high electrical
resistance at a joint by
embossing one or more
projections on the
surface to be welded
 Weld nuggets are similar
to spot welding

Fig: (a) Schematic

illustration of resistance
projection welding. (b)
A
welded bracket. (c) and
(d) Projection welding
of nuts or threaded
bosses and studs.
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Resistance Projection Welding
 The electrodes exert pressure to compress the projections

 Nuts and bolts can be welded to sheet and plate by this

process

 Metal baskets, oven grills, and shopping carts can be made by

RPW

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 Flash Welding
 Heat is
generated from
the arc as the
ends as the two
members
contacts
 An axial force is
applied at a
controlled rate
 Weld is formed
in plastic
deformation

Fig : (a)Flash-welding process for end-to –end welding of solid rods or tubular parts
(b) & (c) Typical parts made by flash welding (d)Design Guidelines for flash welding

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 Stud Welding
 Small part or a threaded rod or hanger serves as a electrode
 Also called as Stud arc welding
 Prevent oxidation to concentrate the heat generation
 Portable stud-welding is also available

Fig: The sequence of operation in stud welding, which is used for welding bars threaded rods and various
fasteners onto metal plates

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Brazing and Soldering:
 Both brazing and soldering are the metal joining processes in which
parent metal does not melt but only filler metal melts filling the joint with
capillary action. If the filler metal is having melting temperature more than
450°C but lower than the melting temperature of components then it is
termed as process of brazing or hard soldering. However, if the melting
temperature of filler metal is lower than 450°C and also lower than the
melting point of the material of components then it is known as soldering
or soft soldering.
 During brazing or soldering flux is also used which performs the following
functions:
◦ Dissolve oxides from the surfaces to be joined.
◦ Reduce surface tension of molten filler metal i.e. increasing its wetting
action or spread ability.
◦ Protect the surface from oxidation during joining operation.

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Brazing and Soldering:
 The strength of brazed joint is higher than soldered joint but
lower than welded joint. However, in between welding and
brazing there is another process termed as ‘braze welding'.

52
Brazing:
 The most commonly used filler metal is copper base zinc alloy consisting of normally
50-60% Cu, approximately 40% Zn, 1% Ni, 0.7 % Fe and traces of Si and Mn, which is
brass and termed as 'spelter'. In some cases around 10% Ni may also be added to filler
alloys. Copper base alloys may be available in the form of rod, strip and wire. Silver
brazing filler metal may consists of 30-55% Ag, 15-35% Cu, 15-28% Zn, 18-24% Cd and
sometimes 2-3% Ni or 5% Sn. Silver brazing alloys are available in form of wire, strip,
rods and powders.
 Borax and boric acid are commonly used fluxes for brazing with copper base filler
metals. Many other commercial fluxes may be available in the form of paste or liquid
solution leading to ease of application and adherence to the surface in any position.
 Various commonly used method of brazing are followings:
❑ Torch Brazing
Torch brazing utilizes the heat of oxy-acetylene flame with neutral or reducing flame. Filler
metal may be either preplaced in form of washers, rings, formed strips, powders or may be
fed manually in form of rod.

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Brazing:
❑ Dip Brazing
 In dip brazing components with filler metal in proper form is preplaced at the joint and
assembly is dipped in bath of molten salt (at a temperature just above the melting point
of the filler metal) which acts as heat source as well as flux for brazing. Preplaced
preform melts and fills the joint. Another variant is to dip assembled parts in metallic
bath and metal of bath fills the joint.
❑ Furnace Brazing
 Self fixturing assembly with preplaced filler metal is placed inside electrically heated
furnace with temperature control for heating and cooling. These furnaces may also be
using protective atmosphere with inert gases like argon and helium or vacuum for
brazing of reactive metal components.
❑ Infra-red Brazing
 The heat for brazing is obtained from infra-red lamps. Heat rays can be concentrated at
desired area or spot with concave reflectors. Such method of brazing requires
automation and parts to be joined should be self-fixturing. Filler metal is to be
preplaced in the joint. The operation can be performed in air or in inert atmosphere or
in vacuum.

54
 Brazing:
❑ Induction Brazing
 The heat is generated by induced current into the workpiece from a water cooled coil which
surrounds the workpieces to be brazed. High frequencies employed vary from 5 to 400 kHz. Higher
the frequency of current, shallow is the heating effect while lower frequencies of current lead to
deeper heating and so it can be employed for thicker sections. Fluxes may or may not be used
during brazing.
❑ Resistance Brazing
 In resistance brazing the heat is generated at the interfaces to be brazed by resistive heating. The
components are connected to high current and low voltage power supply through two electrodes
under pressure. Only those fluxes are used which are electrically conductive and filler metal is
preplaced.

Typical Self Fixturing Brazing

Assembly Preplaced Brazing Material and filling of joint during Brazing.
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Soldering:
 The soldering filler metal is called solder.
 The most commonly used solder is lead and tin alloy containing tin ranging from 5 to
70% and lead 95 to 30%. Higher the contents of tin, lower the melting point of alloy.
Other filler metal are tin-antimony solder (95% tin and 5% antimony), tin-silver solder
(tin 96% and silver 4%), lead-silver solder (97% lead, 1.5 tin and 1.5 silver), tin-zinc
solder (91 to 30% tin and 9 to 70% zinc), cadmium-silver solder (95% cadmium and 5%
silver).
 These are available in the form of bars, solid and flux cored wires, preforms, sheet, foil,
ribbon and paste or cream.
 Fluxes used in soldering are ammonium chloride, zinc chloride, rosin and rosin
dissolved in alcohol.

56
Soldering:
 Various soldering methods are soldering with soldering irons,
dip soldering, torch soldering, oven soldering, resistance
soldering, induction soldering, infra-red and ultrasonic soldering.
 Soldering iron being used for manual soldering consists of
insulated handle and end is fitted with copper tip which may be
heated electrically or in coke or oil/gas fired furnace. Solder is
brought to molten state by touching it to the tip of the
soldering iron so that molten solder can spread to the joint
surface.
 Ultrasonic soldering uses ultrasonics i.e. high frequency
vibrations which break the oxides on the surface of workpieces
and heat shall be generated due to rubbing between surfaces.
This heat melts the solder and fills the joint by capillary action.

57
Welding Defects
 The defects in the weld can be defined as irregularities in the weld
metal produced due to incorrect welding parameters or wrong welding
procedures or wrong combination of filler metal and parent metal.
 Weld defect may be in the form of variations from the intended weld
bead shape, size and desired quality. Defects may be on the surface or
inside the weld metal. Certain defects such as cracks are never
tolerated but other defects may be acceptable within permissible limits.
Welding defects may result into the failure of components under
service condition, leading to serious accidents and causing the loss of
property and sometimes also life.
 Various welding defects can be classified into groups such as
1. cracks,
2. porosity,
3. solid inclusions,
4. lack of fusion and inadequate penetration,
5. imperfect shape and miscellaneous defects.58
1. Cracks
 Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in the weld metal or
base metal or base metal and weld metal boundary. Different categories of
cracks are longitudinal cracks, transverse cracks or radiating/star cracks and
cracks in the weld crater. Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the
ultimate tensile strength of material. These stresses are developed due to
shrinkage during solidification of weld metal.
 Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base metal, high sulpher
and carbon contents, high arc travel speeds i.e. fast cooling rates, too concave
or convex weld bead and high hydrogen contents in the weld metal.

59
2. Porosity
 Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld metal.
These gases are generated from the flux or coating constituents of the
electrode or shielding gases used during welding or from absorbed moisture
in the coating. Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the surface of work pieces
or on electrodes are also source of gases during welding. Porosity may be
easily prevented if work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and
grease. Further, porosity can also be controlled if excessively high welding
currents, faster welding speeds and long arc lengths are avoided flux and
coated electrodes are properly baked.

60
3. Solid Inclusion
 Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic material entrapped
in the weld metal as these may not able to float on the surface of the solidifying weld
metal. If the molten weld metal has high viscosity or too low temperature or cools
rapidly then the slag may not be released from the weld pool and may cause inclusion.
 Slag inclusion can be prevented if proper groove is selected, all the slag from the
previously deposited bead is removed, too high or too low welding currents and long
arcs are avoided.

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4. Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete
penetration
 Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the base metal and weld
metal or subsequent beads in multipass welding because of failure to raise the
temperature of base metal or previously deposited weld layer to melting
point during welding. Lack of fusion can be avoided by properly cleaning of
surfaces to be welded, selecting proper current, proper welding technique and
correct size of electrode.

 Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not upto the desired
level or root faces have not reached to melting point in a groove joint. If
either low currents or larger arc lengths or large root face or small root gap
or too narrow groove angles are used then it results into poor penetration.

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5. Imperfect Shape
 Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired shape and size of the weld
bead.
 During undercutting a notch is formed either on one side of the weld bead or
both sides in which stresses tend to concentrate and it can result in the early
failure of the joint. Main reasons for undercutting are the excessive welding
currents, long arc lengths and fast travel speeds.
 Under filling may be due to low currents, fast travel speeds and small size of
electrodes. Overlap may occur due to low currents, longer arc lengths and
slower welding speeds.
 Excessive reinforcement is formed if high currents, low voltages, slow travel
speeds and large size electrodes are used. Excessive root penetration and sag
occur if excessive high currents and slow travel speeds are used for relatively
thinner members.
 Distortion is caused because of shrinkage occurring due to large heat input
during welding.

63
64
6. Miscellaneous Defects
 Various miscellaneous defects may be multiple arc strikes
i.e. several arc strikes are one behind the other, spatter,
grinding and chipping marks, tack weld defects, oxidized
surface in the region of weld, unremoved slag and
misalignment of weld beads if welded from both sides in
butt welds.

65