Front. Comput. Sci.
, 2023, 17(4): 174329
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-022-2050-4
RESEARCH ARTICLE
An efficient deep learning-assisted person re-identification
solution for intelligent video surveillance in smart cities
Muazzam MAQSOOD1, Sadaf YASMIN1, Saira GILLANI2, Maryam BUKHARI1,
Seungmin RHO ( )3, Sang-Soo YEO ( )4✉
1 Department of Computer Science, COMSATS University Islamabad, Attock Campus, Attock 43600, Pakistan
2 Department of Computer Science, Bahria University, Lahore 54600, Pakistan
3 Department of Industrial Security, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
4 Department of Computer Engineering, Mokwon University, Daejeon 35349, Republic of Korea
Higher Education Press 2023
Abstract Innovations on the Internet of Everything (IoE)
enabled systems are driving a change in the settings where we
interact in smart units, recognized globally as smart city
environments. However, intelligent video-surveillance systems
are critical to increasing the security of these smart cities. More
precisely, in today’s world of smart video surveillance, person
re-identification (Re-ID) has gained increased consideration by
researchers. Various researchers have designed deep learning-
based algorithms for person Re-ID because they have achieved
substantial breakthroughs in computer vision problems. In this
line of research, we designed an adaptive feature refinement-
based deep learning architecture to conduct person Re-ID. In
the proposed architecture, the inter-channel and inter-spatial
relationship of features between the images of the same
individual taken from nonidentical camera viewpoints are
focused on learning spatial and channel attention. In addition,
the spatial pyramid pooling layer is inserted to extract the
multiscale and fixed-dimension feature vectors irrespective of
the size of the feature maps. Furthermore, the model’s
effectiveness is validated on the CUHK01 and CUHK02
datasets. When compared with existing approaches, the
approach presented in this paper achieves encouraging Rank 1
and 5 scores of 24.6% and 54.8%, respectively.
Keywords Internet of Everything (IoE), visual surveillance
systems, big data, security systems, person re-identification
(Re-ID), deep learning
1 Introduction
The foundation of smart cities can be traced to the benefits
achieved in urban living, which has increased people’s
standards of living and efficient resource usage [1]. These
benefits are possible due to the developments in the Internet,
communication, and information technology [2]. With the
advancement of the Internet of Things (IoT), the smart city
Received January 25, 2022; accepted July 6, 2022
E-mail: smrho@cau.ac.kr; ssyeo@mokwon.ac.kr
✉
concept has been realized. However, the emergence of the
Internet of Everything (IoE) has been accomplished with
individuals in the IoT paradigm, in which an interconnected
system is consolidated in the IoE. As a result, the idea of a
smart city combined with IoE foundations is invoked to
support future potential applications [3]. In addition to these,
the surveillance of these smart cities to limit different types of
crimes is a crucial requirement today. Hence, intelligent video
surveillance is one of the major tools to empower the security
of these smart cities.
Furthermore, researchers in the computer vision domain
have focused on person re-identification (Re-ID) in recent
years, which is an effective tool for surveillance. The rising
trend of intelligent video-surveillance systems has increased in
the contemporary era due to various security plans, such as the
prevention of crimes, forensic examinations, and others. The
tracking and interpreting process of recorded footage is one of
the most critical aspects of vision-based smart surveillance
systems. However, this manual monitoring of recorded videos
by a person takes a great deal of time and energy. Person Re-
ID is an essential activity in smart vision-based surveillance
systems. It is referred to as the procedure of identifying a
similar subject over a collection of cameras that do not overlap
and are located at various geographic locations, also known as
multicamera surveillance systems [4,5].
Person Re-ID is a very complex and demanding problem
because videos are captured with cameras that do not overlap
and are in diverse environments. Consequently, the use of
fundamental data, such as a person’s face, is ineffective for
this purpose. Most researchers focus on the apparent features
of the person, but these approaches have a great deal of
uncertainty in visual appearance due to intra-class and inter-
class challenges. A similar individual might seem different,
and different individuals might appear the same.
There are many reasons for these intra-class and inter-class
variances, which include changes in human body postures,
lightning conditions, scene occlusions, background noise, and
camera viewpoints over short and prolonged periods [6,7]. As
2 Front. Comput. Sci., 2023, 17(4): 174329
a result, the extraction of robust and discriminating features in
varied and dynamic environments and feature mapping from
similar groups to different groups to perform the person Re-ID
across multiple cameras is an indispensable challenge.
Many deep learning-based algorithms have been proposed
by researchers to comply with the challenge of person Re-ID
to improve the outcomes [8]. Besides this, various research
studies have linked deep learning and handcrafted approaches
for person Re-ID [9,10]. Moreover, the systems of person Re-
ID are categorized into three major classes [11]. Image-based
person Re-ID is one of the classes and is based on image pairs
only, each of which has single and multiple shots of an
individual.
The second approach is person Re-ID using videos of
individuals, which operates by examining various frames that
depict a similar individual. The last class is an image to video-
based person Re-ID, in which an algorithm in a video
sequence searches the image of a person. Person Re-ID is also
categorized into two types based on the time. Short-term
period-based person identification is when individuals appear
on Camera 1 and, after a few seconds or minutes, appear on
Camera 2. Similarly, if a long period is considered, in this
scenario, an individual appears on Camera 1 and, after several
days, appears on Camera 1 or 2. For a person Re-ID in a short-
term period, the features based on visual appearance are the
most widely used to re-identify the individual. Moreover, in
some approaches, both visual and soft biometric-based
features are used [12,13].
Considering the importance of person Re-ID in terms of
applications or research areas, it has been well studied in
various fields, such as metaphysics [14], psychology [4], and
logic [4]. In a video-surveillance system, a person’s Re-ID
system works by first presenting the image of an individual of
interest as a query image to the system. At that time, the
system reveals or indicates whether this individual has been
recorded at another location or time by another camera.
According to the standpoint of computer vision, the major and
difficult challenge in person Re-ID is how two images that
Fig. 1 Samples of pair images of the same person under different camera viewpoints
belong to a similar individual are correctly matched amid
intense visual changes, such as illumination, posture, and
viewpoint, that have significant scientific values. Therefore,
due to the significance of person Re-ID in research and
application areas, the research community has progressively
adopted and designed the best and most advanced set of
algorithms for stable and accurate person Re-ID. Some
samples of paired images of similar subjects in distinct camera
viewpoints are presented in Fig. 1.
In this paper, an adaptive feature refinement-based deep
learning model is designed to extract the most relevant and
discriminative features via the images to conduct person Re-
ID. Nevertheless, traditional deep learning models frequently
focus on feature extraction with significant discrimination
while omitting promising features. Moreover, extracted fine-
grained features may include redundancies that affect the
accuracy of person Re-ID systems. When two images of the
same person are captured with two different cameras, this
mandates the design of a deep learning model that focuses on
the most relevant and meaningful information in both images.
Thus, more accurate and refined features provide better
performance.
Hence, in this research study, an adaptive feature refinement
block, also called a convolutional block attention module [15],
is incorporated at every level in feature extraction. We aim to
identify the most relevant and salient features through this
refinement by learning inter-spatial and inter-channel
relationships of features and diminishing the features of
irrelevant areas of the images. For every extracted feature
map, the proposed model makes inferences to become
acquainted with the most discriminative features between two
images of similar subjects from different viewpoints. Channel
and spatial attention maps exploit these inter-spatial and inter-
channel relationships using three aggregation arrangements
(i.e., sequential, parallel, and mixed). In addition, a spatial
pyramid pooling (SPP) layer is also deployed to optimally use
the spatial information of activations of convolutional
operations and accumulate feature maps before the last fully
 Muazzam MAQSOOD et al. Efficient deep learning-assisted person re-identification
connected (FC) layers. The major contributions of this article
are listed below:
● An end-to-end holistic adaptive feature refinement-
based lightweight deep learning model is proposed for
effective person Re-ID in smart cities for surveillance
purposes.
● The suggested deep learning model uses feature inter-
spatial and inter-channel relationships to acquire the
attention maps using spatial and channel attention to
enhance the representation of relevant regions of
interest and lower the extracted feature values of
irrelevant locations.
● An SPP layer is incorporated before the final FC layers
to fully employ the spatial information from the
adaptive refinement of the features and acquire the
representation of features with extensive spatial
information.
The rest of the paper is partitioned into several sections.
Section 2 presents existing work, and Section 3 details the
proposed method. Next, Section 4 explains the experimental
results, and Section 5 concludes the paper and provides the
future research directions.
2 Related work
Currently, person Re-ID using images requires additional
consideration from researchers. Figure 2 depicts a generic
overview of the image-based person Re-ID system. At testing
time, a query image from the probe set is selected to be
matched against all gallery images. The gallery and probe set
images are from two different camera views. The person Re-
ID system aims to rank the top N gallery images against the
query image, as illustrated in Fig. 2. In addition, these images
can be any image type (i.e., RGB images, depth images,
infrared images).
Li et al. designed a deep learning algorithm to perform
subject Re-ID [16]. Their model, DeepReID, introduced a
filter pairing-based neural network (NN) consisting of six
Fig. 2 Pictorial representation of the internal working of the person re-identification system
3
layers capable of handling misalignment, occlusions,
backgrounds with noise, and geometric and photometric
transformations. They evaluated the proposed model on the
CUHK03 dataset, which comprises images of about 13,164 for
1,360 subjects. Then, a cumulative matching characteristic
(CMC) curve was established to analyze the efficiency,
reporting a 26.51% recognition rate of Rank 1. Ahmed et al.
designed another deep learning-based architecture to improve
performance [17]. Their proposed algorithm used a special
type of convolution, tied convolution, to extract the local
relations between two inputted images. Moreover, the patch
summary layer was also integrated into the network, where
neighboring differences were summarized. They evaluated the
algorithms on CUHK01, CUHK03, and VIPeR datasets.
Similarly, Cheng et al. designed another deep learning
architecture based on improved feature extraction [18]. In their
algorithm, a multichannel part-based framework was added
along with an enhanced triplet loss function that draws both
overall and parts of body features of a person in an image.
Separate convolutional layers were designed to extract
information from different body parts (e.g., one convolutional
layer for full-body parts). The four commonly used datasets
for experimental purposes in their study include CUHK01,
VIPeR, PRID2011, and i-LDS.
The body portion that includes the individual’s face and
shoulders contributes more to the performance, but lower
body portions comprising the individual’s legs and feet
performed the worst. Some body parts have essential features
to distinguish people; thus, Huang et al. proposed a part-based
method called DeepDiff to attempt to learn distinctive features
of individual parts [19]. This method splits the body parts and
retrieves their feature representations by employing three NN-
based architectures called subnets. Every subnet network
might manage a specific kind of intra-class variation. The
CUHK03, CUHK01, and VIPeR datasets were employed to
validate the results and achieved 62.4%, 47.9%, and 43.2%
Rank 1 scores. Their designed model helped accumulate better
knowledge and derived distinct features in the area of local
4 Front. Comput. Sci., 2023, 17(4): 174329
images.
Based on the idea that the complete body and parts of body
characteristics complement one another, Zhao et al. designed
the deep learning algorithm SpindleNet, wherein the human
Re-ID is performed concerning the human body with directed
feature deconstruction and fusion [20]. They evaluated the
proposed SpindleNet on the CUHK01 and CUHK03 datasets
and attained encouraging Rank 1 scores.
Moreover, Hermans et al. considered the influence of the
loss function in the person Re-ID algorithms and trained their
deep learning model on the triplet loss function [21]. Different
variants of the triplet loss function were also employed in their
work. Besides this, the pre-trained Res-Net50 model was also
used in this work with the triplet loss function. This research
study concluded that the triplet loss function works better with
the pre-trained model instead of the model with scratch
training. However, this function also has some limitations in
that it cannot use all batch information; hence, more time is
required during the manual selection of hard negative samples.
Furthermore, this limitation is addressed by He et al. [22]. In
their work, the lifted structured loss was incorporated into the
learning of deep feature embedding. Two different loss
functions, such as identification loss and lifted structured loss,
were combined and can be used as a network loss function to
analyze the relative image specifics that are either positive or
negative and determine accurate person information.
Some researchers have also involved the spatial relationship
in feature learning using recurrent NNs in their designed
frameworks. Wu et al. presented deep spatially multiplicative
integration networks [23]. In this algorithm, features are
retrieved by two-stream convolutional neural networks
(CNNs) called M-Net [24] and D-Net [25]. Their designed
model exhibits a 49.11% Rank 1 score on the VIPeR dataset.
Furthermore, M-Net and D-Net were also used in work by
Wu et al. [26]. They designed the cross-entropy adversarial
view adaptation framework. The loss called cross-entropy
adversarial mapping was employed to reduce the distance
between the gallery and probe samples and make the feature
space view-invariant. This proposed framework achieved a
55.9% Rank 1 score on the VIPeR dataset. Another challenge
in person Re-ID is pedestrian misalignment. Existing studies
on person Re-ID have employed high-level convolutional
layers for feature extraction to address affine transformations,
but this method does not effectively handle misalignment
problems related to posing variations.
Zhu et al. designed a novel adaptive alignment network to
overcome the misalignment problem to obtain a credible and
precise Re-ID of subjects by learning the alignments both
pixel and patch-wise [27]. These network alignment modules
allow them to learn more discriminating and relevant features.
Hence, the efficiency of Re-ID increases if the number of
individuals (training instances) increases.
Instead of using only RGB images, some research studies
have focused on images based on RGB depth, and handcrafted
methods are applied to depth images to extract features.
Against various lighting conditions, these features are not
affected much. Wu et al. extracted the shape features from the
human body and the skeleton data from depth images and
proposed an improved model of subject Re-ID [28]. Imani et
al. also employed depth images for the Re-ID of subjects and
extracted two types of histogram features [29]. In addition,
Ren et al. used deep learning models and depth images to
extract appearance and anthropometric features for person Re-
ID [30]. This model has a 76.7% Rank 1 score on the RGBD-
ID dataset.
Moreover, some researchers have also employed thermal
images or infrared images to strengthen the effectiveness of
the Re-ID of subjects. Wu et al. first designed a deep learning
algorithm with RGB-infrared cross-modality [31]. In their
work, a new dataset was also introduced as SYSU-MM01.
Furthermore, Mogelmose et al. employed all image
modalities, such as RGB, depth, and thermal, to extract
features and designed a tri-model person Re-ID system [32].
In addition, the concept of smart cities is an emerging field
with several open challenges [33]. Security is one of the major
challenges addressed through blockchain technology in work
by Majeed et al. [34]. Ullah et al. proposed the green city
architecture to overcome this security challenge [35]. In the
existing literature, most research studies have focused on
efficient deep learning models that best extract sufficient,
relevant, and informative features to re-identify a person from
various camera angles. These deep learning algorithms are
heavily used not only in person Re-ID problems but also in
other problems of computer vision [36]. To accomplish person
Re-ID and contribute to these existing methods, this research
study proposed another variant of the deep learning model
based on adaptive feature refinement blocks and SPP layers to
conduct person Re-ID.
3 Methodology
A graphical overview of the proposed framework is illustrated
in Fig. 3, which demonstrates that we designed the Re-ID
model after the dataset acquisition. This model compares
images of similar subjects recorded by two separate cameras
that do not overlap and specifies whether the two images are
from a similar subject. The proposed algorithm consists of
several layers. First, the inputs are passed through convolu-
tional and max-pooling layers, and then the resulting feature
maps pass from the adaptive feature refinement block. Finally,
SPP is deployed to provide feature encodings of the images.
Afterward, an absolute difference among the two feature
vectors is computed using the Euclidian distance, and two
dense layers are constructed in which the last FC layer
comprises a sigmoid activation. All of these layers are
thoroughly discussed in the following subsections. Moreover,
the proposed architecture is lightweight and provides an end-
to-end automated solution for person Re-ID.
3.1 Convolutional layers
The CNNs are hierarchical models that alternate between two
fundamental processes, convolution, and subsampling,
resembling various fundamental complicated cells in the
visual cortex [37]. While learning a collection of convolu-
tional filters from convolutional layers, they employ weight
sharing to leverage the 2D structure of the images. This
remarkable feature allows them to be used in numerous object
 Muazzam MAQSOOD et al. Efficient deep learning-assisted person re-identification
Fig. 3 Internal architecture of the proposed deep learning model for re-identification of individuals
recognition [38,39] and segmentation benchmarks [40,41]. A
collection of filters {wk }k∈K convolves over the set of images
of a subject { fi }i∈I taken by two distinct cameras and then
generates another collection of images {H j } j∈J referred to as
feature maps or activation maps. The correspondence of input
and output is maintained by a connection table CT (input i,
filter k , and output j ). The responses of the filters among
inputs are linearly merged. This layer is responsible for the
following mapping:
∑
h j (x) = ( fi ∗wk ) (x) . (1)
i,k∈CT i, j,k
In Eq. (1), the symbol * denotes the valid convolutional
operation on images. The wk of a certain layer has dimensions
similar to the input and determines the dimensions of the
feature maps h j and the input size. In addition, I1 and I2 are
the two input images of dimensions 60 × 160 × 3 given as an
input to the first convolutional layer on which the operation
given in Eq. (1) is performed.
In the deep learning paradigm, convolutional features
provide effective interpretations for a range of classification
problems. As depicted in Fig. 3, both input images are
operated with the first convolution layer of kernel size 3 × 3.
The obtained feature maps are processed by max-pooling
5
layers with window dimensions of 2 × 2. After every level of
feature representation by the convolutional and max-pooling
layers, the adaptive feature refinement blocks are inserted to
refine the features extracted from these layers. These
refinement blocks are inserted into sequential or parallel
arrangements or mixed arrangements.
3.2 Adaptive feature refinement block
We must identify correlations between the two viewpoints to
assess whether the subject in the two images is similar. Thus,
to establish a correct match, person Re-ID requires the
extraction of discriminative features, which must be done
independently of difficulties, such as occlusion, viewpoint, or
illumination changes. The features extracted by the convolu-
tional and max-pooling layers at every level are inputted into
the adaptive feature refinement block. In this block, the
irrelevant features from two different camera views are
suppressed, and more attention is focused on discriminative
features. This adaptive refinement of features can be
performed by incorporating the spatial and channel attention
layers. Moreover, it is widely known that the attention
mechanism plays an essential part in human perception [42].
In the human visual system, one of the important
characteristics is that humans cannot comprehend an entire
visual scene at once [43]. Humans employ a chain of partial
6 Front. Comput. Sci., 2023, 17(4): 174329
glimpses and choose and concentrate on essential areas of the
scene to better capture the visual structure. Therefore, various
researchers have attempted to involve these attention
mechanisms in their designed deep learning models to
increase their effectiveness.
In this research study, we used an attention mechanism in
the proposed architecture that adaptively refines the features
extracted from the convolutional layers. The intermediate
feature F∈RC×H×W maps resulting from the preceding layers
are provided as input to the adaptive feature refinement block
that infers a 2D channel attention map Mc ∈ RC×1×1 and 2D
maps of spatial attention M s ∈ R1×H×W . The mathematical
formulation of the adaptive feature refinement block is
summarized in Eqs. (2) and (3) [15]:
′ feature map provided at the input are squeezed to determine
F = Mc (F) ⊗ F,
′′ ( ′) ′ contexts are extracted, known as average-pooled and max-
F = Ms F ⊗ F .
In Eqs. (2) and (3), the symbol ⊗ represents element-by-
element multiplication. With this multiplication, the following
attention values are propagated (replicated) along the spatial
dimensions, channel attention values are broadcasted, and vice
′′
versa. The adaptively refined feature is denoted by F .
For every attention module, Fig. 4 illustrates the
computational process. Moreover, channel and spatial
attention are generated by exploiting the inter-channel and
inter-spatial relationships of features. The main difference
between the inter-channel and inter-spatial relationships of
features is that, in the inter-channel relationship of features,
channel attention maps emphasize “what” is most necessary in
the image. In contrast, inter-spatial relationships of features
produce spatial attention emphasizing “where” the informative
regions in the image are most necessary. Both types of
features assist in exploiting the channel and spatial-wise
attention. These features assist in learning which information
Fig. 4 Determining feature inter-channel and inter-spatial relationships
to highlight or suppress, and ultimately the information flow
throughout the network is improved. This method also helps
learn the more meaningful and discriminative features of
images from two non-overlapping camera views for person-
Re-ID. The detailed description of each attention map is
described below.
3.2.1 Inter-channel relationships of features
A channel attention map is employed to exploit the inter-
channel relationships of features between two images of
similar subjects captured from distinct angles. The feature
detector represents every feature map channel; thus, the
attention based on the channel is focused on what is relevant
in providing an image as input. The spatial dimensions of the
(2) the attention effectively based on the channel. Two spatial
(3) c
pooled operations. These two types of spatial information Favg
c
and Fmax of feature, maps are aggregated. Later, an attention
map based on the channel Mc ∈ RC×1×1 is obtained by
forwarding these two shared model descriptors. This shared
model consists of a multilayer perceptron with one hidden
layer.
Moreover, RC/r×1×1 is fixed as the size of the hidden
activation to lessen the influence of the parameter overhead,
where r is the reduction ratio. Following that, the summation
computed element-by-element is performed to integrate the
two outputs based on the feature vectors after using the shared
c c . A
model in every spatial context of Favg and Fmax
mathematical description of the channel attention to draw
inter-channel relationships is described below:
Mc (F) = σ(MLP (AvgPool (F)) + MLP (MaxPool (F)))
( ( )) (4)
= σ(W1 W0 Favg
c
+ W1 (W0 (Fmax
c
))).
 Muazzam MAQSOOD et al. Efficient deep learning-assisted person re-identification
In Eq. (4), σ represents the sigmoid function, and W0 ∈ RC/r×C
and W1 ∈ RC×C/r . Regarding both inputs, the shared weights
are denoted by W0 and W1 in the multilayer perceptron, and
W0 continues to follow the rectified linear unit activation.
3.2.2 Inter-spatial relationship of features
We generated spatial attention maps using the inter-spatial
relationship of features, as depicted in Fig. 4. In contrast to
channel attention, spatial attention mechanisms focus on an
informational component that complements channel attention.
The spatial attention maps are generated along the channel
axis by applying the average and max-pooling operations and
fusing them to create a productive feature descriptor. Applying
the pooling methods somewhere along the channel axis is
proven to be efficient to emphasize the informative areas of
the images. A convolutional operation is applied on the fused
feature descriptor vector that encodes where to emphasize and
inhibit to compute the attention map based on a spatial
mechanism M s ∈ R1×H×W . Two 2D maps are generated by
combining the channel information of feature maps using two
operations of pooling (i.e., Favg c ∈ R1×H×W and F c
max
∈R 1×H×W ). Over the channel, each represents the average-
pooled and maximum-pooled features.
Later, a 2D attention map is computed by fusing these,
followed by applying the standard convolutional layer. A
mathematical description of spatial attention is described
below:
([ ])
M s (F) = σ f 7×7 AvgPool (F) ; MaxPool (F) )
( ([ ]))
= σ f 7×7 Favg
s s
; Fmax . (5)
In Eq. (5), σ represents the sigmoid function and f 7×7
symbolizes a convolutional procedure with the filter
dimensions of 7 × 7.
3.2.3 Aggregating channel and spatial attention maps
For every input image of a person, two attention maps, the
channel and spatial attention maps are aggregated to calculate
the complementary attention, concentrating on what and
where. These two attention maps are computed sequentially
and in parallel, where the multiplication is performed between
these two attention maps with the feature map based input
F∈RC×H×W to refine the features adaptively. The aggregation
of the spatial and channel attention maps in a sequential
arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 4, whereas the parallel
arrangement of their aggregation is displayed in Fig. 5.
Moreover, the mixed approach is also employed, where both
sequential and parallel configurations are employed.
Fig. 5 Parallel arrangement of attention mechanisms in the adaptive feature refinement block
7
3.3 Spatial pyramid pooling layer
The aggregated attention maps resulting from the feature
refinement of the last convolutional layer are passed as input
to the SPP layers [44]. All features are pooled using this SPP
layer, producing fixed-dimension outcomes, which are then
sent to the FC layers. Generally, the SPP layer enables the
CNN to take inputs of any size, increasing the model’s scale
invariance, suppressing overfitting, and permitting the
extraction of local features from the data at various scales. By
employing various distinctly sized pool operations, this layer
ensures the fixed eigenvector output and attainment of the
input at any scale.
This study incorporates an SPP layer with the proposed deep
learning model. This layer is deployed between the
convolutional and FC layers. In every spatial bin, the response
of each is pooled. The SPP produces vectors of kM
dimensions with M specifying the number of bins (k denotes
the number of filters used in the prior convolutional
operation). The FC layer receives these fixed-dimensional
vectors as input. One primary insight on employing the SPP
layer in the proposed architecture is its significant
characteristic of resilience in multilevel pooling toward object
deformation [45]. The architecture of the SPP layer is
presented in Fig. 6.
4 Experiment and discussion
4.1 Dataset and protocols
This section discusses the results of the designed model under
different experimental settings, followed by a discussion and
comparisons. To assess the efficacy of the proposed model,
we used the CUHK02 dataset, a publicly available benchmark
[46]. The CUHK02 dataset comprises 1,816 people. The
images of individuals are captured from five pairs of camera
viewpoints (10 viewpoints). These pairs are numbered from
P1 to P5. More specifically, P1 contains 971 identities, P2
contains 306, P3 contains 107, P4 contains 193, and P5
contains 239. In every pair, there are two images per subject.
Pair P1 belongs to the CUHK01 dataset, which is primarily
used in the existing research studies [47]. In addition,
CUHK02 is a larger version of the CUHK01 dataset that
includes more identities and angle points.
This database assesses the efficiency when using different
camera viewpoints for training and testing sets. We used this
dataset in different experimental settings, as listed in Table 1.
Furthermore, the assessment metric used to analyze the
effectiveness of the proposed model is the CMC curve with a
single gallery shot setting. This metric finds the probability of
8 Front. Comput. Sci., 2023, 17(4): 174329

Fig. 6 Spatial pyramid pooling layer

positive pairs are formed by taking the images of a similar

Table 1 Subject-wise division of the dataset per camera pair
No# Camera view Training subjects Testing subjects
1 P1 775
2 P2 245
3 P3 86
4 P4 155
5 P5 192
a given test image’s correct and perfect match from the probe
set over the gallery images. More precisely, only one instance
of each gallery subject is ranked against a single query image
in a single gallery shot setting. For instance, the rank n score
can be computed if the model ranks the gallery images to rank
the person in the query image in the top N gallery images.
The hyperparameters of the proposed model include the
number of epochs (set to 100), the weight optimizers
(including Adam and stochastic gradient descent) with
learning rates of 0.001 and 0.0001, and a batch size set to 4.
The numbers of neurons in the last FC layers are 512 and 1.
These hyperparameters are tuned using the trial-and-error
method.
4.2 Subject-independent person re-identification
This type of experimental setting is a very realistic
experimental setup for subject Re-ID problems. The people
included in the training set are different from those in the
testing set; hence, it is person Re-ID with unknown subjects.
In this scenario, a model is trained by inputting images in the
form of pairs as positive and negative. The image pair is
positive if the same subject is present in both images. These
person (who are the same) via two distinct camera angles.
Similarly, a pair of negative images is created if the subjects
196
in the images are not the same. We separately used each pair
61
26
of viewpoints (P1 to P5) of the CUHK02 dataset. Each pair
38 was divided into an 80/20 split, as indicated in Table 1. After
47 the division, the actual number of subjects present in the
training set is used to generate the positive and negative image
pairs to train the algorithm. Eventually, the testing set of that
particular pair was used to evaluate the model. Ranks 1 to 15
for the identification rates of each camera view pair (P1−P5)
are separately depicted in Fig. 7(a, b, c). Figure 7(a, b, c) has
three graphs, and the x-axis of the graphs indicates the rank
values, while the y-axis shows the identification rates. Each
curve in the graph presents the rank scores for each camera
view (P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5).
Moreover, these results are computed using different
structural aggregations of spatial and channel attention maps.
Figure 7(a) depicts the scores of pairs P1 to P5 with the
sequential arrangement of attention maps in the model,
whereas Fig. 7(b) depicts the rank scores with the parallel
arrangement of the attention maps in the model. Figures 7(a)
and (b) reveals that, in the sequential arrangement, the top 15
Rank 1 to 15 scores are from 10% to 52% for P1, 27% to
90.16% for P2, 19% to 95% for P3, and 13% to 78% for P4.
Last, for camera pair P5, the Rank 1 to 15 scores vary from
20% to 68%.
More specifically, the results in the sequential arrangement
of the spatial and channel attention maps are encouraging. In
this arrangement, the input feature maps are first passed to the
 Muazzam MAQSOOD et al. Efficient deep learning-assisted person re-identification 9

Fig. 7 (a) Ranks 1 to 15 for the identification rates of the overall camera view pairs in the series setting of the adaptive feature refinement block,
(b) Ranks 1 to 15 for the identification rates of the overall camera view pairs in the parallel setting of the adaptive feature refinement block, and
(c) Ranks 1 to 100 for the identification rates over the P1 camera view pairs in both series and parallel settings of the adaptive feature refinement

channel attention module, and following that, the result of this
module is input into the spatial attention map. Furthermore, in
Fig. 7(b), the results of all camera views (P1−P5) are
presented. In this setup, the inter-channel and inter-spatial
relationships are focused on parallel configurations of the
inputted feature maps, as displayed in Fig. 7(b). The results of
this type of arrangement in the model are also encouraging.
The Rank 1 to 15 scores of P1 range from 12% to 57%.
Similarly, the Rank 1 to 15 scores for camera pair P2 are
24% to 93.4%, and the Rank 1 to 15 scores of camera pair P3
are 33% to 100%. Furthermore, the camera pairs P4 and P5
also have encouraging Rank 1 to 15 scores of 13% to 78% and
13% to 73%, respectively. The parallel arrangement for
acquiring the inter-channel and inter-spatial relationships
works better than the series arrangement.
However, the number of subjects in the camera pair P1 is
more than that of the remaining pair’s subjects. Thus, rank
scores from 1 to 100 with gaps of 5 are also plotted for this
camera pair view. Figure 7(c) lists the values of Ranks 1 to
100 for both parallel and sequential arrangements of the
adaptive feature refinement blocks for camera pair P1. More
explicitly, Fig. 7(c) provides the rank scores for both
arrangements, ranging from 10% to 94.9% for the sequential
case and 12% to 95% for the parallel case. Similarly, the
parallel configuration performs better than the sequential
configuration in this case. Furthermore, the training and loss
values for each camera pair view are also recorded in both
layouts of these inter-channel and inter-spatial layers. Figures
8(a) and (b) provides the accuracy and loss values of all
experiments during training. In Figs. 8(a) and (b), the y-axis
indicates the values of accuracy and loss, and the x-axis
denotes the number of epochs. Each curve in the graph
provides the values of accuracy and loss for each camera view
(i.e., P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5) for both the spatial and channel
attention settings (i.e., parallel and series). All experiments run
for 100 epochs. After 20 epochs, the training accuracy exceeds
80%, and the loss values approach zero. Furthermore,
hyperparameters play a critical role in model performance.
All these experiments in Figs. 7 (a), (b), and (c) were run
with Adam optimizers using a learning rate of 0.0001, and the
same set of experiments was also repeated using stochastic
gradient descent optimizers using a 0.001 learning rate, as
displayed in Figs. 9(a), (b), and (c). Figure 9 has six graphs,
and the x-axis of the graphs represents the rank values,
whereas the y-axis represents the identification rates. Each
curve in the graph represents the rank scores for each camera
view, such as P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5. Furthermore, the model
performance is accessed via a mixed method of adaptive
feature refinement block configurations. In this approach, the
adaptive feature refinement block is organized in parallel form
in the first two convolutional blocks, and in series form after
the last convolutional block. With this model configuration,
the experiments are run with different hyperparameter
settings, such as Adam and stochastic gradient descent, with

Fig. 8 (a, b) Accuracy and loss curves during training for all camera views in both attention mechanism arrangements
10 Front. Comput. Sci., 2023, 17(4): 174329
0.001 and 0.0001 learning rates, respectively. The Rank 1 to
15 scores in this setup for all camera views are presented in
Figs. 9 (d), (e), and (f).
4.3 Person re-identification with unknown subject and
viewpoint
To assess the precision of an automated real-time surveillance
system, person Re-ID should be performed with unknown
camera viewpoints and people. In the prior arrangement, the
model is trained on known camera viewpoints, with the only
difference being that the people are different. For example, in
a public area, two different cameras are installed at two
locations (viewpoints), and if the image of a person enrolled in
the system is captured by these two cameras, then the system
should be able to identify the subject. Similarly, if the
unknown person comes under these two camera viewpoints,
the system should be able to recognize the unknown person
(i.e., our previous experimental setup). In this experimental
setup, instead of only recognizing the unknown person from
different camera viewpoints, the system should also recognize
unknown people from two unknown camera viewpoints;
hence, it is called person Re-ID with unknown subject and
viewpoint.
This research study also investigated the model performance
with this realistic experimental setup. As mentioned, the entire
dataset of CUHK02 comprises 10 camera views divided into
pairs as P1 to P5. The P1 pair belongs to the CUHK01 dataset,
whereas the remaining pair views belong to the CUHK02
dataset. In this scenario, the model was trained on a camera
pair P1 and tested on the remaining pairs P2 to P5. This
Fig. 9 (a, b, c) Ranks 1 to 15 of the identification rates for the overall camera view pairs in series and parallel settings for the adaptive feature
refinement block with the stochastic gradient descent optimizer (lr = 0.001) . (d, e, f) Ranks 1 to 15 of the identification rates for the overall
camera view pairs in mixed configurations for sequential and parallel arrangements of adaptive feature refinement blocks
setting also presents the cross-dataset scenario.
Therefore, the details of the total number of training and
testing subjects and the camera views are listed in Table 3.
After the division of data according to this scenario, the
positive and negative image pairs were generated using
camera view pair P1, and the results were calculated using the
remaining views separately. The results of Rank 1 to 15 scores
in this experimental setup for camera view pair P2 range from
27% to 93%, as displayed in Table 2, row 1, with the
sequential arrangement of inter-channel and inter-spatial-
based attention mechanisms. Following that, the results of the
camera pair view P3 to P5 are given in rows 2, 3, and 4. For
camera pair view P3, the range of the rank scores is 19% to
57%. The number of subjects in this pair is considerably less;
thus, the values of the highest ranks are not reported.
Similarly, for the camera pairs P4 and P5, the rank scores are
10% to 56% and 13% to 57%, respectively. In addition, the
same set of experiments is repeated for the parallel
configuration of the adaptive feature refinement blocks. In this
case, the scores for Ranks 1, 4, 8, 10, 12, and 15 are listed in
rows 6, 7, 8, and 9 in Table 2.
With camera view pair P2, the rank scores from 1 to 15 are
22% to 95%. Similarly, for pair P3, the scores are 23.1% to
52%, and for camera pair P3, the scores are 18% to 64%.
Lastly, for camera pair P5, the Rank 1 to 15 scores is 13% to
62%. It seems that a model based on parallel configurations of
inter-channel and inter-spatial relationships works better than
series configurations. In addition, in this challenging
experimental setup, the proposed model learns to perform
 Muazzam MAQSOOD et al. Efficient deep learning-assisted person re-identification 11

Table 2 Results of the model with unknown subject and viewpoint

Camera view Rank 1/% Rank 4/% Rank 8/% Rank 10/% Rank 12/% Rank 15/%
No#
Sequential arrangement of adaptive feature refinement block
1 P2 27 55 80 86 91 93
2 P3 19 57 − − − −
3 P4 10 40 56 − − −
4 P5 13 28 46 57 − −
Parallel arrangement of adaptive feature refinement block
6 P2 22 59 75 85 88 95
7 P3 23.1 52 − − − −
8 P4 18 43 64 − − −
9 P5 13 28 51 62 − −

setting or a multishot gallery setting. This measure calculates

Table 3 Dataset division with an unknown subject and viewpoints
No# Camera view Division Testing subjects
1 P1 Training 971
2 P2 Testing 306
3 P3 Testing 109
4 P4 Testing 193
5 P5 Testing 239
better and can re-identify unknown subjects even when the
camera viewpoint is not disclosed to the model.
4.4 Discussion and comparison with existing approaches
The results presented above show that person Re-ID is a very
challenging task in computer vision. It is very difficult to
model the dynamic environment, which includes diverse
challenges, such as changes in lighting, viewpoint alterations,
occlusions of carrying items, and other problems. Due to these
dynamic changes, the features are greatly affected. In this
research study, an end-to-end holistic deep learning algorithm
is designed to perform person Re-ID. As mentioned in the
introduction section, we leveraged the inter-spatial and inter-
channel relationships of features to obtain spatial and channel
attention maps. Through this, the deep learning model learns
by better focusing on information on what and where.
Moreover, the SPP layer further assists in using complete
spatial information. These modifications in the deep learning
model increase its representability and ultimately contribute to
its good performance, as discussed in the result section.
In addition, we considered two different experimental setups
to evaluate the model. In the first subject-independent setup, a
model was trained on a collection of individuals whose images
were captured using two different camera views. The model
attempted to learn whether the two inputted images belong to
the same person. Then, the model was tested on different sets
of individuals who were not part of the training set.
Furthermore, in the second experimental setup, the model
was unaware of both camera views and subjects and attempted
to recognize the two unknown individuals from an unknown
camera viewpoint, which is the most difficult scenario.
However, the proposed model exhibits encouraging results.
Moreover, we evaluated the model by comparing the
outcomes of the suggested method based on deep learning
with some existing efficient models designed for person Re-
ID. Generally, CMC curves were computed in all existing
deep learning methods to assess the suggested model
performance for person Re-ID in either a single-shot gallery
the likelihood of a particular query image from the probe set
over the gallery images. For example, as presented in Fig. 10,
a query image on the right side was matched against the top
five gallery images, giving the values of Rank 5. These gallery
and probe sets were constructed from the testing set. The
comparison of these rank scores with the existing methods is
provided in Table 4.
The proposed method in this research study exhibits
encouraging results compared with other methods. More
specifically, Li et al. [16] designed the deep filter-based
person Re-ID model to extract features of subjects from
distinct camera viewpoints. Their proposed model deals with
the misalignment problem and several other challenges related
to geometric transformations. Koestinger et al. [48] and Feng
et al. [51] employed the distance metric learning-based
approach to carry out person Re-ID. They evaluated their
proposed method on the VIPeR, ToyCars, and CUHK03
datasets and achieved good performance. Zheng et al. [49]
suggested the bag of words-based techniques for person Re-
ID. Local features, identified as an effective aspect in the
literature, were effectively accommodated by the bag of
words. Similarly, Fan et al. [50] suggested a clustering and
fine-tuning-based strategy for the problem of person Re-ID.
Because the clustering results might be noisy, they
incorporated a selection operation among the clustering and
fine-tuning. These proposed methods also achieved
encouraging scores, but the proposed method provides some
improvement on these existing methods. Hence, the proposed
work contributes to the existing literature in terms of
performance. More precisely, many excellent performance
deep learning methods have been proposed in existing studies.
However, the proposed deep learning model more perfectly
extracts discriminative features from the images by
emphasizing and exploiting both channel and spatial attention
maps. The proposed method attempts to mimic the human
visual perception and intentionally focuses on highly
informative regions of the images by suppressing irrelevant
areas and adaptively refining features extracted by
convolutional layers.
Furthermore, it is necessary to consider the limitations of the
proposed study; therefore, one possible limitation of this study
is the short-term period in which the visual appearance of
persons in different camera views remains the same. As a
result, what if the person captured with one camera view
reappears in another camera after a lengthy period in which
12 Front. Comput. Sci., 2023, 17(4): 174329

Fig. 10 Top five matches against query image from the gallery set

Table 4 Rank-wise comparison with some existing approaches

Sr. No. Authors Method Rank 1 score Datasets
1 Li et al. [16] Deep learning 24.26 CUHK01 and CUHK03
2 Koestinger et al. [48] Distance metric learning 20.8 VIPeR and ToyCars
3 Zheng et al. [49] Bag of words model 24.33 CUHK03
4 Fan et al. [50] Clustering and fine-tuning 24.8 CUHK03
5 Feng et al. [51] Distance metric learning 21.96 CUHK03
6 Proposed method Deep learning 24.6 CUHK01 and CUHK02

aspects of the individual’s visual appearance, such as clothing
conditions, have significantly changed? In such a scenario, the
performance of the proposed model might not be as good
because substantial changes occur in the features of the images
due to the changes in the visual appearance of the subjects.
5 Conclusion
With the innovation of the IoE, the concepts of smart cities,
smart homes, and smart environments have emerged.
However, the surveillance of these smart cities is one of the
major challenges. Hence, this paper provides a deep learning-
assisted solution for person Re-ID for surveillance and
security purposes in these smart cities. The variability in the
appearance of the same person under different camera
viewpoints makes person Re-ID a very difficult and
demanding task.
However, the proposed deep learning model is based on
adaptive feature refinement with SPP layers. The designed
approach learns the image features by considering the inter-
channel and inter-spatial associations using attention
mechanisms and focuses more on the discriminative regions of
the images. Moreover, spatial learning is further enhanced by
using SPP layers that employ different scale pooling windows
to extract features. Furthermore, we have used several
experimental situations in which unknown viewpoints and
subjects are considered. The proposed framework achieves
encouraging average Rank 1 and Rank 5 scores of 24.6% and
54.8%, respectively. According to the findings, when both
views and subjects are varied, the deep learning model has
difficulty in re-identifying a person. This is owing to the fact
that the features of distinct subjects’ images are significantly
changed as a result of a change in the camera view. However,
when compared to existing methods, the overall findings in
terms of average rank scores are acceptable. We should
approach the challenge of person Re-ID with long-term
scenarios in the future.
Acknowledgements This paper was supported by Korea Institute for
Advancement of Technology (KIAT) grant funded by the Korea Government
(MOTIE) (P0008703, The Competency Development Program for Industry
Specialist) and also the MSIT (Ministry of Science and ICT), Republic
of Korea, under the ITRC (Information Technology Research Center) support
program (IITP-2022-2018-0-01799) supervised by the IITP (Institute for
Information & Communications Technology Planning & Evaluation).
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Muazzam Maqsood is serving as an Assistant
Professor at the Department of Computer Science,
COMSATS University Islamabad, Attock
Campus, Pakistan. He holds a PhD in software
engineering with a keen interest in artificial
intelligence and deep learning-based systems. His
main research focus is to use the latest machine
learning and deep learning algorithms to develop automated
solutions, especially in the field of pattern recognition and data
analytics. He has published various top-ranked impact factor papers
in the area of image processing, medical imaging, recommender
systems, stock exchange prediction, and big data analytics. He is also
a reviewer of many impact factor journals and a program committee
member of various international conferences.
Sadaf Yasmin is currently working as Assistant
Professor at the Department of Computer Science,
COMSATS University Islamabad, Attock
Campus, Pakistan. She has completed her MS and
PhD in Computer Science from Capital University
of Science and Technology, Pakistan, and BS in
Software Engineering from (APCOMS) NUML
Islamabad, Pakistan. She has worked on several research projects
during and after her PhD She is also serving as a reviewer for various
reputed journals. Her research interests include network protocol
design, computer vision, medical imaging, and pattern recognition.
Saira Gillani received her PhD degree in
Information Sciences from Corvinus University of
Budapest, Hungary. She joined the COMSATS
Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan in
2016. She also served as an assistant professor in
Saudi Electronic University, Saudi Arabia. She is
currently serving as an associate professor in
Bahria University Lahore, Pakistan. Previously, she worked as
research scholar in Corvinno, Technology Transfer Center of
Information Technology and Services in Budapest, Hungary and also
worked as research associate in CoReNet (Center of Research in
Networks and Telecom), CUST, Pakistan. Her areas of interest
include data sciences, text mining, data mining, machine learning,
vehicular networks, mobile edge computing and Internet of Things.
Maryam Bukhari is perusing her MS degree at
COMSATS University Islamabad, Attock
Campus, Pakistan. Her research areas include
machine learning and image processing.
Seungmin Rho is currently an associate professor
at Department of Industrial Security at Chung-
Ang University, Republic of Korea. His current
research interests include database, big data
analysis, music retrieval, multimedia systems,
machine learning, knowledge management as well
as computational intelligence. He has published
300 papers in refereed journals and conference proceedings in these
areas. He has been involved in more than 20 conferences and
workshops as various chairs and more than 30
conferences/workshops as a program committee member. He has
edited a number of international journal special issues as a guest
editor, such as multimedia systems, information fusion, and
engineering applications of artificial intelligence.
Sang-Soo Yeo received a PhD degree in Computer
Science & Engineering from Chung-Ang
University, Republic of Korea in 2005. He is a
professor at the Department of Computer
Engineering, Mokwon University, Republic of
Korea. He worked for MOIS, Ministry of Interior
and Safety and worked for PIPC, Personal
Information Protection Commission, Republic of Korea from Feb.
2020 to Jul. 2021. He is President of the Institution of Creative
Research Professionals (ICRP), and Vice President of ICT Platform
Society (ICTPS). He is serving as Steering Chair of the PlatCon
conference series, a very comprehensive conference series on
platform technology and services. Dr. Yeo’s research interests
include security, privacy, personal information Protection, ubiquitous
computing, multimedia service, ubiquitous computing, embedded
system, and bioinformatics.