TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS

• Ligaments and tendons are soft collagenous tissues. Ligaments connect bone
to bone and tendons connect muscles to bone. Ligaments and tendons play a
significant role in musculoskeletal biomechanics.
•  Ligaments and tendons have a hierarchical structure that affects their
mechanical behavior. In addition, ligaments and tendons can adapt to
changes in their mechanical environment due to injury, disease or exercise.
• The largest structure in the above schematic is the tendon (shown) or
the ligament itself. The ligament or tendon then is split into smaller
entities called fascicles.
• The fascicle contains the basic fibril of the ligament or tendon, and
the fibroblasts, which are the biological cells that produce the
ligament or tendon.
• There is a structural characteristic at this level that plays a significant
role in the mechanics of ligaments and tendons: the crimp of the
fibril. The crimp is the waviness of the fibril. contributes significantly
to the nonlinear stress strain relationship for ligaments and tendons
• TENDONS
• Anatomy:
           1. Tendons contain collagen fibrils (Type I)
           2. Tendons contain a proteoglycan matrix.  
3. Tendons contain fibroblasts(biological cells) that are arranged in parallel row.
• Basic Functions:
            1. Tendons carry tensile forces from muscle to bone
            2. They carry compressive forces when wrapped around bone.
• LIGAMENTS
• Anatomy
           1.Similar to tendon to hierarchical structure.
2.Collagen fibers are slightly less in volume fraction and organization than
tendon.
3. Higher percentage of proteoglycan matrix than tendon
           4. Fibroblasts
 FASCIA
• A fascia is a layer of fibrous tissue. A fascia is a structure of
connective tissue that surrounds muscles, groups of muscles, blood
vessels, and nerves, binding some structures together, while
permitting others to slide smoothly over each other. Various kinds of
fascia may be distinguished.
• Like ligaments and tendons, fasciae are dense regular connective
tissues, containing closely packed bundles of collagen fibers oriented
in a wavy pattern parallel to the direction of pull. Fasciae are
consequently flexible structures able to resist great unidirectional
tension forces until the wavy pattern of fibers has been straightened
out by the pulling force. These collagen fibers are produced by the
fibroblasts located within the fascia.
• Fasciae are similar to ligaments and tendons as they are all made
of collagen except that ligaments join one bone to another bone,
tendons join muscle to bone and fasciae surround muscles or other
structures.
 BONES

• Bones have many functions. They support the body structurally,

protect our vital organs, and allow us to move. Also, they provide
an environment for bone marrow, where the blood cells are
created, and they act as a storage area for minerals,
particularly calcium.
• Bones are mostly made of the protein collagen, which forms a soft
framework. The mineral calcium phosphate hardens this
framework, giving it strength.
• Bones have an internal structure similar to a honeycomb, which
makes them rigid yet relatively light.
Bones are composed of two types of tissue:
1. Compact (cortical) bone: A hard outer layer that is dense,
strong, and durable. It makes up around 80 percent of adult bone
mass.
2. Cancellous (trabecular or spongy) bone: This consists of a
network of trabeculae or rod-like structures. It is lighter, less
dense, and more flexible than compact bone.
 BONE CELLS

• Bones are not a static tissue but need to be constantly maintained

and remodeled. There are three main cell types involved in this
process.
• Osteoblasts: These are responsible for making new bone and
repairing older bone. Osteoblasts produce a protein mixture called
osteoid, which is mineralized and becomes bone. They also
manufacture hormones, including prostaglandins.
• Osteocytes: These are inactive osteoblasts that have become
trapped in the bone that they have created. They maintain
connections to other osteocytes and osteoblasts. They are important
for communication within bone tissue.
• Osteoclasts: These are large cells with more than one nucleus.
Their job is to break down bone. They release enzymes and acids
to dissolve minerals in bone and digest them. This process is called
resorption. Osteoclasts help remodel injured bones and create
pathways for nerves and blood vessels to travel through.
 What do bones do?

• Bones serve several vital functions:

• Mechanical
• Bones provide a frame to support the body. Muscles, tendons, and
ligaments attach to bones. Without anchoring to bones, muscles
could not move the body.
• Some bones protect the body's internal organs. For instance, the
skull protects the brain, and the ribs protect the heart and lungs.
• Synthesizing
• Cancellous bone produces red blood cells, platelets, and white blood
cells. Also, defective and old red blood cells are destroyed in bone
marrow.
• Storing minerals: Bones act as a reserve for minerals, particularly
calcium and phosphorous.
• They also store some growth factors, such as insulin-like growth
factor.
• Fat storage: Fatty acids can be stored in the bone marrow adipose
tissue.
• pH balance: Bones can release or absorb alkaline salts, helping
blood to stay at the right pH level.
• Detoxification: Bones can absorb heavy metals and other toxic
elements from the blood.
• Endocrine function: Bones release hormones that act on the
kidneys and influence blood sugar regulation and fat deposition.
• Calcium balance: Bones can raise or reduce calcium in the blood
by forming bone, or breaking it down in a process called
resorption.
 Types of bone

• There are five types of bones in the human body:

• Long bones: These are mostly compacted bone with little marrow and
include most of the bones in the limbs. These bones tend to support
weight and help movement.
• Short bones: Only a thin layer of compact bone, these include bones of
the wrist and ankle.
• Flat bones: Usually bones that are thin and curved. They consist of two
outer layers of compact bone and an inner layer of spongy bone. Flat
bones include most of the bones of the skull and the sternum or
breastbone. They tend to have a protective role.
• Sesamoid bones: These are embedded in tendons, such as the patella or
kneecap. They protect tendons from wear and stress.
• Irregular bones: As their name implies, these are bones that do
not fit into the first four categories and are an unusual shape.
They include the bones of the spine and pelvis. They are often
protecting organs or tissues.
• Bones of the skeleton are split into two groups:
• Appendicular skeleton — bones of the limbs, shoulders, and
pelvic girdle.
• Axial skeleton — bones of the skull, vertebral column, thoracic
cage.