1.

Define bone, cartilage, and

the skeletal system
2. List and describe the functions
of the skeletal system
The Skeletal System
Skeletal System is an organ system
composed of bones and cartilage for
movement, support, and protection.
Bone
Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense
connective tissue that forms most of the adult
skeleton, the support structure of the body. In
the areas of the skeleton where bones move
(for example, the ribcage and joints), cartilage,
a semi-rigid form of connective tissue,
provides flexibility and smooth surfaces for
movement.
Cartilage
Cartilage is a resilient and smooth 
elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers
and protects the ends of long bones at the joints
, and is a structural component of the rib cage,
the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the 
intervertebral discs, and many other body
components. It is not as hard and rigid as bone,
but it is much stiffer and much less flexible
than muscle.
The skeletal system is the body system
composed of bones and cartilage and
performs the following critical
functions for the human body:
1. Supports the body
2. Facilitates movement
3. Protects internal organs
4. Produces blood cells
5. Stores and releases minerals and fat.
 The most apparent functions of the
skeletal system are the gross functions
—those visible by observation. Simply
by looking at a person, you can see
how the bones support, facilitate
movement, and protect the human
body.
 Just as the steel beams of a building
provide a scaffold to support its
weight, the bones and cartilage of your
skeletal system compose the scaffold
that supports the rest of your body.
Without the skeletal system, you would
be a limp mass of organs, muscle, and
skin.
 Bones also facilitate movement by
serving as points of attachment for
your muscles. While some bones
only serve as a support for the
muscles, others also transmit the
forces produced when your
muscles contract.
 Unless a muscle contracts, a bone is
not going to move.
 Bones also protect internal organs
from injury by covering or surrounding
them. For example, your ribs protect
your lungs and heart, the bones of your
vertebral column (spine) protect your
spinal cord, and the bones of your
cranium (skull) protect your brain.
Mineral Storage, Energy
Storage and Hematopoiesis
 On a metabolic level, bone tissue
performs several critical functions.
For one, the bone matrix acts as a
reservoir for a number of minerals
important to the functioning of the
body, especially calcium, and
phosphorus.
These minerals, incorporated into bone
tissue, can be released back into the
bloodstream to maintain levels needed to
support physiological processes. Calcium
ions, for example, are essential for muscle
contractions and controlling the flow of
other ions involved in the transmission of
nerve impulses.
Bone also serves as a site for fat
storage and blood cell production.
The softer connective tissue that fills
the interior of most bone is referred to
as bone marrow.
There are two types of bone marrow:
1. Yellow marrow - contains adipose
tissue; the triglycerides stored in the
adipocytes of the tissue can serve as a
source of energy.
2. Red marrow - is where hematopoiesis
—the production of blood cells—takes
place. Red blood cells, white blood cells,
and platelets are all produced in the red
marrow.
The Human Skeleton is made up of 206
bones from different sizes and shapes. It
serves as the framework that holds the
whole body together.
The Bones
 The bones are the living structure
consisting of several layers. These
include thin, membranous that has a
network of nerves and blood vessels
running through it.
 Bones are made up of 35% organic
material of fibrous protein collagen that
gives the bone flexibility. The 65% of
inorganic salt and water like calcium
and phosphorus give the bones
strength.
Functions
I. The 206 bones of the human body
form a rigid framework (skeleton) to
which the softer tissue or organs of the
body are attached.
II. The vital organs are protected by the
skeletal system. The brain is protected
by the surrounding skulls, as the heart
and lungs are encased by the sternum
and the rib cage.
III. Body movement is carried out by the
interaction of the muscular and the skeletal
systems. Often grouped together as the
musculoskeletal system. Muscles are
connected to the bones by tendons while
bones are connected to another bone by
ligament. The connection between 2 bones is
called joints.
 Tendons - A tendon is a band of connective
tissue that connects muscle to bone. The
tendons and muscles work together to
control joint movement. When a muscle
contracts, it pulls on the tendon, which then
pulls the bone to cause movement.
 A tendon is tough, but flexible, band of
fibrous connective tissue. One end of the
tendon connects to muscle. The other end
the tendon connects to bone. Contraction of
the muscle pulls on the tendon, causing the
tendon to pull the bone. In this way, tendons
play an important role in muscle control of
the body.
 Ligaments
 Our bones are held together
by ligaments.
 Ligaments are bundles of
connective tissue that
connect one bone to an
adjacent bone.
 The basic building blocks of a ligament
are collagen fibers. These fibers are very
strong, flexible, and resistant to damage
from pulling or compressing stresses.
Collagen fibers are usually arranged in
parallel bundles, which help multiply the
strength of the individual fibers. The
bundles of collagen are attached to the outer
covering that surrounds all bones,
the periosteum.
 Periosteum is a very thin sheath of
connective tissue that encourages
proper bone growth and
development and delivers blood and
nutrients to the bones, and it covers
most of the bones in your body.
 Connective tissue is tissue that
helps support, connect, hold
together, or separate other
tissues.
Functions of Ligaments
1. They stabilize the joint or hold the ends
of two bones together.
2.Ensures that the bones in the joint don’t
twist too much or move too far apart and
.become dislocated.
3. Help to maintain stability in the body.
Joints
The area where two bones are
attached for the purpose of
permitting body parts to move. A
joint is usually formed of fibrous 
connective tissue and cartilage.
Joints are grouped according to their
type of motion: ball-and-socket joint;
hinge joint; condyloid joint, which
permits all forms of angular
movement except axial rotation; pivot
joint; gliding joint; or saddle joint.
Joints can move in only four ways:
1. Gliding, in which one bony
surface glides on another, without
angular or rotatory movement;
2. Angular, a movement that
occurs only between long bones,
increasing or decreasing the angle
between the bones;
3. Circumduction, which occurs in
joints composed of the head of a
bone and an articular cavity, with
the long bone describing a series of
circles and the whole forming a
cone;
4. Rotation, in which a bone moves
about a central axis without
moving from this axis. Also known
as articulation and arthrosis.
1. Fibrous joints: These joints connect the
bones of the skull together through its
serrated tips, They don’t allow movement,
The bones are fused with fibrous tissues at
these joints and by growing older, these
fibrous tissues change into bony tissues.
2. Cartilaginous joints: They are
joints that connect between the ends of
some adjacent bones, They allow a
very limited movement, They are
found between the vertebrae of
vertebral column.
3. Synovial joints: They represent
most of body joints, They are
flexible joints which bear shocks
(trauma), They allow the
movement easily, where:
 The bones which in contact with these joints
are covered with a delicate layer of a
transparent smooth cartilaginous substance
which allow the movement of bones easily
with less friction, They contain a synovial
fluid which facilitates the sliding of
cartilages that cover the tips of bones.
IV. Blood cells are produced by the marrow in
some bones. An average of 2.6 million red
blood cells is produced each second by the
bone marrow to replace those worn out and
destroyed by the liver
V. Bones serve as storage for minerals such as
calcium and phosphorus. When excess is
present in the blood, a build up will occur
within the bones. When the supply of these
minerals is low, it will be withdrawn from the
bones to replenish the supply.
1. Calcium - Calcium is very essential
in muscle contraction, building strong
bones and teeth, blood clotting, nerve
impulse, transmission, regulating
heartbeat and fluid balance within
cells.
The requirements are greatest during the period
of growth such as childhood, during pregnancy,
when breast feeding. Long term of calcium
deficiency can lead to oestoporosis in which
the bone deteriorates and there is an increased
rise of fractures. Eating a well-balanced diet
can provide all the necessary nutrients and help
prevent calcium deficiency.
2. Phosphorus - is a mineral that makes up
1% of a person's total body weight. It is
the second most abundant mineral in the
body. It is present in every cell of the
body. Most of the phosphorus in the body
is found in the bones and teeth.
The main function of
phosphorus is in the formation
of bones and teeth.
Types of Bones
The types of bones are classified
base on their form. Different types
of bones have differing shapes
related to their particular function.
 Long Bones – leg and arm bones
The long bones, longer than they are wide,
include the femur (the longest bone in the
body) as well as relatively small bones in the
fingers. Long bones are mostly located in the
appendicular skeleton and include bones in the
lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur,
metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones in the
upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna,
metacarpals, and phalanges).
 Long bones function to support the weight
of the body and facilitate movement.
Short bones are located in the wrist
and ankle joints. The carpals in the
wrist and the tarsals in the ankles are
examples of short bones.
 Short bones provide stability and
some movement.
Flat bones are found in the skull
(occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal,
and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum
and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium, ischium,
and pubis).
 The function of flat bones is to protect
internal organs such as the brain, heart,
and pelvic organs. Flat bones are
somewhat flattened, and can provide
protection, like a shield; flat bones can
also provide large areas of attachment
for muscles.
Irregular bones vary in shape and structure
and therefore do not fit into any other category
(flat, short, long, or sesamoid). They often have
a fairly complex shape, which helps protect
internal organs. For example, the vertebrae,
irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect
the spinal cord. The irregular bones of the
pelvis (pubis, ilium, and ischium) protect
organs in the pelvic cavity.
* The thigh bone or the femur is the largest and
the strongest single bone in the body, while the
smallest bone is called stirrup found in the
middle ear connected to two other small bones
called the hammer and anvil that are joined to
the eardrum which carries sound to the brain.
Divisions of the Skeletal
System
The human skeleton is divided into two parts:
 AXIAL Skeleton – consist of the bones that
form the axis of body that support and
protect the organs of the head, neck and
trunk.
1. skull
2. sternum
3. ribs
4. vertebral column
 APPENDICULAR skeleton – is composed
of the bones that anchor the appendages to
the axial skeleton.
1. upper extremities
2. lower extremities
3. shoulder girdle
4. pelvic girdle (the sacrum and coccyx are
considered part of the vertebral column)
The Axial Skeleton
Axial skeleton or the bones of the trunk and
head… The axial skeleton forms the central
axis of the body and includes the bones of the
skull, ossicles of the middle ear, hyoid bone of
the throat, vertebral column, and the thoracic
cage.
The function of the axial skeleton is to provide
support and protection for the brain, the spinal
cord, and the organs in the ventral body cavity.
It provides a surface for the attachment of
muscles that move the head, neck, and trunk,
performs respiratory movements, and stabilizes
parts of the appendicular skeleton.
The Skull
- The skull is the bony framework of the head.
It is comprised of the eight cranial and fourteen
facial bones. The cranial bones makes up the
protective frame of bones around the brain
while the facial bones make up the upper and
lower jaw and other facial structures. These
are:
 Cranial Bones
1. frontal – forms the forehead (1)
2. parietal – forms the roof and sides of the skull (2)
3. temporal – houses the ears (2)
4. occipital – forms the base of the skull and contains
the foramen magnum (1)
5. sphenoid – is considered the key bone of the skull
where all bones are connected (1)
6. ethmoid – located between the eyes that forms the
part of the nasal septum (1)
 Facial Bones
1. mandible – forms the lower jaw and the
only moveable joint in the head that provide
the chewing motion (1)
2. maxilla – forms the upper jaw (2)
3. palatine – forms the hard palate or the
roof of the mouth (2)
4. zygomatic – are the cheek bones (2)
5. lacrimal – help form the orbits or the inner
aspect of the eyes (2)
nasal – forms the bridge of the nose (2)
6. vomer – forms parts of the nasal septum (the
divider between the nostrils) (1)
7. inferior concha – bones w/c makes up the
side wall of the nasal cavity (2)
The Ribs
- The ribs are thin flat curved bones that form a
protective cage around the organs in the upper
body.

- they are 24 bones arranged in pairs that form

a kind of cage that encloses the upper body.
They give the chest a familiar shape to protect
the heart and the lungs from injuries and
shocks.
- The ribs also protects parts of the stomach,
spleen, and kidneys. During respiration, the
muscles in between the ribs lift the rib cage up
to allow the lungs to expand when you inhale.
Then the rib cage moves down again,
squeezing the air out of your lungs when you
exhale.
These bones in the ribs are divided into 3
categories namely:

a. TRUE RIBS – are the first seven pairs of

bones connected to the spine (backbone) and
directly to the breastbone or sternum by a strip
of cartilage called the costal cartilage.
b. FALSE RIBS – are the next 3 pairs of bones
directly connected to the spine at the back and
are attached to the lowest true in front.

c. FLOATING RIBS – are the last 2 sets of ribs

that has no attachment to the sternum.
The Sternum
 The sternum is a flat, dagger shaped bone
located in the middle of the chest where ribs
are connected to it by the costal cartilage.
Sternum has 3 parts:

1. manibrium or the handle

2. body or the blade
3. xiphoid process or the tip
The Vertebral Column
The Vertebral Column also called the
backbone or spinal column consist of a series
of 33 irregularly shaped bones called
vertebrae. These 33 bones are divided into five
categories depending on where they are located
in the backbone.
 CERVICAL VERTEBRAE – The first
seven vertebrae located on top of the
vertebral column. These bones form a
flexible framework of the neck and support
the head. The first cervical vertebra is called
the atlas w/c allows the head action for YES
and axis NO.
 THORACIC VERTEBRAE – are the next
twelve vertebrae form the anchor of the rib
cage. The bones of the thoracic vertebrae
are larger than the cervical vertebrae and
increases in size to the bottom.
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE – These five bones
are the largest vertebrae in the spinal column
that support most of the body’s weight and are
attached to many of the back muscles.
SACRUM – Is the triangular bone located just
below the lumbar vertebrae that consist of four
of five sacral vertebrae in a child w/c fuses into
a single bone after the age of 26. this forms the
back wall of the pelvic girdle.
COCCYX – Is also called the tail bone, consist
of 3-5 that are fused together in adult.
 The vertebral column turn into 26 movable
parts in adults. In between the vertebrae are
vertebral disc made of fibrous cartilages
that acts as shock absorbers and allow the
back to move. As the person ages, these disc
compress and shrink resulting in distinct
loss in height.
 Looking at the side, the spine forms four
curves namely: the cervical, thoracic,
lumbar, and the final curve the pelvic or the
sacral curve. These curves allows human to
stand up straight and help maintain their
balance. Any exaggeration on this curves is
a problem.
1. Kyphosis – on the thoracic curve

2. Lordosis – on the lumbar curve

3. Scoliosis – on the side curve

Appendicular Skeleton
APPENDICULAR skeleton – composed of the
bones that anchor the appendages to the axial
skeleton.
1. upper extremities
2. lower extremities
3. shoulder girdle
4. pelvic girdle (the sacrum and coccyx are
considered part of the vertebral column)
The Upper Extremities
 The upper extremity consist of the arms,
forearms and the hands
The Arm – the arm is the region between the
shoulder and the elbow. Consist of the single
long bone called the humerus. The humerus is
the longest bone in the upper extremity. The
top of the head large, smooth and rounded that
fits into the scapula of the shoulder. On the
bottom end are 2 depressions where the
humerus connects to the radius and ulna of the
forearm.
The Forearm – is the region between the
elbow and the wrist. The forearm consist of the
radius on the lateral side and the ulna on the
medial side when viewed on anatomical
position. The ulna is longer than the radius and
connected more firmly to the humerus. The
radius however contributes more to the
movements of the wrist than the ulna. When
pronation is done, the radius crosses over the
ulna.
The Hands – have 27 bones w/c consist of 3
parts:

1. Carpals or wrist – consist of 8 short bones

called carpal bones that are bounded tightly by
the ligament. These bones are arranged in 2
rows, 4 bones in each row
2. Metacarpal or the palm – consist of 4
metacarpal bones one aligned with each of the
phalanges (fingers). The base of the metacarpal
bone is connected to the carpal bone and the
head is connected to the phalanges that form
the knuckles of a clenched fist.
3. Phalanges or the fingers – consist of 14
bones called phalanges. The single bone is
called phalanx arranged in 3 rows.
Lower Extremities
 The lower extremity - composed of the
bones of the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals,
metatarsals, phalanges and patella. The
bones of the lower extremity are the
heaviest, largest and strongest bones in the
body because they bear the weight of the
entire body when a person is standing.
1. The Thigh (Femur) – the region between
the pelvis and the knee composed of a single
bone. Femur is the longest, strongest and
largest bone of the body.
2. The Leg (Tibia and Fibula) – the region
between the knee and the ankle. It is formed by
tibia(shin bone) and fibula. Tibia connects to
the femur to form the knee joint. Tibia is larger
than the fibula because it bears weight while
fibula serves as an area for muscle attachment.
3. Foot – contains 26 bones. The ankle is
composed of 7 tarsal bones, the largest of
which is the calcaneous or the heel bone. The
talus rests on the calcaneous and is connected
to the tibia that allows the ankle to flex and
extend.
 Metatarsals - The metatarsal bones, or
metatarsus are a group of five long bones in
the foot, located between the
tarsal bones and the phalanges of the toes.
 Phalanges - Like in the hand,
each toe consists of three phalanges, which
are named the proximal, middle and
distal phalanges. However, the hallux
(great toe) only has two phalanges, a
proximal and a distal one.
Shoulder Girdle
 The shoulder girdle is also called the
pectoral girdle composed of four bones: 2
clavilcles and 2 scapulae. the pectoral
girdle serves as an attachment point for
numerous muscles that allows the elbow and
the shoulder joint to move. It also provides
the connection between the upper
extremities and the axial skeleton.
 Clavicle – also known as the collar bone is a
slender S-shaped bone that connects the
upper arm to the trunk of the body and
holds the shoulder joint that allows a greater
freedom of movements. One end of the
clavicle is connected to the sternum and one
end is connected to the scapula.
 Scapula – is a large triangular, flat bone on
the back side of the rib cage commonly
called the shoulder blade. It overlays the
second through the seventh ribs and serves
as an attachment for muscles.
The Pelvic Girdle
 Also called the hip girdle composed of the
coxal bones that support the weight of the
body from the vertebral column. This basin
shaped pelvis supports the upper half of
your body and protects the soft parts and
other body systems. The coxal bone is
composed of the illium, ischium and pubis.
 The pelvic girdle in men and women differ.
In men, pelvic girdle is larger and heavier
and the iliac crest is closer together. In
women, it is more delicate and the iliac crest
is rather far apart w/c reflects the role of
women in pregnancy and giving birth.
The Joints
 Joints or articulation is the place
where two bones come together.
There are three types of joints
classified according to their
movements.
 IMMOVABLE or Synarthroses
– in this joint the bones are in a
very close contact and are
separated only by a thin layer of
fibrous connective tissue. The
sutures are the joints of the skull.
- The parietal bones are joined by the
sagittal suture. Where the parietal bones
and the frontal bone meet is the coronal
suture, the occipital and parietal is joined
by lomboidal suture, while the suture
between the parietal and the temporal is
referred to as the squamous suture.
 SLIGHTLY MOVABLE or
Amphiarthroses – this joint is
characterized by hyaline
cartilage (or fibro cartilage).
Example: the ribs that are
connected to the sternum
 FREELY MOVABLE or
Diarthroses – most of the joints
in the human body are freely
movable. There are six types:
 1. ball-and-socket – this type has a
ball shaped end that fits into a cup
shaped socket of the other bone
allowing the widest range of motion
including rotation. Example: shoulder
and hip joint.
 2. condyloid – oval shaped condyle
fits into elliptical cavity of another
allowing angular motion but not
rotation. This occurs between the
metacarpals and the phalanges, and
between the metatarsals and
phalanges.
 3. saddle – this type of joint occurs
when the touching surface of two
bones have both concave and convex
regions with the shape of the bons
complementing one another and
allowing a wide range of movement.
Example: the thumb
 4. pivot – the rounded or conical
surface of one bone fits into a ring of
one tendon allowing rotation.
Example: the joint between the axis
and the atlas of the neck.
 5. hinge – a concave projection of
one bone fits the concave depression
in another bone that allows only 2
movements, flexion and extension.
Example: knee and elbow joints
 6. gliding – flat or slightly flat bones
move against each other allowing
sliding or twisting without any circular
movement. Example: carpals and
tarsals
Types of Motion
1. Flexion
2. Extension
3. Abduction
4. Adduction
5. Circumduction
6. Rotation
7. Pronation
8. Supination
Circumduction is the movement of the limb,
hand, or fingers in a circular pattern, using the
sequential combination of flexion, adduction,
extension, and abduction motions. Adduction,
abduction, and circumduction take place at the
shoulder, hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and
metatarsophalangeal joints.
Note:

1. The bones of the spine are

vertebrae. On top of the vertebrae are
2 bones called the atlas and the axis,
that fits together to allow the head to
nod (atlas) and turn from side to side
(axis).
1. The spine can only curve gently,
if it bends any farther, it could
damage your spinal cord or the
nerve cable that carries messages to
and from the brain.
2. The spine can only curve gently,
if it bends any farther, it could
damage your spinal cord or the
nerve cable that carries messages to
and from the brain.
3. The ribcage have 12 pairs of ribs
that are attached to the row of
bones in your spine.
4. Your hip joint is where the end
of the thigh bones or the femur fits
into a socket in your pelvis. This
joint helps you to bend your body
in almost half.
5. The arms can only bend at the
elbow, where the muscles that
control the thumb and the fingers
begin here. They are attached to the
2 arm bones, the ulna and the
radius.
 The abductor pollicis brevis pulls the
thumb away from the index finger, and
the flexor pollicis brevis bends the thumb
toward the small finger. The opponens
pollicis performs one of the most important
functions of the human hand: the ability to
bring the thumb away from the fingers so
that we can grasp objects.
6. Your ankle is a joint, it is made
up of bones in the foot (tarsals,
metatarsals, phalanges) and the end
of the leg bones – the tibia and
fibula.
7. From the side, the spine looks
like an “S”-like curve which allows
you to stand up straight.
"S"-like curve allows for an even
distribution of weight. The
"S" curve helps a
healthy spine withstand all kinds of
stress.