PSNA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY, DINDIGUL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 6008-WELDING TECHNOLOGY
(Elective)

YEAR/ SEM : IV/ VII

OBJECTIVE & COURSE OUTCOMES
• To understand the basics of welding and to know about the various types of
welding processes

• C01: Students will able to explore and apply knowledge in various arc
welding processes.
• C02: Students will able to apply the procedure of resistance welding process
during fabrication process
• CO3: Students will explore the methods of solid state welding processes
• CO4: Students will able to apply knowledge of advanced welding processes

• CO5: Students will enhance their knowledge in weld design and welding
metallurgy
• CO6: Upon completion of this course, the students can able to compare
different types of welding process for effective welding of structural
components.
 SYLLABUS COVERAGE

WELDING TECHNOLOGY

UNIT I UNIT III

GAS & ARC SOLID STATE UNIT V
WELDING WELDING DESIGN OF
PROCESSES PROCESSES WELD JOINTS,
WELDABILITY
& TESTING OF
WELDMENTS
UNIT II UNIT IV
RESISTANCE OTHER
WELDING WELDING
PROCESSES PROCESSES
 UNIT I : GAS AND ARC WELDING
PROCESSES
1. Fundamental principles
2. Air Acetylene welding
3. Oxy Acetylene welding Gas welding
4. Carbon arc welding
5. Shielded metal arc welding
6. Submerged arc welding
7. TIG & MIG welding Arc welding
8. Plasma arc welding and
9. Electroslag welding processes
10. Advantages, limitations and applications.
 Fundamental principles

Metal Joining Process:

Metal Joining is defined as joining of two metal parts either
temporarily with or with out the application of heat or
pressure.
Classification:
1. Welding - Permanent Joint (Heat & Pressure)
2. Brazing - Permanent Joint (Filler metal melts & Deposits fusing the w/p)
3. Soldering - Permanent Joint (Filler metal melts(Tin -Lead) & Deposits fusing the w/p)
4. Adhesive Bonding - Semi- Permanent Joint
5. Mechanical Assembly:
a. Bolt & Nut - Non Permanent Joint
b. Riveting - Permanent Joint
c. Clamping - Non Permanent Joint
WELDING DEFINITION:
Welding is a materials joining process which produces
coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable
temperatures with or without the application of pressure
or by the application of pressure alone, and with or
without the use of filler material.

 Welding is used for making permanent joints.

 It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames,
railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture,
boilers, general repair work and ship building.
 MAIN TYPES OF WELDING
• According to the source of energy employed for
heating the metals and the state of metal at the
place being welded.
– Fusion welding (Non- Pressure welding)
– Plastic welding (Pressure welding)
Fusion welding (Non- Pressure Plastic welding (Pressure
welding) welding)

 The material at the joint is  The piece of metal to be joined

heated to a molten state and are heated to a plastic state
allowed to solidify and forced together by
 Heat alone is used. external pressure.
 Pressure is not applied.  Filler materials – not required
 Filler material may be
required.

Eg: Gas welding, Arc welding, Eg: Resistance welding, Pressure

Electron beam welding welding, Forge welding
TYPES OF FUSION WELDING
TYPES OF PRESSURE WELDING
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON APPLICATION
OF FILLER MATERIALS
1. Autogeneous 2. Homogeneous 3. Heterogeneous

No filler material is Filler material is added Filler material is added

added to the joint and it is similar to the but it is different from
interface parent metal. the parent metal.

Ex: Electric Resistance Ex: Arc welding, Electron Ex: Brazing and
welding beam welding and Soldering
Diffusion welding
 GAS WELDING

 Here the edges of the metals to be welded are melted by using

a gas flame.
 No pressure is applied during welding
 Welding heat is obtained by burning a mixture of oxygen and
combustible gases (Acetylene, Hydrogen, Propane or butane)
 The flame only melts the metal. So, the additional metal
required to the weld is supplied by the filler rod.
 Flux is used.
 Metal having 2mm to 50mm thick are welded by gas welding
 TYPES OF GAS WELDING

• Based on the type and combination of gases used for producing

flame, there are three types,
1. Oxy Acetylene welding
2. Air Acetylene welding
3. Oxy Hydrogen welding

Oxy Acetylene welding: (1890’s)

It is the most common form of gas welding.
Used to join Mild steel permanently.
Combination of oxygen and acetylene produces a flame
temperature about 3200o C (Ideal for welding and cutting)
It is suitable for pre fabrication of steel sheet, tubes and plates
 CONTD...
Depending upon the manner in which acetylene is supplied for
welding,
Types of oxy-acetylene system:
High pressure system
Low pressure system
High pressure system:
 Both oxygen and acetylene are supplied from high pressure
cylinders.
 Oxygen is compressed to 120 bar gauge pressure.
 But acetylene cannot be compressed more than 1.5 bar in the form
of dissolved acetylene.
 In High pressure system, the pressure of acetylene at the welding
torch is from 0.66 bar to 1 bar.
Low pressure system:
In a low pressure system, acetylene is produced at the place of
welding by interaction of calcium carbide and water in
acetylene generator, the chemical reaction is given by,
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2 + 127.3 kJ/mol
The heat generated in this reaction is very high.
For Oxygen, pressure in welding torch is 0.5 to 3.5 bar
For Acetylene, pressure in welding torch is 0.06 bar
AIR-ACETYLENE WELDING OXY-HYDROGEN WELDING
 Similar to oxy-acetylene welding  Similar to oxy-acetylene welding
process. process.
 Here air is used instead of oxygen  Here oxygen and hydrogen gases
 The air taken from the are mixed with the required
atmosphere is compressed in a proportion for producing heat.
compressor and it is mixed with Applications:
acetylene to the required It was once used extensively to
proportion in the torch. weld low temperature metals
 Limited use, since temp., is lower such as aluminium, Lead and
than other gas process magnesium but it is not in use
Applications: today because more versatile and
In lead welding and many low faster welding process has been
melting temp., metals and alloys developed
 GAS WELDING EQUIPMENTS
1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
– Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2, Capacity : 6.23 m3 (Cylinder is Black in colour)
– Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2, Capacity : 7.6 m3 (Cylinder is Maroon in colour)
2. Pressure Regulators
– Working pressure of oxygen : 0.7 & 2.8 kg/cm2
– Working pressure of acetylene 0.07 & 1.03 kg/cm 2          
– Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valves or control valves
7. Flash back arrestors
8. Googgles
9. Welding gloves
10. Spark lighter
11. Wire brush
 FLAME CHARACTERISTICS
• By varying the ratio of oxygen and acetylene, three types of flames
can be obtained,
– (a) Neutral flame
– (b) Carburizing, or reducing flame
– (c) Oxidizing flame
(a) Neutral flame: (Most desirable flame used in oxy-acetylene weld)
- Obtained by supplying equal quantity of oxygen and acetylene
- Two zones: 1. Sharp bright inner cone
2. Bluish outer cone
Reaction of inner cone:
- Inner cone develops heat to melt metal
- Max temp obtained at inner cone about 32000C
- C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2
Reaction of outer cone:
- Outer cone protects the molten metal from oxidation
- 2CO + O2 2C O2
- H2 + 1/2O2 H2 O
Uses:
For welding steel, CI, Cu, Al etc..
(b) Carburizing or reducing flame:
- Obtained by supplying more acetylene than oxygen
Three Zones:
1. Sharp inner cone
2. White intermediate cone called feather cone
3. Bluish outer cone
Theoretical Mixture:
O2 : C2H2 = 0.85 to 0.95
Uses:
For welding High Carbon Steel, HSS, Cemented Carbides, Alloy steels, Non – Ferrous
materials etc..
(c) Oxidizing flame:
- Obtained by supplying more oxygen than acetylene
Two Zones:
1. Smaller inner cone
2. Outer cone
Theoretical Mixture:
O2 : C2H2 = 1.15 to 1.5
Uses:
For welding Brass , Bronze and non- ferrous alloys such as copper and zinc base
alloys
 GAS WELDING TECHNIQUE

Leftward or forward welding Rightward or backward welding

• It is suitable for welding MS • It is suitable for welding thick
plates up to 5 mm thickness sections(Greater than 5 mm
and for welding CI and Non- thickness)
Ferrous metals.
FILLER RODS or WELDING RODS
• It is to supply additional metal
to make the joint.
• It is metal rod made of same
material as parent metal.
• Relation ship, d = t/2 + 1
Where d = filler rod dia
t = thickness of metal to be
welded
• Filler rods are coated with
copper to prevent oxidation of
the molten metal.
FLUX
• A flux is a material used to
prevent, dissolve or facilitate
removal of oxides or other
undesirable substances.
• It may be used either by
applying it directly on to the
surface of the base metal to be
welded or by dipping the
heated end of the filler rod in
it.
 GAS WELDING
ADVANTAGES
1. Temp of flame can be easily
controlled
2. The amount of filler metal
deposits can be easily
controlled.
3. The flame can be used for
welding and cutting
4. All types of metals can be
welded
5. The cost of equipment is less
6. It can be used in the factory
or in the field
7. Maintenance cost of gas
welding equipment is less
LIMITATIONS
1. It is not suitable for joining
thick plates
2. It is a slow process
3. Strength of weld is not so
good as arc welding
4. Handling and storing of gas
cylinders need more care
5. Gas flames takes up a longer
time to heat up the metal than
an electric arc.
 ARC WELDING
• In arc welding , the heat is
developed by an electric arc.
• The arc is produced between
an electrode and the work.
• Arc welding is the process of
joining two metal pieces by
melting their edges by an
electric arc.
• Temp of Arc is 5000 to6000 0C ,
hot enough to melt any metal.
• Most AW processes add filler
metal to increase volume and
strength of weld joint
Arc WeldingEquipments:
 A welding generator (D.C.) or
Transformer (A.C.)
 Two cables- one for work and one
for electrode
 Electrode holder
 Electrode
 Protective shield
 Gloves
 Wire brush
 Chipping hammer
 Goggles
 
 ARC WELDING

Advantages Limitations

1. Most efficient way to join 1. Manually applied, therefore

metals high labour cost.
2. Lowest-cost joining 2. Need high energy causing
method danger
3. Affords lighter weight 3. Not convenient for
through better utilization disassembly.
 of materials 4. Defects are hard to detect at
4. Joins all commercial joints.
metals
5. Provides design flexibility
 ELECTRODE TYPES

WELDING
ELECTRODES

NON – Consumable Consumable

(Refractory) Metallic

Carbon or Bare electrodes Lighted Coated

Tungsten
Graphite
electrodes
electrodes

Heavily Coated
 CARBON ARC WELDING

 Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a welding process, in which heat is

generated by an electric arc struck between an carbon electrode and
the work piece. The arc heats and melts the work pieces edges,
forming a joint.

Carbon arc welding is the oldest welding process.

If required, filler rod may be used in Carbon Arc Welding. End of the
rod is held in the arc zone. The molten rod material is supplied to the
weld pool.

Shields (neutral gas, flux) may be used for weld pool protection
depending on type of welded metal. 
 Electrodes (Non- Consuming) which are used consists of baked
carbon or pure graphite which is placed in a copper jacket.
 However the electrodes need to be replaced due to erosion.
 Carbon electrode- 150 mm long, 5 mm to 12.5 mm in size.
 Temp ranges – 30000C to 50000C
 DC power supply is used.
 The carbon electrode is connected to –ve terminal and w/p is
connected to +ve terminal because +ve terminal is hotter than the –ve
terminal when arc is produced.
 Types of Carbon arc welding techniques
a. Single-carbon electrode welding:
 Here, arc is formed between a carbon electrode and the work
piece being welded.
 The technique of single-carbon arc welding uses a DC power
supply which is connected using a straight polarity i.e., electrode
is connected to –ve terminal and w/p is connected to +ve
terminal.
b. Twin-carbon electrode welding:
 Here, arc is formed between two carbon electrodes.
 Work piece is not a part of welding electric circuit in Twin-
carbon electrode welding, therefore the welding torch may be
moved from one work piece to other without extinguishing
the arc
Advantages of Carbon Arc Welding: 

 Low cost of equipment and welding operation.

 High level of operator skill is not required.
 The process is easily automated.
 Low distortion of work piece.

Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding: 

 Unstable quality of the weld (porosity).

 Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material with carbides.

Applications:
 Used to weld both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 Sheets of steel, copper alloys, brass and aluminium can be welded
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW) or Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) or Stick Welding
 50% of all industrial welding and maintenance welding are
performed by this process.
 It uses a metallic consumable electrode of a proper composition for
generating arc between itself and the parent work piece. The molten
electrode metal fills the weld gap and joins the work pieces.
 This is the most popular welding process capable to produce a great
variety of welds.
 The electrodes are coated with a shielding flux of a suitable
composition. The flux melts together with the electrode metallic
core, forming a gas and a slag, shielding the arc and the weld pool.
The flux cleans the metal surface, supplies some alloying elements
to the weld, protects the molten metal from oxidation and stabilizes
the arc.
 The slag is removed after Solidification.
 Temp of arc – 50000C to 60000C
 The depth to which metal is melted and deposited is called depth of fusion.
 The molten metal is forced out of the weld pool by the electric arc. Hence a small
depression is formed in the parent metal where the molten metal is piled up is known
as Arc Crater.
 The distance between the tip of the electrode and bottom of the arc crater is called Arc
length.
Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
 Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment;
 Wide variety of metals, welding positions and electrodes are applicable;
 Suitable for outdoor applications.
Disadvantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
 The process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes;
 Weld may contain slag inclusions;
 Fumes make difficult the process control.
Applications:
 It is often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, Cast iron
and ductile iron.
 Less popular for welding non ferrous materials, it can be used for nickel, copper and
their alloys.
 In rare cases, it is used for aluminium.
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) or SUB ARC
WELDING or HIDDEN ARC WELDING
 In this welding, the complete welding setup is dipped in the flux
powder and hence it is named as Submerged Arc Welding.
 Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, with arc
shielding by a cover of granular flux
 Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil  
 Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by gravity from a
hopper
 Completely submerges operation, preventing sparks, spatter, and
radiation
Advantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): 
 Very high quality welds are produced.
 It is very fast method
 The process is suitable for automation.
 High quality weld structure

Disadvantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): 

 Weld may contain slag inclusions;
 Limited applications of the process - mostly for welding horizontally
located plates.

Applications:
 For welding carbon steels and alloy steels, chromium steels and austentic
chromium nickel steels (Except Hi- C steels)
 Used in heavy steel plate fabrication work.
 Used in pressure vessels, boilers, tanks, nuclear reactors, chemical vessels,
fabrication of trusses and beams, etc.
 Tungsten Inert Gas(TIG) WELDING or Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

 Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) is

a welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc
struck between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and the work
piece.
 Melting point of tungsten = 3410°C (6170°F)
 The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (Argon, helium, Nitrogen)
protecting the molten metal from atmospheric contamination.
 The heat produced by the arc melts the work pieces edges and joins
them. Filler rod may be used, if required.
 Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding produces a high quality weld of
most of metals. Flux is not used in the process.
Advantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW): 
 Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal.
 High quality weld structure.
 Slag removal is not required (no slag).
 Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal due to concentration of heat in small
zone.
 Used for both ferrous and non-ferrous metal

Disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW): 

 Low welding rate.
 It is generally restricted to flat and horizontal welding.
 Relatively expensive.
 Requires high level of operators skill.
 Tungsten if transfer to molten weld pool can contaminate the same. Tungsten
inclusion is hard and brittle.

Applications:
 Aluminium, magnesium, copper alloys can be welded easily. Inconel, carbon steels
and stainless steels can be welded.
 Can sealing, instrument diaphragms and transistor cases can be welded very
effectively.
 Atomic energy, aircraft, chemical and instrument industries use this welding process.
 Metal Inert Gas(MIG) Welding or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

 Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc Welding) is a arc

welding process, in which the weld is shielded by an external gas
(Argon, helium, CO2, Argon + Oxygen or other gas mixtures).
 Consumable electrode wire, having chemical composition similar to
that of the parent material, is continuously fed from a spool to
the arc zone.
 The arc heats and melts both the work pieces edges and the
electrode wire. The fused electrode material is supplied to the
surfaces of the work pieces, fills the weld pool and forms joint.
 Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode) the process
is referred to as a semi-automatic. The operator controls only the
torch positioning and speed. 
 Either DC generator or Ac generator is used for MIG welding. A
constant DC power source is most commonly used. Current ranges
from 100A to 400A depending upon the dia of the wire.
Advantages:
 No flux is required and hence there is no slag to remove.
 High welding speed.
 It produces high quality weld.
 The process is cheaper.
Disadvantages:
 It cannot be used in the vertical or overhead welding positions.
 Outdoor welding is not easy.
 It needs more maintenance.
Applications:
 The process is used for welding thick plates.
 Used for welding Al, SS, nickel and magnesium without weld
defects.
 PLASMA ARC WELDING
 Plasma Arc Welding is the welding process utilizing heat generated by a
constricted arc struck between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and
either the work piece (transferred arc process) or water cooled constricting
nozzle (non-transferred arc process).

 Plasma is a gaseous mixture of positive ions, electrons and neutral gas

molecules.

Transferred arc process produces plasma jet of high energy density and may be
used for high speed welding and cutting of Ceramics, steels, Aluminium
alloys, Copper alloys, Titanium alloys, Nickel alloys. 

Non-transferred arc process produces plasma of relatively low energy density.

It is used for welding of various metals and for plasma spraying (coating).
Since the work piece in non-transferred plasma arc welding is not a part of
electric circuit, the plasma arc torch may move from one work piece to other
without extinguishing the arc.
The base metals welded by plasma arc welding are as follows,
– SS, Titanium alloys, Carbon and low alloy steels, Copper alloys, nickel
alloys and aluminium alloys.
Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):
 Arc stability is good.
 High welding rate.
 High penetrating capability (keyhole effect).

Disadvantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

 Expensive equipment.
 Ultraviolet radiation can affect human body.
 High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input (in
transferred arc process)

Applications:
 It is used in aerospace applications.
 It is used for tube mill applications.
 ELECTROSLAG WELDING (ESW)
 Electroslag welding is a highly productive, single pass welding process for
thick materials in a vertical or close to vertical position.

 Electroslag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is generated by

an electric current passing between the consumable electrode (filler metal)
and the work piece through a molten slag covering the weld surface.

 Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled with a
welding flux.
 Electroslag Welding is initiated by an arc between the electrode and the
work piece (or starting plate). Heat, generated by the arc, melts the fluxing
powder and forms molten slag. The slag, having low electric conductivity,
is maintained in liquid state due to heat produced by the electric current.

 The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500°F (1930°C). This temperature

is sufficient for melting the consumable electrode and work piece edges.
Metal droplets fall to the weld pool and join the work pieces.

 Electroslag Welding is used mainly for steels.

The quality of weld in electroslag welding depends on,
 The ratio of width of the weld pool and its maximum depth known as form factor.
 Weld current and voltage.
 Slag depth.
 Number of electrodes and their spacing etc.
Weld with thickness ranging from 50 mm to more than 900 mm.
Advantages of Electroslag Welding:
 High deposition rate - up to 20 kg/h
 Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight)
 Low distortion
 Unlimited thickness of work piece

Disadvantages of Electroslag welding:

 Coarse grain structure of the weld
 Low toughness of the weld
 Only vertical position is possible
 It is difficult to weld cylindrical objects.

Applications:
 It is used mainly to join low carbon steel plates and sections are very thick.
 Forgings and castings are welded.
 Heavy plates can be welded.
 Used for welding large structural sections such as heavy machinery,
bridges, ships and nuclear reactor vessels.
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