MODULE 2

PRAVEEN VIJAYAN
Asst Professor
SOE CUSAT

1
Module II
 Welding :-Introduction, weldability, types of welding-
Gas welding, Arc welding - submerged arc, TIG, MIG.
Resistance welding, Solid state welding, Electron beam
welding, Laser beam welding. Oxygen cutting. Heat
affected zones, Weld defects, Inspection of welded
joints.

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 WELDING
Is defined as –

a metal working process in which two similar or

dissimilar metal pieces are joined together by heating them
to molten state,

and allowing the molten metal to coalesce by

solidification on cooling,
to form a firm joint.

The welding may be done with or without –

the application of pressure,

the application of filler wire.

JOINING PROCESSES GAS WELDING 3
WELDING
 Heat is supplied either electrically or by gas torch.
 Most essential requirement is heat.
 Pressure may or may not be used.
 Filler material may or may not be used.
 Flux is used to resist oxidation and to remove
impurities.
 Thus, “Welding is the process of joining similar or
dissimilar metals by the application of Heat, with
or without the application of pressure and
addition of Filler Material”.
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WELDABILITY
 It is the capacity of being welded into inseparable
joints. Weldability depends on:
 Melting Point of the metal.
 Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal Expansion
 Surface Condition.
 Microstructure

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Classification Of Welding
Welding of metals can be divided into two categories.
 1. Plastic Welding (Deformation)
 2. Fusion (Diffusion) Welding.

 Plastic Welding
 In this type of welding the metals to be joined are to be
heated to the plastic state and then forced together by
external pressure without the addition of filler material.
Eg. Forge Welding, resistance welding.

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 Fusion Welding

 In this type of welding no pressure is involved but a very

high temperature is produced in or near the joint.
 The metal at the joint is heated to the molten state and
allowed to solidify.
 The heat may be generated by electric arc, combustion
of gases or chemical action. A filler material may be
used during the welding process.

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TYPES OF WELDING
 Gas Welding
 Oxy-Acetylene Welding
 Air-Acetylene Welding
 Oxy-hydrogen Welding
 Arc Welding
 Carbon Arc Welding
 Plasma Arc Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding
 Metal Arc Welding
 Electro-Slag Welding
 Flux Cored Arc Welding
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)
 Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG)
 Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding
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TYPES OF WELDING (CONTD.)
 Resistance Welding
 Butt Welding
 Projection Welding
 Spot Welding
 Percussion Welding
 Seam Welding
 Thermite Welding
 Solid State Welding
 Friction Welding
 Explosive Welding
 Ultrasonic Welding
 Diffusion Welding
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TYPES OF WELDING (CONTD..)
 Newer Welding
 Electron Beam Welding
 Laser Welding
 Related Process
 Arc Cutting
 Oxy-acetylene Cutting
 Hard Pressing
 Brazing
 Soldering

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Advantages Of Welding
 It produces a permanent joint.
 Overall cost of welding equipment is low.
 Large number of metals can be welded.
 Welding operation can be mechanized.
 Welding operation is economical.
 High corrosion resistance compared to bolting and
riveting.

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Disadvantages Of Welding
 Welding operation distorts workpieces.
 Skilled labour needed
 Weld joints require heat treatment
 Produces chemical and physical changes.
 Gives off harmful radiations.

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APPLICATIONS
 Aircraft construction
 Automobile Construction
 Bridges
 Buildings
 Pressure vessels and tanks
 Storage tanks
 Rail Road Equipments
 Piping and Pipelines
 Ships
 Machine tool
 Household
 Heavy machineries
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METALLURGY OF WELD
 During Welding process the metals to be joined are
heated over a range of temperatures and is followed by
cooling to ambient temperatures.
 Peak temperature will be at the weld area resulting in
complex mixture of microstructures especially in steel.
 Welding also produces internal stresses and plastic
strain in the vicinity of the weld.
 If the welding atmosphere is also not proper, certain
chemical changes also takes place.
 Thus, welding brings about thermal, structural and
chemical changes takes place during welding.
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METALLURGY OF WELD
 The heat affected zone is wide with gas welding than
arc welding because heat is concentrated for longer
time in gas welding.
 The weld metal, at the molten state has a good
capacity of dissolving gases which comes in contact
with it such as oxygen, nitrogen.
 As the molten metal cools, this capacity decreases and
makes impossible for the gases to escape freely. This
causes gas pockets and pores in the weld.

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METALLURGY OF WELD
 During welding 3 zones are formed:
 Fusion zone
 Heat Affected Unmelted Zone (HAUZ) or Heat Affected
Zone.
 Unaffected original base metal

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 GAS WELDING
 Gas Welding is a Fusion-Welding process.

 It joins metals using the heat of combustion of an

oxygen/air and fuel gas. (acetylene, hydrogen, propane
or butane).

 Temperature produced ranges from 2600 C to 3300C.

 The intense heat produced melts and fuses together

the edges of parts to be welded, generally with the
addition of Filler material.

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Advantages Of Gas Welding
 Oxy-Fuel gas can be easily controlled.

 Suitable for thin sheets.

 Equipment is portable.

 It can weld most common materials.

 By changing the nozzle the torch can be use for heating, and
cutting purposes.

 Cost is low.

 Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the

metal in the weld zone.
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Disadvantages Of Gas Welding
 Heavy sections cannot be joined.
 Flame temperature is less than that of arc.
 Refractory metals (eg. Tungsten, molybdenum,
tantalum etc) and reactive metals (eg. Titanium and
zirconium) cannot be gas welded.
 Fluxes used produce fumes that are irritating to eyes,
nose and lungs.
 Slower than Arc Welding Process.
 Distortion to the work piece is more compared to Arc
Welding process.
 Careful handling and storing is required.
 Equipment is expensive.
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Types Of Gas Welding

 Oxy-Acetylene Welding

 Air-Acetylene Welding

 Oxy-Hydrogen Welding

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32
OXY- ACETYLENE WELDING

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 Principle
 When Acetylene gas is mixed with oxygen in correct
proportions in the welding torch and ignited, the flame
resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt and
join the parent metal.
 The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature about 3200 C
which is sufficient to melt all commercial metals.
 A pool of metals to be joined which upon solidification forms
a bond.
 Filler Metals are additional metal added to the weld.
 The composition of Filler Rod is same or nearly the same as
that of the part being welded.
 Filler metal (Welding Rod) added increases the strength of
the bond formed.
 Flux is added to remove the impurities and oxides formed
during welding operation.
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Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment

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Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment
 Acetylene Cylinder
 Used for storing Acetylene

 Oxygen Cylinder
 Used for storing Oxygen

 Oxygen and Acetylene pressure Regulators

 The pressure of the gases obtained from the cylinders is
considerably higher than the gas pressure required to
carry out the welding operation. The purpose of
regulators is to
 Reduce the pressures of gases
 To produce steady flow of gases.

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Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment
 Welding Rods
 Used as Filler Metal
 Flux
 Used for removing impurities and oxides.
 Welding Torch or Blow Pipe
 Oxygen and the fuel gas are mixed in the welding torch.
 Welding Torch controls the flow of gases to the welding
nozzle.
 There are two types of Welding Torches.
 They are :-
 High Pressure (or Equal Pressure) Type :
 Low Pressure (or Injector) Type
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FILLER MATERIAL
• Filler Metals are additional metal added to the weld.
• The composition of Filler Rod is same or nearly the
same as that of the part being welded.
• Filler metal (Welding Rod) added increases the
strength of the bond formed as additional metal is
melted and allowed to solidify.
• Filler metal is usually available in the rod form.

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 Flux
 During Welding, if the metal is heated/melted in air,
oxygen from air combines with the metal to form oxides
which result in poor quality, low strength welds.

 The flux metal is fusible and is non-metallic.

 Fluxes are available as powders, pastes or liquids.

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Flux
 Flux chemically reacts with the oxides and a slag is
formed. Slag floats over the molten metal which is
later removed.

 Flux also act as a cover preventing oxygen and other

gases to enter the molten pool.

 After welding slag is removed by chipping, filling or

grinding.

 Composition of Flux : Borates, potassium Chloride,

Lithium Chloride, Borax etc.
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Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment
 High Pressure (or Equal Pressure) Type
 In this type Oxygen and Acetylene are fed to the mixing
chamber at equal pressures.
 Are used with acetylene cylinders having pressure of 8 bar.

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Requirement of a good Flux
 Should have a lower melting point than the base
metal.
 Should protect the weld from surroundings.
 Should not cause corrosive action to the weld.
 Should help the formation of slag.

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Types of flames
 Neutral Flame (Acetylene and Oxygen in equal
proportion)

 Oxidizing Flame (Excess of Oxygen)

 Reducing Flame or Carburizing Flame(Excess of

Acetylene)

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Types of flames

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Neutral flame
 Neutral Flame is produced when equal volumes of
oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch
and burnt at the torch tip.
 Oxygen to Acetylene ratio is 1.1 to 1.
 The Temperature of the flame is of the order about
3260C.
 The flame has defined inner cone which is light blue
in color.
 It is surrounded by an outer flame envelop which is
darker blue than the inner cone.
 Neutral flame is used for the cutting of Mild Steel,
Stainless Steel, Cast iron, Copper, Aluminum etc.
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Types of flames

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OXIDIZING FLAME
 Oxidizing Flame is produced when excess of oxygen and
acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the
torch tip.
 Oxygen to Acetylene ratio is 1.5 to 1.
 Oxidizing flame burns with a loud roar.
 The Temperature of the flame is of the order about 3482 C.
High temperature is due to presence of excess of oxygen.
 The flame has an inner cone pointed and darker blue in
color than in neutral flame.
 Outer Cone is usually darker blue in color and is shorter.
 Oxidizing flame is used for the cutting of Mild Steel, Brass,
Stainless Steel, Cast iron, Copper etc.
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Types of flames

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 REDUCING FLAME
 Reducing Flame is produced when oxygen supplied is
reduced.
 The Temperature of the flame is of the order about 3037 C.
 Reducing Flame is recognized by Acetylene Feather having
pale green color existing between the inner cone and the outer
cone.
 The flame has an inner cone which is dark blue in color.
 It is surrounded by an outer flame envelop. Outer flame is
longer than that of neutral flame and is much brighter in
color.
 Envelop is usually darker blue in color.
 Reducing Flame is used for the cutting of Mild Steel, Stainless
Steel, Cast iron etc.
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REDUCING FLAME
 Carburizing flame has more acetylene than Reducing
Flame.

 Carburizing flame is used for welding lead and for

surface hardening purposes.

 Reducing Flame ensures the absence of oxidation.

 This flame is used for welding of low alloy steels and

high carbon steels.

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54
WELDING TECHNIQUES
 Depending upon which welding rod and the welding
torch may be used, there are two usual techniques in
Gas Welding, namely :

 Leftward Techniques or Forehand Welding method

 Rightward Technique or Backhand Welding method

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 LEFTWARD TECHNIQUE

 In this method, the welding torch is held in right hand and

filler rod in the left hand.
 The welding torch is directed towards the un-welded part
of the joint.
 Filler rod is directed towards the welded part of the joint.
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LEFTWARD TECHNIQUE
 Welding begins from the right side of the joint and
proceeds towards the left side.
 Since the flame is pointed in the direction of welding, it
preheats the joint to be welded.
 Good control and neat appearance are the features of
Leftward Method.
 Leftward Technique is used to weld thin metals, usually
metals having thickness below 6mm.
 Filler metal consumed is more in Leftward Technique.
 Oxide formation is more in Leftward technique.

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RIGHTWARD TECHNIQUE

 In this method also, the welding torch is held in right hand

and filler rod in the left hand.
 The welding torch is directed towards the completed weld
and the filler metal remains between the flame and the
completed weld section.
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 RIGHTWARD TECHNIQUE
 During welding, the filler rod is moved in circles or
semi circles.
 Welding begins from the left side of the joint and
proceeds towards the right side.
 Since the flame is pointed to the welding joint, thicker
or heavier base metals can be welded.
 Rightward Technique is used to weld thick metals,
usually metals having thickness above 6 mm.
 Filler metal consumed is less in Rightward Technique.
 Oxide formation is less in Rightward technique.

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AIR- ACETYLENE WELDING
 In Air-Acetylene, acetylene gas is mixed with air in correct
proportions in the welding torch and ignited, the flame
resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt
and join the parent metal.
 Air required for combustion is drawn directly from the
atmosphere.
 Common fuels used in air-fuel welding are acetylene,
propane, natural gas and butane.

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OXY-ACETYLENE GAS CUTTING

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Oxy-Acetylene Gas Cutting
 Make use of a special torch for mixing acetylene and
oxygen is used.
 Metal is melted by the flame of the oxy fuel gas torch
and blown away by oxygen to form a gap or kerf.
 When ferrous metal is cut, actually burning of iron
takes place according to one or more of the following
reactions.
Fe + O → FeO + Q

3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3O4 + Q

4Fe + 3O2→ 2Fe2O3 + Q

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 ARC WELDING
 Arc welding is one of the most widely used Fusion process
for joining metals and alloys.
 In this the surface to be joined are fused by the heat
produced from an electric arc.
 Electric Arc is provided by A.C. or D.C power source.
 A metal electrode is used for obtaining an arc between the
metal parts to be joined and electrode.
 The electrode is allowed to touch the joint faces of the metal
parts to be joined and is quickly removed to create a gap
(2mm to 4mm) such that current continues to flow through
a path of ionized particles called plasma.
 An electric arc is produced due to this and which may
generate a temperature up to 6000 to 7000°C at the center of
the arc depending up on the electrode.
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 Intense heat so produced melts the faces of the prepared
joint forming a pool of molten metal.
 In most of the cases the electrode is also melted and is
transferred across the arc to the molten metal pool.
 The arc is maintained by uniformly moving the electrode
towards the work piece and hence keeping a constant gap
between the electrode and work piece.
 The blast of Arc forces the molten metal out of the pool
around forming a depression in the parent metal, around
which there is molten metal. This is known as Arc Crater.
 Generally electrodes are coated with a slagging or fluxing
materials. This provide a gas shield around the arc and also
covers the weld metal with a protective slag coating which
prevents the oxidation of weld metal.

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ARC WELDING MACHINE
Parameter A.C Welding Supply D.C Welding Supply
Efficiency High, compared to D.C Low
Prime Cost Low High
Both bare and coated
Electrodes Only Coated Electrodes
electrodes.
Maintenance Less More

Stability of arc Unstable Stable

Different Voltages can be
Voltage Supply Fixed Voltage Supply
obtained
Has rotating parts to convert
Rotating Parts No rotating parts
A.C to D.C
Magnetization
No Yes
of work-piece
Polarity Cannot be changed Can be changed.

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 ELECTRODES
 Non-consumable Electrodes:
 May be made of carbon, tungsten or graphite which do
not consume during welding operation.
 Consumable Electrodes
 Are consumed during welding operation. May be made
of various metals depending upon the purpose and
chemical composition of the metals to be welded.
 Metal Arc welding make use of coated electrode.
 Commonly used core wire materials are : mild steel, low
alloy steel, nickel steel etc.

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 ELECTRODES
 Consumable Electrodes may be classified into:
 Bare Electrodes: Molten metal is exposed to oxygen and
nitrogen in the atmosphere and so undesirable oxides and
other substances formed decreases the strength of the weld
formed.
 Coated Electrodes: Coated electrodes (Flux Coated) are
used to prevent the formation of oxidizes and helps to form
slag. Due to Flux coating the molten metal is not exposed
to atmosphere. Commonly used fluxes are asbestos, mica,
silica etc. Coated Electrodes are again classified into
 Lightly Coated Electrodes : Thin coating of Flux.
 Heavily Coated Electrodes : Thick coating of Flux.
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 POLARITY
 With the use of a.c, the heat generated at each the pole is
same. So changing over the connections to the electrode
does not have any effect on its performance as polarity
changes with each cycle.
 But polarity on d.c has a great effect on its performance.
 About 66% of heat generated is at the positive terminal
while rest of the total heat is generated at the negative
terminal.
 If the work-piece is thick as more heat generation is
required at the work-piece, the work-piece is connected to
positive terminal and electrode to negative terminal.
 If the work-piece is thin as less heat generation is required
at the work-piece, the work-piece is connected to negative
terminal and electrode to positive terminal.
 So with d.c for welding thin materials, work is made as
negative and for welding heavy material electrode is made
as negative.
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CLASSIFICATION OF POLARITY
 Straight Polarity : In Straight Polarity, electrode is
connected to negative terminal and work-piece to
positive terminal.

 Reverse Polarity : In Reverse Polarity, electrode is

connected to positive terminal and work-piece to
negative terminal.

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Carbon-Arc Welding

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Carbon-Arc Welding
 Weld is produced by heating the work-piece with an
arc setup between the carbon electrode and the work-
piece.
 A rod of carbon is used as negative electrode and work
being welded as positive.
 The arc produced between these two electrodes heats
the metal to the melting temperature (about 3200° C).
 In Carbon Arc Welding D.C is used to prevent
electrode disintegration and the amount of carbon
deposit at the weld metal.

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Carbon-Arc Welding
APPLICATIONS

 Welding of Sheet Steel, Copper Alloys, brass , bronze

and aluminum.

 On many applications, Carbon Arc Welding has been

replaced by TIG Welding.

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Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding /
Shielded metal arc welding(SMAW)

82
Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding /
Shielded metal arc welding(SMAW)
 Weld is produced by heating the work-piece with an arc
setup between the flux coated electrode and the work-
piece.
 A consumable metallic electrode, coated with a
shielding flux of suitable composition.
 Steel when exposed to air forms oxides and nitrides.
These impurities weaken the weld.
 To prevent this, molten metal is shielded by enveloping
it completely with an inert gas or flux.

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Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding /
Shielded metal arc welding(SMAW)
 A metal rod is used as negative electrode and work
being welded as positive.

 Arc melts the electrode and the job.

 The arc produced between these two electrodes heats

the metal to the melting temperature (about 2400-
2600° C).

 Both A.C and D.C can be used.

84
Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding / Shielded
metal arc welding(SMAW)
Advantages
 Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding is the simplest of all the
arc welding process.
 Equipment is portable.
 Big range of metals and alloys can be welded.

Disadvantages
 Mechanization is difficult due to the limited length of
electrode.
 Process is slow.
 Metal transfer is not clear.
85
Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding / Shielded
metal arc welding(SMAW)
Applications
 Used for fabrication work and maintenance work.
 All commonly employed metals and alloys can be
welded.

86
Metal-Inert-Gas Welding (MIG) or
Gas- Metal- ARC WELDING (GMA)

Note:(Electrode and work will

be connected to a power supply
unit, which is not in this fig.)

87
 Drive rolls

Job to be
welded

Inert gas
cylinder
Welding gun

Wire reel Welding power

source
88
Metal-Inert-Gas Welding (MIG) or
Gas- Metal- ARC WELDING (GMA)
EQUIPMENT
1. Welding power source and cables.
2. Welding torch and wire electrode coiled on a spool.
3. Wire feed mechanism and controls consisting of a
pair of driving rolls, electric motor.
4. Shielding gas cylinder, pressure regulator and flow
meter.
5. Controls for switching on and off the current,
electrode wire and inert gas.

89
Metal-Inert-Gas Welding (MIG) or
Gas- Metal- ARC WELDING (GMA)
 In MIG welding, joint is made by the high heat produced
by the electric arc set up between the consumable electrode
and material to be welded.
 Gas Metal Arc Welding is a shielded metal arc process.
 The electrode is continuously fed through a gun.
 The current ranges from 100 to 400 A depending upon the
diameter of the wire.
 The speed of melting of the wire may be up to 5m/min.
 Usually constant voltage D.C machine is used for MIG
Welding.
 Welding Gun is either water cooled or air cooled.
 Welding wire is often bare. (No flux is used).
 CO2, argon or argon helium mixtures are often used as
shielding gases.
 Shielding is done to prevent contamination of weld. 90
Principle of operation
 Before igniting the arc, gas and water flow is checked.
 Proper current and wire feed speed is set and the
electrical connections are ensured.
 Electrode is made to touch the job, is retracted and
then moved forward to carry out Welding; but before
striking the arc, shielding gas, water and current is
switched on.
 About 15 mm length of the electrode is projected from
the torch before striking the arc.
 During welding, torch remains about 10-12 mm away
from the job and arc length is kept between 1.5 to 4
mm.
91
 Metal-Inert-Gas Welding (MIG) or
Gas- Metal- ARC WELDING (GMA)
 ADVANTAGES:
 Does not require much skill.
 Continuous welding at high
speeds can be carried out.
 Deeper penetration is
possible.
 Process can be mechanized.
 Thick and thin sections can
be welded easily.
 Large metal deposition rates
can be obtained.
 No flux is used.
 Faster compared to TIG and
Metal Arc Welding.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Welding Equipment is much
complex.
• Difficult to weld small corners.
• Slightly complex than TIG.
• APPLICATIONS :
• Used for welding of carbon,
silicon and low alloy steels,
stainless steels, aluminum,
magnesium, copper, nickel.
• Used for manufacture of
refrigerator parts.
• Used in industries like aircraft,
automobile, pressure vessel and
ship building.
92
Gas-Tungsten-Arc Welding(GTAW) or
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)

Note:(Electrode and work will

be connected to a power supply
unit, which is not in the fig.)

93
TIG/GTAW WELDING
Gas valve and flow regulator

Torch handle

Welding
Power
source

Inert gas supply

94
TIG Torch & Electrode

95
Features Of TIG Welding
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is a shielded metal arc process.
 Joint is made by the high heat produced by the electric arc
between the non-consumable tungsten electrode and
material to be welded.
 Tungsten Electrode is used only to generate an arc.
 Filler metal may be or may not be used.
 Shielding is obtained by an inert gas such as helium or
argon or mixture of two.
 Shielding is done to prevent contamination of weld.
 Usually A.C machine is used for TIG Welding (for
nonferrous alloys) except for ferrous alloys DC is used.
 End of the welding gun is water cooled.
96
Principle of operation
 Welding current and inert gas supply are turned on.
 The arc is struck either by touching the electrode with
a scrap metal tungsten piece or using a high frequency
unit.
 In the first method arc is initially struck on a scrap
metal piece (or a tungsten piece) and then broken by
increasing the arc length.
 This procedure repeated twice or thrice warms up the
tungsten electrode.
 The arc is then struck between the electrode and pre
cleaned job to be welded.
97
Principle of operation
 This method avoids breaking electrode tip, job
contamination and tungsten loss.
 In the second method, a high frequency current is
super-imposed on the welding current.
 The welding torch (holding the electrode) is brought
nearer to the job.
 When electrode tip reaches within a distance of 3 to 2
mm from the job, a spark jumps across the air gap
between the electrode and the job.
 The air path gets ionized and arc is established.

98
Principle of operation
 After striking the arc, it is allowed to impinge on the
job and a molten weld pool is created.
 The welding is started by moving the torch along the
joint as in oxyacetylene welding.
 At the far end of the job, arc is broken by increasing
the arc length.
 The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the weld
pool for a few seconds even after the arc is
extinguished.
 This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the weld
metal.
99
 Inert gas
1. Argon
2. Helium
3. Argon – Helium mixtures
4. Argon – Oxygen mixtures
5. Argon – Hydrogen mixtures

100
TIG welding

101
Quality Of TIG Welds

102
ADVANTAGES
 More different types of metals can be welded such as
carbon steel, nickel steel, aluminum, brass, bronze,
titanium.

 Unlike metals can be welded to each other like mild steel,

stainless steel, brass to copper.

 Heat affected zone is very low.

 No flux is used.

 Clear visibility of arc.

 Smooth welds can be obtained.

103
 Disadvantages
1. Under similar applications, MIG welding is a much faster
process as compared to TIG welding, since TIG welding
requires a separate filler rod.

2. Tungsten if it transfers to molten weld pool can

contaminate the same. Tungsten inclusion is hard and
brittle.

3. Filler rod end if it by chance comes out of the inert gas

shield can cause weld metal contamination.

4. Equipment costs are higher than that for flux shielded

metal arc welding.
104
 Applications
1. Welding aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel and
their alloys, carbon, alloy or stainless steels, inconel,
high temperature and hard surfacing alloys like
zirconium, titanium etc.

2. Welding sheet metal and thinner sections.

3. Precision welding in atomic energy, aircraft,

chemical and Instrument industries.

4. Rocket motor chamber fabrications in launch

vehicles.
105
 Difference Between TIG & MIG
Sl.No TIG Welding MIG Welding
1. TIG uses non-consumable tungsten Uses continuous coil electrode of same
electrode. chemical composition as the material
being welded.

2. TIG welding electrode serves the MIG welding electrode serves the
purpose of producing the arc only. purpose of producing the arc as well as
filler metal.
3. TIG is not fast as MIG. MIG is fast.
4. Skilled labor is required. Not required.
5. If filler metal is engaged, operators Electrode and gas come through same
both hands are engaged. gun.
6. TIG is water cooled. No cooling required.
7. TIG is not used for welding plates It is best suited for plates having
thicker than 6mm. thickness more than 6mm.
8. Penetration is not so deep. Deeper penetration can be obtained.

106
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) OR
Hidden Arc Welding Or Subarc Welding

121
122
Definition
 Submerged Arc Welding is an arc welding process in
which coalescence (joint) is produced by heating the
work-piece with an arc setup between a bare metal
electrode and the work-piece.
 In Submerged Arc Welding, the arc, end of electrode
and molten pool is submerged under a layer of
granular material (flux) and so the arc is invisible.
 The continuously fed bare metal electrode melts and
acts as filler rod.
 No pressure is applied.

123
 Principle
 In SAW instead of flux covered electrode, granular flux and a
bare electrode is used.
 The arc is submerged under a layer of Flux and is invisible.
 Flux is fed through a Flux Hopper.
 The upper portion of flux is in contact with the atmosphere.
 The Flux may be made of silica, metal oxides or other
compounds.
 Bare electrode (Steel stainless steel or copper etc) is fed
through the gun.
 Normally DC is employed for Submerged Welding, but AC is
also used.
 SAW is an automatic process for the production of high quality
welds.
124
Saw Gun

F
M

125
 ADVANTAGES
 Faster when automated.
 Deep penetration and high quality weld is possible.
 Less distortion.
 Operator can work without safety equipment.
 Wire electrodes are inexpensive.
 No sparks.
 Practically no edge preparation is necessary.
 Smooth welds can be obtained.

126
DISADVANTAGES
 Since the operator cannot see the welding being carried
out, he cannot judge accurately the progress of welding.
 Can’t be used for plates less thickness.
 Slag has to be removed continuously.
 Can’t be used for welding cast iron due to high heat input.
 Cast iron, Al alloys, Mg Alloys, Pb and Zn cannot be welded
by this process.

127
 PLASTIC WELDING
RESISTANCE WELDING
 Resistance welding is a Plastic Welding process.

 In this, coalescence is produced by the heat obtained

from the resistance of the work to the flow of electric
current and by the application of pressure.

 No filler material is needed.

128
Fundamentals of Electric Resistance
Welding
Two factors mainly responsible for resistance welding.

1. Heat

2. Pressure

129
 Heat
 The heat, H, for electrical resistance welding is
generated by passing a large electrical current ( of the
order of 3000 to 100000 A with a low voltage between 1
to 25 V through two pieces of metal that are touching
each other.
H α I2RT
Where
H is the heat generated in joules,
I is the current
R is the resistance in ohms
T is the time of current flow through the
pieces to be welded.
130
Current
 Mainly single phase AC supply, usually 50 cycles/sec is
used.
 A single phase transformer converts the power line voltage
to a low voltage and provides the high currents needed for
welding.
 High frequency resistance welding is used applications of
continuous seam or butt seam welding.
 The frequency is 450000 cycles/sec.
 In DC systems, energy is delivered directly from the power
line and rectifier to direct current on the secondary side of
the welding transformer.
 Stored-energy systems are storage batteries,
electromagnetic type and capacitor type.

132
Resistance
 The total resistance of the system between the
electrodes consists of:
1. The resistance of the workpiece R1
2. The contact resistance between the pressure
electrodes and workpiece R2
3. The resistance between faying surface of the two
metal pieces to be welded together R3

 In order to obtain a sound weld and to avoid

overheating of the welding, electrode R1 and R2 should
be kept as low as possible with respect to R3.
133
Time
 Four definite periods of timings during the welding
cycle.
1. Squeeze time
2. Weld time
3. Hold time
4. Off time

134
Welding Cycle

squeeze weld Hold

Off
Pressure

Current

Time

135
Squeeze time
 It is the time between the initial application of the electrode
pressure on the work and initial application of current to make
the weld.
 During this period the upper electrode comes in contact with
the work piece and develops full electrode force.
 At the end of squeeze time the welding current is applied.

Weld time
 During this period the welding current flows through the
circuit, i.e., it enters from one electrode, passes through the
work pieces and goes out from the second electrode.

136
Hold time
 It is the time during which force acts at the point of
welding after the last impulse of welding current cease.
 The electrode pressure is maintained until the metal
has somewhat cooled.

Off time
 It is the interval from the end of the hold time to the
beginning of the squeeze time for the next cycle.

137
 Pressure
 Pressure exerted on the work pieces by the welding
electrodes does the following;
1. It brings the various interfaces into intimate contact
and thus affects the contact resistance between the
two work pieces.
2. It ensures the completion of the electrical circuit
between the electrodes and through the work.
3. It permits the weld to be made at lower temperature.
4. It provides a forging action and thus reduces weld
porosity.

138
Other functions of electrodes
 They carry the current which passes through and
generates heat at the place where two workpiece are in
pressed contact.

 Depending upon the area of the electrodes face or tip,

they determine the current density in the weld zone.

 They dissipate the heat from the weld zone and thus
prevent surface fusion of the work.

140
Variables in resistance welding
1. Current
2. Electrode pressure
3. Welding time
4. Human element
5. Welding machine characteristics
6. Type and condition of machines
7. Condition of electrodes and arms
8. Condition of the material and surfaces of material

141
 Advantages
1. Fast rate of production.

2. No filler rod is needed.

3. Semi-automatic equipments.

4. Less-skilled workers can do the job.

5. Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.

6. High reliability and reproducibility are obtained.

7. Elimination of warping or distortion of parts.

142
Disadvantages
1. The initial cost of equipment is high.

2. Skilled persons are needed for the maintenance of

equipment and its control.

3. In some materials, special surface preparation is

required.

4. Bigger job thickness cannot be welded.

143
Applications
1. Joining sheets, bars, rods and tubes.

2. Making tubes and metal furniture.

3. Welding aircraft and automobile parts.

4. Making cutting tools.

5. Making fuel tanks of cars, tractors etc.

6. Making wire fabric, grids, grills, mesh weld, containers

etc.
144
Variants of resistance welding.

 Resistance spot welding.

 Resistance seam welding.
 Projection welding.
 High frequency resistance welding.
 Resistance butt welding, resistance flash welding.
 Percussion welding.
 Stud welding.

145
Resistance Spot welding
 Spot welding is a resistance welding process in which
overlapping sheets are joined by local fusion at one or
more spots by the heat generated by resistance to the
flow of electric current through work pieces that are
held together under force by two electrodes, one above
and the other below the two overlapping sheets.

146
Stages in making a spot weld
Squeeze Off
Weld Hold

Pressure On Current Off Pressure

Applied
released
147
Steps in Spot welding
 Before spot welding the following things are ensured
1. The job is clean, i.e., free from grease, dirt, paint, scale,
oxide etc.
2. Electrode tip surface is clean, since it has to conduct the
current into work with as little loss as possible. Very fine
emery cloth may be used for routine cleaning.
3. Water is running through the electrode in order to
a. Avoid them from getting overheated and thus damaged
b. Cool the weld
4. Proper welding current has been set on the current
selector switch.
5. Proper time has been set on the weld-timer.
148
149
Advantages
1. Low cost.

2. High speed of welding.

3. Less skilled worker will do.

4. More general elimination of warping or distortion.

5. High uniformity of products.

6. Operation may be automatic or semi-automatic.

7. No edge preparation is needed.

150
 Applications
 Automobile and aircraft industries.

 Gas tight or liquid tight joint can be made.

 Up to 12.5 mm plates can be welded.

151
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

152
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
 Electrodes are replaced with rotating wheels or rollers.

 Continuous AC power supplied to the continuously

rotating rollers / wheels when sufficiently high level
current is reached.

 Spot weld formed.

 These spots overlap into a continuous seam – liquid and

gas tight joint is formed – Continuously Overlapping Seam
weld.

153
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING

154
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING
 Small projections are made on one side of the sheet ( work
piece), using a punch and die.

 These projections may have different sizes and shapes (

depending on use).

 These projections mate with the flat surface of the other

work piece.

 Intense, localised heat produced at these projections when

the welding circuit is switched on.

155
RESISTANCE BUTT WELDING

158
RESISTANCE BUTT WELDING
 Bar stocks are usually welded by this method.
 The materials to be joined are clamped such that their ends
are in contact with each other.
 Apply pressure.
 Pass current ( 300-800 amps)- due to resistance , the
mating ends get heated up.
 Maintain the temperature.
 Apply more pressure.
 Upsetting takes place.
 Switch off the current.
 Continue to apply pressure.
159
SOLID STATE WELDING
 A solid state welding process produces joints at
temperatures essentially below the melting point of
the base metals being joined, without the addition of
filler metal.
 Pressure is always applied.
 Solid State Welding includes :
 Friction Welding
 Ultrasonic Welding
 Explosive Welding

164
 Solid-State Welding Processes State Welding Processes
• Joining p takes place without fusion at the
interface
• No liquid or molten phase is present at the joint
• Two surfaces brought together under pressure
• For strong bond, both surfaces must be clean: –
No oxide films – No residues – No metalworking
fluids No metalworking fluids – No adsorbed
layers of gas – No other contaminants……

165
EXPLOSIVE WELDING

DE

166
 PRINCIPLE
 Explosive Welding is a Solid State process, wherein
coalescence is produced by the high velocity movement
of the metal produced by controlled detonation.
 Basically the explosive welding involves a high velocity
impact between a plate(called as flyer-which is to be
welded to the parent metal) forced towards a stationary
plate (parent plate) by the explosive charge.
 During the First World War it was observed that
fragments of the steel shells of bombs occasionally
struck the metallic objects in the vicinity of the
explosion. This is an example of Explosive Welding.

167
PRINCIPLE
 The energy derived from the explosion forces the
metals together.
 A buffer plate which is made of rubber or cardboard is
placed above the Flyer Plate to protect the top surface
of Flyer Plate from detonation of Explosive charge.
 Above the buffer is a layer of explosive which is to be
detonated from the lower edge.
 The parent plate is placed on an anvil.
 As the explosive is ignited, the Flyer under high
velocity and pressure strikes the parent plate forming
the joint.

168
EXPLOSIVE WELDING
 Advantages :
 Large surfaces can be welded.
 Disadvantages :
 Operation is noisy.
 This process is dangerous and should be performed by
experts.
 Applications :
 Used for cladding.
 Dissimilar metals can be joined.
 Pipes and tubes up to 1.5m length can be clad.
 Used in production of chemical process vessels, electrical
industry, ship building industry etc.
 This process has been successfully used to weld steel to steel,
aluminum to aluminum, copper to steel etc.
169
FRICTION WELDING
 Friction welding is a solid state joining process
that produces coalescence by the heat developed
between two surfaces by mechanically induced
surface motion ( sliding motion between rubbing
surfaces). ( Changing mechanical energy to heat
energy)

 Temperatures developed in friction welding are

below the M.Pt. of the metals being joined, but
high enough to create plastic flow and
intermolecular bonding.

170
FRW

171
 FRICTION WELDING (FRW) involves two
axially aligned parts.

 While one part is rotated, the other stationary

part is advanced to make pressure contact.

 Axial force then increases to generate the

frictional heat necessary for welding at the
abutting surfaces in order to form a solid-state
joint.
172
ULTRASONIC WELDING
 The two work pieces are held in between the anvil and sonotrode
( a coupling system and welding tip) .

 The work piece on the anvil is held stationary while the other part
is moved to and fro due to the vibrating effect of the sonotrode.

 This movement disperses the oxide layer in between the work

pieces. Metal – to- metal contact is possible.

 Ultrasonic vibrations, 10–20 kHz, combined with the static

clamping force induce dynamic shear stresses in the work pieces.
Local plastic deformation of the joint occurs at the interface.

 The atoms of the workpieces are diffused from one part to the
other. When vibration is stopped a pure metallurgical bond is
obtained.

173
174
 Forge Welding
 Forge welding is a solid-state welding process.

 It joins two pieces of metal by heating them to a

high temperature and then hammering them
together.

 The process is one of the simplest methods of

joining metals and has been used since ancient
times.

175
Newer techniques in welding
 Two new welding techniques are discussed;
 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

176
 LASER BEAM WELDING
Electrical input
Capacitor bank
Laser beam
Cooling system
Focusing lens

Mirror
Job

Concentrated
Laser beam
Xenon flash tube Ruby crystal
Mirror surface
(pumping source)

177
 LASER BEAM WELDING
 Laser beam welding is defined as a welding process wherein
coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from the
application of a concentrated coherent light beam
impinging upon the surface to be jointed.
 All lights consists of wave. In common light, these waves are
incoherent and of varied lengths and frequencies that shoot
off in numerous directions.
 Laser beam is coherent light i.e., the waves are identical and
parallel.
 The laser is a device for concentrating light waves into
narrowly defined highly intense beam that can impart
tremendous energy on a small area to produce fusion for
welding.

178
Equipment
 Laser welding consists of :
1. A man-made cylindrical ruby crystal.
 Ruby is aluminium oxide with chromium dispersed
throughout it.

 The ends of the crystal are silvered to form mirrors

internally, while one end has a tiny hole in the silver
layer, through which the laser beam emerges.

179
2. Around the outside of the crystal is placed flash tube
containing inert gas xenon.
The flash tube is designed for operation of a rate of
1000 of flashes per seconds.
Flash tube converts electrical energy into light energy.

3. The capacitor bank stores electrical energy. It is

charged by a high voltage power supply. It energizes
the flash tube by an appropriate triggering systems.

180
Principle and operation
 When flash tube subjected to electrical discharge from
the capacitors, xenon transforms a high proportion of
the electrical energy into white light flashes.
 The flash has a duration of about 1/1000 second.
 As the ruby is exposed to the intense light flashes, the
chromium atoms of the crystal are excited and
pumped to a high energy level.
 These chromium atoms immediately drop to an
intermediate energy level with the evolution of heat,
and eventually drop back to their original state with
evolution of a discrete quantity of radiation in the
form of red fluorescent light.
181
 As red light emitted by one atom hits another excited
atom, the second atom gives off red light which is in
phase with the colliding red light wave.
 i.e, the red light from the first atom is amplified
because more red light exactly like it is produced.
 The effect is enhanced because the parallel ends of
ruby rod are mirrored so that the red light that is
produced reflects back and forth along the length of
the crystal.

182
 The chain reaction collisions between waves of
fluorescent red light and chromium atoms become so
numerous that finally, the total energy bursts over a
threshold and escapes from the small hole in the
mirror at one end of the ruby crystal as the laser beam.
 This narrow laser beam is focused by an optical
focusing lens to produce a small intense spot of laser
on the job.
 Optical energy as it impacts the workpiece is
converted into heat energy.

183
Forms of laser
 Ruby
 Gas
 Liquid
 semiconductor

184
 Advantages
1. Welds can be made inside transparent glass or plastic
housings.
2. A wide variety of materials can be welded, including
some formerly considered as unweldable combinations.
3. As no electrode is used, electrode contamination or
high electric current effects are eliminated.
4. Areas not readily accessible can also be welded.
5. It permits welding of small, closely spaced components
with weld as small as a few microns in diameter.

185
Advantages
6. Unlike electron beam welding it operates in air, no
vacuum is required.
7. It is possible to weld heat-treated alloys without
affecting their heat-treated condition.
8. Because it is light, it can be focused to microscopic
dimensions and directed with great accuracy.
9. Because it is light, it is clean no vaporized metal or
electrodes dirty up the delicate assemblies.

186
Disadvantages
1. Speed is slow (25 to 250mm/min) as compared to
other processes.

2. It is limited to depths of approximately 1.5mm and

additional energy only tends to create gas voids and
undercuts in the work.

3. Materials such as magnesium tend to vaporize and

produce severe surface voids.

187
Applications
1. It is used to weld and cut the metals.
2. For connecting leads on small electronic components
and in integrated circuitry in the electronic industry.
3. To weld wires having polyurethane insulation
without removing the insulation. The laser
evaporates the insulation and complete the weld.
4. To join high hard melting point metal alloys.
5. In space and aircraft industry for welding light
materials.
6. It is used for micro welding purposes.
188
Electron beam welding

189
Electron beam welding
 Electron beam welding is defined as a fusion welding
process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat
obtained from a concentrated beam composed
primarily of high velocity electrons.

 As the high velocity electrons strike the surface to be

joined, their kinetic energy changes to thermal energy
thereby causing the workpiece metal to melt and fuse.

190
Equipment
1. An electron beam gun with a high voltage power
supply and controls (from 5 to 150 kv).

2. A vacuum pumping system.

3. Mechanical tooling i.e, fixtures, drivers and motor

controls.

4. A beam alignment system, including optics, scanner

and tracker.

191
 WORKING
 Electron beam gun consists of
 Tungsten filament
 Cathode (control) electrode
 Anode
 Focusing coil
 When tungsten filament is electrically heated in vacuum
to approximately 20000C, it emits electrons.
 The electrons emitted from the heated filament carry a
negative charge, are repelled by the cathode electrode and
are made to pass through the central hole of the anode.

192
WORKING
 The electrons are not free flowing but are instead greatly
accelerated by the tremendous difference of potential,
voltage between the cathode and anode.
 The electron beam is then focused by means of an
electromagnetic focusing coil (lens).
 The focusing coil concentrates or spreads the electron beam
to the user’s needs.
 The diameter of beam is 0.75 to 3 mm and when it strikes
the workpiece, the kinetic energy is changed to thermal
energy and that is enough to melt the materials to be
welded.
 It have a power density of about 106 W/in2, which is
sufficient to vaporize any metal.
193
Operation
 Hard vacuum
 Partial vacuum
 Atmosphere

 Hard vacuum: Electron beam gun and workpiece are

enclosed in the same vacuum chamber. The pressure
in the chamber is of the order of 10-4 torr.

194
Operation
Partial vacuum:
 In this beam gun and workpiece are contained in
separate chambers.
 The gun chamber is pumped to 0.1 μ (micron), but the
work chamber is pumped only to a vacuum 5 to 100 μ.
 An orifice permits electron beam to pass from gun
chamber to work chamber but at the same time limits
leakage from the work chamber to the gun chamber.

195
Operation
Atmospheric welding:
 In this case the workpiece is placed outside the
vacuum chamber.
 The electron beam leaves the high-vacuum
environment of the gun and passes into the
atmosphere through orifice.
 Such a welding system contain high-capacity vacuum
pumps to take care of the leakage through the orifice.

196
 Advantages
1. Welds produced are of high quality and can be made at high
speeds.
2. The fusion zone are extremely narrow.
3. As the energy input is in a narrow concentrated beam,
distortion is almost eliminated.
4. The hard vacuum makes it possible to weld such highly
reactive vacuum-melted materials as titanium, zirconium, etc
5. Up to 6mm plates without edge preparation can be done.
6. Surface cleaning is done before weld, no cleaning up after the
weld is needed.
7. Precise control is possible. Welds can be made between
components in remote locations.
197
Disadvantages
1. Initial cost of the equipment is high and portable
equipment is rare.

2. Time and equipment is required to create vacuum

every time a new job is to be welded.

3. Precautions are needed to prevent damage from x-

rays.

4. Workpiece size is limited by the work chamber

dimensions.
198
 Applications
1. For welding reactive and refractory metals used in the atomic
energy and rocketry fields.
2. For welding other common similar and dissimilar metal
combinations. (e.g, invar (64Fe-36Ni), stainless steel, inconel,
titanium and copper, etc).
3. For welding automobile, airplane, aerospace, farm and other
types of equipment, where especially low distortion desired.
4. It is used to weld where high quality, large scale, automatic
welding operations are required.
5. Materials ranging from thin foils to 50 mm in thickness can
be joined by this process.
6. It is used to assemble conventional production parts such as
cams, gear clusters and driven shafts.

199
Defects, distortions..
 Welded joints may have some defects and/or welding
can cause distortion of work.
 These can result in the rejection of the weld joints,
affect service life …

200
 WELDING DISTORTION
 Distortions in weldments takes place by three-
dimensional changes that occur during welding:
 Longitudinal shrinkage that occurs parallel to the weld
line.

 Transverse shrinkage that occurs perpendicular to the

weld line.

 Angular change that consists of rotation around the

weld line.

201
WELDING DISTORTION

202
WELDING DEFECTS
1. Lack Of Penetration : Failure of the filler metal to
penetrate into the joint.

 Caused by
 Incorrect edge preparation
 Incorrect welding technique

203
WELDING DEFECTS
2. Lack Of Fusion : Failure of the filer metal to fuse
with the parent metal.

 Causes :
 Insufficient heat
 Incorrect welding technique

204
WELDING DEFECTS
3. Porosity: Group of small holes through out the weld
metal.

 Causes :
 Chemicals in the metal
 Too rapid cooling of the weld.

4. Slag Inclusion : Entrapment of slag or other

impurities in the weld.
205
WELDING DEFECTS
5. Undercut : Groves or slots along the edges of weld.

 Causes :
 Incorrect welding technique
6. Overlays : Metal that has flowed on the parent metal
without fusing with it.
 Causes :
 Insufficient heat
 Incorrect welding technique
206
WELDING DEFECTS
7. Cracking : Formation of cracks either in the weld
metal or parent metal.

 Causes :
 Incorrect welding technique

207
WELDING DEFECTS
8. Blow Holes : Large holes in the weld.

 Causes :
 Gas being trapped
 Faster cooling rate
208
WELDING DEFECTS
9. Burn Through : Collapse of the weld.
 Causes :
 Poor edge preparation
 Too much heat.

10. Excessive Penetration : Excessive penetration of

filler metal.
 Causes :
 Too much heat.

209
Inspection of weld defects
 Destructive tests ( Tensile test (in UTM), bend test,
hardness test (eg: Brinell hardness test) etc.)
 Non destructive tests. (NDT)

210
Non destructive tests
 Visual inspection
 Radiographic methods ( X-ray, Gama ray inspections..)
 Ultrasonic method
 Magnetic methods
 Electrical methods
 Other methods like acoustic emission

211
 ALL THE BEST!
“‎The successful warrior is the average man, with laser-
like focus.”

― Bruce Lee

212