Histology part 1: module2, unit 2

Cartilage
 Learning objectives

• Be able to describe/recognise the three major cartilage types

(hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage) and know where each type
is found in the body.
 Cartilage
• Cartilage is a special form of CT that also develops from the mesenchyme.

• In keeping with connective tissues, cartilage consists of cells and extracellular

matrix composed of connective tissue fibers and ground substance but unlike
CT, it is avascular and receives its nutrition via diffusion through the
extracellular matrix.

• The extracellular matrix, is made up of about 10% aggrecan, 75% water and a
mix of collagen fibres and other constituents.

• Cartilage exhibits tensile strength, provides firm structural support for soft
tissues, allows flexibility without distortion, and is resilient to compression.

• Cartilage consists mainly of cells called chondrocytes and chondroblasts that

synthesize the extensive extracellular matrix.
 Functions of Cartilage
• To form the supporting framework of some organs, such as the walls of
airways (nose, trachea, larynx and bronchi), where it prevents airway
collapse.

• To form the articulating surfaces of bones, and

• To form the template for the growth and development of long bones, and
most of the rest of the fetal skeleton (gradually replaced by bone).

• In children, the cartilaginous plates at the ends of long bones can be seen
on X-rays; disappear when adults reach their full height.
Cells of Cartilage
The extracellular matrix of cartilage is secreted by chondroblasts, which are
found in the outer covering layer of cartilage. As the chondroblasts secrete
matrix and fibres, they become trapped inside it, and mature into cells called
chondrocytes.
In growing cartilage, the chondrocytes can divide, and the daughter cells
remain close together in groups, forming a 'nest' of 2-4 cells. The matrix-
enclosed compartments that they sit in are called lacunae (lacunae = little
lakes/small pits).
• The active chondrocytes are large
secretory cells with basophilic
cytoplasm because they have lots of
rough endoplasmic reticulum. Older
chondrocytes contain fat droplets.
• The surface of most cartilage is
covered by a layer of dense irregular
connective tissue called the A. perichondrium: B. hyaline cartilage
perichondrium (peri = around).
• The outer layer of the
perichondrium contains collagen
producing fibroblasts, and the inner
layer contains chondroblasts.
 Growth and nourishment of cartilage
Cartilage is nourished by long range diffusion from nearby capillaries in the
perichondrium. Therefore, cartilage can never become very thick, as
diffusion would not be sufficient to supply the cartilage with nutrients and
oxygen.
Cartilage can grow in two ways:
• Interstitial growth - chondrocytes grow, divide and lay down more matrix
inside the existing cartilage. This mainly happens during childhood and
adolescence.
• Appositional growth - new surface layers of matrix are added to the pre-
existing matrix by new chondroblasts from the perichondrium.
There are three different types of cartilage; elastic (A), hyaline (B), and fibrous (C).
In elastic cartilage the cells are closer together creating less intercellular space.
Elastic cartilage is found in the external ear flaps and in parts of the larynx.

Hyaline cartilage has less cells than elastic cartilage, there is more intercellular space
Hyaline cartilage is found in the nose, ears, trachea, parts of the larynx, and smaller
respiratory tubes.

Fibrous cartilage has the least amount of cells so it has the most amount of
intercellular space. Fibrous cartilage is found in the spine and the menisci.
Elastic Cartilage
Elastic cartilage has the firmness and resiliency of hyaline cartilage as well as
flexibility and elasticity. It is found in jointless organs that frequently encounter
bending or folding.
In the adult human, elastic cartilage is found in:
• the pinna of the ear, the external auditory canal, Eustachian tubes, epiglottis

Important histological characteristics:

• Elastic cartilage has less matrix than hyaline cartilage
• Contains a large quantity of branching elastic fibers of various
thicknesses.
Elastic Cartilage
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Hyaline Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of cartilage in the man.
It is widely distributed in the human fetus, where it serves as a model for the
development of most bones. Most of the fetal hyaline cartilage is replaced by
bone, but some persists in the adult.

The sites where hyaline cartilage is found in the adult are:

• the upper respiratory tract (nose, larynx, trachea, and bronchi), where cartilage
is used to prevent the upper airway from collapsing during inhalation,
• the articulating surfaces of bones,
• the epiphyseal plates of bones,
• rib termini (costal cartilages).
Hyaline cartilage
• Dominant component of
extracellular matrix is collagen.
• Bluish-white in life
• Translucent
• Important in formation and
growth of long bones
• In adult, mainly found lining
outer wall of respiratory
system and on surfaces of bone
joints where it is called
Articular cartilage.
• Undergoes calcification in
bone formation and also as
part of aging process.
Fibrocartilage consists of a mixture of white fibrous tissue and
cartilaginous tissue in various proportions. It owes its flexibility and toughness
to the former of these constituents, and its elasticity to the latter.

• It is the only type of cartilage that contains type I collagen in addition to the
normal type II.

• Fibrocartilage is found in the pubic symphysis, the anulus fibrosus of

intervertebral discs, menisci and the TMJ.

• Also present at the tendon bone interface, where there is a transition from
soft tendon to uncalcified then calcified fibrocartilage before becoming
bone.
 Bone tissue
• Bone tissue, or osseous tissue, is the major structural and supportive
connective tissue of the body.

• Forms the rigid part of the bones that make up the skeleton.

• Bone tissue is different from bones themselves — bones are organs made
up of bone tissue as well as marrow, blood vessels, epithelium and nerves,
while bone tissue refers specifically to the bone mineral matrix that forms
the rigid sections of the organ, and the bone cells within it.
 Bone-Functions

• Support - bones make up a structural framework for the body, and provide
attachment sites for muscles.

• Protection - protection of internal organs - i.e. brain, heart and lungs,

• Assisting movement.

• Mineral homeostasis - the bone is a store for calcium and phosphorus

• Blood cell production - takes place in the bone marrow.

 Types of bone tissue
There are two types of bone tissue:
• Cortical bone(compact bone) and
• Cancellous bone (trabecular and spongy bone).
• Cortical bone forms the extremely hard exterior while cancellous bone fills
the hollow interior.
• The tissues are biologically identical; the difference is in how the
microstructure is arranged.
• Cortical bone consists of a
repeating structure called an
osteon or Haversian system,
which is the primary
anatomical and functional
unit.

• Each osteon has concentric

lamellae (layers) of
mineralized matrix, which are
deposited around a central
canal, known as the Haversian
canal, each containing a blood
and nerve supply.
• Compact bone is found in the shafts of long
bones (in the diaphyses). This makes up 80%
of all bone.
• Spongy (cancellous) bone is found at the ends
of long bones (in the epiphysis). This makes up
20% of all bone. It is very porous, contains red
bone marrow and a network of bony
trabeculae.
• The periosteum is found on the outside of the
bone. It is a dense fibrous layer on which
muscles insert. It contains bone-forming cells.
• Periosteum is absent in the region of bone
covered by articular cartilage.
• Endosteum lines the inner surfaces of bones.
 Bone tissue formation
• Bone tissue is a mineralized connective tissue.

• Formed by cells, called osteoblasts, that deposit a matrix of type-I collagen

and release calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions that ultimately
combine chemically within the collagenous matrix into a crystalline mineral,
known as bone mineral, in the form of carbonated hydroxyapatite.

• Bone also contain osteoclasts, a kind of cell that breaks down bone; this
function is critical in the maintenance, repair, and remodeling of bones

• Bone is harder and stronger than cartilage without being brittle due to the
combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen it contains.

• Bone development begins in the embryo by two distinct processes:

endochondral ossification and intramembranous ossification.

• These two methods, though different, produce bone with the same
histologic features.
 Growth and nourishment of bone
Unlike cartilage, bone has a very good blood supply; riddled with capillaries.
The central cavity of bone contains blood vessels and is a storage for bone
marrow. All of the osteocytes within bone are within 0.2mm of a capillary and
so have express access to nutrition.

Bone growth
Bone is a replacement tissue, which uses a model tissue as template on which
its mineral matrix is laid down. The most common template is cartilage.
There are two ways in which bone can form and grow:
• Endochondral ossification and
• Intramembranous ossification
Endochondral bone formation : This is when bone develops by
replacing hyaline cartilage(cartilage does not become bone but
serves as a template to be completely replaced by new bone).
• Endochondral ossification takes much longer than
intramembranous ossification.
• Examples of bones form by endochondral ossification are bones
at the base of the skull and long bones
The stage of endochondral ossification.
Endochondral ossification follows five
steps.
(a) Mesenchymal cells differentiate
into chondrocytes.

(b) The cartilage model of the future

bony skeleton and the
perichondrium form.

(c) Capillaries penetrate cartilage.

Perichondrium transforms into
periosteum. Periosteal collar
develops. Primary ossification
center develops.

(d) Cartilage and chondrocytes

continue to grow at ends of the
bone.

(e) Secondary ossification centers

develop.

(f) Cartilage remains at epiphyseal

(growth) plate and at joint surface
as articular cartilage
Intramembranous - formation of bone directly onto fibrous connective
tissue without an intermediate cartilage stage.
This type of ossification occurs in a few specialized places such as the
flat bones of the skull (i.e. parietal bone), mandible, maxilla, and
clavicles.

Mesenchyme cells differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells, which

become osteoblasts that secrete the bone matrix.

Osteoblasts which are embedded in the bone matrix are known as

osteocytes
Intramembranous ossification follows four steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells group into
clusters, and ossification centers form. (b) Secreted osteoid traps osteoblasts, which
then become osteocytes. (c) Trabecular matrix and periosteum form. (d) Compact bone
develops superficial to the trabecular bone, and crowded blood vessels condense into
red marrow.