III

Chiossa Luís

The training of prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in EFL class

Universidade Pedagógica de Maputo

2020
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Chiossa Luís

The training of prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in EFL

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for“Doctoral level” in Applied Linguistics at
Universidade Pedagógica – Maputo

Supervisors:
Prof. Doutora Carla Maria Ataíde Maciel
Prof. Nicolas Robert Hurst

Universidade Pedagógica de Maputo

2020
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Contents
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List of abbreviations

BDA – Before, during, after

CLT – Communicative Language Teaching

CPTSS – Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School

ELT – English Language Teaching

EFL – English as Foreign Language

ESL – English as Second Language

GTM – Grammar Translation Method

i.e – that is

SPSS – Statistical Package for the Social Science

UP – Universidade Pedagógica
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List of tables
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List of graphs
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Declaration
I declare that this research proposal has never been presented in its essence to obtain any degree
and it constitutes the result of my investigation. The sources of information are mentioned in the
text and in the bibliography.

Maputo, 22/12/ 2020

(Student’s Signature)

______________________________

Chiossa Luís
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Acknowledgements
Firstly, I express my gratefulness to my supervisors, Prof. Carla Maria Ataíde Maciel and Prof.
Nicolas Hurst, who played a very important role of supervising this work and proposed
important aspects for the work to be done.

Again, I thank the following tutors: Full Professor Hildizina Dias, Full Professor Armando Jorge
Lopes, Professor Domingos Chapala and Professor Albino Chavale who helped me to draw ideas
around this research proposal.

Special thanks go to my family who encourages me to upgrade my studies.

Lastly, I also thank all my classmates.

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Dedication

I dedicate this work to my late father, Luís Sadique, my mother, Fátima Ncuanda and my all
children.
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Abstract

The purpose of this study is to train prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in EFL classes in
spite of some EFL teachers may still believe that teaching EFL encompasses focusing on linguistic
benefits only, so eventually their students will communicate in the target language, and others who have
integrated short stories in their lessons have realized that short stories are congruent to communicative
language teaching approach (CLT). However, before prospective EFL teachers attempt to use short stories
in their EFL classes, they should understand the benefits of short stories and plan classes that meet the
needs of their students. EFL teachers should be laborious; they should find new and effective ways of
using stories, and use them in the EFL classes. The study followed a blending qualitative and quantitative
approach. Thus, we used a triangulation of the instruments of data collection. We presented data collected
through questionnaire for teachers (QT) and a questionnaire for learners (QL), classroom observation and
document analysis such as EFL syllabus and the pre-proficiency and post- proficiency tests administered
to the learners. The results of this study revealed that training prospective EFL teachers to integrate short
stories in EFL lessons helped prospective EFL teachers develop the reading skills of their learners.

Key words: training EFL teachers, short stories in EFL class, benefits of short stories, reading skills
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1 Introduction: presenting the study

As teachers of English as foreign language or instructors, we may have a background in
literary studies, but be uncertain of how to use the literary background studies when teaching a
language. In contrast, we may have good practical experience in teaching or training, but be
unfamiliar with the use of literary texts in the EFL classroom. Whatever our past experiences or
interests, this study should help prospective EFL teachers to find practical ways of integrating
short stories in the language classroom.

According to the 2003/2007 INDE/ MINED, Curriculum plan for primary and secondary
Education, English is the main foreign language in Mozambique. It is also the main language for
diplomacy and international trade. English is taught in the two last grades of primary education
(grades 6 and 7) and in all grades of secondary education (grade 8, grade 9, grade 10, grade 11,
and grade 12). As such, we can assume that students have been learning Portuguese for twelve
years since it is an official language and English as a foreign language for seven years. In
Mozambique, English is taught for seven years in school, from grade 6 to grade 12. At these
levels, there are two foreign languages: English and French. However, French is only taught in
grades 11 and 12.

Our study is about training EFL teachers to integrate short stories in EFL: a case study of
Rovuma University and Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary school in Lichinga district. Bearing in
mind that the aim of language learning is to increase interacting skill of the language so that the
long term aim of improving productive and receptive skills can be achieved. Therefore, the
training of prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in EFL class caters the principles
for Communicative Language Teaching. With this in mind, our study will focus on training
EFL teachers to integrate short stories in EFL class since this study is an action research that
basically aims to train prospective EFL teachers to use short stories in EFL classes, especially
with grades 11 and 12 at Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School, in Mozambique, Niassa
Province.

In this action-research, we argue for the usefulness of training prospective EFL teachers of
English in Lichinga district to integrate short stories in their classrooms. We maintain that
prospective EFL teachers at Rovuma University ought to be trained to integrate literary texts in
their classrooms, specifically short stories. Prospective EFL teachers as well as their learners can
considerably benefit from exposure to literary texts, specifically short stories in EFL classrooms
and may as well have additional opportunities to use language and have greater motivation to
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learn. In this perspective, we are of the opinion that the activities used for short stories in EFL
can prepare prospective teachers to encourage their students to use English to communicate their
deep feelings, experiences, and thinking.
Indeed, integrating short stories in the EFL classes allows prospective EFL teachers to
develop their sensitivity to the relationship between short stories and the process of foreign
language acquisition. Lazar (1993, p.15) states that “short stories encourage students to talk
about their opinions and feelings”. Similarly, integrating short stories in EFL class can also
improve students’ competence to think critically about the use of this target language in real
situational contexts and social settings (ibid.).
Both exercises of exploring activities used for short stories and reflecting on how short
stories are used in the classrooms help prospective EFL teachers to develop and promote in their
classrooms a positive stance towards short stories. Simultaneously, by using short stories in the
EFL classes, teachers directly address the issue of motivation. They also enable prospective EFL
teachers to create meaningful interaction in the classrooms and to reinforce language skills
(listening, reading, speaking and writing). Short stories offer alternative reading materials which
give the language learners an opportunity to interact with the text emotionally and involve
themselves personally. Furthermore, in line with Lazar (1993, pp.72-73), “the element of human
interest in short stories motivates the learners to respond the universal themes and other human
experiences in their own way”.

1.1 Statement of the problem

During our supervision of teaching practices in 2020 at Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary
school in Mozambique, we noticed that most EFL teachers did not use short stories in their
English Language classes. As a result, we felt that the main tendency in the English Language
classes was to practice language skills (reading, speaking, writing and listening) around topics of
learners’ textbooks related to sports, business, environment, entertainment, technology, diseases,
politics, arts and other topics different from those that might be provided by short stories.
Although the students’ textbooks included some literature, teachers at these levels did not use
short stories as additional materials even with the textbooks of grades 11 and 12 have prescribed
literature in their contents. Furthermore, the teaching of English in Mozambique is aimed at
enabling students to communicate in English with foreign English speakers, thus the approach
adopted is communicative language teaching. The main focus is on getting learners to
understand the intention and expression of the writers and speakers. So, the training of
prospective teachers to integrate short stories in classrooms is congruent to CLT principles.
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Subsequently, we argue that communicative functions are more important than linguistic
structures because we have experienced the situation in which students are able to grasp more
grammatical rules than they realize, but they have less time to apply what they have learned
because they are so focused on the grammar rules. English grammar rules are important but
when learners get to an intermediate level thus they need to learn English differently. With this
in mind, when students focus on grammar rules, they hold themselves back from experiencing
the joy and the freedom of using the English language. As an alternative, the students should be
engaged in real-life communication.

However, the textbooks of grades 11 and 12 are designed in the same way which is
characterized by lack of the type of communicative activities that are prescribed in CLT. In line
with Hurst (2018), a teacher-centred approach does not allow for any kind of counterpoint or
individual interaction with the text. Day & Bamford (2002) maintain that the primary activity of
a reading lesson should be learners reading texts – not listening to the teacher, not reading
comprehension questions, not writing answers to comprehension questions, not discussing the
content of the text. In other words, reading is a feeder of other skills.

Therefore, the present study aims to train prospective teachers to use short stories in
developing reading skills for EFL students. Prospective EFL teachers will be trained to integrate
short stories in their classrooms and enhance their students’ communicative competence.

Collie and Slater (1991) argued that short stories are beneficial because of their short length;
their clarity and simplicity; their different tastes and interests; and their vast and varied topics.
As alluded to above, the textbooks of grades 11 and 12 are drawn around topics related to sports,
business, environment, entertainment, technology, diseases, politics, arts and other topics
different from those incorporated in short stories or any kind of literary texts. In general,
teachers are more dependent on the students’ textbooks than on bringing their own materials into
their classes. In this context, therefore, we identified the problem: how prospective teachers can
be trained to use short stories in EFL class?

1.2 Purpose of study

The purpose of this research is to train teachers to integrate short stories in EFL.
Specifically, we aim to review studies concerned with the benefits of short stories in the EFL
classes and to propose a pedagogical implementation within a prospective EFL teacher training
project.
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Pardede (2001) argued that short stories are more beneficial than informational material in
stimulating the acquisition process as they provide authentic contexts for processing new
language. Short stories may provide an interesting and thought-provoking point of comparison.
So, we maintain that short stories encourage interaction and they can be effectively mined for
discussions and sharing feelings and opinions. Hence, reading short stories may reinforce
language skills such as reading, listening, speaking and writing.

Moreover, short stories can expand language awareness and they can motivate learners
because reading short stories help learners pay attention more to real-life language used, for
instance, the students also study real English conversation as they read literary texts. This study
will be beneficial for those who are directly or indirectly engaged in English education like
teacher trainers, teacher training institutions, subject experts, supervisors, observer teachers,
policy makers, curriculum designers and trainee teachers. This study will be beneficial to
professionals who are directly or indirectly engaged in the field of teaching especially in EFL
class.

As a matter of fact, if students are not exposed to alternative materials such as short stories,
we argue that students will unlikely familiarize themselves with different language uses, forms
or conventions as a result language will be difficult to develop. As a result, students may not feel
developing a very important ability for reading, which is, predicting skills.

Therefore, the findings of this action research will be of great value for prospective EFL
teachers as well as for students. As professionals, prospective EFL teachers can improve their
teaching skills and communicative competence by extensive reading of short stories. For the
learners, it will be helpful in the sense that short stories will enhance their motivation and
interest in learning the English language.

Short stories have been seen as motivating materials that reinforce English language
acquisition as they provide much more exposure to natural language than informational
materials (Collie & Slater, 1991). In this perspective, the purpose of this action research is also
to motivate and encourage the students to speak English in front of the class and be able to use
English with foreign people. We can gain experience about research that is related to short
stories as potential learning materials. For prospective EFL teachers, the existence of this
research aims to provide solutions to some problems that may arise during the teaching process.
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Furthermore, this research can also be used as framework to make the teaching process
enjoyable and motivating especially in using short stories in EFL lessons. So, it is important to
carry out this research because we want to train prospective EFL teachers to use short stories to
enhance reading skills. This study is important because EFL prospective teachers will improve
their teaching skills and communicative competence by extensive reading of short stories. For
learners, it will enhance their motivation and interest in learning English as foreign language.
Indeed, our purpose is also to describe the potential additional benefits of integrating short
stories in the EFL classes as well as to propose concrete ideas of pedagogical implementation of
EFL teacher training project.

Indeed, the present study also examined the practicality of training prospective EFL teachers
to use literary texts in the EFL class, especially short stories as alternative materials to EFL
teaching. Material designed around short stories was used to teach reading skills alongside with
prescribed coursebook texts. This study was motivated by the following hypothesis: integrating
short stories in EFL lessons may help EFL teachers develop reading skills of their learners.

1.3. Objectives

- To train EFL teachers to integrate short stories in the EFL lessons.

-To describe the additional potential benefits of using short stories to promote reading as a
skill for EFL learners.

-To propose teaching strategies of using short stories for pedagogical implementation of EFL
teacher training project.

1.4. Research questions

The research questions are as follows:
- How can prospective EFL teachers be trained to use short stories in EFL class?
- What are the additional potential benefits of using short stories in EFL class?
- What teaching strategies can be recommended to prospective EFL teachers to integrate short
stories in EFL class?
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1.5. Theoretical framework

In this section, we examine two different approaches that connect us to the existing
foundational review of theories that serves as a plan for developing the arguments we will use in
our study. First, we discuss the social constructivist approach whereby teaching is learner-
centered. Second, we analyze a communicative language approach in which teachers of English
are encouraged to integrate authentic and alternative materials in EFL classes, such as short
stories. Then, we explore the possibilities, strengths, and weaknesses of the use of each approach
to the analysis of potential additional benefits of integrating short stories in EFL classes.

Social Constructivist Approach

This research project will be framed within social constructivist approach. The approach was
developed by Lev Vygotsky in 1978. Brown (1994, p. 43) states that “learning is an active,
social and collaborative process through which learners construct knowledge with others.” From
this perspective, communication and interaction play a fundamental role in any learning
experience (Vygotsky, 1978, cited in Ellis, 1999).
In other words, social constructivists postulate that knowledge cannot be developed in
isolation, but through social interaction. In this regard, this pedagogical approach properly fits
with the aim of this study since, as we have mentioned before, our aim of this study is also to
enhance reading skills through collaborative processes which in this study are divided into
interactions between student-student, student environment, and student-teacher rather than
viewing learning as an internal process of knowledge transfer, whereby knowledge is transferred
from the individual’s external environment into their memory.
In addition, this theory conceives the learning process as being constructed by the creation of
knowledge through interpretation of their experiences and the interaction with other individuals
(McMahon, 1997; Flavell & Piaget, 1963). The idea is to provide prospective EFL teachers
stories in which they find a relation to their EFL students’ real lives in order to promote the
construction of knowledge and not a process of transference; in other words, to make the
teaching process and the improvement of the reading skills a significant process in which EFL
learners have an active role.
In line with Sullivan (2000), in the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think
of knowledge as a dynamic ever-changing view of the world we live in. As a result, we argue
that, by implementing such teaching strategies, EFL students work together while sharing ideas
and challenging each other’s perspectives. According to Vygotsky (cited in Ellis, 1978), in
relation to the teacher’s role, they do not take the role of the "sage on the stage” instead of that,
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teachers act as a "guide on the side" providing students with opportunities to test the adequacy of
their current understandings. Thus, they create situations where EFL students feel safe
questioning and reflecting on their own processes and provide students opportunities for more
expert and less expert students to have them learn from each other. In terms of knowledge,
teachers should collaborate with students in constructing knowledge through communicative
activities (Sullivan, 2000).
According to Lazar (1993, p.8), “prospective EFL teachers present knowledge as a process
of active discovery by providing the necessary resources and present alternative tasks to
contextualize learning through real world”. In other words, all these assumptions are in relation
to the aim and development of this study in which the stories become the necessary resources to
make the English learning and the development of the reading skills an enjoyable, alternative,
interactive and meaningful process framed on activities related to the real world which are found
in the different stories worked during every session.
Therefore, the expectation within a constructivist learning environment is that the EFL
students play a more active role, and accept more responsibility for their own learning. In other
words, the role of the EFL student is to actively participate in their own education, they have to
accommodate and assimilate new information with their current understanding. One important
aspect of controlling their own learning process is reflecting on their experiences, so students
begin their study with pre-conceived notions (Vygotsky cited in Ellis, 1978).
Nevertheless, the Social Constructivist Approach (SCA) has limitations such as (1) the EFL
student needs much more time for the construction process since time is used in a flexible way;
(2) both the teacher and student are required to do a lot of preparation. Constructivism has little
to say about teaching beyond the requirement to ascertain students’ prior knowledge (Ellis,
1978). Therefore, Social Constructivist Approach inspired the communicative language
approach. Thus, Communicative Language Teaching Approach is discussed below.

The Communicative Language approach

In the nineteenth century, the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) dominated English as
Foreign Language Teaching. During the era, translating literary texts from the foreign language to
the students’ native language was one of the main learning activities. Therefore, “literary works
were a notable source of material in EFL teaching”, (Prodromou, 2000, p.7). But when GTM was
replaced by the structuralism Approach in 1960s to the end of 1970s, literature was no longer
used. Structuralism was concerned with correctness of grammatical form and not with content or
interpretation of the written word or style.
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In other words, teaching a foreign language was regarded as a matter of linguistics. Then,
when Direct Method, The Audio – lingual method, Community Language Learning,
Suggestopedia, the Silent Way, Total Physical Response, and the Natural Approach successively
dominated EFL teaching, literature was not utilized. Later on and with the appearance of the
Communicative Approach in the late 70’s and very early 80’s, literature was also ignored. The
tendency in EFL classrooms was to teach “usable, practical” contents. Thus, literary works had
no place in the curriculum. During this period most EFL courses were mainly aimed to enable the
students to communicate orally. Consequently, dialogues dominated the curriculum.

However, since the 1980s the situation changed quite radically when literature found its way
back into the teaching of EFL. But, different from the way it was used with the GTM, the current
use of literary works in EFL classes is to improve communicative competence and provide “a
springboard for the development of critical thinking and aesthetic students’ awareness on the
culture and society of the relevant country.”

Furthermore, the study will also be framed within the communicative language approach:
CLT is the approach recommended by the Mozambican English syllabus. It is partially a
reaction against the artificiality of pattern-practice and also against the belief that consciously
learning the grammar of a language will result in an ability to use the language (Harmer, 2005).
As previously stated above, CLT emerged as a new teaching approach in Britain in the
1970’s and very early 80’s, but CLT approach was introduced in the 1990s in Mozambique.
Although there are different versions of how to create communicative´ experiences in the EFL
classroom, we argue that these experiences are based on a view that the functions of language
(e.g. what is used for) should be emphasized rather than the forms of the language (e.g. correct
grammatical or phonological structure). A communicative language approach is characterized by
lessons organized around concepts such as “asking for things” in different social contexts, rather
than “the forms of the past tense” in different sentence patterns.
CLT begins with a theory of language as communication, which aims to develop learners’
communicative competence. Nevertheless, communicative competence was a notion first
proposed by Hymes (1972, p.67) to represent the use of language in the social context and the
observance of sociolinguistic norms of appropriacy. Since Hymes proposed this notion,
numerous interpretations have been proposed to define the term “communicative competence”
from the time it was introduced into the language teaching literature.
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One of the best-known definitions of communicative competence was the one proposed by
Canale & Swain in 1980 (Hymes 2009, p.68). Canale & Michael (1983) refined the definition
and identified the four components of communicative competence: grammatical, sociolinguistic,
discourse and strategic competence. They argued that a communicative approach must provide
learners with the opportunity “to respond to genuine communicative needs in realistic foreign
language situations” (Savignon, 2002, p.22).
In addition, Brown (2000, p.246) observes that “communicative competence is that aspect of
our four competences that enables us to survey and interpret messages and negotiates meaning
within specific contexts”. In order to achieve this therefore, the syllabus recommends the
teaching of English skills using a communicative language teaching approach (CLT).
In theory, a communicative language teaching program aims at developing interpretation,
expression and negotiation of meaning. Learners are expected to be active participants in
meaningful interaction in class. Despite the theoretical development of CLT, however, the
literature shows that understanding among teachers and learners remains limited
(Kumaravadivelu, 1993, pp.12-21; Chung, 2009, p.68).
In Mozambique, the approach adopted is known as Communicative Language Teaching. The
main feature exhibited in the new curricular documents is the focus on improving the
communicative competence amongst the EFL students. Despite the Mozambican government’s
great efforts in making CLT the mainstream in English language teaching, a growing number of
studies (elsewhere) suggest that the promotion of CLT in English as foreign language classroom
is difficult and the rate of its successful implementation is low (Anderson, 1993; Ellis, 1996; Li,
1998; Lo Castro, 1996; Sato, 2002; Shamim, 1996; Wang & Savignon, 2001; Kashoki, 1990).
All the activities and methodologies that will take place along the interventions will be
framed on CLT principles which are the basis of the development and scope of the main goals
which this research has established. This CLT method will encourage students to take part in
their English learning process as well as to make them aware of it, and therefore to improve their
reading skills and at the same time to increase their participation in the classroom activities.
Indeed, CLT lays emphasis on an oral method of teaching since it focuses on developing
students’ communicative competence. The backbone to this approach is real communication
which provides learners with the opportunity to use basic and instinctive methods for language
attainment. This renders the Communicative language teaching approach to be learner centred.
The Communicative Language Teaching approach is in line with Hall (2005), Pillar (2007) and
Paran (2008) who describe literature as one language teaching resource which is both real, or
authentic and very rich. Therefore, as teachers use literary texts, they act as ‘agent of social
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change’ by utilizing classroom environment to foster intercultural communication among

students of different culture.

This study followed a blending qualitative and quantitative approach. We conducted an action
research. First, we described the research methodology and the data collection methods. We
explained our role as researchers in conjunction with ethical consideration in the research process
and constraints. Second, we both provided information on the subjects of the study and types of
data. In order to carry out the analysis, we used a triangulation technique of data collection in
which was necessary the combination of two or more theoretical perspectives, data sources or
approaches. Therefore, the nature of the study is desriptive because the study involves observing
and describing the teaching practices of prospective EFL teachers that integrate short stories in
the classrooms.

However, the participants of the study were selected from class teachers of English at
Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary school and prospective EFL teachers from Rovuma
University-Niassa brunch. Among four class teachers and four prospective EFL teachers, data
were collected using observation checklist for four prospective EFL teachers and a questionnaire
for class teachers of English as well as learners.

1.6. Scope of the study

Our aim is to train prospective EFL teachers to use short stories in their lessons, especially
with grades 11 and 12 at Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School, in Mozambique. Therefore,
this study focused on training prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in order to
promote reading as a skill.

Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School is a state school located in the outskirts of Lichinga
town in Niassa Province. It is situated between the two villages called Nomba and Matola and it
is four kilometres away from Lichinga town. Moreover, this is a case study limited to
observation checklists, document analysis and questionnaires.

1.7. Thesis organization

The structure of this action research study is organized into five chapters as follows: in
chapter one, we describe the linguistic situation in Mozambique and educational context of
Mozambique; we present a linguistic situation of Mozambique, particularly languages spoken in
Niassa Province. We explain how Bantu languages, Portuguese, English, and French came to be
spoken in the country, and came to be valorized. We present an overview of English language in
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Mozambican curriculum; we discuss the training of EFL teachers in Mozambique and the
training of EFL teachers at Rovuma University, finally, the chapter deals with the practices of
EFL prospective teachers at CPT secondary school.
Chapter two of this study is a literature review of relevant research. The chapter deals with
the review of studies and starts with defining concepts of short stories. We discuss the role of
literature, specifically short stories in English as foreign language and we provide a rationale for
the use of short stories in the EFL classes and ways of using short stories to develop reading
skills in the classroom settings. First, we start with defining concepts that include:literature,
short stories and reading comprehension. Second, we review studies that have supported the
integration of literary texts in ELT. Finally, we consider different aspects of dealing with the
knowledge discussed by different authors related to the role of short stories and theoretical
considerations supporting the use of short stories in the English Language classrooms.
Chapter three is devoted to methodology of the research as well as an in-depth look is
taken at the research design of this study as well as at the methodology involved in executing the
study. The instruments of data collection together with detailed procedure for applying the
instruments are discussed. This chapter also deals with the implementation of the pedagogy
including four stages: selecting appropriate and meaningful short stories for learners, promote
reading as a skill, promoting greater motivation of learners for reading short stories and testing
learners before and after reading short stories. We present data collected through questionnaire
for teachers (QT) and a questionnaire for learners (QL), classroom observation and document
analysis including the pre-tests and post-tests administered to the learners and English syllabus.
Chapter four, our data analysis and discussion of data are presented. In this chapter, we first
analyse data and discussion of the data collected from qualitative instruments, for instance,
classroom observation and document analysis; second, we analyse data and discussion of the
data collected from quantitative instruments such as pre-proficiency and post-proficiency tests.
In this chapter, a reflection is given of the extent to which alternative texts such as a collection of
short stories, conforms to the expectations that were raised in the literature review in Chapter
two.

Chapter five starts with a brief summary of the study and ends with final conclusion which is
followed by a summary of the potential limitations and contributions of the study and some
suggestions of the further possible research.
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CHAPTER I: The linguistic situation in Mozambique

Mozambique, with an area of 799.380 km², is located on the eastern coast of Southern
Africa, south of the equator. It is bordered by Tanzania in the north, Malawi and Zambia in the
north-west, Zimbabwe in the west, South Africa and Swaziland in the south-east, and also by
South Africa in the south. Mozambique gained its independence from Portugal in 1975. Since
that time, the Mozambican government has faced numerous problems such as a sixteen-year
civil war, famines, flooding, extreme poverty, and the pandemic covid-19.
During the colonial period, there were basically two unique terms used by settlers to refer to
the languages spoken in Mozambique for centuries: dialects and indigenous languages
(occasionally also called “native” or “autochthonous”). In fact, it was only one term, because
both terms were two sides of the same pejorative coin (Lopes, 1997).
In the colonial context, either term was used derogatorily, meaning that other people spoke
something primitive and unsuited to one’s own dignity.
Neither the Mozambican Constitution adopted at independence in 1975, nor its revised
version published in 1978, make a single reference to language or to official language policy.
However, the absence of a constitutional statement has not meant that the country lacked, in
convention and practice, a certain type of language policy, the techniques of which could, in
Bamgbose’s terms (1991, p. 112), be characterized as the avoidance of policy formulation:
“absence of a statement does not mean absence of a policy.”
The constitution of the Republic of Mozambique published in 1975, 1990 and 2004, does not
state anything about the use of English language in Mozambique although the country’s primary
and secondary syllabi state that English must be learnt as a foreign language to help
Mozambicans communicate with people from foreign countries (PCEB, 2003 e PCESG, 2007).
This disparity represents a gap that language planners, for policy makers can suggest to
constitution-makers of the Republic of Mozambique to address.
Furthermore, the government faces unique linguistic challenges including how to unite and
educate a nation that speaks at least twenty different African languages (Firmino, 2002).
According to the Mozambican constitution, revised and updated in 1990, “in the Republic of
Mozambique, Portuguese is the official language” (Constituição 8).
However, African languages and cultures were severely denigrated during Portuguese
colonialism and in establishing a new government the Mozambican lawmakers intended to
reverse the adverse situations where African languages use was not promoted or the teaching or
learning of Bantu languages was deficient.
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Thus, the constitution also states, “The State values the national languages and promotes
their development and their increasing implementation as vehicular languages in the education
of the citizens” (Constituição 8, 1990). There was excitement among many educators in
Mozambique because the government had announced in 1990, that instruction in the Bantu
languages would begin in selected primary schools-although not many educators were sure how
this would happen.
As Kashoki (1990, p.6) observes, the nation, at least that segment which is interested in the
matter, is deeply divided on these issues. More vocal advocates have gone further to contend that
the preservation of African’s cultures would be meaningless unless it is accompanied by a
corresponding development of her languages (Kashoki 1990, p.7).
Notwithstanding many people see English as Mozambique’s language of the future
(Mkuti, 1999). The fact that most, if not all of Mozambique’s neighbors use English as an
official language and a medium of instruction in schools, justifies the need to implement the
learning and teaching of the English language in the country for purposes of regional integration
and intra-regional communication.
Furthermore, as a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) there
is a need for officials and citizens to have good mastery of the language as English is the official
and working language of this regional entity. In fact, Mkuti (1999, p.51) believes that “there is a
linguistic revolution taking place in Mozambique today, which is likely to have a great impact
on the country and the utilization of its linguistic resources."
In terms of teaching, the communicative language approach (CLT) in which learner
engagement is paramount in the process of learning is not emphasized in the English syllabus in
Mozambique. When applying the principles of communicative language teaching, reading of
literary texts ought to be considered central as “the most obvious source of authentic Foreign
Language (FL) input and contexts for discussion, interaction, and writing exercises” (ibid).
Explaining the Mozambican context, the case study of Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary
School, we argue that traditional EFL instruction in Mozambique focuses on teacher-centered,
grammar-translation and audio-lingual approaches that fail to meet students’ needs when they
communicate with English speakers. Therefore, we maintain that traditional grammar-translation
teaching/learning approach has caused both teachers and students to neglect the value of
communicative competence.
Consequently, CLT causes a gap between the theoretical underpinning of the CLT principles
and its implementation. Likewise, teachers’ difficulties faced during the course of the teaching
practice at CPT secondary school could be classified as follows꞉ we found out that the exercise
 21

of material design was not a simple one. All the English textbooks available have been
developed under the influence of the grammar-translation and audio-lingual methods, so
teachers wishing to venture into communicative language teaching should be prepared to design
their own materials and this, in itself, requires a lot of time, effort, knowledge and skills.
Because most of teachers were already overloaded, any additional work would be a burden
for them. As already alluded to, there were difficulties caused by the educational system itself.
Moreover, students do not display reading habits. Training students to obtain good grades on
English tests becomes the most important objectives. It is generally acknowledged that the
higher the marks, the higher the students’ English proficiency. However, examination-guided
instruction and the premium placed on lecturing on selected textbook materials have led to
failure in learning real-life communicative English.
The other constraint the teaching practice revealed concerned the grammar based
examinations. In addition, teachers are therefore under pressure to make students do well in the
national examinations to the extent that they would rather devote valuable class time to teaching
test taking skills and drilling students on multiple choice grammar items than teach spoken
communication which is never examined. The nature of the current examinations has greatly
affected the way the English language is taught in Mozambique, particularly at Cristiano Paulo
Taimo Secondary School in Niassa Province. There were constraints derived from CLT itself
since there was a lack of an effective and efficient assessment instrument and this was a barrier
to the effective implementation of CLT.

In Mozambique, critics of the education system have attributed this failure to the teaching
methodology employed by teachers (behaviourist-structural approaches) resulting in a number of
school leavers with high marks in the School Certificate Examinations failing to attain
communicative competence.
Due to such discrepancies, the Ministry of Education has added to the syllabus the
component of CLT; Second Cycle (grades 11 and 12) Proficiency Objectives state that learners
should communicate with some confidence on familiar routines and non-routines matters related
to his or her interests (Programa de Inglês da 11ᵃ classe or 12ᵃ classe, 2010). In other words, the
Second Cycle Syllabus of English gives emphasis on students’ fluency as learners interact with a
degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite
possible. Similarly, learners should tell stories, entertain and persuade; learners should use some
figurative styles and idiomatic expressions (ibid, 2010, p.11).
 22

However, the implementation of CLT remains a pipe dream as there has been resistance by
teachers perhaps because CLT postulates authentic reading materials and meaningful
communication as the goal of classroom activities.
Indeed, as previously described, in colonial period, the status of Bantu languages was lowered.
Portuguese was taught as the official language in Mozambican education system whereas
English was a second foreign language taught in Mozambique. Moreover, when we come to deal
with English Language in Mozambique, we will see that English as foreign language has a long
tradition in Mozambique as it can be illustrated by evident marks of English in all languages
spoken in Mozambique including Portuguese. In terms of teaching English as foreign language,
we have seen that the Ministry of Education adopted CLT approach, but its implementation has
been difficult and challenging.

1.1. Description of the Educational Context

Over the last twenty years, English language teaching in Mozambique has improved. Updated
teaching and, learning methodologies and more hours allocated to English teaching per week in
the classroom have contributed to the professionalization of pedagogy. However, the successful
mastering of the English language remains a desired but yet unachieved goal for most students.
Despite the introduction of three revised syllabi during the past fifteen years, students’ learning
potential remains unfulfilled.
Along with the government’s efforts to improve English language teaching in the country,
several state and private language institutions have been established since then. The introduction
of English in primary schools was supposed to solve the problem of the poor pedagogical
performance of students who had finished secondary school. The teaching of English in primary
education forced the curriculum designers to change the English curricula to accommodate the
contents previously taught in the first cycle of secondary schools.
English is taught in the two last grades of primary education (grades 6 and 7) and in all grades
of secondary education (grade 8, grade 9, grade 10, grade 11, and grade 12). All in all,
Secondary education (ESG) is taught in two cycles: ESG1 and ESG2. English is taught for 3
hours per week in grades 8 through 10 and for 3 to 5 hours per week in grades 11 and 12.
The first cycle (ESG1) lasts for 3 years and is for those aged 14 to 16, or grades 8 to 10; it had
approximately 58,048 students in 1997. The second cycle (ESG2) lasts 2 years and is for those
aged 17 and 18, or grades 11 and 12; it had approximately 7,037 students in 1997. There are
only 82 state secondary schools nationwide, of which only 18 offer classes through grade 12.
The medium of instruction is Portuguese, and both Portuguese and English are compulsory
 23

school subjects. Eleven subjects are taught in ESG1 and ESG2. Portuguese is taught for 5 hours
per week in grades 8 through 10 and for 4 hours per week in grades 11 and 12.
The Mozambican English syllabus recommends the teaching of English skills using a
communicative language teaching approach (CLT). CLT is formulated on the premise that in
order for language learners to become proficient, learners need to use that language.
According to the 2007 INDE/ MINED, Curriculum plan for secondary Education, teachers
and students should be able to reflect on their own teaching and learning of words and phrases;
reflect on the progress of their own teaching and learning; reflect on and draw conclusions about
their ways of learning and teaching English language, and evaluate their work in order to change
and enhance learning.
Similarly, insights are still required which would enable teachers to tackle the particular problem
areas that need to receive special attention when language learning takes place in an alien and
unnatural environment such as the walled confines of the classroom. Compounding the problem,
and although in recent years the situation has changed considerably for the better, it is the fact
that competing and sometimes conflicting linguistic theories as they have developed divergently
have proved to be hindrances rather than useful aids to language teaching and language learning.
The result is that products or protagonists of one school have tended to apply to language
teaching and learning the ‘religious’ tenets of their particular brand of linguistics and to make
little more than ‘grudging reference’ to the claims of the ‘rival linguistic school’ (Kashoki, 1990,
p.83).
In order to meet the above targets of enhancing the development of literacy, teaching materials
are a necessary prerequisite and one of the key elements needed in achieving this goal. Through
effective teaching of the four English language skills (listening and speaking, reading and
writing) and by using appropriate learning tools and methodologies, learners can expand their
knowledge of the language and their ability to actually use the language.
Therefore, these benefits seem to elude many students for a number of reasons. One of which
is the way English language skills are taught due to inadequate teaching and learning resources
prescribed by the Ministry of Education through the Curriculum Development Centre (INDE).
At present, the situation is that many government run schools have continued to lack teaching
and learning materials due to inadequate funding.
Thus, the government has now realized that the current state of affairs is not in the interest
of the students in Mozambique and should not be allowed to continue. Notwithstanding, urgent
solutions or measures to mitigate the difficulties schools have been experiencing have to be
sought. Besides, it has now been realized by many educationists in Mozambique that if the
 24

teaching of English as a foreign language does not satisfy purposes that make sense to the
students due to non-availability of teaching and learning materials, it is unlikely to satisfy
general curriculum purposes because the students will lack motivation. Another issue that has
been debated over the years has been the issue of communicative competence. Lopes (1997)
argued that EFL students are leaving schools in Mozambique without attaining appropriate
communicative competence levels.
The Communicative Approach is formulated on the premise that successful language
learning is not only a knowledge of the structures and forms of a language, but also the fuctions
and purpose that a language serves in different communicative settings (Lightbown & Spada,
1993). In this perspective, EFL students need to use a language. All in all, learning and teaching
can be viewed in a holistic way, since it reflects the real world, which is interactive (Cain, 1991).
This interaction can be achieved through the integration of disciplines. So, the integration
method is a great gift to experienced teachers and it is like getting a new pair of lenses that
makes teaching a lot more exciting and helps them look forward into the next century. It also
helps students take control of their own learning. This is so because the method is student-
centred unlike majority of the teaching methods, which are teacher-centred. Integrated subjects
are taught in such a manner that they are almost inseparable. What is learned and applied in one
area of one subject is related and used to reinforce, provide repetition and expand the knowledge
and skills learned in the other subject. This process of synergistic teaching allows the student to
quickly perceive the relationship between learning in all subject areas, and its application
throughout the learning system.
All in all, the integrated method, just like curriculum integration, can customarily take one of
the four different forms of integration. These forms include: correlation of two or more fields of
study, integration within a broad field of study, interdisciplinary studies and trans-disciplinary
programmes (Lewy, 1991). These four provide the essential ways by which integration can be
achieved. The integration of literature and English Language provides genuine and expressed
samples of language in context. This helps the students to gain familiarity with many different
linguistic uses, forms and conventions of the written mode.
According to Collie and Slater (1991) literature organizes content in terms of four Language art
skills: listening, reading, writing and speaking. Therefore, the integration of literary texts plays a
pivotal role in the EFL classes.
 25

1.1.1 The Training of EFL Teachers in Mozambique

The training of EFL teachers plays an important role in an educational system, since teachers
are central to the change process. In Mozambique, there are several primary training colleges,
which are state institutions specialized in the training of EFL teachers for the primary level of
education. In fact, short stories are completely ignored in English textbooks that have been used
in the general curriculum of education.
The program of Institutes of Primary Teachers training in Mozambique has five subjects in
Portuguese, and these subjects are Psycho-pedagogy, School Organisation and Management,
Fundamental Notions of Construction, Maintenance and School Production, Teaching
Methodologies of Moral Education and Code of Conduct, and Mozambican Bantu Languages.
From these five subjects, none of them is taught in English. English is only used when trainees
are dealing with reading, listening, speaking, writing and grammar and related methodologies.
Consequently, trainees are not fully exposed to English language. Besides, trainees are not
trained to use short stories. Primary teachers are not educated to use short stories in their
classrooms. Indeed, Mozambican Primary EFL teachers are not being trained to think of short
stories as useful for their English language classes.
In 2021, we carefully analyzed the programs of courses that students in the English
Department of Rovuma University were required to attend. In their B.A. Honors that is, the first
degree students receive after four years of EFL teacher training; students were required to attend
a course entitled Introduction to literature and Didactics of literature. The course syllabus
included the analysis of the structure of short stories and students were expected to identify
“differences between literary and non-literary texts.” Notwithstanding, student-teachers are not
encouraged to use short stories in English Language Teaching (ELT).
Sifuna (1991) argues that a well-designed and effectively implemented teacher training
program is the key element to the successful implementation and institutionalization of change-
oriented programs. He attributes failure of intended educational changes mainly to ineffective
teacher training programmes. For example, in Mozambican teacher training colleges, the
preparation of teachers to teach English language and Literature is done in such a way that
English and Literature are taught as separate entities, for example: Introduction to literature,
Didactics of literature without any connection with English Language Teaching Practices. This
therefore means that the major challenges facing teachers as far as the CLT is concerned can be
traced back to their training.
 26

EFL teachers mainly use the lecture method and spend much time on dictating notes to the
learners in the same way their lecturers stressed transmitting factual knowledge. This study
therefore attempts to propose ways of bridging this gap. The teacher is the most important
person in the effective integration of short stories in English as an instrument in language
learning. Therefore, it is important that student-teachers are well prepared to meet this challenge.
However, the problem of how to integrate the diverse ideas from separate disciplines still
lingers. To solve this problem, subjecting a student-teacher to specialized training on integration
becomes very necessary. Studies carried out in many countries indicate that there is an important
relationship between the approach to training in teachers’ colleges and how beginning teachers
teach in their classrooms (Verspoor, 1989; Collie, and Slater, 1991; Arends, 1995). Such studies
include that by UNESCO (1993) which advocates for improved quality of intake and longer
training programmes.
According to Verspoor (1989) a well-designed and effectively implemented teacher training
programme was found to be the key element in the successful implementation and
institutionalization of change programs. No matter how carefully the curriculum and materials
are planned, if teachers are not effectively trained on integration of literary texts such as short
stories in ELT, the program cannot reach its objectives. Good training goes a long way in
ensuring that the teachers of English language and literature are well versed with skills of the
integration of literary texts such as short stories in ELT (ibid. 1989).
Therefore, we can conclude that, if teachers of English language and literature are well
trained in the use of short stories in their classes, then they will perform better. All in all, short
stories are good teaching materials because they provide students with “rich exposure to English
literature” (Tomlinson, 1985, as cited in Butler, 2002, p. 37). Wong, Kwok, and Choi (1995)
mentioned that the “genuineness of time, location and people” distinguishes authentic materials
from contrived ones; these elements are represented in literature. Short stories are authentic
materials because they represent events and pass on the true beliefs of the targeted cultures or
contexts.
Thus, literature is full of authentic input (Ghosn, 1998). This input might be more meaningful
to students than the input from expository passages. Students’ interaction with events and
characters will motivate them to continue reading and create a meaningful context for new
learning. In addition, the study seeks to provide guidance or a model that would help student-
teachers design classroom activities within the framework of the principles of CLT as
recommended in the Secondary English Language Syllabus.
 27

1.1.2 The English language in Mozambique

In the colonial days, English was a second foreign language in schools (French was first),
but since independence English has been taught as a first foreign language (Lopes, 1997). The
English language was introduced in schools in Mozambique during the colonial period by
Protestant missionaries. They arrived in Mozambique and worked for the expansion of education
in the interior of the country between 1881 and 1889. Protestant missionaries conducted
religious and teaching activities in Bantu languages, they also taught in English. Before the
decree of 1921, these missionaries had a strong impact on the education of middle-class Africans
(Maciel, 2007).
Economical agreements between Portugal and England facilitated, in particular, the
emigration labourers from Southern Mozambique to the English colonies and Boer Republics. In
1896, the government initiated contacts with the Chamber of Mines which resulted in agreement
over a system of labour recruitment in Mozambique. At the time of Anglo-Boer War (1899-
1902), there were 80 000 southern Mozambicans working in the Transvaal but also to Southern
Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Nyasaland (now Malawi).
The first formal migrant labour agreement with Southern Rhodesia dates back to 1913.
Over time, Portugal’s interests in Mozambique and in the region shaped migrant labour and
inter-territorial relationships in Southern Africa. In 1964, when profound political
transformations began to take place in the area, the number of Mozambicans working in the
Transvaal mines came close to 100 000. In addition to the wave of Mozambicans from the
northern region of Cabo Delgado, who in the past had migrated to Tanganyika (now Tanzania)
to work on the sisal plantations, there were those who also went to join the Mozambican
liberation movement. At the time of independence in 1975, it was estimated that half a million
Mozambicans were working or living in neighbouring countries, and that a few hundred
thousand more had also been abroad in the region.
Subsequently, English became available not only to middle-class Africans studying in
Protestant missions, but also to lower-class citizens (migrant labourers) working in South Africa
and, later on, in the farms of Rhodesia or other neighbouring countries. (Maciel, 2007)
For over a century, migrant workers were the main element of contact and lifestyle exchange
between Mozambique and the neighbouring English-speaking areas. But British influence in
Mozambique also came through the concession by the Portuguese authorities of vast areas of
land as well as the utilization of transport networks, particularly the railway lines to and from the
 28

hinterland access to the ocean to facilitate the hinterland’s links with the world soon became an
object of ambition and dispute between Portugal, the Transvaal and England.
On the language front, the marks of English are evident in all languages spoken in
Mozambique, Portuguese included. English has, indeed, had a strong influence on the languages
of Mozambique, and an enormous stock of English words has been adopted (and adapted) into
the Bantu languages. Despite the geographical situation of Mozambique, the migratory
movement of Mozambicans to English-speaking neighboring countries, and the British
investment in Mozambique, the Portuguese colonial government did not have a very favorable
attitude towards English (Maciel, 2007).
In 1921 the Portuguese Republican government restricted the action of Protestant missions
that taught English to middle class Africans living in rural contexts. After 1930, the government
of Salazar established a very centralized system of governance. He forced all Portuguese
colonies to use the same plans of study and textbooks used in Portugal. The foreign languages
taught in the Portuguese public system of education were French and English. Those languages
were taught in the secondary level of education. Since Portugal had better diplomatic relations
with France than with England, the Portuguese gave more prominence to French than to English.
French was learned for seven years whereas English was learned for only five years (Maciel,
2007).
Therefore, the teaching of English as a foreign language has a long tradition in Mozambique.
Moreover, Mozambique is a country surrounded by English language speaking countries such as
Malawi, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland and Zambia. The use of the English
language in the country is of paramount importance in several ambits such as education, politics,
economy, trade, and social communication and interaction. Besides, Mozambique is a member
state of a SADC and Commonwealth. The tradition is at present taking on a renewed and
increased importance as a result of the relevance of English for business, transport, science,
technology and regional travel. Business and trade contributed to the use of the English language.
English has become more important in the globally inclusive business environment.
Another important reason of using the English as foreign language is that “American popular
culture” (like music and McDonald’s) has quickly spread throughout the world and English
became a language for non-business oriented communication. Globalization has brought its
language along with its commercial investments and cultural imports.
People all over the world, regardless of their first language, watch movies, comedies, soap
operas, ‘Hollywood’ blockbusters and, listen to newscasts and music, all in English. English has
become a compulsory subject at all levels in schools in many countries, including those countries
 29

that have other official languages like Mozambique. At high school, students spend five years
learning English. In theory, this should enable pre-university level students to communicate fairly
efficiently.
Nevertheless, this is not the case, since most EFL teachers and students have little experience
of the genuine use of the language as a means of communication. Students are usually very highly
motivated to learn the language, but their exposure to English language is limited and lacks
continuity. In most cases, it is exposure to formal instruction with little exposure to natural
language (Lopes, 1997).
Willingness in learning and developing the English language is also displayed by the
enormous demand (youths and adults) for tuition with the Institute of Languages (IOL), a public
institution created in 1979 in Maputo, now with branches in towns throughout the country. Citing
Lopes (1997), the presence of numerous resident foreign nationals in Mozambique has equally
contributed to increasing demands on language provision as well as for foreign language-based
education in the private sector. English is the medium of instruction mostly in primary and
secondary schools, the major ones being MINED’s Maputo International School and the
American International School.
However, the aforementioned schools are not accessible for most students with low-income
family backgrounds. Thus, we maintain that the training of EFL teachers to use short stories in
English language classes can help to overcome this problem of little exposure to natural language.
They are authentic and alternative reading materials and materials which are not trivial, by nature,
they reinforce language skills.

1.1.3 The English language in the Mozambican Curriculum

This section explores the English language teaching curriculum in Mozambique, which forms
part of the wider Mozambican curriculum. Mozambican National System of Education is
subdivided in three cycles, namely: elementary level (grade 1 to grade 7), basic level (from grade
8 to grade 10) and intermediate level (grades 11 and 12), (MINEDH, 2012). The total time-load
for English is as follows: 324 hours in basic level, which represents 10% of the total load in the
study plan for this level, 360 hours in intermediate level for Group A, which represents 24% of
the total load, and 216 hours that represents 12% for both Group B and Group C.
As we previously made clear in the description of educational context, in section 1.2, the
first cycle (ESG1) lasts for 3 years and is for those aged 14 to 16, or grades 8 to 10; the second
cycle (ESG2) lasts 2 years and is for those aged 17 and 18, or grades 11 and 12; English is taught
 30

for 3 hours per week in grades 8 through 9 and for 2 hours per week in grade 10; and English is
taught for 5 hours per week in grades 11 and 12 (PCESG, 2007).
The English language teaching curriculum in Mozambique states the second cycle proficiency
objectives as follows:
Learners should be able to understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete
and abstract topics, including technical discussions in their field of specialization;
Learners should be able to interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes
regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party;
Learners should be able to produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and be
able to explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of
various options (Programa da 11ᵃ classe, 2008).
From the above second cycle proficiency objectives, we can conclude that the objectives are
defined for the implementation of CLT principles. Indeed, the training of EFL prospective
teachers to integrate short stories in ELT meets the English language teaching syllabus. All in all,
the integration of short stories in ELT is congruent to CLT approaches and methods.
Indeed, a general overview of the meaning of a curriculum is included since an educational
curriculum usually represents the ideological and epistemological knowledge that affects an
education system of a certain society (Apple 2004); a change in this knowledge can have multiple
meanings. As Ellis (2014, p.49) argues, “Curriculum change often goes hand in hand with and
reflects social change”. The nature of this relationship between the curriculum and social change
has made it difficult to define precisely what is meant by a curriculum.
A curriculum can be seen from different angles due to the variety of its meanings. It can be
described as a general umbrella which embraces a set of multiple meanings or interpretations. A
curriculum can be defined as a set of general objectives which aims to achieve an outcome or
educational goal. Su (2012, p.154) describes it as “a checklist of desired outcomes”. Thus, it is a
set of vital requirements or criteria to be achieved by the end of a teaching process. The focus
here is on the outcome. In this sense, it could be argued that teachers should be involved in
implementing a new curriculum. In other words, setting a curriculum without involving teachers
may not achieve the intended outcomes, and make teachers feel compelled to teach a curriculum
which they feel irrelevant to them.
A curriculum can be understood as a course or content. In this regard, it can be seen as
prescriptive or descriptive of the course or content of study. More specifically, a curriculum is
prescriptive when it is regarded as a guideline to which teachers conform. As Ellis (2014, p.5)
argues, it is concerned about “how things ought to be”, whereas a curriculum can also be seen as
descriptive in the light of “how things are in the real classroom”. The focus is on achieving the
experience and content of the knowledge. As Silva (2009, p.1) explains, it includes “An emphasis
 31

on what students can do with knowledge, rather than what units of knowledge they have”. A
curriculum is also viewed as a plan for achieving instructional goals. In this context, a curriculum
can be understood to have a wider scope, including both the content and the instructional
methods. Alan (1984, p.89) describes it as “a plan of teaching and instruction”.
However, the instructional methods do not refer here to the actual process of teaching. Pratt
(1994, p.5) claims that “actual teaching and learning is not curriculum, for curriculum refers to
plans for instructional acts, not the acts of instruction themselves”. Another view of a curriculum
is that it means documents. The curriculum is represented in the official textbooks that are usually
provided by the government.
The curriculum has become associated with the official written programs of study published by
ministries of education, local authorities of education, and commercial firms of educational
specialists working on specially funded projects. The purpose is to provide a unified model for
teachers to follow while teaching. This documented curriculum may share the same meaning as
the term ‘syllabus’ (Barrow and Milburn 1990).
From a broader perspective, a curriculum is interpreted as experience, which includes the
theoretical plan of the curriculum content as well as unplanned experiences that happen in the
classroom or school context. Willis and Marsh (2003, p.13) define this type of curriculum as “an
interrelated set of plans and experiences that a student undertakes under the guidance of the
school”. Thus, in this sense, the curriculum means the whole range of experiences which students
engage in, regarding both the actual content and the learning environment. As Su (2012, p.154)
explains, “All interactions that students are exposed to, in an academic environment, can be
considered part of their curriculum”.
From the above, in light of the Mozambican context, a curriculum is understood to be a
formal written document that is delivered by the government. This is also equated with a
prescribed curriculum, which is handed down to teachers to implement. Arguably, “the developer
proposes, but the teacher disposes” (Ellis 2014, p.4).
The ELT curriculum is embodied in a series of official textbooks; namely, course books, work
book and teachers’ guidebooks. These books are named the curriculum and used as the main and
sole reference in language classrooms. As Westbrook (2013, p.12) explains, “in developing
countries…the curriculum is encoded in the official textbook and teacher guides”.
Maciel (2007) further holds that earlier versions of the communicative approach did not
recommend the use of literary texts in foreign language classrooms, particularly at lower levels of
proficiency. Currently, students who are being trained to teach English at the primary level do
not attend any course of literature. They do not learn how to use literary texts in their classrooms.
 32

Therefore, English textbooks for secondary level that have been used in Mozambique since 2010
do not include literary texts. The textbooks for grades 11 and 12 almost do not include literary
texts. However, learners are not encouraged to read those texts and reflect on their own cultural
identity. They are not encouraged to examine and articulate their cultural values in English.

1.1.4 The Training of EFL teachers at Rovuma University

Rovuma University (Universidade Rovuma) is a government-run university whose Rectorate
is located in Nampula city. Rovuma university was created in 2019 as a result of administrative
extinction of the Pedagogical University (Universidade Pedagógica) among them, the Rovuma
university with its extensions in Nampula, Lichinga and Montepuez. The foundation of Rovuma
University is within the remit of the Mozambican High Education Reform carried out in 2019.
The aforementioned reform postulated the decentralisation of UP in order that new university
centres could form independent and autonomous centres.

Thus, Rovuma University founded on the Decree-law proposal that was approved by
Council of Ministers on February 15th, 2019. Nowadays, Rovuma University includes Faculty of
Arts and Social Sciences and within it there is an English Department. Apart from the Faculty of
Arts and Sciences, there are other faculties, among others, Faculty of Education and Psychology,
Faculty of Natural Sciences, Mathematics and Statistics, Faculty of Law, Faculty of Engineering
and Technological Sciences, Faculty of Economics, Faculty of Nutrition and Agriculture, etc.
(Boletim da República – III Série- número 30, Quarta-feira, 15 de Fevereiro de 2019). Rovuma
University is a former extension of Pedagogic University of Maputo. In Mozambique the only
training of EFL secondary teachers is at the Pedagogic University of Maputo.

Moreover, the training of teachers at Rovuma University follows the same training program
used by Pedagogic University before it administratively divided into an extension. We maintain
that, as far as short stories are concerned, there should be link between what has been taught in
literature sessions at Rovuma University and English language teaching practices in secondary
schools so that student-teachers might apply the theory into practice. Therefore, our study aims
to train prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in their English language lessons.
Thus, we are going to describe the teaching practices of prospective EFL teachers at CPT
secondary school below.

1.1.5 Teaching Practices of EFL Student-Teachers at CPT Secondary School

First, we describe the teaching practice activities at CPT Secondary School. Before the
student-teachers carry on their teaching activities, the English department organizes lists for
 33

school allocation of student-teachers. Lists for supervisors are also allocated to student-teachers.
Supervisors are in charge of monitoring and assessing the student-teachers’ competences and
performance. Prospective EFL teachers prepare teaching practice materials for exposition with
the help of their supervisors.
Second, we describe the teaching practice of EFL student- teachers at CPT secondary school
based on six principles listed by Harmer (2003). First principle, prospective EFL teachers have to
understand the students’ personal and educational background so they could tailor classes
according to their students’ needs more effectively. Learning about the students’ culture, first
language, and past experiences are useful while preparing lesson plans, materials, and projects.
Therefore, prospective EFL teachers were engaged in observing class teachers of English for
two weeks. They were also engaged in reading the school rules and syllabus for grade 11 and
grade 12. The Principal of the school had made available a timetable to the student-teachers and
they were introduced to their class teachers of English.
Second principle, student-teachers had to prepare their lessons according to scheme of work
designed by the class teachers of the school. Then, student-teachers had to create the classroom
conditions for English language learning to take place. They had to create a positive atmosphere
in class considering the physical space, materials, and student integration in order to promote
better learning experiences for their English students. A pleasant atmosphere makes students feel
comfortable and more confident in participating and expressing themselves in a positive way,
which is essential for learning development.
Third principle, student-teachers had to design high-quality lessons for language development.
Fourth principle, prospective teachers had to assess students and adapt their lesson plans
accordingly. They had to reflect on the students’ performance based on their supervisor’s
feedback and they had also to reflect on the students’ development. This was possible by revising
content, adapting activities and materials, adjusting instructions and tasks and being flexible with
the students’ response time. Fifth principle, EFL prospective teachers had to monitor and assess
student development. EFL prospective teachers had to monitor and assess their students’
progress. English students learn in different ways and at different speeds.
The sixth principle, the prospective EFL teachers had to design different forms of
assessment while providing constructive feedback appropriate for the students’ ages and levels
for continual student improvement.
 34

CHAPTER II: Literature Review

This is the chapter whereby we will discuss different views by different authors related to the
definition of concepts of short stories. We will also discuss the role of literature, specifically short
stories in English as foreign language and we give rationale for the use of short stories in the EFL
classes and ways of using short stories to develop reading skills in the classroom settings.
Firstly, we start with defining concepts that include:literature, literary genres, short story and
reading comprehension. Secondly, we will discuss concepts related to literary genres.Thirdly, we
review studies that have supported the integration of literary texts in ELT. Finally, we maintain
different aspects dealing with the knowledge discussed by different authors related to the role of
short stories and theoretical considerations supporting the use of short stories in the English
Language classrooms.

2.1. Definition of Concepts

In this section, we present concepts related to literature and reading comprehension within the
field of EFL. Lazar (1993, p.123) defines literature to be “a sort of disciplined technique for
arousing certain emotions”. Taking into account this definition, we can say that literature is
“feelings” and “thoughts” “in black and white”. Furthermore, Lazar (1993, p.3) says that,
“literature is the question minus the answer”, that is, in the context of this study, prospective EFL
teachers should not expect to reach any definitive interpretations of a literary text with their
students. Rather, they should use the text as the basis for generating discussion, controversy and
critical thinking in the classroom.
Furthermore, literature is one of the best resources for promoting language learning in EFL.
Therefore, literature is congruent to CLT whereby students are exposured to implicit learning of
English language. As a result, using literary texts in the classroom is a fruitful way of engaging
the student as a whole person, and provides excellent opportunities for the learners to express
their personal views, reactions and feelings (ibid).
With regard to the aim of integrating literature in EFL teaching, EFL teachers of grades 11
and 12 at Cristiano Paulo Taimo do not expect to reach any definitive interpretation of a literary
text with their students but rather they should use the text as the basis for generating discussion,
controversy and critical thinking in the classroom. In the context of this research, we can define
literature as the use of language to evoke a personal response in the reader or listener on the basis
of written material such as short stories.
 35

In contrast, most teachers of grades 11 and 12 at Cristiano Paulo Taimo did not integrate
literature as a way of motivating their students. Nonetheless, among literary genres short stories
seem to be the most appropriate to use in an English class. Lazar (1993, p.73) said that, “a short
story is about people who do not really exist and it is a work of fiction, so it involves the
imagination”. Our view is that a short story is a short fictional story. A typical story involves a
chronology, or a sequence of events, and causation, that is, events that are somehow connected
with each other.
Brumfit & Carter (1986, p. 76) define genres as “a kind of literary or artistic work and include
romance, novel, poetry and short stories”. A short story has a plot, and characters who are
somehow connected with each other. This being the case, EFL teachers of grades 11 and 12 at
Cristiano Paulo Taimo may select a short story that they know well and has a chronology of
events which is clearly sequenced. For instance, folktales are usually presented in a chronological
order.

Moreover, Lazar (1993, p.89) further states, “novels and short stories share a great many
features in common.” But novel is likely to be a larger cast of characters than in a short story, the
plot may be more complicated and methods of narration can sometimes be more complex to the
learners. Like the short story, the traditional novel involves a chronological sequence of events,
linked by relations of cause and effect whereas a novel is a long fictional story in book form
(Abrams, 1970)

Most EFL teachers of grades 11 and 12 at Cristiano Paulo Taimo are barely familiar with
novels where the description of events is shaped by a narrator, and the language of the novel is
used in a highly self-conscious way to convey particular effects. EFL teachers of grade 12 at
Cristiano Paulo Taimo do not cope with the length of the novel and the amount of time teachers
can spend in class reading the novel when the syllabus makes other demands on their teaching
time. Generally, it is best to choose a short story.

Similarly, a myth is a traditional story that explains the beliefs of a people about the natural
and human world. The main characters in myths are usually gods or supernatural heroes (Bretz,
1990). These stories are often set in the distant past. The people who told these stories believed
that they were true and by learning about other’s beliefs, learners may become more aware of
their own culture. A traditional story can help students to learn universal values such as justice,
honesty, humanity, religiosity and social, moral, and spiritual values.
 36

With regard to legends, Abrams (1970, p.5) considers a legend as “a traditional story about the
past. The main characters are usually kings or heroes.” A fable as it defined by McKay (1986,
p.56), “it is a brief story intended to teach a moral lesson. The main characters are usually
animals, objects in nature (e.g. mountains, lakes, stones) or forces of nature (e.g. the sun, the
wind, the rain), which are given human qualities”.

Grades 11 and 12 learners at Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary school showed positive
attitudes towards fables. Moreover, teachers can take advantage of using fables in the classroom
and they may find that events in fables are usually presented in a chronological order. In this
perspective, we believe that the best simple way of introducing literary elements is using fables in
ELT because fables overtly display theme, message, characters (usually animals, objects,
mountains, rivers, etc.), setting, plot and metaphorical language.

Furthermore, integrating fables in the class can educate students by providing them moral
values that most schools nationally lack. For instance, there is a locally written English textbook
that was produced, entitled “English for Mozambique” in which there are some fables such as
“The Lizard and the frog”, “The hyena who burst” among others.

A short story is a story with a proper plot, characters, setting etc. A short story is prose fiction
shorter in length, magnitude, and complexity in comparison to a novel. Longer short stories are
called novels. Short stories differ from poetry because they lack the qualities like the verses,
meter and rhymes of a poem. A short story is a work of fiction that is usually written in prose,
often in a narrative format. This format tends to be more pointed than longer works of fiction,
such as novels. Since the short story format includes a wide range of genres and styles, the actual
length is determined by the individual author's preference and the submission guidelines relevant
to the story's actual market. Guidelines vary greatly among publishers. A story that is shorter than
a short story is usually called an anecdote.

According to Abrams (1985, p.28) "a short story is a brief work of prose fiction, and most of
the terms for analyzing the components, the types and various narrative techniques of the novel
are applicable to short stories as well". Plot, characters, dialogue, setting, language are the
essential elements of a successful short story. Short stories are often ideal ways of introducing
students to literature in the foreign language classroom because short stories can usually be dealt
in a single class (Collie and Slater, 1987, p. 109). They are less difficult for foreign learners to
read on their own. They offer a greater variety for teachers to choose varieties of short texts
 37

according to the taste and interest of the students. They can be used not only in long term courses
but in short term courses as well.

Another concept that is not less important to include in this section is reading. Shanahan
(1997, p.6) defines reading as “a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to
construct or derive meaning (reading comprehension). Reading is a means of language
acquisition, of communication, and of sharing information and ideas”.
Reading requires a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped by
the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community which is culturally
and socially situated. On the one hand, the reading process requires continuous practice,
development, and refinement; on the other hand, reading requires creativity and critical analysis.
Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema
(schemata theory). So, reading is the act of looking at script and signs and recognizes them. Thus,
reading is a skill of the elite since requires a specific training or instruction in order to know how
to read. Reading is one of the most important skills associated with the learning of a foreign
language; indeed, some scholars believe that the ability to read is a prerequisite for autonomous
learning (Khatib, 2012).
Most EFL learners at Cristiano Paulo Taimo have little or no opportunity to come into
contact with people from English –speaking communities; in this case, reading a literary text may
provide them the opportunity to have improved interaction with foreign cultures and people.
Besides, literary texts are also entertaining and keep learners reading; the more learners read, the
more they are exposing themselves to the foreign language.
Furthermore, reading comprehension is reading for understanding a written text and
extracting the required information from it as efficiently as possible (Day & Bamford (1998,
p.18). In brief, reading is perhaps the best way to strengthen the development of learners’
language competency as well as it is usually reflected in their performance. Consequently, the
next section below, we will discuss aspects related to approaches, objectives and methodology
related to reading literary texts in EFL classes.

2.2. Reading literary texts in EFL classroom: approaches, objectives and methodology
Reading has been linked to academic performance, as students who tend to read regularly
perform much better than those who do not read regularly (Guthrie, 2008, as cited in Al-
Mahrooqi & Denman, 2016).
 38

Reading is therefore an essential skill that should be adequately addressed in the EFL
classroom. Being a competent reader will make it easier for the student to obtain the needed
exposure to the target language, which in turn will facilitate the development of the other skills
needed to be a proficient language user. Living in a foreign language context minimizes the
chances of listening to meaningful input thus reading is the best way to sustain the development
of students’ language competency. Butler (2002) used the phrase “language through literature”
(p. 38) to describe the use of literature or literary texts as a medium for teaching the English
language.

In 1980’s, the use of literature in language classrooms was rare and viewed as not very
desirable, as many teachers were more interested in empowering students with linguistic
knowledge, which some believes has no relation to literature; for example, Topping (1968) was
one of the scholars against the inclusion of literature; he argued that “literature has no legitimate
place in a foreign language programme” (p. 95). Although the integration of short stories into
language classes has been criticized, many studies have proven that using alternative reading
materials in general and short stories in particular, specifically in English language classes, has a
positive impact on students’ performance (Butler, 2002; Goldberg, 2006; Waters, 2009).

There are so many ways of learning or improving learners’ reading comprehension. One
example would be starting learning from the roots of the words, dictionary, prefixes, and suffixes
(Sarwono and Purwanto, 2013). Furthermore, guidance is necessary as students learn reading
comprehension skills so that they can understand the meaning of the content. According to Pang
(2003) learning reading comprehension is an important educational goal. It is, for both children
and adults, the ability to read that opens up new opportunities.

Moreover, reading comprehension improves with practice and it becomes better with more
reading practice (Pressley, 2003). Thus, motivation can influence the interest, emotion, purpose,
or persistence as a reader engages with text (Butcher & Kintsch, 2003). More motivated readers
are likely to apply more strategies and push harder to develop meaning. Learning reading
comprehension is not only learning about the words’ meaning, but also about how the use of
these materials can drive the readers into correct personal use based on their experience of the
language.

Reading is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing

information and ideas. Thus, like all languages, reading is a complex interaction between the text
and the reader which is shaped by the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and
 39

language community which is culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires
continuous practice, development, and refinement (Krashen, 2000). Also, reading requires
creativity and critical analysis.

Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or
schema (schemata theory). Short stories have proved very useful in trials to improve students'
vocabulary and reading. The results of Lao and Krashen’s (2000) study which compared the
reading achievement between a group of students that read literary texts and a second group that
read non-literary texts at a university in Hong Kong revealed that the group who read literary
texts enhanced improvement in vocabulary and reading.

Thus, reading literary texts in the EFL classes is important because it is authentic and
culturally valued material (Lazar 1993, pp.14-17; Collie, and Slater stated (1991, pp.3-4); reading
literary texts expands students’ knowledge of the structure of the language and conventional ways
in which words or phrases are used, spoken or written as well as how to use those rules to
communicate efficiently.

Indeed, teachers should integrate reading literary texts into their classes because literary texts
are authentic materials that can help to expand students’ vocabulary. Reading literary texts can
also provide an opportunity for students to become receptive to different cultures, that is, enable
students to enhance their intercultural competences.

Reading literary texts develops students’ interpretative abilities and it helps them to express
themselves creatively and imaginatively. Another reason for reading literary texts relates to
having access to a vast and diverse range of human experience and that helps them learn about
human relationships and understand more about themselves (Lazar, 1993). Reading literary texts
is motivational and students gain literary benefits, that is, students learn some elements of short
stories such as theme, message, characters, setting, plot and metaphorical language.

Baleiro (2010) states that reading literary texts motivates students to become fascinated
readers since the power of absorbing and fascinating the reader until the end of the plot is
revealed and that certainly motivates students to read more. Baleiro maintains that it is a fact that
more you read, the more you want and love to read. Baleiro’s survey (2006) at New University of
Lisbon (Universidade Nova de Lisboa) revealed that most students do not have reading habits.
 40

In line with Baleiro (ibid.) and as an attempt to inspire teachers at Cristiano Paulo Taimo
Secondary School and EFL prospective teachers in Niassa, we discuss ten principles for teaching
foreign language skills supporting the approaches to teaching reading comprehension below.

2.2.1 Approaches to teaching reading comprehension

As we previously stated, in this section, we will discuss principles for teaching reading
comprehension. Harmer (2007, p. 98) argues that students need to be involved in both extensive
and intensive reading in order to get maximum benefit from their reading. The difference between
extensive and intensive reading is the fact that extensive reading, teacher encourages students to
choose for themselves what they read and to do so for pleasure and general language
improvement whereas intensive reading is designed to enable students to develop specific
receptive skills such as reading for gist or general understanding (skimming), reading for specific
information (often called scanning), reading for detailed comprehension or reading for inference
and attitude.

Brown (2001, p.78) states that the reading comprehension is primarily a matter of developing
appropriate, efficient comprehension strategies for literate students. Waring (2011, p.3)
interpreted “READ” as “Read quickly and Enjoyably with Adequate comprehension, so students
Don’t need a dictionary” . Williams (1986) posited principles to get teachers to examine their
own beliefs. Williams postulates that extensive reading, apart from its impact on language and
reading ability, can be a key to revealing an all-important taste for foreign language reading
among students.

In fact, we consider, for instance, the Williams’ principle that rings clearly true and it reflects
on the reality of most Mozambican secondary EFL teachers to approach reading is the principle
that EFL teachers must learn to be quiet: all too often, teachers interfere with and so impede their
students’ reading development by being too dominant and by talking too much (p.44).

As Ellis & Tomlinson (1980) point out the steps to be followed in teaching reading
comprehension include the initial teaching points whereby teacher exemplifies key issues
(lexical, structural and conceptual) which he feels learners may have difficulties before they read
the passage. This is followed by the introduction to the passage aimed at encouraging the learners
to think about the topic before they begin to read. Silent reading which follows later is aimed at
making learners practice the skills involved when reading silently. Teacher reading of the passage
aims at bringing practical clarity of various parts of the text which could not have been
 41

understood by the learners. Oral questioning, class discussion or group discussion can then follow
depending on the objectives made by the teacher and how he intends to meet them.
Harmer (2005) suggests that in both intensive and extensive reading, students should have a
clear reading purpose. In other words, the teacher should make it clear to the class why they are
reading a particular text and what they are expected to learn. To this effect, Harmer (2005, p.126)
observes that “students who are trained to read with clear purpose, they learn to apply and acquire
the art of reading quickly, but at the same time with understanding and appreciation”.
The secondary school EFL teacher of English must in this vein give his learners plenty of
advice on reading. Important though this advice can be, it should not consume much time during
reading comprehension lessons because the teacher’s objective might not be met. The teacher
should also guide learners during their reading. Layton (1968) argues that the teacher can only
discharge such tasks if he himself has read widely. It is also very important to note that both
teachers and students have a strong memory capable of bringing effectiveness in both the
teaching and learning of reading comprehension. One way of producing improved memory in
students is by generating questions about ideas in the text while reading, constructing mental
images, representing ideas in a text and analyzing stories read into story grammar components of
setting (Ellis & Tomlinson, 1980).
As a matter of fact, a mature reading comprehension lesson should comprise a variety of
questioning techniques, which range from verbal to non-verbal. Verbal questions can be
objective, meaning that they can have only one correct answer or free response where a number
of answers could be allowed. Ellis & Tomlinson (1980) point out that the advantage of free-
response questions is that it involves students to express themselves as they produce their own
sentences.

2.2.2 Objectives of reading narrative texts in EFL classroom

Setting clear objectives and ensuring that learners and teachers agree on those objectives will
influence the manner in which the teaching of reading based on a short story is approached.
Maley (1987, p.103) refers to how the reading of literature and reading programmes are perceived
differently. Basically texts, including narrative texts, are used in order to examine the language
they contain and promote critical thinking.

A balance needs to be established between reading for enjoyment and reading for language
only. On the one hand, Carrell (1988, p.272) and Devine (1988, p.75) observe that for language
instruction to have a positive impact on reading performance, the different components of
 42

language should not be isolated. For an increase in reading performance, instruction should be
integrative or holistic in nature, rather than skills-oriented or discrete-point. On the other hand,
Petrosky (1982, p.20) suggests that in order to help students understand the texts they read; we
need to ask them to write about the texts they read. Literature is neither used to teach writing nor
writing to teach literature, but in an integrated manner the teaching of the one includes the
teaching of the other. Likewise, Nuttall (1982, p.146) suggests certain objectives that a reading
program should have. These apply directly to what the objectives of EFL lessons built around a
literary text should be. Similarly, Nuttall (1982) recommends that:

Students should be able to make use of skimming to ensure relevancy and to aid comprehension;
make use of non-textual information such as diagrams as supplement to the text and to aid
comprehension, read differently according to the purpose of the reading and the type of text;
realize that it is not necessary to understand every word in the text; recognize that words are
carefully selected by the author to carry specific meanings; make use of discourse markers to
decode difficult passages; know that one sentence may have different meanings in different
contexts; make use of the rhetorical organization of the text; be able to use inference where
required; be aware that interpretation differs based on the expectations of the reader, realize where
incomprehension took place and be able to identify the misunderstanding; respond to the text in
whatever way is required (p.146).

Apart from clarifying the objectives of reading lessons, teachers should know how reading ties
in with schema theory and how this affects the practical application of reading a short story in the
classroom.

According to Krashen (1993), students should be provided with enough comprehensible input
which is also interesting to the extent that it reduces students’ anxiety. Since literature is rarely
used for pedagogical purposes, it can be a good authentic source for language learners.

We maintain that short stories are bountiful resources that can be harnessed in the EFL class as
does Sage (2005) who argues that the use of short stories as a useful technique in language
classes. Short stories are short enough to tackle with in an EFL class; their limited length helps
both teachers and students to easily deal with them. Moreover, stories are generally about a
universal problem, it may relate to the students’ own situation, in this case students would
definitely get more involved in the story and try to put more time and effort into comprehending
it.
As mentioned by Hasmanoglu (2005), class discussions about the story will help students to
think critically. In line with Willis task- based approach (Willis cited in Wajnryb, 2003) that is
different from the conventional instruction-based teaching models which place the teaching
 43

process at centre stage. In her view, what is essential is that the learner has exposure to accessible
language, has the opportunity to use language, and has the motivation to learn.
Using these three notions – exposure, use and motivation – it is easy to see how a short story
lends itself readily to the fulfilment of Willis’ conditions for learning. Exposure: the author
maintains that the text of the story provides the potential for “comprehensible input”, that is,
language that is within the range of access of the learner. This input can be achieved in a
multitude of ways: for example, by teacher reading aloud, a student reading alone, a number of
students sharing stories with one another, groups of students working on a core text and taking it
in different directions according to their own imaginations. Use: stories rarely happen without
students – a real, intended or imagined audience. It is an easy step from here to the connected task
that engages the students in further language-based activities. Hence in the classroom setting, a
pre-while and post task framework that accompanies may afford further opportunities to use the
language.
The classroom context also offers the possibility of feedback – from the teacher or from other
students – and this is an important component of language learning. As na alternative Maley
cited in Wajnryb (2003) offers a similar three pronged-approach approach that can easily be
applied to stories. It involves framing (getting ready), focusing (engaging) and diverging (moving
on).
Motivation: the story itself- that is, its content and meaning, including its dynamic unfolding
– addresses the issue of motivation. There is something about the action-happening-as-we-speak
quality of narrative that moves a reader along with the story line, involving and engaging that
person at the same time.
It would seem then, that using story in the classroom is both a natural way to teach in general
and a particularly effective way to teach language. Working with stories is a means of
accomplishing language learning tasks from analyzing the actual story.
The focus is not on the literary features of a text but on the way in which it can be harnessed to
improve the students’ learning experience in the classroom. Stories can be harnessed to teach a
multitude of language-related concerns: grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, the four macro-
skills as well as to promote, all kinds of discussion about content. Here, the exposure to language
in the “storied” lesson, either receptively or productively provides the scaffolding for additional
opportunities to learn.
Primarily the EFL prospective teachers should give attention to the tasks they set the
students in relation to the story which asks the students to react and respond to the text and
 44

interact using their available language. (e.g. read it, write it, listen to it, share it, argue about it,
extract something from it, and respond to it).

2.2.3 Methodology suggested for teaching reading using short stories

In this section, we propose the methodology for teaching reading through short stories.
According to Basiga (2009, p.24), language is a social construct. Language is learned through
interaction with others, with social structures and with social forces. Language allows us to
communicate with others and it plays a key role in the development and the maintenance of
culture.
Students can learn to interact through the application of CLT principles. This should be a
preferred option. When applying the principles of communicative language teaching, reading of
literary texts ought to be considered central as the most obvious source of foreign language input
and contexts for discussion, interaction, and writing exercises , yet it is often avoided in favour of
pair work with the emphasis on grammar, vocabulary and other functional interactions (Aski,
2000; Boshoff, 2006).
Explaining the Mozambican situation,we note that traditional EFL instruction in Mozambique,
particularly at Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary school, focuses on teacher-centred, grammar-
translation, audio-lingua, and exam-oriented approaches that fail to meet learners’ needs when
they communicate with English speakers. Chung (2009) argues that traditional grammar-
translation teaching/learning approach has caused both teachers and students to neglect the value
of communicative competence. Instead, training students to obtain good grades on English tests
becomes one of the most vital criteria for being a good English teacher.

Thus, it is generally acknowledged that the higher the marks, the higher the learners’ English
proficiency. Nevertheless, examination-guided instruction and the premium placed on lecturing
on selected grade 11 and grade 12 textbook materials have led to failure in learning real-life
communicative English.

To sum up, we maintain that the Mozambican education system has attributed this failure to
the teaching methodology employed by teachers (behaviourist-structural approaches) resulting in
a number of school leavers with high marks in the School Certificate Examinations failing to
attain communicative competence. Due to such discrepancies, the Ministry of Education has
added to the syllabus the component of CLT(MEC, 2010). However, there has been resistance to
its implementation. The integration of literary texts in ELT is congruent to CLT, though there are
 45

previous studies that have indicated significant constraints. Next, we will review the previous
studies of using literary texts.

2.2.4. Role of Literature in EFL Classes in Mozambique

We argue for the importance of literature in EFL classes in Mozambique. It is worth saying
that there are a few studies carried out on the role of literature in EFL Classes in Mozambique.
The study by Maciel (2007) indicated that literary texts, particularly short stories can play a very
important role in the EFL classrooms.
We assume that Mozambican EFL teachers have to be prepared to use in their classroom short
stories as a means of teaching and learning in general; and short stories also provide a means of
teaching language, specifically.
Thus, there are a number of studies that have addressed the problem of using literary texts
in EFL that have revealed a number of constraints that instructors from Libya, Indonesia,
Singapore, Pakistan, and Mozambique have faced. English in these countries is either taught as a
foreign or second language. These constraints have affected their effective teaching of English
language skills communicatively, particularly reading skills. Communicative competence has
been the issue debated over the years. Some scholars have argued that students are leaving
schools in Mozambique without attaining appropriate communicative competence levels. This is
because, while the syllabus advocates communicative language teaching, the students’ textbooks
are largely teacher-centered. The solution therefore, lies in equipping the teacher with capacity to
enable him/her to use short stories as alternative reading materials to be able to meet
communicative language principles as it is demanded in Mozambican syllabus.

The study by Pourkalhor and Kohan (2013) examined the effects of short story instruction
on 20 advanced-level tenth-grade students to show if the method had an impact on student
reading comprehension. Two groups were engaged in the study. In one, students were exposed to
a method of reading instruction over ten weeks. The other just went the traditional way of
teaching reading. The data obtained from the instrument was analyzed using t- tests. The result
showed that students in experimental group did better on the comprehension test than those in the
control group. The study followed the descriptive approach. The sample is EFL learners from
university of Sebha, Libya. The study has reached into so many findings such as: - The use of
short –stories offers the material which is real, creative and rich in language selection, as well as
is amusing and motivational in nature. - It is also considered as a highly effective approach for
teaching and learning of foreign language like English and it is recommended for the same
 46

reasons by eminent intellectuals’ comprehension skill. - The present status of the use of short-
stories in the Libyan EFL classrooms and the researcher’s perspective on the use of short-stories
in the Libyan context also form an important part of the discussion in the paper.

Another study by Handayani (2013) focused on the use of children’s short stories in teaching
reading comprehension in one of the junior high schools in Bandung (Indonesia). The data were
collected through various sources: observation sheets, reading tests, questionnaires, and
interviews. The data then were analyzed through a triangulation method and reported in
qualitative descriptive analysis. The findings revealed, despite some limitations, the use of
children’s short stories helped the students to improve their reading comprehension. The result of
reading test showed a slightly improvement on the students “average score from 61.09 in
diagnostic test increased to 76.28 in Cycle 3 therapeutic test. The result of observation implied
that, the employment of reading strategies and the characteristics of children’s short stories
influenced the improvement of students’ reading comprehension.

In a further study, Khatib (2012) aimed to test using literary text in improving reading
comprehension ability of Iranian foreign language learners. A group of 26 students majoring in
English at the Islamic Azad University Babol Branch and Amol Branch were sampled for the
purpose of this study. The students were divided into two groups– the control group and the
experimental group. Both the groups were administered identical Pre-Tests and Post-Tests which
consisted of selected reading passages from different TOEFL books. The findings of the study
show that the experimental group did not display a significant improvement over the control
group. So the using of literary texts seems unsatisfactory for Iranian EFL learners’.

Another study by Pathan (2012) followed a descriptive approach. The sample is EFL
students from the University of Sebha, Lybia. The study reached many findings such as the use of
short stories offers the material which is real, creative and rich in language selection, as well as is
amusing and motivational in nature; it is also considered as a highly effective approach for
teaching and learning of foreign language like English and it is recommended for the same
reasons; The present status of the use of short-stories in the Libyan EFL classrooms and the
researcher’s perspective on the use of short-stories in the Libyan context also form an important
part of the discussion in the paper.

The study by Bilal Anwar and Khan Rana (2010) provide the data of an empirical
investigation conducted in the context of Pakistan with 280 university students enrolled in
different English language and Literature courses. After having analyzed the students’ responses
to the questionnaires that had been previously administered, the authors reported that most of the
 47

students considered literature as a helpful component in language studies and as an effective

source to be used in language classes.

In Mozambique, as alluded to, the study by Maciel (2007, p. 254) carried out the study
entitled “Bantu Oral Narratives in the Training of EFL Teachers in Mozambique”. In her action
research, she presents ways to help students of English who are community-speaking Bantu
languages explore how storytellers strategically use language to convey cultural values. She
advises EFL teacher trainers to help prospective EFL teachers develop their sense of self-esteem
and build pride in their cultural heritage by gathering oral narratives in their community-speaking
Bantu languages, translating them into English, and investigating and determining the deep
cultural values encoded in the narratives such as virginity prior to marriage, arranged marriages,
the concept of the dowry, motherhood, women’s close connection to the earth/land, roles that
men and women assume in the traditional society, obligatory family tasks such as cooking,
protecting individual members, and raising and educating children (Maciel 2007). The study also
indicated that literary texts and, in particular, non-English oral literary texts can play a very
important role in EFL classrooms. EFL teachers who are trained to use the oral traditions of their
home countries in their classrooms can succeed in helping students to become more proficient,
students need to use a language in order to learn a language.

The study conducted by Lin (2006) is set in a secondary school in Singapore, where English
is the second language for most of the students and language and literature are usually taught as
separate subjects. The author supports the pedagogical need to embed literature into a larger
framework of language classes. According to Lin (ibid.) those teachers following this
pedagogical need reported having had highly positive results. Our research project, as previously
stated, it aims to prepare teachers to use short stories in developing reading skills for EFL
students. The study is an action research that will follow blending qualitative and quantitative
methods. The instruments and techniques of data collection are a questionnaire for teachers (QT),
a questionnaire for learners (QL), a group focus discussion, observation, document analysis, pre-
tests and post-tests administered to the EFL learners of CPT secondary school.

The research project described in this dissertation is different from the previous studies
because it deals with training EFL prospective teachers to integrate short stories in the EFL
classes. Prospective EFL teachers will be trained to apply activities for short stories and enhance
their learners’ reading skills. By doing so, it is pivotal that the prospective EFL teachers should
know the role of literature in EFL classes.
 48

These student teachers and their students can greatly benefit from analyzing the moral of the
short stories. Reflecting on moral values allows these student-teachers to use English to speak
and/or write about the customs, beliefs and values of various ethnic-cultural groups in
Mozambique.
Indubitably, Mozambican learners in EFL classes can also be excellent resources. EFL
teachers may not know that they can help learners appreciate their cultural wealth by encouraging
them to share the stories, rituals, and traditions that they can gather from their grandparents, older
neighbors, religious or spiritual leaders, or community centers as long as those local learners feel
comfortable sharing with their classmates. It must be noted that there is no generic local person.
The backgrounds of students are varied, and no individual student can be expected to represent
groups of one ethnicity or another.
However, in the context of our study, short stories as authentic reading materials that can be
used in the EFL classes are meant to be alternative materials modelling real life communication
and exposing learners to language use, function and interaction. Thus, short stories are good
teaching materials because they provide students with “rich exposure to English literature”
(Tomlinson, 1985, as cited in Butler, 2002, p. 37). Wang & Savignon (2001) mentioned that the
“genuineness of time, location and people” distinguishes authentic materials from contrived ones;
these elements are represented in literature. Thus, literature is full of real input (Ghosn, 1998).
This input might be more meaningful to learners than the input from other kinds of texts.
Students’ interaction with the events and characters will motivate them to continue reading and
create a meaningful context for new learning.
Nevertheless, according to Roberts and Cooke (2009, p. 621), “the debate over authenticity in
teaching materials is a longstanding and sometimes contradictory one in English language
teaching.” In the 1970s, a new approach emerged in the language learning and teaching field: the
communicative approach to language teaching. Since then, a significant debate has persisted
regarding whether to expose students not only to “artificially constructed texts” in classrooms
(Waters, 2009, p. 138), but also to authentic texts.
Authenticity in relation to materials, or what Johnson (1998) and Badger and Macdonald
(2010) called product authenticity, has been defined as “a stretch of real language, produced by a
real speaker or writer for a real audience and designed to convey a real message of some sort”
(Gilmore, 2007, p. 98). However, Waters (2009) stated that it is not easy to find authentic text
that includes enough examples of the target language which is simultaneously interesting and
suitable to the students’ level.
 49

In relation to this, Widdowson (1978, as cited in Guariento & Morley, 2001, p. 349) declared
that these materials can be simplified without losing their authenticity. Such simplification will
enable students to enjoy the content without struggling with the language, whose complexity
might hinder students’ progress and commitment in tackling the text.

2.2.5. The short stories in foreign language classrooms

We discuss the benefits of using short stories for enhancing skills development in EFL
classrooms as they have always been acknowledged by many pedagogues and professionals. We
also discuss literary genres and the structural benefits of short stories. Researchers who advocate
the use of short stories to teach ESL/EFL list several benefits of short stories. These include
motivational, literary, cultural and higher-order thinking benefits. Nevertheless, before instructors
look at these benefits in more detail, they need to be reminded of one common benefit,
reinforcement of skills.

Theoretically, the use of literature in ELT is very advantageous because it offers four benefits:
authentic material, cultural enrichment, language advancement, and personal growth (Collie &
Slater, 1991, p.10). This is in line with Lazar (1993) who notes four benefits of using short stories
to teach ESL/EFL, that is, motivational, literary, cultural and higher-order thinking benefits.
Literary texts can be more beneficial than informational material in stimulating the acquisition
process as they provide authentic contexts for processing new language. Advocates of the
inclusion of literature in language classes have identified various advantages of such inclusion or
incorporation.

Brumfit and Carter (1986, as cited in Pathan, 2012) argued that integrating short stories into
language classes may improve students’ language skills more efficiently. Studies have also
proven that reading has a positive influence on students’ academic performance because reading
“feeds all the other language skills” (Alderson, 1984, as cited in Al-Mahrooqi, 2012, p. 25).

Among the various benefits found, five are discussed in this study: increasing motivation,
developing reading comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, enhancing writing skills, and
encouraging meaningful talk. First, short stories in class increase students’ motivation because
such stories are “intrinsically more interesting” (Peacock, 1997, p. 144). Good short stories attract
students’ attention, which ensures that they remain on task. Short stories provide students with
insight into the target culture (Goldberg, 2006). They also pass on beliefs and values of other
cultures, which encourages students to continue reading to satisfy their curiosity. Fawkes (2001,
p. 2) argued that authentic materials, including short stories, “highlight similarities and
 50

differences in everyday customs and life”; thus, students gain a real knowledge of the world by
exploring authentic materials.

Second, the positive impact of using short stories in developing reading comprehension has
long been acknowledged in the ELT field since the use of short stories in English classes
encourage students to read more even outside class (Pathan, 2012) . Stories are generally very
good for extensive reading and such a practice gives students the chance to guess meanings while
reading (Khatib, Rezaei, & Derakhshan, 2011). Encouraging such exposure will safeguard the
improvement of their reading skills and strategies. Generally, short stories follow a simple
structure, and the sequence of events makes it even easier to understand the presented texts.

Third, authentic materials enable students to see how words are used in real contexts,
which allows learners “to gain an understanding of how lexis functions in real-world
environments” (Willis, 1993, as cited in Friedman, 2011, p. 126). Thus, learners gain a valuable
opportunity to see the new words used in a real context and to revisit the words they already
know. Siahaan (2012, p. 210) also argued that the story context, including the events of the story
and the actions of the involved characters, “invite active meaning making.” This helps students
learn new words without direct instruction from their teachers. Elley (1989, as cited in Siahaan,
2012) also mentioned that students’ knowledge of words increases after reading a story thrice
without teacher involvement. Chan (1999), as cited in Rashid, Vethamani, & Abdul Rahman,
2010, p. 89) claimed that literature is illustrative of various “patterning of words and sounds.”
Thus, reading stories familiarizes learners with the collocation of the targeted words and their
spelling. Overall, stories offer a sufficient opportunity for learning and recycling the meaning and
form of newly encountered words.

Fourth, reading literature exposes students to “the formation and function of sentences, the
diversity of possible structures and the different ways of linking ideas” (Collie & Slater, 1987, as
cited in Rashid et al., 2010, p. 89). Due to frequent exposure to literature, various structures will
be unconsciously embedded in students’ language competence, perhaps more directly in their
writings. Stories also represent the smooth transition and connectivity of ideas, which is always
needed in a good piece of writing. Butler (2002) indicated that literature includes authentic
models that help students see how different structures and words are normally used. A good
writer is always a good reader, and a literary text is a good model of an appropriate piece of
writing.
 51

Fifth, students’ interaction with literary texts provides good opportunities to enhance their
communication skills (Tomlinson, 1995, as cited in Butler, 2002). Stories may establish an issue
to be discussed or traditions to be compared, which encourages students to talk and express their
opinions. These discussions take place in a more stress-free environment because they are open to
subjectivity; there is no obligation to find the “right answer.” Stories also contain authentic
dialogues, exposing students to everyday English, which the students eventually apply in their
daily lives (Pathan, 2012). Since stories are easy to memorize or remember, different chunks of
these stories are easily stored in students’ minds and can be recalled in later conversations.
Literary texts expose learners to fresh themes and unexpected language. In this sense, a literary
text is an authentic text, real language in context, to which we can respond directly (Brumfit and
Carter, 1986, p.15). This quality appears to make literature suitable and valuable to language
teaching in many contexts and cultures. In addition, since literary texts contain language intended
for readers from English- speaking communities, literature stands as a model for language
learners to become familiar with different forms and conventions.

Therefore, when students invited to explore literary language, they are encouraged to
familiarize themselves with different language uses, forms or conventions. Such exposure is
essential for the learners especially at the initial stages of language learning procedures.
Literature in language teaching has the advantage of providing cultural information about the
target language. Literary texts increase foreign language students’ insight into the country and the
people whose language is being learnt (Collie & Slater, 1991). Short stories foster learners’
ability to interpret discourse in different social and cultural target language contexts (Savvidou,
2004).

Besides, in line with Taga (1999 apud Ilmu, 2015 p.2), “Culture is a social heredity
transmitted from one generation to another generation with the accumulation of individual
experiences, or a mode of activities differentiating people of one society from another society”.
The author goes on to say that “culture forms beliefs, convey ideas and shares knowledge on
customs and values. All of these characteristics are communicated through language which is an
integral part of culture” (ibid). On the other hand Koester & Lustig (2010 apud Ilmu, 2015), argue
that communication and culture are closely interrelated in terms of attaching similar meanings
and values to the objects of life. So, English has seen as a source of intercultural communication
whereby it involves individuals of different cultures who have dissimilar orientation and
interpretation to the values of life (ibid., p.3).
 52

By reading literary works, learners have the opportunity to see a world through another’s eyes,
observe human values and a different kind of living, and discover others’ lives in very different
societies. They will understand and become broadly aware of the social, political, historical,
cultural events happening in a certain society. Moreover, “since literature enables students to
understand and appreciate other cultures, societies and ideologies different from their own, it
encourages personal growth and intellectual development” (Carter & Long, 1991, pp.2- 4). In
fact, learners can deepen their intercultural understanding through literature. In accordance with
these ideas, Littlewood (2000) emphasizes the importance of the use of literature in EFL classes
by arguing that:

A major problem of language teaching in the classroom is the creation of an authentic

situation for language. All language classrooms, especially those outside the community of
English-speaking communities, are isolated from the context of events and situations which
produce natural language. Literature can overcome this problem because, in literary works,
language creates its own context. The actual situation of the reader becomes immaterial as he/she
looks on the events created by language. These events create, in turn, a context of situation for the
language of the book and enable it to transcend the artificial classroom situation. (p.179)

Based on these ideas, it is apparent that literary works undoubtedly enable students to
understand the language better by providing them with real world experiences dealing with
relationships between people and communities where the target language is spoken, even if they
are fictions. Among literary forms, the short story, as it is defined by Poe (as cited in Abrams,
1970, p.158) “as a narrative that can be read at one sitting of from one-half hour to two hours, and
that is limited to “a certain unique or single effect”, in which every detail is well-placed to
become an important element of the teaching-learning process. Furthermore, a short story usually
tells of one event in a very concentrated manner.

Moreover, a short story seems to be the most suitable literary form to use in secondary schools
due to its brevity. Short stories can be used for a variety of pedagogical purposes: language
practice, reading skills development and aesthetic appreciation, from the beginning and
intermediate level. Short stories reinforce language skills, develop motivation or curiosity of the
students, and introduce literary elements (theme, message, characters, setting, plot, metaphorical
language, culture and values). By learning about the culture students learn about the past and
present, and about people’s customs and traditions; short stories help help to develop high-order
 53

thinking skills, that is, short stories lead the students to think more critically and students learn
from the beginning that critical thinking is more natural, familiar, and even fun.

Notwithstanding the above, teachers and students in the Mozambican context, especially at
CPT secondary school, have little exposure to the English language. By using short stories in
their English classes the teachers may develop both intensive and extensive reading activities that
provide increased target language exposure. Students as well as teachers do not have contact to
natural language outside the classroom in their day-to-day lives.

Therefore, the use of short stories may help to overcome this problem. Students and teachers of
grades 11 and 12 at Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary school favourably showed positive attitudes
towards fables when I conducted my supervision teaching practice activities in 2020. Miruka
(2002, p. 160) has found that events in folktales are usually presented in a chronological order.

This can be best demonstrated with a short fable entitled “Two stories”, published in Mpiuka &
Mkuti’s English for Mozambique. Despite the benefits of short stories for students, some
objections are always raised against the use of short stories in state secondary schools due to
overcrowded classes, overloaded curricula and limited time – some problems commonly met in
state elementary to high schools in almost all developing countries. With regard to other types of
literary texts, first, the deviated and figurative language of poetry necessitates a very long time to
grasp intended meanings. Second, the length of a novel will make it difficult to accommodate
actively in crowded classes within limited teaching hours. It also should be admitted that short
stories may demand a personal response from students without providing sufficient guidance in
coping with the linguistic intricacies of the story.

Some short stories may be so remote from the students’ own experience that they are unable to
respond meaningfully to them. Alternatively some groups of students may dislike having to
discuss personal feelings or reactions. Finally, if the analysis of short story is undertaken in
purely linguistic terms with little chance for personal interpretation, this analysis could be very
mechanical and de- motivating.

2.2.6. The rationale for the integration of literary texts in foreign language classrooms

In this section, we aim to show why literary texts are beneficial in the language learning
process. What works are appropriate in foreign language classroom? How we can rethink the way
we present and use literature in order to develop a broader range of activities which are more
 54

involving for our students. Thus, literary text invites us to share human experience. It makes us
more fully aware of how other human beings think and feel. Readers who love imaginative
literary text know that they enrich their lives. It helps readers understand what they mean to be
human (Lazar, 1993).

A literary text usually begins with a writer’s need to convey his or her personal vision to
reader. Even when a writer uses factual material, historical documents, newspaper stories, and
personal experience – his or her primary purpose is not just to convey information but to give a
unique view of experience that has significance beyond the moment. Literature is the news that
stays news. To convey his or her view of experience, invents characters, and creates dialogue.
Literature invites us to see, and to think about what we see, but it also invites us to feel.
Therefore, it activates the empathy, or imaginative sympathy, that makes us share the range of
human emotions (Collie and Slater, 1991, p.15).

Moreover, one of the main reasons should using literary texts in our classes might body
written material which is important in the sense that it says something about fundamental human
issues , and which is enduring rather than ephemeral . Its relevance moves with the passing of
time , but seldom disappears completely : the Shakespearean plays whose ending were rewritten
to conform to late seventeenth – century taste , and which were later staged to give maximum
prominence to their Romantic hero figures , are now explored for their psychoanalytic or
dialectical import . In this way , though its meaning does not remain static , a literary work can
transcend both time and culture to speak directly to a reader in another country or a different
period of history (Collie & Slater , 1991 , p.3).

The aim behind teaching literary texts of another culture is to give our students a chance to
know much about different cultures that have different interests and values making no
intersection between our culture and other foreign culture , and this will pave the way to
understand others well. Literature creates world and invites us into them so that we can know
how they work . If the people and situations are like us, we can identify with them and learn
about ourselves ; if they are not , we can learn about those who are different from us . We can see
what happens without living through the event they depict. Art can help us celebrate ,
commemorate , grieve , analyze , argue , and play .(Ferster , 2005 , p.21) .

Language enrichment is one benefit often sought through literature while there is little doubt
that extensive reading increases a learner’s receptive vocabulary and facilitates transfer to a more
 55

active form of knowledge , it is sometime objected that literature does not give learners the kind
of vocabulary they really need.

Literature provides a rich context in which individual lexical and syntactical items are made
more memorable. Reading a substantial and contextualized body of text , learners gain familiarity
with many features of the written language – the formation and function of sentences , the variety
of possible structure , the different ways of connecting ideas – which broaden and enrich their
own writing skills . The extensive reading required in tackling a novel or long play develops the
students‟ ability to make inferences from linguistic clues , and to deduce meaning from context ,
both useful tools in reading other sorts of material as well (ibid, p.4). At a productive level ,
learners of literature may become more creative and adventurous as they begin to appreciate the
richness and variety of the language they are trying to master and begin to use some of that
potential themselves .

One of the ways in which language is learnt from short stories is due to the unique
characteristics of story grammar, which is defined by Richards &Schmidt (2002, p.515) as “a
theory of the cognitive representation of narrative texts, including simple stories, folktales, fables
and narratives”. In supporting the suitability of short stories in EFL teaching, Butler (2006) posits
that some or all characteristics of the structure of stories can be said to be incorporated into
people’s knowledge system as a Schema for stories. This describes the elements common to most
stories, the kinds of situations, events, actors, actions and goals that occur in stories and the inter-
relationships among the elements of a story.

According to Richards & Schmidt (2002, p.515), “people access story grammar consciously or
unconsciously when encountering different types of stories”. This serves as a source of
prediction, inference, comparison, evaluation in understanding and following stories and
narrative. The use of a traditional story structure, or narrative, has many advantages that can be
exploited in the teaching of English language skills in the EFL classroom: “it is highly
motivational in that learners want to continue reading in order to find out what happens next; the
conclusion is usually satisfying to readers, it allows for the development of logical thought
processes and it requires proper and precise use of language” (Randell 1999, p.3). From high
literature to traditional stories and modern science-fiction stories all tap into the same narrative
structure and can therefore be applied successfully for language teaching purposes (Miruka 2002,
pp.63-72).
 56

Justifying the use of short story in EFL teaching, Cate (1977, p.25) posits that telling tales and
indulging in literature, “it is a habit that seems as an integral part of our nature as breathing and
sleeping.’ Britton (1977, p.40) refers to humans as deliberate ‘proliferators of images”. He
observes that “stories read and told to children give them the ‘age-old inheritance’ of their culture
– whatever they make of it – and the templates, patterns, and symbolic outlines for their personal
story-making”.

Many other studies touch on the schematic structure of story and its influence on
comprehension (Kintsch & Van Dijk 1978; Mandler & Johnson 1977; Boshoff 2007). Story
grammar is not merely an aid to comprehension. Meek (1995, p.6) notes that stories allow
children to be “intensely preoccupied with the present while teaching them verb tenses of the past
and the future”. Ghosn (2002, pp.172-177) is in agreement and states that “story grammar
provides an ‘ideal context for verb tense acquisition”.

Literary texts can be used as a basis for exemplification of grammatical points, too. Ghosn
(2004, p.109) observes that literary texts contain many particular grammatical points which may
seem conspicuous in a text designed for language teaching. As it can be seen from the above
examples, using a literary text may be one of the best ways to show students how to reply and
react in certain situations which cannot or may not be included in language teaching courses. A
literary work can also demonstrate unexpected situations and proper responses and answers
which cannot be illustrated in a class environment.

Tarakcioglu (2003, p.216) observes that, “in literary writing, it is common to find instances of
language use which cannot be accounted for by grammatical rules” but which can be very useful
and common in everyday use. It is clear therefore, that a literary text helps the learners to gain
and expand articulacy, accuracy, and fluency in the target language by improving their linguistic
competence.

Carter & Long (1991, p.217) claim that teaching EFL through literature is essential and
indispensable “for the development of necessary capacities of close reading, analysis and
detailed, language-based interpretation” since “once one text has been read accurately then
greater fluency will ensue”. This means that by reading literary pieces intensively and
extensively, students improve their skills related to their linguistic skills, because a literary work
of art can be considered to be an ideal piece on which many grammatical items can be modeled
and studied.
 57

Through a literary text, students get familiarized with not only vocabulary and structures but
with the variety of their application in different situations as well. In this way, students manage to
express themselves in a variety of ways articulately and appropriately based on this varied
exposure. Besides, their expressions may well get more fluent since they are supposed to acquire
an extensive store of words as well as a wide range of grammatical rules, variations, deviations
and forms, because literature demonstrates all-inclusive, wide-ranging, complete, and discerning
vocabulary usage as well as convoluted literal syntax Tarakcioglu (2003, p.217).

Tarakcioglu (ibid.) argued that while other styles show recurrent features, literature is
distinguished by what he calls “pattern”. This is because in a literary text, it (the text) will show
selection and arrangement of items that contribute to the total effect; “...elements that would be
absent or incidental in other styles are important for the fulfillment of the purpose…. Figures of
rhetoric will give unusual prominence to certain items… the use of special devices which
heighten the effect of linguistic acts through patterning” (ibid, p.217).

2.2.7. The schematic structure of short stories

In this section, we show one of the ways in which language is learnt from short stories and we
introduce literary elements specifically elements of a short story in that a story cannot take place
without characters that think, speak and act, and characters need to exist in a certain place and
time. For story to develop something must happen, i.e. there must be a plot. Some stories also
have a theme. The theme of a story is the central idea that runs through it.

One of the ways in which language is learnt from short stories is due to the unique
characteristics of story grammar, which is defined by Richards and Schmidt (2002, p.515) as “a
theory of the cognitive representation of narrative texts, including simple stories, folktales, fables
and narratives”. In supporting the suitability of short stories in EFL teaching, Butler (2006) posits
that some or all characteristics of the structure of stories is said to be incorporated into people’s
knowledge system as a schema for stories. This describes the elements common to most stories,
the kinds of situations, events, actors, actions and goals that occur in stories and the inter-
relationships among the elements of a story.

According to Richards and Schmidt (2002, p.515), “people access story grammar consciously
or unconsciously when encountering different types of stories”. This serves as a source of
prediction, inference, comparison, evaluation in understanding and following stories and
narrative.
 58

Randell is a children’s author who has sold more than 25 million books around the world and
whose books are mainly for use with 5-, 6- and 7- year old observes children who are learning to
read. Randell (1999, p.3) observes that traditional stories have two main elements. Firstly, there is
a central character or characters that has or have a problem and secondly, the problem is resolved.
To refine this simple concept of story, there is also the climax, or the pivotal moment in a story,
which means the story has three parts: the tension created by the problem, the pivotal of crisis and
finally the resolution of the problem. This ‘recipe’ for story is very old and is the same recipe
used by Homer and by Aesop more than 2 500 years ago (Randell 1999, p.3). It is the same recipe
used in great works of literature like the plays of Shakespeare.

While the use of novels and other extended pieces of literature such as Shakespeare’s plays
might not be possible in most EFL classes due to the kind of language used which may pose a big
challenge to the learners whose mother tongue is not English, the use of that same recipe in the
form of shorter narratives is a viable possibility. While most commercially available textbooks do
not contain components on extended literature (since they are not meant to be literature books), it
is possible for textbooks to make use of shorter narrative texts in order to tap into story grammar
and thus derive the same kinds of benefits that might be derived from the teaching of EFL based
on literary texts.

The use of traditional story structure, or narrative, has many advantages that can exploited in
the teaching of English language skills in the EFL classroom: “it is highly motivational in that
learners want to continue reading in order to find out what happens next; the conclusion is usually
satisfying to readers, it allows for the development of logical thought processes and it requires
proper and precise use of language” (Randell 1999:3). From high literature to traditional stories to
modern science-fiction stories all tap into the same narrative structure and can therefore be
applied successfully for language teaching purposes (Yang 2001, pp.63-72).

Justifying the use of short story in EFL teaching, Cate (1977, p.25) posits that telling tales and
indulging in literature, “is a habit that seems as integral a part of our nature as breathing and
sleeping.’ Britton (1977, p.40) refers to humans as deliberate ‘proliferators of images”. He
observes that “stories read and told to children give them the ‘age-old inheritance’ of their culture
– whatever they make of it – and the templates, patterns, and symbolic outlines for their personal
story-making”. Many other studies touch on the schematic structure of story and its influence on
comprehension (Kintsch & Van Dijk 1978; Mandler & Johnson 1977; Boshoff 2007).
 59

The story grammar is not merely an aid to comprehension. Meek (1995, p. 6) notes that stories
allow learners to be “intensely preoccupied with the present while teaching them verb tenses of
the past and the future”. Ghosn (2002, pp.172-177) is in agreement and states that the familiar
“story grammar of stories provides an ‘ideal context for verb tense acquisition”.

The Short story texts can be used as a basis for exemplification of grammatical points, too.
Ghosn (2004, p.109) observes that literary texts contain many particular grammatical points
which may seem conspicuous in a text designed for language teaching. As can be seen from the
above example, using a literary text is one of the best ways to show pupils how to reply and react
in certain situations which cannot or may not be included in language teaching courses. A literary
work can also demonstrate unexpected situations and proper responses and answers which cannot
be illustrated in a class environment. Tarakcioglu (2003, p.216) observes that, “in literary writing,
it is common to find instances of language use which cannot be accounted for by grammatical
rules” but which can be very useful and common in everyday use.

It is clear therefore, that a literary text helps the learners to gain and expand articulacy,
accuracy, and fluency in the target language by improving their linguistic competence. Carter and
Long (1991, p.217) claim that teaching EFL through literature is essential and indispensable “for
the development of necessary capacities of close reading, analysis and detailed, language-based
interpretation” since “once one text has been read accurately then greater fluency will ensue”.
This means that by reading literary pieces intensively and extensively, students improve their
skills related to their linguistic skills, because a literary work of art can be considered to be an
ideal piece on which many grammatical items can be modeled and studied.

Through a literary text, learners get familiarized with not only vocabulary and structures but
the variety of their application in different situations as well. In this way, learners manage to
express themselves in a variety of ways articulately and appropriately. Besides, their expressions
may well get more fluent since they are supposed to acquire an extensive store of words as well
as a wide range of grammatical rules, variations, deviations and forms, because literature
demonstrates all-inclusive, wide-ranging, complete, and discerning vocabulary usage as well as
convoluted literal syntax.

Tarakcloglu (2003, p.217) argues that while other styles show recurrent features, literature is
distinguished by what he calls “pattern”. This is because in a literary text, it (the text) will show
selection and arrangement of items that contribute to the total effect; “...elements that would be
absent or incidental in other styles are important for the fulfillment of the purpose…. Figures of
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rhetoric will give unusual prominence to certain items… the use of special devices which
heighten the effect of linguistic acts through patterning” Tarakcloglu (2003, p. 217).

Indeed, Spack (1985,p.705) who has done studies in the area of EFL teaching and the value of
literature in an EFL situation argues that the linguistic difficulty of literature has been overstated
as readers do not need to experience total comprehension to gain something from the text. In fact,
literature, with its extensive and connotative vocabulary and its complex syntax, can expand all
language skills.

2.2.8. Cultural considerations in text selection

It is widely agreed that EFL students have a better understanding of texts based on their own
culture than of texts based on other cultures. This is thought to be true even if culturally different
texts may be of equal difficulty linguistically and rhetorically (Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983; Evans,
1992, p.43; Hudson, 1982; Steffensen & Joag-Dev, 1984, p.60). It is the shared cultural
assumptions between writer and reader and the knowledge of social systems and ritual which
allows a higher level of reader interaction with a text (Boshoff 2007, p.40; Steffensen & Colker
1982; Steffensen 1982).

Researchers such as Kachru (1986) and Marquardt (1978) observe that using culture as a
measure of text gradation is not only feasible, but also necessary in order to make texts more
accessible to EFL students. McKay (1986; 1989), however, feels that such gradation would be
impossible. As Evans (1992, p.45) states, it would be impossible for selectors to predict which (if
any) cultural barriers to comprehension a specific narrative text might contain. In some cases,
however, cultural barriers are very clear.

Marchwardt (1978, p.46) uses the example of marriage, which, while “common to most
societies”, varies greatly in terms of relationship and ceremony between cultures. Marckwardt
(1978, p.47) holds that by addressing possible areas of cultural difference, the teacher can create
opportunities for students to extend their vocabulary “by expressing ideas that are familiar” to
them, but also to determine whether students understand “the values and assumptions that are
implicit in the literary selection”. With cultural content as a selection criterion, there is always the
concern that certain elements might be offensive to members of certain cultures (Carrell &
Eisterhold 1983, pp.563-564).

In addition, when selecting texts and deciding about “good” or “bad” literature, it should be
kept in mind that because values are subject to change, value judgments are not immutable and
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texts should be selected with a clear understanding that “different cultures will value different
things” (Brumfit & Carter 1986, p.17). For EFL students to gain insight into the culture of their
target language, it is important that they are exposed to contemporary literary fiction where
characters are shown in contexts which are accurate reflections of the English-speaking
communities.

Ghosn (2002, p.177) warns that in the selection of, for example, folktales, caution should be
exercised and stories chosen which “mirror the prevailing cultural values and traditions of
people” while stories that “portray outdated customs and beliefs” should be avoided as they could
lead to an impression of the target culture being “funny”, “weird” or even “dumb” (Ghosn, 2002,
p.177). When the difficulty level and cultural content of a text have been taken into consideration,
an important additional factor to look at is the intention with which a text has been written. What
purpose a text can play is a major factor to consider in the suitability of that text for EFL classes.

Following these guidelines of literary text selection and taking all factors into consideration
should enable teachers to examine their beliefs and make informed decisions when selecting
narrative texts to use as basis for language learning in EFL classrooms. Therefore, it is worth
including some teaching methodologies concerned with the use of literary texts. Over the years
ELT methods have changed one after the other and each having been developed because it
addressed certain aspects of language or bringing to our attention an aspect that was lacking or
neglected. This was also necessitated by the fact that, in any given class there will be different
students from different backgrounds with different levels of language proficiency. Any teaching
methodology must have the elasticity to accommodate all students with their different cultural
contexts and levels of proficiency. Duff and Marley (2007) also emphasize the importance of
varying task difficulty as well as text difficulty. In addition, according to Carter & Long (1991,
p.7), there are some of the methods that can be combined:

The cultural method views a literary text as a product. This means that it is treated as a source of
information about the target culture. It is the most traditional approach, often used in university
courses on literature. The cultural model examines the social, political and historical background
to a text, literary movements and genres. There is no specific language work done on a text. This
method tends to be quite teacher-centered.

Language-based method: The literature based-model of language teaching and learning as

described by Carter & Long (1991, p.6) is also referred to as the ‘language-based approach’. This
framework allows the students to approach and access a text so as to demonstrate the knowledge
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of specific aspects of language or linguistics (such as figurative and literal language or direct and
reported speech). The disadvantage of the Language based model is that, this approach alienates
the teaching of language from teaching of the text. The learner is deprived of the opportunity to
engage with the text. Carter & Long (1991) contended that Literature’s use is stereotypical
because it is used plainly for linguistic purposes as a basis for language teaching and learning
activities. On the other hand, Borja and Marina (2012, p.7) argue that studying the language of
the literary texts will help to combine the language and literature syllabuses in a very close way.
This gives the teacher the platform to give students tasks that will require them to dig into their
knowledge of mundane lexical, dramatic and discoursal entities so as to appreciate and analyse
the text. Personal Growth method: Because the language based approach and the grammar
translation methods are at opposite ends of the spectrum, the personal growth model can be
viewed as the linking circle or bridge between the two and also positions learning in cultural
contexts. As students articulate their opinions and feelings they are able to bring in their personal
as well as cultural experiences, as argued by Carter & Long (1991, p.22). The student negotiates
and constructs meaning through interacting with the text.

Furthermore, Borja & Marina (2012) suggested techniques to teaching literary text as follows:

- It is a good idea to vary the mode of presentation of silent reading , for instance, it can be
following by listening to the passage on a cassette, so that this, revisiting of the text feels like a
different experience and challenges other areas of the learner’s abilities.

- Choose literary texts that you know and which are likely to appeal to the students you teach .

- Help students to explore their own responses to the literary texts. This means , that through this
process we receive opinions and therefore more able to assess other perspectives .

- It is preferable to give learners the maximum chance of entering the universe of any selected
literary text . This can be facilitated if , instead of trying to transpose it into their own language
and cultural experience , they try to put themselves imaginatively into the target situation .

- Integrating language and literature. Let the learner derive the benefits of communicative and
other activities for language improvement within the context of suitable works of literature .

- A good teacher of literature should put into his / her considerations of making a meaningful
impact upon its reader . It should have a meaning which the student should be able to grasp , to
understand and explain .
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- When using world literature or books which present foreign countries or their people, the
teacher must know how to help his / her understand the wide cultural differences which such
literary text often represent . The reading of books alone will not in itself ensure increased
understanding or insight .

- Encourage students to record significant impressions by introducing aids which enable students
to record the significant details suggesting themes in characterization , plot development, or
situation .

- Encourage your students to write their impressions immediately after reading any literary text .

To sum up, it is clear that if we want our students to have a better grasp of literary texts, they
must have proper training of the four basic skills : listening , speaking , reading and writing . By
careful selection and well-planned and varied procedures, we can contribute to the students’
cultural advancement .

2.2.9. Using short stories to develop language skills

Despite the benefits of short stories for students, some objections are always raised against the
use of literature in state schools due to overcrowded classes, overloaded syllabus and limited
time; some problems commonly met in elementary to high state schools in almost all developing
countries. First, the deviated and figurative language of poetry necessitates very long time to
grasp. Second, the length of novel will make it difficult for such classes to finish. Finally, drama
can be used in classes, but it will be difficult to act out a play in crowded classes within limited
course hours. Considering these objections, it is obvious that among literary forms, short-story,
which is defined by Poe (as cited in Abrams, 1970, p. 158) “as a narrative that can be read at one
sitting from one-half hour to two hours, and that is limited to a certain unique or single effect,‟ to
which every detail is subordinate”, seems to be the most suitable one to use in state schools. Since
it is short, and aims at giving a “single effect”, there is usually one plot, a few characters; there is
no detailed description of setting. So, it is easy for the students to follow the story line of the
work.
The idea that short stories are the most suitable literary genre to use in English teaching due to
its shortness is supported by Collie &Slater (1991, p. 196) when they list four advantages of using
short stories for language teachers. First, short stories are practical as their length is long enough
to cover entirely in one or two class sessions. Second, short stories are not complicated for
students to work with on their own. Third, short stories have a variety of choice for different
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interests and tastes. Finally, short stories can be used with all levels (beginner to advance), all
ages (young learners to adults) and all classes (morning, afternoon, or evening classes).
The idea that short stories are very suitable to use in English teaching is also supported by
Pardede’s (2010) research findings on the interest, perceptions, and the perceived needs of the
students of the English teachers training of Christian University of Indonesia towards the
incorporation of short story in language skills classes. The research indicated that a majority of
the respondents basically found short stories interesting to use both as materials for self-
enjoyment and as components of language skill classes. Most of them also agreed or strongly
agreed that the incorporation of short stories in language skills classes will help learners achieve
better mastery of language skills. The respondents even believed that prospective EFL teachers
should master the skills of employing short stories to teach language skills. In addition, the
statistical analysis revealed that the students’ interest and perceptions were positively and
significantly correlated, and both variables significantly affected each other.

Indeed, theoretically, using literature in Language Teaching is very advantageous because it

offers 4 (four) benefits: authentic material, cultural enrichment, language advancement, and
personal growth (Collie & Slater, 1991, p.10). This is in line with Lazar (1993) who notes four
benefits of using short stories to teach ESL/EFL, i.e. motivational, literary, cultural and higher-
order thinking benefits.

Motivational benefits
Since short stories usually have a beginning, middle and an end, they encourage students at
all levels of language proficiency to continue reading them until the end to find out how the
conflict is resolved. Elliott (1990), for example, affirms that literature motivates learners and is
“motivationally effective if learners can genuinely engage with its thoughts and emotions and
appreciate its aesthetic qualities” (p. 197). He stresses the importance of developing learner–
response (individual and group levels) and competence in literature. In addition, one of the
reasons Vandrick (1997) lists for using literature with learners is that literature motivates students
“to explore their feelings through experiencing those of others” (p. 1). In addition, literature holds
values in many cultures and countries. For this reason, learners can feel a real sense of
achievement at understanding a piece of highly literature.
Also, literature is often more interesting than the texts found in coursebooks. As a result,
instructors should agree that literary texts encourage students to read, and most literary texts
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chosen according to students’ language proficiency levels and preferences will certainly be
motivating.
Most EFL teachers never give time for themselves to read short stories. Therefore, EFL
prospective teachers need to read widely short stories before they design their lesson plans. First,
we exposed the EFL prospective teachers to texts selected from folktale / storytelling collections
that can easily be found in English for Mozambique, the book by Mpiuka & Mkuti. EFL
prospective teachers may also find useful short stories from countries surrounding Mozambique,
for instance, Malawi, Lesotho, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
By reading short stories, EFL prospective teachers can find the relevance of the use of short
stories with their learners and, be able to anticipate their learners’ problems when using a short
story. EFL prospective teachers should be trained to know that reading is a great learning aid so
the more they can encourage it their learners, the better. Therefore, Reading literary texts in the
English language classes is important because it is culturally valued material (Lazar, 1993; Collie,
and Slater, 2000); reading literary texts expands students’ awareness of the structure of the
language both at usage level (knowledge of linguistic rules) and use level (how to use those rules
to communicate efficiently) (Moss, 2003; McKay, 1987)
- It expands their vocabulary (Lazar 1993; Collie, and Slater 1987);
- It is an opportunity for students to become receptive to different cultures (Lazar, 1993);
- It develops learners’ interpretative skills (Lazar, 1993);
- It helps learners to express themselves creatively and imaginatively.
According to W.T. Littlewood (2007), the reader’s creative (or rather, ‘co-creative’) role, and
the imaginative involvement engendered by this role, encourage a dynamic interaction between
reader, text and external world, in the course of which the reader is constantly seeking to form
and retain a coherent picture of the world of the text ;
- students that read literary texts have access to a vast and diverse range of human experience and
reflection and that helps them learn about human relationships and understand more about
themselves;
- It motivates students to become enthusiastic readers, because, as we all know, a good story has
the power of absorbing and fascinating the reader until the end of the plot is revealed and that will
surely motivate students to read more. Besides, it is a fact that the more you read, the more you
want and love to read and unfortunately statistics reveal that most students do not have reading
habits.
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Literaray benefits

Instructors can introduce literary elements with short stories. With beginning and low
intermediate levels, instructors can teach simple elements, such as character, setting and plot.
The same and more complex elements, such as conflict, climax, resolution, etc., can be
introduced with more advanced levels. Gajdusek (1988) explains how literature can be introduced
by describing the order of activities: pre-reading activities, factual in-class work, analysis and
extending activities. In the pre-reading activities, students have the opportunity to learn about the
background of the story and vocabulary (p. 233). Instructors can start by asking students
questions before they are introduced to “The Wisdom of Solomon”:
a. What is justice?
b. How can people behave in a fair way?
c. Have you ever been treated unjustly? When? Why?
In factual in-class work, students should be introduced to who, what, where and when of the
story, or point of view, character, setting and action (pp. 238-239). If “The Wisdom of
Solomon” is the first story that students will read, instructors can add questions to the left margin
of the story. Each question should be placed next to the paragraph in which the answer is found
so students can begin to understand with the help of the instructor what each literary structure
means. The questions can be the ones below:
a. Who is the main character of the story?
b. Where does the story take place?
c. When does the story happen?
d. Who is narrating the story?
Here is an example of the way each question could be placed on the left margin of the story.
“The Wisdom of Solomon”
1. Who is As the two women came to King Solomon to plead their case, one of
the main them spoke first. “I plead with you, Sire, to hear what I have to say!”
character? “Speak!’” said the King. “What is your problem?”

The question on the left margin introduces students to character, setting, and point of view.
Both pre-reading tasks and factual in-class work analysis can be assigned to beginning and low
intermediate students since they require very little analysis. Extending activities, on the other
hand, deals with why, that is, “involvement and experience” (p. 245). Students must be able to
use their knowledge of the language to express their ideas. Thus, only students who have reached
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a high intermediate/advanced level of language proficiency should be introduced to these

activities. “This might be the time to approach the text as literature,” says Gajdusek (p. 245).
About extending activities (writing and in-class group work such as role-play), Gajdusek states
that the activities ask “for creative, relevant responses from the readers” (p. 251). For students to
succeed, they must have understood the story. An extending activity that can get students more
engaged in the story is role-play.
Instructors can ask students to play the role of several characters.
a. Imagine you are the guard who is told by King Solomon to cut the child in half. If you don’t
think you can do what the King has asked you to do, tell him how you feel.
Make sure you are convincing.
b. Suppose you are the guard who is told by King Solomon to cut the child in half.
After cutting the child in half, tell him how you feel about his decision. Make sure you are
convincing.
Cultural benefits
Short stories are effective when teaching culture to EFL students. Short stories transmit the
culture of the people about whom the stories were written. By learning about the culture, students
learn about the past and present, and about people’s customs and traditions. Culture teaches
students to understand and respect people’s differences. When using literary texts, instructors
must be aware that the culture of the people (if different from that of the students) for whom the
text was written should be studied. As students face a new culture, they become more aware of
their own culture. They start comparing their culture to the other culture to see whether they find
similarities and/or differences between the two cultures. Misinterpretation may occur due to
differences between the two cultures as Gajdusek (1998, p. 232) explains. To avoid
misinterpretation, instructors should introduce the culture to the students or ask them to find
relevant information about it.
Before reading/listening to the story “The Wisdom of Solomon,” students should read some
information about King Solomon. The paragraph below tells students who King
Solomon was and how he became the wisest leader in the world. If students have access to the
Internet, instructors can ask them to read information about the King from
http://www.geocities.com/thekingsofisrael/biography_Solomon.html before they read/listen to the
story.
Solomon became king of Israel after the death of his father, David. The Old Testament account of
his life tells of how he had a special dream early in his reign. In his dream God told him that he
could ask for anything he desired. Solomon answered that he wanted nothing more than to have an
understanding heart in order to rule wisely over his people. According to the account, God then
praised Solomon for asking for wisdom rather than riches and honor. The Old Testament writer
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says that Solomon subsequently became the wisest leader in the entire world. Many came to seek
his advice, even leaders of other countries. The most famous story of the Wisdom of Solomon,
however, is the one in which he settles a dispute between two women about questions of
motherhood. (Janssen, 1981, p. 123)

Teaching higher-order thinking

Of all the benefits of short stories, higher-order thinking is the most exciting one. High
intermediate/advanced students can analyze what they read; therefore, they start thinking
critically when they read stories. Young (1996) discusses the use of children’s stories to introduce
critical thinking to university students. He believes that
Short stories have two crucial advantages over traditional content: . . . First, because they are
entertaining, students' pervasive apprehension is reduced, and they learn from the beginning that
critical thinking is natural, familiar, and sometimes even fun. Second, short stories put issues of
critical thinking in an easily remembered context (p. 90).
Lazar (1993) agrees with the use of short stories to teach critical thinking. He points out that
instructors have the responsibility to help students to develop cognitive skills because everyone
needs to “make judgements, be decisive, come to conclusions, synthesize information, organize,
evaluate, predict, and apply knowledge.” By reading and writing, students develop their critical
thinking skills (p. 24). Introduced by Bloom et al. in 1956, thinking skills, called Bloom’s
Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain, include both lower-order and higher-order thinking.
Depending on students’ level of proficiency, instructors can activate students' lower-order or
higher-order thinking. Beginners are able to recall information and respond to questions about
dates, events and places. Thus, when asked questions about names of characters, setting and plot
of the story, the students will have no difficulties responding to the questions. This is level 1 of
the taxonomy—knowledge.
As students become more proficient in the language, they can move to level 2—
comprehension. In this level, they must demonstrate their comprehension by comparing,
interpreting, giving descriptions and stating main ideas.
When students become even more proficient, they move to level 3—application. In level 3,
students try to solve problems by using the knowledge they have about the story.
In level 4—analysis—students must have reached the high intermediate level of proficiency to
succeed. The reason is that students must analyze, compare, contrast, explain, infer, etc. facts or
ideas about the story.
Upon reaching the advanced level of proficiency, students can synthesize and evaluate what
they read, the last two levels of the taxonomy (synthesis and evaluation). Using as an example the
short story entitled “The Wisdom of Solmon”; the Instructors can then ask questions such as
“How would you change the plot?” “What would happen if the problem was not solved?” “What
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changes would you make to solve the problem?” “Do you agree with the actions of the women?
“Why did women choose the King Solomon?” “What choice would you have made in order to
save the child?” (Bloom’s critical thinking questioning strategies).
Questions added to each story should train the students to think critically. Some of the
questions are exemplified below:
1. In the story, “The Wisdom of Solomon,” would it have made any difference if the real mother
of the baby who was about to be cut in half, had stayed quiet instead of pleading to King
Solomon not to cut him and give him to the other woman?
2. What would have happened if King Solomon had not heard the real mother of the baby and cut
the baby in half, giving half to the real mother and half to the other woman who claimed to be the
real mother?
Questions 1 and 2 require students to think of a different end to the same story and probably see
both the real mother of the baby and King Solomon in different ways from how they were
portrayed in the original story.
3. Do you agree with the way King Solomon acted? Do you agree with the way the real mother
acted?
4. Do you agree with the resolution of the story?
Questions 3 and 4 require students to make judgement.
Different stories may elicit different questions. The questions will depend on the plot,
characters, conflict, climax, complications, and resolution of each story. The more questions
requiring higher order-thinking students answer, the better prepared they will be to face the world
once they finish their studies.
Enhancing language skills using the story entitled “The Wisdom of King Solomon”
Short stories allow instructors to teach the four skills to all levels of language proficiency.
Murdoch (2002) indicates that “short stories can, if selected and exploited appropriately, provide
quality text content which will greatly enhance ELT courses for learners at intermediate levels of
proficiency” (p. 9). He explains why stories should be used to reinforce ELT by discussing
activities instructors can create such as writing and acting out dialogues.
Also, Oster (1989) affirms that literature helps students to write more creatively (p. 85).
Instructors can create a variety of writing activities to help students to develop their writing skills.
They can ask students to write dialogues (Murdoch, 2002, p. 9) or more complex writing
activities if students have reached a high level of language proficiency. For example, if
instructors bring to class “The Wisdom of Solomon”, they can assign the following writing
activities:
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a. Write a dialogue between King Solomon and the guard holding the sword after the mother and
the son, and the other woman left the palace.
b. Paraphrase the first four sentences of the paragraph, “And in this way they argued . . . whose
child it was” (fourth paragraph from the bottom).
c. Summarize the story in three sentences, including the main character, setting, conflict, climax,
and resolution.
d. Write one sentence on the theme of the story.
e. Write a paragraph on what causes people to lie.
f. Write a classification essay on different kinds of lies.
Activities a. and b. are suitable for beginning levels; activities c, d, for intermediate levels; and
activity f, for advanced levels.
First of all, literary texts can be more beneficial than informational material in stimulating the
acquisition process as they provide authentic contexts for processing new language. Literary texts
expose learners to fresh themes and unexpected language. In this sense, a literary text is an
authentic text, real language in context, to which we can respond directly (Brumfit and Carter,
1986, p.15). The quality of stimulating the acquisition process appears to make literature suitable
and valuable to language teaching in many contexts and cultures. In addition, since literary texts
contain language intended for native speakers, literature stands as a model for language learners
to become familiar with different forms and conventions.

Second, containing real examples of grammatical structures and vocabulary items, the literary
texts raise learners’ awareness of the range of the target language and advance their competence
in all language skills (Povey, 1967). Literary texts are not written for the specific purpose of
teaching. Instead they deal with “things which mattered to the author when he wrote them”
(Marley, 1989, p.12). So, compared to the language samples in the textbooks, the language in
literary texts is far richer and more varied. Some features of the written language such as “the
formation and function of sentences, the variety of possible structures, and the different ways of
connecting ideas are presented at many levels of difficulty” (Collie & Slater, 1994, p.5).

According to Widdowson (1975, cited in Lazar 1993, p.18) “by assigning learners to explore
the literary language, they have been at the same level encouraged to think about the norms of the
language use.” Learners are encouraged to familiarize themselves with different language uses,
forms or conventions. Such exposure is essential for the learners especially for their language
development. Thus, using literature in language teaching has the advantage of providing cultural
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information about the target language. Literary texts increase foreign language learners’ insight
into the country and the people whose language is being learnt (Collie & Slater, 1991).

Short stories foster learners’ ability to interpret discourse in different social and cultural target
language contexts (Savvidou, 2004). By reading literary works, learners learn to see a world
through another’s eyes, observing human values and a different kind of living, and discovering
that others’ live in very different societies. They will understand and become broadly aware of
the social, political, historical, cultural events happening in a certain society.

Third, “since literature enables students to understand and appreciate other cultures, societies
and ideologies different from their own, it encourages personal growth and intellectual
development”, (Carter & Long, 1991, pp.2- 4). In fact, learners can deepen their cultural
understanding through literature.

In accordance with the ideas above, Littlewood (2000, p.179) emphasizes the importance of
the use of literature in EFL classes by arguing that:

A major problem of language teaching in the classroom is the creation of an authentic situation
for language. All language classrooms, especially those outside the community of native
speakers, are isolated from the context of events and situations which produce natural language.
Literature can overcome this problem because, in literary works, language creates its own
context. The actual situation of the reader becomes immaterial as he/she looks on the events
created by language. These events create, in turn, a context of situation for the language of the
book and enable it to transcend the artificial classroom situation.

Based on these ideas, it is obvious that literary works undoubtedly enable students to
understand the language better by providing them with real world experiences, relationships
between society and people where the target language is spoken, even if they are fictions. It is
obvious that among literary forms, the short story, as it is defined by Poe (as cited in Abram,
1970, p.158) “as a narrative that can be read at one sitting of from one-half hour to two hours,
and that is limited to “a certain unique or single effect”, to which every detail is subordinate”.
Furthermore, in connection to this definition, a short story tells of one event in a very
concentrated manner. In addition, short story seems to be the most suitable one to use in
secondary schools. In regard to the idea that, short story is the most suitable literary genre to use
in English Teaching due to its shortness.
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Lao & Krashen (1989, p.14) showed that “the group reading literary texts indicated
improvement in vocabulary and reading skill.” Therefore, short stories can be used for: language
practice, reading comprehension and aesthetic appreciation from the beginning and intermediate
level. Short stories reinforce language skills, develop motivation or curiosity of the students, and
introduce literary elements (theme, message, characters, setting, plot, metaphorical language,
culture and values). By learning about the culture, students learn about the past and present, and
about people’s customs and traditions, short stories develop high-order thinking skills, that is,
short stories lead the students to think more critically and students learn from the beginning that
critical thinking is more natural, familiar, and even fun.

2.3. The teaching activities for use with short stories

In this section, we discuss the teaching activities while using short stories. The teaching
activities are the process of putting the teaching plan into operation and they involve different
activities which are used in teaching. They are generalized plan for a lesson which includes
structure, desired learner behavior in terms of the goals of instruction and an outline of techniques
that is necessary for the implementation of the activity.
Generally teaching activities and teaching methods are used synonymously but they are
different. However, different scholars have listed different language teaching activities. Brumfit
and Carter (1996, p.110) stated five activities of teaching language.
a. Prediction
Brumfit & Carter (ibid) opine that this is one of the important activities used in a short story. It
is for the teacher to stop the reading at key points and to elicit predictions of how the narrative
will develop. It requires careful preparation before the story is read in the class. The story can be
presented in the following ways using this activity:
- The title can be omitted and after the story has been read, students can be invited to predict what
it should be.

- At the end of first paragraph, students might be asked to predict what the story is going to be
about. This can be an important stage in sensitizing the students to the function of the opening of
the story in an interpretation of the whole.
- In course of teaching the story, students might be asked to predict about the role of the
characters as well.

- After the reading is over, the teacher might ask different questions to predict the probable
answers.
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b. Cloze Procedure
This is also a form of prediction. But focus is given on individual words or text. Teachers need to
give careful attention to the number of words deleted, to the relative multi-valence of the chosen
items, to the linguistic competence of a group and to preparatory activities on non-literary texts in
order to give practice in context where a greater degree of predictability may obtain.
c. Summary
This is one of the important activities of teaching the story. It is designed to focus attention on the
overall point or meaning of the story. The students are asked to produce summaries of the text.
Instructions need to be fairly precisely formulated while using this activity otherwise there is a
danger of committing the here say of paraphrase by suggesting that there is a paraphrase able
meaning to the story. And it is useful to impose a word limit for the summary.
c. Forum: Debating Opposite View Points
This is an activity of teaching the story which lends itself to small group based activity with
groups being allocated to defend either one of the propositions even if this may not be their own
personal view. The story can be used dividing the students in different groups. One group offers
an argument and other group listens and tries to provide counter examples. Either the whole class
or a section of the class can participate in judging and voting for which propositions they
considered to have been most persuasively argued.

d. Guided Re-writing
It is another widely employed story teaching activity. It aims at helping students to recognize the
broader discourse patterns of texts and the appropriate styles. It involves the students in re-writing
stretches of discourse to change its communicative value. The basis for the activities is to provide
practice at expressing intention within contexts according to specified information about audience
and purposes. Teachers can ask the students to re-write the report, news, and story in their own
ways.

2.3.1. Training teachers as readers of short stories

Pivotal to the discussion in this section of the chapter is Powell-Brown’s (2003/2004, p.284)
simple but provocative question: “Can you be a teacher of literacy if you don’t love to read?”
This leads to the idea that literature studies involve and require a passion for reading. This means
that teachers who read and use literature in their classes must be avid readers. The incorporation
of literature in EFL language classroom is without doubt, very important, but particular
competencies are required of the teachers thereof for the learners to enjoy the benefits of reading
for developing language skills.
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Gomez (2005, p.92) in response to Powell-Brown’s question, posed a similar question, “Why
would you be a teacher of literature if you don’t love to read?” Gomez investigated this matter
further by carrying out a survey with students who were trainee teachers by asking them to share
their memories as readers by listing down all people who had contributed to their elementary and
secondary reading experiences. In addition, students were expected to define “what it meant to be
literate and to have a literate self.”
The survey had very interesting outcomes. The “love-to-read” students found it easy to share
their memories and experiences with their classmates. According to Gomez (2005, p.93), these
remembered being read to and enjoyed reading for pleasure. Their literate selves could be
characterised as people who loved to read. The other group, whom Gomez characterised as
people for whom reading is a task to be mastered, expressed the view that “reading for pleasure
was not part of their literacy memories”. Their memories included struggles with achieving
personal connections with a text, and lack of support from families that had very little time for
reading. Gomez (2005, pp.93-94) refers also to the students who did not enjoy reading at all as
part of the TV generation. They preferred watching television to reading. In instances where the
students had tried to borrow a book from a friend to read, the books failed to generate excitement
or interest. Spack (1985, p.1) describes a situation where, in order to motivate students to
develop a passion for reading, the teacher has to display excitement and passion for reading,
because, if the teacher is not passionate, students’ opinions of reading might be affected.
Spack (ibid.) underscores this by saying, “The young mind is impressionable and it is
extremely important that we as educators are aware of our actions around our students.” Teachers
should be reading models for their students. Applegate & Applegate (2004, p.555) refer to this
impact on students with regard to their teachers’ attitude towards reading as the “Peter Effect”.

This conclusion emanated from the data gathered from a study conducted with pre-service
teachers in order to investigate their disposition towards reading. The outcome of the study was
that these teachers could not give what they did not have, like the Apostle Peter in the Bible who,
when a beggar asked for money, answered the beggar, “How can I give what I myself do not
have?” Teachers with negative reading experiences were found to be transmitting a similar
negativity to their students. The teachers lacked a passion for reading and, therefore, could not
motivate their students to love reading. Spack argues that (1985, p.1), “If teachers remain open to
the joys and rewards of engaged reading, they stand a much better chance of sharing that joy with
their students.” In doing so, they give them, like Peter gave the beggar, the ability to take
themselves where they could not have gone before.
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Society in general looks up to teachers as people who like to read and are eager to inculcate
reading in their students. However, research reveals, according to Spack (1985, p.2), that,
although teachers value reading for pleasure, many do not prioritise personal pleasure reading.
Rasey brands this kind of people as “aliterates”, that is, people who lack a reading habit, but are
capable readers who choose not to read. Spack further argues that these are teachers who would
advise parents to encourage their children to read or read to them daily, when these same teachers
fail to follow their own advice. Research has revealed that teachers who regularly read for
pleasure are more likely to include reading interventions in order to encourage their students to
engage in pleasure reading too, than those who never read for pleasure (Morrison, Jacobs
&Swinyard, 1999; McKool & Gespass, 2009; Rasey (2009, p.2). The reading teacher would offer
opportunities to their students to engage in reading through book clubs, for instance. Rasey (2009,
p.2) emphasises that teachers who read for pleasure understand the importance of allowing
students “to transact with the text”.

Researchers Sulentic-Dowell, Beal & Capraro (2006) discovered in their study that
mathematics teachers who engaged in pleasure reading were more likely to employ
comprehension strategies for solving word problems and to check vocabulary understanding. On
the other hand, teachers who do not read for pleasure may lack strategies that would provide a
framework to assist students. Their study further indicates that teachers who read for pleasure are
more likely to engage in instructional practices that reflect their personal love for reading. For
instance, such teachers enjoy reading to their students, inculcating model reading strategies,
offering a wider choice in reading materials, and providing time for students to read during the
school day, coupled with encouragement to students to visit the school library and engage in
reading.
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CHAPTER III: Research design and methodology

As previously stated in presenting the study, this study followed a blending method research
design. Both the qualitative and the quantitative methods were used. Qualitative methods were
used to collect and describe data while the quantitative method was used to analyze pre-test and
post-test results so that the data could be effectively interpreted.

Thus, we are conducting an action research whose motivation for combining qualitative and
quantitative research designs was to seek “elaboration, enhancement, illustration and clarification
of the results from one method with the results from the other method” (Morse, 2009; Savin-
Baden & Major, 2012, pp.78-80). In fact, the current action research followed five steps in line
with Burns (1999):

First, we collected all the data and ongoing reflections from the information. Moreover, the
research question was checked by us to start a process of more detailed analysis. In the current
research, we classified and organized the data from pre-proficiency and post-proficiency tests in
different tables and graphs using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) program for
quantitative analysis. Second, we categorized and encoded all the data in order to identify more
specific patterns. We also identified which tools were going to be coded qualitatively and which
could be coded quantitatively for data collection. Besides, the data collections instruments were
classified. Thus, field notes, questionnaires and classroom observation checklists were coded
qualitatively whereas quantitative data, for instance, tests were coded quantitatively.

Third, we compared the categories in the data collection with the aim to see whether there
were repeated patterns or ideas in the data collection instruments. Fourth, we had to connect and
articulate relations, concepts, patterns, behaviors and refine personal theories that were made
according to the problem stated. In the current research, we classified relevant information for
each category from the theory presented, field notes, classroom observation and questionnaire, in
which the main problem and objectives were related. Fifth, we organized and presented all the
information, findings and outcomes, which were supported by the data and the literature review.

In justifying the use of mixed method in social research, Savin-Baden & Major (2012, pp. 14-
15) observe that Mixed Method Research Design (MMD) is becoming increasingly popular
amongst social science researchers. Creswel (2003) took a similar stance when he argues that
using mixed method research design, researchers are able to detect recurrent patterns or
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consistent relationships among results that are independent of one particular data source or type
of measurement and its independent weaknesses. He further contends that triangulation and
simultaneously use of mixed research methods or measures to test the same finding is a valuable
strategy in the research process, especially, when research methods that have different but
complementary strengths and weaknesses are mixed.

In terms of a research design, Maxwell & Loomis (2002) suggest that:

If the research problem is complex or if the researcher suspects that one method may not
comprehensively address the research problem, one of the strategies that may be used to
supplement the core method is the mixed method research design. In mixed method
designs, a single method and one or more strategies drawn from a second method are used
in the same research (p.93).
Mixed method research designs are usually used because one method alone will not provide a
comprehensive answer to the research question. Perhaps in a study that is primarily quantitative,
there is some aspect of the phenomenon that cannot be measured; or in a study that is primarily
qualitative, there is some aspect of the study that can be measured quantitatively, and the
measurement will enhance the descriptive understanding of the phenomenon. In the current study,
for instance, one of the stages of implementing the pedagogy requires quantitative instrument of
data collection, that is, pre-proficiency test and post- proficiency test reading comprehension. In
other words, or perhaps if qualitative and quantitative methods are used, one will complement the
other, for example, the former provides access to a perspective that cannot be accessed by the
latter. Maxwell & Miller (2008) argue that several principles are important to attend to when
conducting a mixed method research.
In defining mixed method research design, Morse et al. (2009, p.190) observes that a mixed
method research design is one that “incorporates various qualitative and quantitative strategies
within a single study”. Similarly, Creswell (2003, p.212) defines a mixed method research design
at its simplest level “as one that mixes both qualitative and quantitative methods of data
collection and analysis in a single study”.

Creswell (2003, p.212) further suggests three ways of combining qualitative and quantitative
research methods. The strategy that was employed in this study is what Creswell refers to as a
sequential exploratory strategy which is characterized by an initial phase of qualitative data
collection and analysis, which is followed by a phase of quantitative data analysis and the
findings are then integrated during the interpretation phase. In recommending the use of mixed
method research design, Creswell (2003, p.216) notes that the strategy of combining qualitative
and quantitative research approaches is useful to explore the phenomenon, and particularly to
expand on the qualitative findings. Therefore, the nature of the study is desriptive because the
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study involves observing and describing the teaching practices of prospective EFL teachers that
integrate short stories in the classrooms.

Therefore, this research addresses the training of prospective EFL teachers to integrate short
stories in the EFL classes. Our aim of the study is to train prospective EFL teachers to use short
stories for enhancing reading skills. Moreover, we also review studies that describe the benefits
of using short stories in EFL class. Simultaneously, the study also focuses on understanding how
the instructors train prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in EFL class. It is therefore
best to use a blending qualitative and quantitative approach because of the importance of studying
natural and social phenomenon since this is a classroom research, which is an action research.
As Bogdan & Biklen (1998, p.3) argue, “In education, action research is frequently called
naturalistic because researchers hang around the event they are interested in”. Hennink et al.
(2010, p.9) point out that adopting action research helps “to understand the meaning and
interpretations that people give to behaviours, events or objects”. Consequently, in attempting to
understand the integration of short stories in the EFL classes, during an interaction with the
researcher, the teacher participants are asked to describe their practices by designing lesson plans
based on short stories.

The action research plays an effective role in providing a picture of different teachers’
practices and experiences. The action research entails a naturalistic inquiry (Berg 2009, Grix
2010, Punch 2009), which means that it enables researchers to study social phenomena in their
natural settings. Therefore, conducting action research enables us to understand deeply the topic.

Moreover, researchers are immersed completely or partially during a research process.

According to Savin-Baden & Major (2012, p.13), “Action research has many different
approaches to enable us to understand the variety of human actions and experiences”. It is
important to mention that the value of this research is the extent in which it addresses a radical
problem, proposes a solution and provides descriptions of the subject area. The primary aim is to
add to knowledge rather than to make an evaluation or judgement about the setting.

As Savin-Baden & Major (2012, p.13) point out, “Action researchers attempt to assume a non-
judgmental stance towards participants”. Adopting the action research allows us to examine and
explore the topic of the study.
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Indeed, mixed method design is characterised by an in-depth examination of knowledge that

involves different data collection methods (Povey 1967, p.58). These methods contain techniques
such as questionnaires, classroom observations, field-notes, case studies and document analysis.

The research instruments of this study were questionnaire and a classroom observation
checklist (see appendix). The classroom observation checklist focused on methods, skills and
teaching activities used by prospective EFL teachers in the classroom. The questionnaire
consisted of two sets of questionnaire: the first was for teachers (Questionnaire for teachers –
QT), and the second for learners (Questionnaire for learners – QL). The questionnaires consisted
of two sections: Section A, which elicited sociolinguistic data on sex, age, educational
background; and Section B, which elicited data on activities for use with short stories and
materials based on short stories.
The participants of this action research are prospective EFL teachers of Rovuma University –
Niassa brunch and EFL teachers and learners of Cristiano Taimo secondary school.
Because the aim of this study is to train prospective EFL teachers, a phenomenological design is
deemed most appropriate. This is an action research whereby we use a blending qualitative and
quantitative method.
Denzin & Lincoln (2005) & Creswell (2009) consider action research as one that involves an
interpretive and naturalistic view of the world. Qualitative method adopts a subjective assessment
of people’s opinions, attitudes and behaviours. This method is appropriate for this study because
the study seek to train teachers to integrate short stories in ELT.
The study also adopted the case study design because it focused on gaining an in-depth
understanding of the training of prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in ELT. Miles
& Huberman (1984) assert that, case studies are not determined or characterized by data
collection and analysis of methods but by their focus on a particular unit of analysis, in short, a
case. The scholar keeps saying that a case study can be carried out in a class or a particular group
within a school or institution, the whole school, college or university. In this context, a case study
of CPT secondary school and Rovuma University- Niassa brunch.
The views of experienced teachers of English at CPT Secondary School in Niassa were sought
and analyzed so as to bring understanding of the role of short stories in EFL. A descriptive
phenomenological case study approach was deemed to be ideal because the researcher wanted to
find the views of teachers who worked in the same environment to determine what they thought
about the position of literary texts in English as a foreign language. As Held (2007) & Van
Manen (1990), observe that such an approach enabled us to attain a deeper understanding of the
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training of prospective EFL teachers. Phenomenology has been described as a pursuit of original
experiences (Held, 2007), and one of its strengths is that it allows a first-hand description of the
experiences which can then help one to understand the narrator’s thought process in its depth and
breadth (Brinkman & Kvale, 2005).

As previously stated, the nature of this research is an action research. In this classroom action
research study, the participants are four EFL prospective teachers of English from Rovuma
University-Niassa-brunch and four class-teachers of English from Cristiano Paulo Taimo
Secondary School. Hundred-sixty EFL learners were engaged to the study. In any study, it is
usually impossible to use the entire population of interest as this may result in huge spending of
resources. Hence, the selection of the participants, which of necessity had the characteristics of
the population. In selecting the participants for this study, the purposeful sampling technique was
employed for the sake of aligning the study’s purpose of identifying subjects with shared
characteristics and common EFL experiences; a purposeful sampling procedure was utilized for
this study. Sampling decisions were determined partly by the objectives set, “purposive sampling
is necessitated as we are interested in certain specified characteristics. Only members with such
characteristics are selected” (Nkpa, 1997, p.38)

Thus, the criterion sampling was adopted as an option in purposive sampling and assisted in
selecting the individuals who were well placed in terms of potentially informative responses. The
model of design that we used in this study is referred to (Maxwell & Miller 2008, p.214) as “an
interactive model”, consisting of the components of a research study and the ways in which these
components may affect and be affected by one another. In adopting Maxwell & Miller’s (2008
p.215) model, we were aware that a good design is one in which the components work
harmoniously together, promotes efficient and successful functioning and that a flawed design
leads to poor operation or failure.

The model presented in this study is a model of as well as for action research. It was meant to
help us understand the actual structure of the study as well as to plan this study and carry it out.
An essential feature of this model is that it treats research design as a real entity, not simply an
abstraction or plan. These components are not substantially different from the ones presented in
many other discussions of qualitative or applied research design (Morse & Niehaus, 2009; Toole
& Abowitz, 2010; Hsu, 2005; Lipscomb, 2008). What is innovative is the way the relationships
among the components are conceptualized. In this model, the different parts of a design form an
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integrated and interacting whole, with each component closely tied to several others, rather than
being linked in a linear or cyclic sequence.

It is useful to distinguish among three kinds of goals for doing this study: personal goals,
practical goals, and intellectual goals. Personal goals include a desire to change some existing
situation (the way English language is taught at Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary school), the
need to improve the way teachers teach English as a foreign language to their learners and
establishing as to whether alternative teaching resources such as the collection of short stories
alongside the prescribed school textbooks can be used to achieve the same objectives in place of
prescribed school textbooks only.

Morse et al.(2009) contends that eradicating or submerging one’s personal goals and concerns
is impossible, and attempting to do so is unnecessary. What is necessary, in qualitative design, is
that one should be aware of these concerns and how they may be shaping the research, and that it
is important to think about how best to deal with their consequences.

Maxwell et al. (2008, p.220) contend that to the extent that the researcher fails to do a careful
assessment of ways in which the design decisions and data analyses are based on personal
desires, it is possible that one is bound to arrive at invalid conclusions. However, the personal
reasons for wanting to conduct a study, and the experiences and perspectives in which these are
grounded, are not simply a source of “bias” they can also provide one with a valuable source of
insight, theory, and data about the phenomena that is being studied (Marshall & Rossman, 1999,
pp.25–30).

Two major decisions profoundly influenced the personal goals of undertaking this study. One
is that of the topic, issue, or question selected for study. The topic chosen had to do with the
problems that English language prospective teachers go through in teaching English as a foreign
language. This was in line with Maxwell’s observation that the “touchstone of the researchers’
own experience may be more valuable an indicator for a potentially successful research
endeavour” (Maxwell et al, 2008, pp.35–36).

Besides the personal goals, there are two other kinds of goals that are worth distinguishing and
discussing. These are the goals that are important for other people and not just the researchers:
practical goals (including administrative or policy goals) and intellectual goals. Practical goals are
focused on accomplishing something—meeting some need, changing some situation, or
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achieving some goal. Intellectual goals, on the other hand, are focused on understanding
something, gaining some insight into what is going on and why this is happening.

Although action research design places much more emphasis on practical goals than does basic
research, we need to address the issues of what we need to understand by doing the study and
how this understanding will contribute to accomplishing the practical goals.

3.1 Research questions

During our supervision of teaching practices in 2020 at Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary
school in Mozambique, we noticed that most teachers did not use short stories in their English
Language classes. We felt that the main tendency in the English Language classes was to
practice language skills (reading, speaking, writing and listening) around topics (texts from
grades 11 and 12) related to sports, business, environment, entertainment, technology, diseases,
politics, arts and other topics different from provided by short stories. Therefore, the research
questions are as follows:

- How can prospective EFL teachers be trained to use short stories in EFL class?

- What are the additional potential benefits of using short stories in EFL class?
- What teaching strategies can be recommended to prospective EFL teachers to integrate
short stories in EFL class?
3.2 Research hypothesis
The present study examines the feasibility of training prospective EFL teachers to integrate
short stories in EFL class. Material designed around short stories was used to teach reading skills
instead of prescribed coursebook texts. This study was motivated by the following hypothesis:
integrating short stories in EFL lessons may help prospective EFL teachers develop reading skills
of their learners.

3.3. Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows:

- To train prospective EFL teachers to use short stories for reading comprehension in EFL
class.

-To describe the additional potential benefits of using short stories to promote reading as a
skill.
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-To propose teaching strategies of using short stories for pedagogical implementation of EFL
teacher training project.

3.4. The role of the researcher

Our main role was to facilitate and supervize the process of material design as well as to
observe prospective EFL teachers as they were conducting their teaching practices. In addition,
we provided a collection of short stories from locally written textbook by Mpiuka & Mkuti
entitled “English for Mozambique” and another book written by Wajnryb entitled “Stories:
Narrative activities for the language classroom”, Cambridge Handbooks for language teachers.
We also guided prospective EFL teachers to read widely the provided short stories. Another role
was that of marking reading comprehension tests.

Furthermore, The process of material design advocated teachers to read the story thoroughly
with students and highlights the storyline, characters, message, or moral of the story. Prospective
EFL teachers were required to perform activities suggested in the material design provided by the
supervisor, and encouraged to design lesson plan based on short stories, as well as plan
communicative activities for their students. Prospective EFL teachers were encouraged to create
an enjoyable learning environment by developing flexible activities suited to students.

3.5. Addressing potential ethical issues in the study

We took great care to safeguard the adherence to the ethical standards. To be granted the
consent letter, we had to submit a letter from the thesis’ Supervisor and the name of the school
where the research would be conducted (in this case, Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary school).
The school principal was not only responsible for granting permission to carry out research, but
also for writing to the head teacher of the participating school. The school principal granted us
permission to conduct the study and even copied the letter of consent.
We would briefly like to mention some ethical considerations incumbent on conducting our
research. Butler (1998, pp.150) suggested the following guidelines for researchers on dealing
with other people involved in the research project: obtain permission; involve participants:
safeguard confidentiality, ensure anonymity, inform participants of the right to withdraw, build
relationship of trust, be self- reflective. Ethics are important in any kind of research. Research
whose focus is on social and professional amelioration, it assumes even greater significance. In a
methodology that allows for the conflation of research and practice, there is always the danger
that could be focussed wholly on the service of the research, to the former’s detriment.
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Wallace (1998. p.49) warns that it is “not ethical to use our students’ time and effort on
activities which do not contribute in any way to success in their studies”. In the present study,
Wallace’s warning has been considered. Although, as has already alluded, many of the students-
teacher tasks and lesson plans design (classroom design activities) lent themselves to my
research purpose, and in some cases, they were designed with a research purpose in mind, this
was never done in violation of pedagogical principles. The aim was always, to use Wallace’s
(1998, pp.42-43) distinction, “to use an approach that was complementary.”

We have also attempted to observe ethical conventions in other ways. Students as well as
prospective teachers were informed that we were engaged in research in the integration of short
stories in English language classes as alternative materials to Communicative Language
Teaching. For students, their test results would become part of our data. Students were excited
and did not raise any objections to this. All the students did not object (see annex ). When
quoting students , we have, nevertheless, ensured confidentiality by either doing so anonymously
or by way of using their number on their core-class list. In quoting from our lesson evaluation, we
have edited out any remarks which might inadvertently hurt or give offence to anyone, even if
this has meant some omission in the raw data. We also got permission from the teachers of
English to collect their lesson plans and observe their lessons.

The school principal gave us consent in writing, authorizing me to undertake a study in the
Grades 11 and 12 . Since a qualitative researcher deals with human beings as the main source of
the data collection, a commitment to ethical standards is an essential aspect of qualitative
research, for two reasons. Firstly, a qualitative researcher examines individuals’ experiences,
perceptions and feelings and, secondly, some qualitative issues are sensitive and require careful
consideration.

In other words, it is essential to avoid any kind of harm, whether physical, emotional, or
psychological as well as damage or threats to social or financial standing. Integrity has been
defined as “central to ethical research principles that focus on the responsibility of researchers to
do no harm, to gain informed consent from participants and to represent respondents’ views as
accurately as possible” (Watts 2008, p.1). Informed consent can be described as an agreement
between a researcher and the participants.

In this sense, we are researchers responsible for informing the participants about the research
purpose and methods, explaining that their participation is completely voluntary, and notifying
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them of any potential risks or benefits arising from their participation. The participants must then
consent before they participate, equipped with a full understanding of their role in the research.

Confidentiality/Anonymity refers to the assurance that all data will be stored securely and the
participants’ basic rights not to be named or identifiable in the research. For example, their
personal information should not be revealed when the research is reported. We should safeguard
and explain the methods and degree of confidentiality and anonymity afforded to the participants
both during and after their participation. These ethical principles were carefully considered both
before and while conducting the actual process of the data collection in the current study.

Firstly, before traveling to school to conduct the fieldwork, we informed and obtained
permission from my educational institution (Pedagogical University) by filling in the ethical
application form that explained the purpose of the study and identifying all of the participants
who would be involved in the study, under our supervisor’s supervision. This ethical application
included all of the documents and forms sent to the research participants, such as the school
principals, teachers, students. These forms provided all of the participants with detailed
explanations of the research and the expectations regarding their participation (see annex ).

Secondly, before the actual process of collecting the research data began, it was necessary to
negotiate access to and contact with the responsible parties. As Cohen et al. (2007, p.55) point
out, “The first stage involves the gaining of official permission to undertake our research in the
target community”. Therefore, on 4 July 2022, we embarked on our field work. This letter
confirmed that we were doctoral students who wished to undertake fieldwork in the area of
English language in the secondary school context. In addition, we informed all of the local
authorities in the education system in the city about the purpose of the research and we obtained a
formal consent letter.

All in all, the next step was to contact the schools’ administration. As Cohen et al. (2017,
p.135) explains, researchers should prepare for the next stage of “making actual contact in person,
perhaps after an introductory letter, with appropriate people in the organization with a view to
negotiating access”. School security guards were contacted to obtain their permission and
permission was gained from all individuals, such as the school principals, in order to facilitate the
appropriate choice of participants who were informed about our purpose in collecting these data
and that it would be used solely for academic purposes.
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We visited the school, and it is worth mentioning that the school principal welcomed the idea
of the research and helped us to access English teachers; for example, the principal invited
teachers of English to their office and introduced us to teachers. This enabled us to introduce
ourselves to the teachers and to seek their agreement to participate in the research after we
explained its aim and gave them the participant information sheet and consent form. Our access
to the school in order to make classroom observations helped us to interact with the other
participants; namely, the schoolmaster, class teachers and students.

Then, we sought permission from the student participants of different ages and grades. We
explained orally to them in detail the purpose of the research and also the fact that their
participation was completely voluntary and that they were free to withdraw from the study
without giving any justification. Consent forms were prepared and submitted to the different
participants to ensure that their participation was voluntary (see annex). As Hennink et al. (2010.
p.66) point out, “A basic rule in social science research is to inform participants that they are
involved in a study, so that they can decide to participate freely or not”.

Additionally, we explained the research to all the participants orally before they signed the
consent forms. The participants were also told that only we and our supervisors would have
access to their data. They were given the freedom and options to withdraw from the study at any
time. Another ethical criterion was that the participants might be concerned with their personal
information.

However, we confirmed that the anonymity of the research participants would be strictly
protected. To ensure confidentiality and flexibility during this research, the participants had the
option and right to choose the location to answer the questionnaire. Additionally, no harm was
threatened to our research participants. In other words, we explained to the teachers and students
that we were not there to evaluate their teaching techniques or levels, so it was unnecessary to
worry about our presence during the observation.

3.5. Participants in the study

In this section, we will describe the participants in this study, the EFL prospective teachers,
class teachers and the learners. We worked with four EFL prospective teachers, four EFL class
teachers and the learners of grades 11 and 12. EFL prospective teachers were year four students
who were doing teaching practice at CPT secondary school in Lichinga district, Niassa Province.
In the next paragraphs, we will describe the role of the EFL prospective teachers in this process
and what they did. We will present data regarding the number of participants, gender,
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qualifications and years of teaching experience. The EFL learners were divided into two groups
as they were writing pre- and post tests: group 1 and group 2.

The group 1 was taught by EFL teachers over a period of ten weeks and the group 2 was
taught by prospective EFL teachers in the same period of ten weeks. The study commenced in
August 2022 and continued until November 2022. Group 1 followed the programme as
prescribed by the Ministry of Education. The group 1 teaching was exclusively based on the
prescribed course books (grade 11 and grade 12 textbooks). The text books in use had lessons
arranged in the same way. In contrast, the group 2 followed the prescribed course books together
with the use of short stories and this is discussed in the next section.

These alternative materials based on short stories were designed prior to the start of the study.
The basis for material design was the syllabus as well as the short story books which provided the
stories on which materials design were based. Using the story books, we embarked on production
and preparation of teaching materials.
We worked with grade 11 and grade 12 learners to collect data in the school aforementioned.
The total number of the learners who took part of the study is hundred- sixty (160), ninety (90)
learners were men and seventy (70) was the number of women. The average age of the learners’
ranges from 14 to 21 years old. All of them are Mozambican. In addition, we worked with two
groups for each grade (group 1 and group 2 for grade 11 and group 1 and group 2 for grade 12).
Each stream of grade had forty learners. For two groups of each grade, we had to work with
eighty (80) learners.

We also included in the study four EFL class teachers whose identity will remain anonymous,
two EFL class teachers of grade 11 and two EFL class teachers of grade 12 from CPT secondary
school . All teachers are graduated in EFL teaching (UP), and have been teaching English for
over five years in Secondary Education.

The four EFL teachers of CPT secondary school collaborated with us in the data collection
process. The EFL class teachers were present in the moment of the pre-tests and post-tests
administered to learners in order to make sure that tests could reflect the learners’ English
language performance. The four class teachers accepted EFL prospective teachers to conduct
their teaching practices based on the use of short stories. Therefore, EFL class teachers were told
that their streams could receive lessons based on short stories alongside the prescribed course
books.
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We worked with four EFL prospective teachers who were attending year 4 at Rovuma
University- Niassa brunch in the course of B.A Honour in English and have been teachers of
English in Primary Education more than five years. EFL prospective teachers prepared teaching
practice materials for exposition with the help of our supervision. The designing of teaching
practice materials process included four stages:
First stage, we engaged a group of EFL prospective teachers to select appropriate and
relevant short stories based on the set of criteria suggested by Lazar (1993). The second stage of
this pedagogical project was to promote reading as a skill through reading strategies (BDA-
before, during and after reading); at this stage, prospective EFL teachers were engaged to
extensive reading of short stories. The third stage was to promote greater motivation of CPT
learners by using activities for use with short stories; at this stage prospective EFL teachers were
engaged to design lesson plans based on collection of short stories. Fourth stage was to test
learners before and after reading short stories; at this stage, we designed reading comprehension
tests to be administered to EFL learners in collaboration with prospective EFL teachers.

3.6. Types of data collection techniques and methods

As for data collection techniques, we designed a questionnaire to learn about students’
sociolinguistic data, we analyzed teaching material for grades 11 and 12 EFL learners with focus
on Inglês 12 classe and 11 class by Justino Matola & Johanes Magombo. We also designed
questionnaire for teachers to explore their opinion on integrating short stories in ELT. Moreover,
we collected EFL prospective teachers’ lesson plans and learners’ tests. Learners’ tests were
monitored by EFL class teachers in collaboration with EFL prospective teachers. As researchers,
we designed both pre-tests and post-tests.

The choice of data collection techniques in a research project is an important step in order to
get rich data because it can determine the validity of the study. Based on their sources, data can
be divided into two types. First, primary data (when we obtained data directly) which in this
research resulted from a focus-group discussion technique, questionnaire and observation
whereby the focus was on how teachers guide learners towards an analysis. While we observed
the lessons we examined ways in which the teacher helped the students to make their own
analyses of short stories.
Second, there is secondary data (when we obtained data indirectly) such as from
documenting. Documentation is a process of collecting data that relates and supports information
of the research. We collected school files that consist of field observation notes, teaching
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materials and students’ textbooks, pre-tests and post-tests. These documents were used to check
the validity of the phenomena and how to analyse those phenomena as a participant.
Third, as previously stated, we used questionnaires for teachers and for learners as another
technique of data collection; thus, we delivered questionnaires in person to both class teachers as
well as learners, then we returned to collect them after a period of time. This mode of on-the spot
collection was advantageous because the teachers were afforded time to look up information and
consult sources in order to respond appropriately (Nkpa 1997).

Questionnaires
We delivered the questionnaire to the EFL class teachers. Our purpose in this instrument was
to explore the sociolinguistic background of the subjects. This study employed both closed and
open questions. Nkpa (1997, p.14) classifies “questionnaire can be closed and open.” In this study
a blending open and closed questions were used. Closed questions were used because the
numbers of possible responses are limited through giving the respondents options for each
question.
The closed questions were used to collect the sociolinguistic data of respondents
(qualifications, gender and experience). The advantages of the closed questions are the gain in
speed during administration of the questionnaire and they are easier and quicker to complete
because minimum writing is involved whereas open questions lead to the freedom and
spontaneity of expression granted to the respondents. Open questions were used to collect
teachers’ opinions on integrating short stories in ELT.
Two sets of questionnaire consisted of the research instruments for this study: the first was
for teachers (Questionnaire for teachers – QT), and the second for learners (Questionnaire for
learners – QL). The questionnaire consisted of two sections: Section one, which elicited
sociolinguistic data on sex, age, educational background; and Section two, which elicited data on
teachers’ views on integrating short stories in ELT.

Tests administered to EFL learners

As we designed the research instruments within the umbrella of action research design, one of
the requirements was that there should be a pre-test and the post-test done before and at the end
of the action research period because we expect this process of data collection to help us see the
progress of students prior the beginning of our action research project.

Pre - Proficiency test

When we design the pretest research results, a proficiency language test is used. According to
Hughes (1989), a proficiency test is designed to measure people’s ability in a language regardless
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of any training they may have had in that language. The content of a proficiency test, therefore, is
not based on the content of the objectives of the language course which students taking the test
will be following. Rather, it is based on a specification of what subjects have to be able to do in
the language in order to be considered proficient (Hughes 1989, p. 9). The test is used to
determine what learners are able to do before the implementation of the pedagogy.

Before the implementation of the pedagogy, therefore, an English language test paper was
compiled and administered to the learners. The results were used to compare levels of language
competency between the group 1 and the group 2 of each grade. It was only after this has been
done we can know the effect group 1 on the group 2. It is worth noting here that there were two
tests: one test for grade 12 and one test for grade 12. The duration of the test was 60 minutes and
it provided a score of out of 100 % for each correspondent. Marks scored in comprehension (20
marks in each case). The test was designed to be comprehensive and modelled on the School
written exam format. The questions were multiple choice. The paper had one section, namely,
reading comprehension (see Appendix A).

Post-proficiency test

After ten weeks of implementation of the pedagogy, the group1 and the group 2 were again
submitted to another test (post-test). This was done to ascertain the effect of teaching for the
control group and the effectiveness of the designed material in case of the experiment group. In
terms of structure, the post-test was not in any way different from the pre-test. It comprised
question 1 (comprehension), question 2 (grammar) and the gap filling test. Each of the three
sections had a total of 20 questions for comprehension. Each question was a multiple choice
question and was worth 1 mark giving a total of 20 marks which were later converted to
percentage.

Comparatively, both the pre- proficiency test and post- proficiency test did not differ much
in terms of the level of difficulty. We can confidently argue that they were at the same level In
addition to measuring how much learners had improved in period of ten weeks of study, the pre
and post-tests could be valuable diagnostic tool for more effective teaching while taking the pre-
test at the beginning of a term, learners were not expected to know the answers to all of the
questions; however, learners should be expected to utilize previous knowledge to predict rational
answers.
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Field-notes and diaries

Wallace (1998, p.54) suggests that the kind of everyday, subjective reflections (that all teachers
are engaged in) can be made available for systematic analysis through the use of an appropriate
research methodology. These include the use of field-notes and diaries. Wallace summarizes their
differing uses when he makes the following observation: “Field-notes are used to describe what
has happened during a lesson, and may be written during or after the lesson. On the other hand,
diaries are personal and confidential records (usually) written up daily” (Wallace 1998, p.54).
Wallace (ibid) also includes various kinds of verbal report, such as self-evaluation, self-
observation and introspection techniques. When transcribed and analyzed, these can offer
insights into the process of teaching and learning. A lesson evaluation is another name for field
notes mentioned by Wallace (1998, pp.66-767).

Richard & Lockhardt (1994) define a lesson evaluation as follows:

A lesson evaluation is an inventory or list that enables teachers to describe their

recollections of the main features of a lesson… a quick and simple procedure for
regularly monitoring what happened during the lesson whereas a lesson plan describes
what a teacher intends to do during a lesson, a lesson evaluation describes what actually
happened from the teacher’s point of view ( p.9).

The technique that we used extensively here was the lesson evaluation that EFL prospective
teachers prepared after teaching and kept on a regular basis. The lesson evaluation was recorded
in form of subjective judgement and formed the basis for reflecting upon the development of their
teaching.

Although the lesson evaluation, depends on subjective judgement and it is expressed in

personal terms, it is focused and encouraged systematic analysis of teaching and learning. The
advantage of this approach of analysing information is its compatibility with outcome-based
education: assessing the success of the lesson, to a large extent, involved matching the syllabus
objectives with the actual events in the classroom. Although Richards & Lockhardt’s (1994, p.10)
information is not dealt with individually, most of the elements of the evaluation is implied in the
comments.
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Document analysis
Given the relationship between practice and action research, it was inevitable that documents
of various kinds will form part of the data used. Document analysis has been used in the present
study as a way of providing evidence and data of events. The syllabus, grade 11 and grade 12
textbooks and school tests (pre-test and post-test) were used as a guide for the learning outcomes
to be met during the process of learning and action research. Other document analysis included
policy statements by the Ministry of Education and Human Development, that is, Mozambican
strategic plan.

Classroom observation
The data was also collected through the instrument of observation sheet in the classroom (see
appendix). Nunan (1992, p.85) believes that “classroom observation enables the researcher to
obtain first –hand information about the objects, events, and objective event interaction of interest
allowing her/him to see what is actually taking place”. The classroom observation technique was
the only way of getting direct first-hand information that was more valid than reported
information obtained from questionnaires and interviews. Classroom observation provided
unexpected but useful information.
Here we have to sit in the classroom and observe different lessons taught by the EFL
prospective teachers engaged in this study and EFL prospective teachers are distributed in grades
11 and 12 (two trainees for each stream) and this process was done using an observation sheet.
There were two streams (One stream for grade 11 and one stream for grade 12).
We wanted to observe what methods of introducing a story the teachers use. First, we wanted to
observe what skills are developed in the class. Second, we observed EFL teachers developing oral
practice. Third, we wanted to observe what activities are developed in the class to help students to
practice the language. We also wanted to observe that the teaching and learning process was
based on activities for short stories.

3.7 Designing materials

This formed the major source of data. In a period of ten weeks learners were taught using
materials that were designed based on a collection of short stories alongside with textbooks of
grade 11 and grade 12. Thus, the prospective EFL teachers in collaboration with the supervisor
planned communicative activities based on short stories. Therefore, the prospective EFL teachers
taught the English language skills in an integrated manner within the context of communicative
language teaching.
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On the one hand, the control group (Group 1) followed the normal programme, i.e, only
materials from prescribed textbooks. This means that learners were taught using the prescribed
course books (textbooks of grade 11 and grade 12). On the other hand, the Experimental group
(Group 2) followed the designed materials which included short stories as extra-materials.
Material testing and evaluation was an on-going activity throughout the study. Some of the flaws
in the way the materials were designed only came to light during the teaching process.

3.8 Procedures of data collection

The process of data collection comprehended five stages. First, we went to the selected
secondary school (Cristiano Paulo Taimo) with formal letter.We got permission from the school
principal to consult the English language teachers. Second, we developed rapport with the EFL
teachers and we explained them about the purpose of our study. Third, we distributed
questionnaires and we observed the classes with the help of observation checklist. Fourth, we
collected required information with the help of questionnaire format. Fifth and final stage, we
asked EFL prospective teachers to design lesson plans based on their own selected short stories,
that is, we asked EFL prospective teachers to design lesson plans from a list of collection of short
stories that we gave them. The goal of asking prospective EFL teachers to design their lesson
plans was to verify if they were using activities for short stories based on learner-centred
techniques prescribed by CLT principles. We discuss about the analysis of prospective EFL
teachers’ lesson plans in chapter 4.
The data collection techniques were gathered from questionnaires, classroom observation (see
appendix), pre and post-proficiency tests and additional documents such as grade 11 and grade
12 English textbooks. We used pre and post –tests as assessment tools for measuring the
preparedness and performance of the EFL learners. When taking the same test called a post-test
at the end of a trimester, students should be expected to answer more questions correctly based on
an increase in knowledge and understanding. A pre-proficiency and post proficiency-tests were
designed to measure the amount of learning a student had acquired in English subject. When we
graded the tests, we assigned a numerical score to both the pre-tests and post-tests. To
demonstrate that learners progress which had been made during a given term, the post-tests score
(mean values) should be higher than the pre-tests score (mean values).
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3.8.1. The process of implementing the pedagogy

Nowadays, in Mozambique, teacher training colleges train EFL teachers for the primary level
of education (grades 6 and 7) and universities prepare EFL teachers for the secondary level of
education (grade 8 through grade 12). Our teacher training project could be implemented at both
levels of teacher training. For a successful implementation of this project, training institutions
would need to slightly revise their existing curricula. The training institutions would need to
integrate a specific course of training teachers to integrate short stories in their training curricula.
As previously noted in the introduction of this study, the implementation of the pedagogy
included four stages: selecting appropriate and meaningful short stories for CPT learners,
promote reading as a skill, promote greater motivation of CPT learners for reading short stories
and test learners before and after reading short stories.
Following the implementation of the pedagogy, we are describing each of the stages in details:
Stage one: selecting appropriate and meaningful short stories for CPT students
In this stage, we engaged prospective EFL teachers to reading short stories. So, prospective
EFL teachers selected, adapted, and combined various activities to meet their students’ interest,
language proficiency level, and preference to achieve the intended outcomes as well. If the
objective is to improve students’ listening skills, each stage will consequently be dominated by
activities related to the use of co-operative dictation. If the objective is to promote students’
critical thinking skills, the predominant activities are, for instance, comprehending literal or
implied meanings, determining the narrator’s tone, searching for events and actions causal
relationship, analyzing the integrity of characters’ statement and action, considering the
correlation of the theme and points of views, and relating what students have learned to the real-
life. These activities provide opportunities for students to reflect, infer, analyze, and synthesize
the presented information. After prospective EFL teachers have selected appropriate and
meaningful short stories thus they have to reflect on the models to use with short stories.
The language-based model, the cultural model, and literature as personal enrichment model
are three approaches suggested by Lazar (1993). The language-based model is suitable for
facilitating learning that focuses on the language components available in the short stories,
including vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
The cultural model is implemented by suiting the content and style of the short stories with
students’ needs or the learning objectives. Short stories containing extensive dialogues, for
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instance, are suitable to facilitate speaking skills development; short stories containing many
cultural contents are proper for activities intended to promote cultural awareness.
The third model, literature for personal enrichment, is suitable to facilitate an ample
opportunity for students to enlarge students' knowledge and experiences regarding particular
genres of short stories. Students who like adventure fiction could be assigned short adventure
stories. Lazar (1993) accentuated that each of the models could be administered independently or
they can be integrated following the learning objectives.
Although short stories offer various advantages to facilitate EFL learning and teaching, many
EFL teachers are still unenthusiastic to use them in their classrooms. According to some studies
(Ganakumaran et al., 2003; Khatib & Nourzadeh, 2011; Lima, 2010), this is due to teachers' lack
of clear objectives regarding the role of literature, inadequate competence to integrate literature
into the classrooms, insufficient background knowledge and preparation in literature, and
unattainability of pedagogically-well-designed materials. In short, the knowledge and skills
inadequacy and ready-to-use pedagogical materials scarcity make many teachers feel reluctant to
use short stories in their classrooms.
In the field of education, one of the best ways to overcome teachers’ inappropriate clarity and
understanding of a problem or issue and their inadequate competence to adopt new teaching
methods, materials, and tools is action research. Defined by Mills (2007) as:

Any systematic inquiry conducted by teacher researchers, principals, school counselors, or other
stakeholders in the teaching/learning environment to gather information about how their particular
schools operate, how they teach, and how well their students learn, action research is a powerful
tool which enables teachers not only to advance their teaching practices but also acquire more
understanding about their students, colleagues, and themselves which, in turn, will support their
effort to continually improve (p.19).

Stage two: Promote reading as a skill using BDA ( before, during and after reading Strategy) for
using Short Stories.
In this stage, we engaged prospective EFL teachers to design lesson plans based on a
collection of short stories which we provided them before the beginning of the lessons. Our role
in this activity was to coordinate the activities, i.e, to help our prospective EFL teachers to design
activities for use with short stories although there is no exact formula for the effective use of short
stories in EFL classrooms. However, as general guidelines, short stories can be exploited to
facilitate language learning by applying BDA reading strategy, language-based model, literature
as content model, and literature as personal enrichment model. Simultaniously, we engaged our
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prospective EFL teachers to reading short stories and they reflected on the effective use of short
stories in their classrooms.
BDA reading strategy consists of three stages: before (pre-) reading, during (while-) reading,
and after (post-) reading. Before reading stage, our aim is to motivate and provide background
information that will help students to understand the story. Various activities could be selected
and adapted to meet the students’ language proficiency level and the learning objective, like
discussing the meaning of the story’s title and the main character, discussing glossary,
brainstorming information relevant to the story or its author, and searching the geographical or
historical background.
The during-reading stage begins with silent reading and proceeds with intensive reading
activities, such as guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words in context, textual analysis,
predicting what will happen next, describing a character, determining the conflict, and so on. To
make this stage more effective, teachers can ask the students to conduct the activities
interactively.
Activities in the after reading stage, depending on the students' language proficiency level, we
are intended to enable the student to summarize, relate the story with their life, respond to the
story orally or in written form, discuss the theme and characters, identify, and analyze the
grammatical structures, transform some dialogs to be a descriptive paragraph or vice-versa, act
out some parts of the story, and so on.
Stage three: Promote greater motivation of CPT students for reading short stories.

This is the stage where we engaged our prospective EFL teachers to analyse themes of the
stories in order to see if themes were consistent with students’ traditions. Since short stories
usually have a beginning, middle and an end, they encourage students at all levels of language
proficiency to continue reading them until the end to find out how the conflict is resolved. Carter
& Long (1991, pp.2- 4), for example, affirms that literature motivates advanced students and it is
“motivationally effective if students can genuinely be engaged with its thoughts and emotions and
appreciate its aesthetic qualities” (p. 197). He stresses the importance of developing student–
response (individual and group levels) and competence in literature. In addition, one of the
reasons Vandrick (1997) lists for using literature with students is that literature motivates students
“to explore their feelings through experiencing those of others” (p. 1).
Literature holds high status in many cultures and countries. For this reason, students can feel a
real sense of achievement at understanding a piece of highly respected literature. Also, literature
is often more interesting than the texts found in coursebooks.” As a result, instructors should
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agree that literary texts encourage students to read, and most literary texts chosen according to
students’ language proficiency levels and preferences will certainly be motivating.
By selecting stories appropriate to students’ level of language proficiency, instructors avoid
“frustrational reading” (Schulz, 1981, p. 44). To choose stories according to students’
preferences, stories should have various themes because, as Carter & Long (1991, p. 60) point
out, variety of themes will offer different things to many individuals’ interests and tastes (p.178).
But the themes should be “consistent with the traditions that the learners are familiar with”
(Widdowson, 1983, p. 32) to avoid conflicts. Indeed, selecting fables or African oral tradition
stories can be one of the ways of promoting greater motivation of CPT learners for reading.

Stage four: To test students on reading comprehension before and after reading short stories

As we designed the research instruments within the umbrella of action research design, one of
the requirements was that there should be a pre-test and the post-test done before and at the end
of the action research period since we expect these techniques of data collection to help us see
the improvement of students’reading skills prior the beginning of our action research.

Therefore, action research also empowers teachers to be researchers who can inquire to improve
their instruction and thus increase their students’learning outcomes. Since it usually deals with
small-scale, contextualized, and localized focuses, and aims at discovering, monitoring, or
developing changes to practice (Wallace, 2000), action research is considered very suitable for
prospective EFL teachers.

Subsequently, a course on training EFL prospective teachers could be offered at Primary or

higher teacher training institutions. In any case, the theoretical principles or approaches guiding
teacher trainers’ work will be the same. In this section, we discuss some of the approaches that
can be combined: -the cultural approach views a literary text as a product. This means that it is
treated as a source of information about the target culture. It is the most traditional approach,
often used in university courses on literature. The cultural model examines the social, political
and historical background to a text, literary movements and genres. There is no specific language
work done on a text. This method tends to be quite teacher-centered.
Language-based approach: the literature based-model of language teaching and learning as
described by Carter & Long (1991, p.6) is also referred to as the ‘language-based approach’. This
framework allows the students to approach and access a text so as to demonstrate the knowledge
of specific aspects of language or linguistics (such as figurative and literal language or direct and
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reported speech). Carter & Long (1991) contended that Literature’s use is stereotypical because it
is used plainly for linguistic purposes as a basis for language teaching and learning activities. On
the other hand, Borja and Marina (2012, p.7) argue that studying the language of the literary texts
will help to combine the language and literature syllabuses in a very close way. This gives the
teacher the platform to give students tasks that will require them to dig into their knowledge of
mundane lexical, dramatic and discourse entities so as to appreciate and analyse the text.

In order to train EFL prospective teachers to integrate short stories in their classrooms, we
engaged a group of EFL prospective teachers in four activities: analysis of additional benefits of
using short stories, selection of appropriate and relevant short stories, design of classroom
activities for the development of reading skills and assess their learners’ progress by designing
pre and post-tests. In the next paragraphs, we will show classroom activities as we describe the
advantages of their use in EFL.

3.8.2 Course rationale

In a course of training EFL prospective teachers to integrate short stories in ELT, the EFL
prospective teachers need to be engaged in various activities, such as an intensive reading of short
stories presented in English, collection of fables in local communities and/or selection of texts
from short stories collections published in the country such as English for Mozambique by
Mpiuka and Mkuti (1987). This is the stage in which approaches for developing reading skills are
mingled.

The approaches to be combined are cultural approach, language-based approach and personal
growth approach because the language-based approach and the grammar translation methods are
at opposite ends of the spectrum, the personal growth approach can be viewed as the linking
circle or bridge between the two and also positions learning in cultural contexts.

As students articulate their opinions and feelings they are able to bring in their personal as
well as cultural experiences, as argued by Carter & Long (1991, p.22). The prospective EFL
teachers get their learners to negotiate and construct meaning through interacting with the text.
On the one hand, our role was to moderate and facilitate this process for enhancing reading skills.
On the other hand, in collaboration with supervisor, we engaged the prospective EFL teachers to
design pre-reading tests and post-reading tests to be administered to their learners.
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3.8.3 Design of classroom activities for use with short stories

Based on the following activities below, we designed samples of activities based on the stories
whose titles are: “A Long walk home” and “The Wisdom of Solomon”, respectively. Short stories
are very useful in the trials to improve student’s vocabulary and reading. Using “A Long walk
home” story, we designed the activities for developing reading skills. However, there have been
different models suggested on the using of short stories to EFL students (Carter & Long, Lazar).
How the teacher will use a literary text depends on the model they choose.

Sample activity 1- Enhancing reading skills

 Stage 1: Pre-reading - warmer and before reading.

Teacher devises a warmer that gets students thinking about the topic of the story A long walk
home. This could take several forms: a short discussion that students do in pairs, a whole class
discussion, a guessing game between the teacher and the class or a brainstorming of vocabulary
around that topic. For instance: the activity can be carried out for fun or for students to find
answers to questions given and explained to them before the reading activity starts. For students
to understand the story when they read it for the first time, the questions can be based on literary
structures, such as:

1. Who is the main character of A Long Walk Home?

2. Where/when does the story take place?

3. What is the problem (conflict) in the story?

4. How is the conflict resolved?

Students working in pairs, complete the word form chart below. The first word has been done for
students. Teacher reminds students that some words do not have all forms.

Verb Adverb Participle Noun Adjective

grow - growing growth -

remote

hardly

opportunity
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immerse

Table 5: author, researcher, 2022

There can be as many words as the teacher thinks necessary. However there should not too many
words included in a short story so as not to make students lose interest in the activity. This
activity helps students to learn more vocabulary, and it also teaches them how to use a dictionary.

 Stage 2: While-reading - Understanding the text, general comprehension

Often with short story, we like to read the whole thing to our students so that they can get more of
a “feel” for the text. It is important to let students approach a piece of literature the first time
without giving them any specific task other than to simply read it. One of the aims of teaching
literature is to evoke interest and pleasure from the language. If students have to do a task at
every stage of a literature lesson, the pleasure can be lost. However, the purpose of reading is
usually related to pleasure, information and general understanding (Williams, 1986). Once
students have read it once, the teacher can set comprehension questions or ask them to explain
the significance of certain key words of the text. Another way of checking comprehension is to
ask students to explain to each other (in pairs) what they have understood. This could be followed
up by more subjective questions (e.g.. Why do you think the moral of the story? How do you
think the father feels? What made the father get nervous?).

 Stage 3: Post-reading - Understanding the language

In line with Lazar (1993), the language-based approach is suitable for facilitating learning that
focuses on the language components available in the short stories, including vocabulary,
grammar, and pronunciation. In the following activity: teacher asks students to write the letter of
the definition/synonym in column B that most closely matches each word /phrase in column A.

A B

to spare appear; make an appearance

immersed 2 lateness

to show up 3 free for other use

tardiness 4 engaged wholly or deeply; absorbed

------------ 5--------
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Table 6: author, researcher, 2022

In this activity, the words/phrases in column A come from the story students are reading. The
definitions and/or synonyms provided in column B must match the meaning of the words/phrases
in the context of the story to help students to understand how a different word/phrase can be used
in the same context. Students work in pairs and choose the word/phrase from column A in the
previous activity that best fits each of the following sentences. Students may need to add –s to a
plural word or to a third person singular of a verb in the present tense, -ed to the past tense of
regular verbs, -ing for present participle, etc.

She finally ---------------- after we waited for her for two hours.

Johan was so ------------- in his that he did not realize morning had broken.

After finishing this howework, I have quite much ---------- time.

Mr. Moore looked angry when I entered the meeting room. But he finally excused my -------------
after I finished explaining why I was late.

In the activity above, students practice using the words they already understand the meanings
of. Students also profit from literary texts. What they read gives them the opportunity to come up
with their own insights and helps them speak the language in a more imaginative way. The
students become more creative since they are faced with their own point of view, that/those of the
main character(s) of the story and those of their peers. According to Oster (1989), this process
leads to critical thinking, by confirming, ´´Focusing on point of view in literature enlarges
students´vision and fosters critical thinking by dramatizing the various ways a situation can be
seen.´´ (p.85). This could happen because when students read, they interact with the text. By
interacting with the text, they interpret what they read. By interpreting what they read, they can
work toward speaking and writing English more creatively.

 Stage 4: Follow up activities

Role-play: an extending activity useful to develop students’ speaking skill and to make students
more involved in the story is role-play. This can be carried out by asking students to play the role
of several characters, i.e. by instructing them the followings:

Situation A: Imagine you are Jackson. Tell your partner (acting as his father) why you were late
coming from the garage. Make sure you are convincing.
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Situation B: Suppose you are the receptionist of the garage in which Jackson took the car. Tell
Jackson‟ father about the car.

Writing

Short story can be a powerful and motivating source for writing in EFL, both as a model and as
subject matter. Short story as a model occurs when students’ writing becomes closely similar to
the original work or clearly imitates its content, theme, organization, and /or style. However,
when student writing exhibits original thinking like interpretation or analysis, or when it emerges
from, or is creatively stimulated by, the reading, literature serves as subject matter. In accordance
with this, Oster (1989, p. 85) affirms that literature helps students to write more creatively.
Student-teachers can create a variety of writing activities to help students to develop their writing
skills. They can ask students to write dialogues or more complex writing activities if students
have reached a high level of language proficiency. For example, if teachers bring to class A Long
Walk Home, they can assign the following writing activities:
1. Write a dialogue between Jackson and his father that morning (paragraph one).
2. Paraphrase the last two paragraphs of the short story.
3. Write a book report or summarize the story in five to seven sentences, including the main
character, setting, conflict, climax, and resolution.
4. Write one sentence on the theme of the story.
5. Write a paragraph to explain what you think Jackson has learned from that experience.
6. Write a review on the story.
7. Write an essay on what you like or dislike in the story.
Activities 1 and 2 are suitable for middle intermediate levels; activities 3 and 4 for upper
intermediate levels; and activities 5, 6 and 7 for advanced levels.
Speaking and listening
Short story can also be a powerful and motivating source for teaching both speaking and
listening. Oral reading, dramatization, improvisation, roleplaying, reenactment, and discussion
are some effective learning activities which center on a short story EFL classes can use for
enhancing these two skills. Asking students to read story aloud can develop their speaking as well
as listening skills. Moreover, it also leads to improving pronunciation. The followings are some
activities teachers can assign to develop students speaking skills by using short stories.
1. The students read the story aloud as a chain activity. The first student reads the first sentence.
The second student takes the second sentence, the third student, third sentence, and so forth. Such
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activity will enhance students’ pronunciation and fluency in an interesting way. It is suitable for
elementary class.
2. In an upper intermediate class, the students retell the story as a chain activity in small groups.
Each student will have a lot of opportunities to practice the relevant connectors or other discourse
markers in a meaningful context.
Sample activity 2- reinforcing language skills
Topic: Co-operative dictation “The Wisdom of Solomon”.
 Co-operative dictation is an activity in which a teacher reads or tells a story and students
in groups take notes in order to have as similar text as the one read or told by the teacher.
After the teacher finishes reading the story, students share their notes to reconstruct the
text as accurate as possible. However, teacher needs to prepare the text before going to
the classroom. The text should be short enough because if it is too long, it will be tiring
for students.
Objectives: by the end of the lesson students should be able to reconstruct the story after
listening. Develop listening, reading, speaking and writing skills. Revise past forms of regular
and irregular verbs
Exponent: teacher asks students to work in groups of 5 (five). Revise regular and irregular past
forms. E.g: solved – did not solve – solved – did…solve?; is/are – was/were- was not/were not –
was/were…?; know- knew- did not know- did…know..?
Salomon’s Judgement
Once upon a time two women called Sara and Eliza had terrible argument. Both them claimed
to be the real mother of a baby girl.
They went to King Solomon with their problem. The king listened to the two women carefully.
Then, he ordered his servant to cut the baby into two pieces with a big, sharp knife.
He said that “each woman could have half of the baby girl”. Sara cried out, “Oh please don’t
do that, give my child to Eliza”. The king then knew that Sara was the real mother, and in this
way he solved the problem.
Procedures:
 Stage 1: Pre-reading activity (20 min)
Teacher writes the title of the story on the blackboard and asks the following questions:
a. What is justice?
b. How can people behave in a fair way?
c. Have you ever been treated unjustly? When? Why?
Students discuss the questions in small groups.
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 Stage 2: Listening activity (15 min)

Teacher explains that students should listen and make notes in order to reconstruct the story in
groups, as accurately as possible.
 Stage 3: Listening (20 min)
Teacher reads the story once while students just listen. Teacher reads the story twice, just slightly
slower than normal speed, while students take notes.
 Stage 4: Speaking (15 min)
Students communicate in their groups in order to write the story accurately.
 Stage 5: writing (15 min)
Feed back. Volunteers coming to write sentences on the blackboard; If time is short, teacher
could read the story out slowly so that students can correct their versions.
 Stage 6: Discussion (10 minutes)
Teacher: Discuss the moral of the story.
Advantages: co-operative dictation develops listening, writing, speaking, reading skills. It creates
a need to communicate.
Co-operative dictation
A co-operative dictation based on the short story entitled “The Wisdom of Solomon” creates a
need to communicate. This activity is a kind of gap-filling exercise and its outline procedure is as
follows:
Teacher writes the title of the story and asks some pre-reading questions. Teacher could also
write a few simple guiding questions to be answered at the end of the activity. Teacher presents
any difficult vocabulary or names.
Teacher explains that should listen and make notes in order to reconstruct the story in groups,
as accurately as possible.
Teacher reads the story once while students just listen. Teacher reads the story twice, just
slightly slower than normal speed while students take notes.
Students communicate in their groups in order to write the story accurately.
As a feedback, with volunteers coming to write sentences on the board; teacher could read the
story out slowly so that students can correct their versions.
Advantages of the activity: apart from creating a need for communication, the activity also
develops listening, reading, speaking and writing skills (Murdoch, 2002).
a. Write a dialogue between King Solomon and the guard holding the sword after the mother and
the son, and the other woman left the palace.
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b. Paraphrase the first four sentences of the paragraph, “And in this way they argued . . . whose
child it was” (fourth paragraph from the bottom).
c. Summarize the story in three sentences, including the main character, setting, conflict, climax,
and resolution.
d. Write one sentence on the theme of the story.
e. Write a paragraph on what causes people to lie.
f. Write a classification essay on different kinds of lies.
Activities a. and b. are suitable for beginning levels; activities c, d, for intermediate levels; and
activity f, for advanced levels.
Sample activity 3 – Literary benefits
Aim: identify literary elements of short stories.

a. What is justice?
b. How can people behave in a fair way?
c. Have you ever been treated unjustly? When? Why?
In factual in-class work, students should be introduced to who, what, where and when of the
story, or point of view, character, setting and action (pp. 238-239). If “The Wisdom of
Solomon is the first story that students will read, instructors can add questions to the left margin
of the story. Each question should be placed next to the paragraph in which the answer is found
so students can begin to understand with the help of the instructor what each literary structure
means. The questions can be the ones below:
a. Who is the main character of the story?
b. Where does the story take place?
c. When does the story happen?
d. Who is narrating the story?
Higher-order Thinking - Sample activity 4

Here, students start thinking critically when they read the story.

Stage 1: “How would you change the plot?” “What would happen if the problem was not
solved?” “What changes would you make to solve the problem?” “Do you agree with the actions
of the women? “Why did women choose the King Solomon?” “What choice would you have
made in order to save the child?” (Bloom’s critical thinking questioning strategies).
Questions added to each story should train the students to think critically. Some of the
questions are exemplified below:
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Stage 2: In the story, “The Wisdom of Solomon,” would it have made any difference if the real
mother of the baby who was about to be cut in half, had stayed quiet instead of pleading to King
Solomon not to cut him and give him to the other woman?
Stage 3: What would have happened if King Solomon had not heard the real mother of the baby
and cut the baby in half, giving half to the real mother and half to the other woman who claimed
to be the real mother?
Stage 4: Questions 1 and 2 require students to think of a different end to the same story and
probably see both the real mother of the baby and King Solomon in different ways from how they
were portrayed in the original story.
3. Do you agree with the way King Solomon acted? Do you agree with the way the real mother
acted?
4. Do you agree with the resolution of the story?
Questions 3 and 4 require students to make judgement.

Teaching cultural values - Sample activity 5

When considering the cultural values, we should think about how far the students’ cultural
background and their social, experiences and feelings will help their understanding of a story.
Before reading/listening to the story “The Wisdom of Solomon,” students should read some
information about King Solomon.

The paragraph below tells students who King Solomon was and how he became the wisest leader
in the world. If students have access to the Internet, instructors can ask them to read information
about the King from http://www.geocities.com/thekingsofisrael/biography_Solomon.html before
they read/listen to the story.

Solomon became king of Israel after the death of his father, David. The Old Testament account of
his life tells of how he had a special dream early in his reign. In his dream God told him that he
could ask for anything he desired. Solomon answered that he wanted nothing more than to have an
understanding heart in order to rule wisely over his people. According to the account, God then
praised Solomon for asking for wisdom rather than riches and honor. The Old Testament writer
says that Solomon subsequently became the wisest leader in the entire world. Many came to seek
his advice, even leaders of other countries. The most famous story of the Wisdom of Solomon,
however, is the one in which he settles a dispute between two women about questions of
motherhood. (Janssen, 1981, p. 123)
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3.8.5 Selecting appropriate and meaningful short stories for EFL learners
First, we gave a checklist (adapted from Lazar 1993, p.56) of criteria for choosing short stories
to EFL prospective teachers. Second, we organized a collection of short stories and EFL
prospective teachers had to choose the stories and refer to checklist of criteria for choosing
literary texts. Then, EFL prospective teachers would think about their own situation and what
kind of short stories provided might like to use with their learners at CPT secondary school. After
the EFL prospective teachers selected the materials, EFL prospective teachers should analyse the
advantages of using the selected short stories in their EFL classrooms. These activities are carried
out through group discussion. EFL prospective teachers may come up with interesting ideas
concerned with the benefits of using short stories in their classrooms.
Our aim is to equip the prospective EFL teachers with basic knowledge in any attempt to use
short stories in their EFL classes; they should understand the benefits of short stories and plan
classes that meet the needs of their learners. Third, prospective EFL teachers should design
classroom activities and use them with their learners in the classroom. The checklist below
summarises the criteria for selecting literary text:
Table 5
Checklist for choosing short stories
Type of course Type of students Other text –related factors

Level of students Age Availability of texts

Intellectual maturity Length of text

Students’ reasons for learning Emotional understanding Exploitability

English

Kind of English required Interests / hobbies

Cultural background

Linguistic proficiency

Literary background

Length / intensity of course Fit with syllabus

Adapted from Lazar 1993, p. 56

According to Lazar (1993, p.52) “it is fairly self-evident what is meant by criteria such as the
age of students, their emotional and intellectual maturity and their interests and hobbies.” The
only barrier when applying these categories to a whole class is that individual students within a
group may vary considerably in their maturity and interests.
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Therefore, prospective EFL teachers will need to try to find texts that are suitable for the
majority of students in the class when selecting materials. Prospective EFL teachers also need to
develop facility for self-access for their students. EFL Teachers of English need to create a box or
file of short stories or literary texts in a school library from which students are encouraged to
borrow on a regular basis. As a way to illustrate what we previously said, we proposed a
collection of short stories (see appendix) for student-teachers to select from it. By selecting
stories appropriate to students’ level of language proficiency, instructors avoid “frustration
reading” (Schulz, 1981, p. 44). To choose stories according to students’ preferences, stories
should have various themes because, as Akyel and Yalçin (1990) point out, variety of themes will
offer different things to many individuals’ interests and tastes (p.178). But the themes should be
“consistent with the traditions that the learners are familiar with” to avoid conflicts (Widdowson,
1983, p. 32).
Instructors need to inform prospective EFL teachers about the benefits of using short stories
in their classes so as they should be familiar with the effectiveness of using short stories in their
lessons. Instructors also need to allot time for prospective EFL teachers to exploit extra materials
and develop extensive reading of books, which incorporate short stories. Short stories allow EFL
prospective teachers to teach the four skills to all levels of language proficiency.
Murdoch (2002, p.48) indicates that “short stories can, if selected and exploited adequately,
give quality text content which will greatly enhance EFL courses for learners at intermediate
levels of proficiency”. According to him, short stories could be very beneficial materials by using
them in learning activities such as discussion, writing and acting out dialogues. A short story can
be a powerful and motivating source for writing in the EFL classrooms, both as a model and as a
subject matter. A short story as a model occurs when students’ writing becomes closely similar to
the original work or clearly imitates its content, theme, organization, and/or style.

3.8.6 Tests administered before and after reading comprehension

The pre-proficiency and post-proficiency tests designed for the students were quantitative
instruments that measured the performance of students in reading comprehension. The tests
consist of one short story with sequence of events and different sentence patterns. The idea of the
tests is simply to evaluate students reading skills through understanding the short story. We
designed twenty questions for the students to answer. Eighty (80) students allocated for each
grade with two groups (group 1 has 40 students and the same number of students for group 2),
wrote pre-tests and post-tests reading Comprehension. The format of the test paper was in line
with the syllabus and School certificate Examinations requirement. The test-scripts from the
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sampled subjects were then marked in accordance with the requirements of the study, that is,
performance in reading comprehension recorded as a percentage of the total score. The following
was the mark allocation for the section:

Section No. of Questions Marks % total

Reading Comprehension 20 20 100

The results of the pre-test and the post-test would be used to further improve teaching and
learning. The data was collected over a period of 10 weeks. In our opinion, the period is long
enough to allow sufficient time for significant patterns, themes and trends to emerge in the data
(Seliger and Shohamy 1989). In this study, there was, therefore, no danger for subjects wanting
to participate for monetary reasons in order to attract the attention of the subjects.

Performance in the pre- and the post-tests was based on the following totals which were worked
out as a percentage of the total: comprehension - 20 marks.

The following rating scale of marks was used in the analysis of reading comprehension:

Point(s) Mark range Remarks

1 0-9 Poor

2 10- 11 Fair

3 11 - 13 Average

4 14 - 16 Good

5 17 – 20 Very Good
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Chapter 4: Data analysis and discussion

The study made use of a qualitative method of analysis to questionnaire for EFL teachers
known as “content analysis”. Zhang & Wildemuth (2009, p.1) assert that content analysis has a
high level of dependability in qualitative research contexts, and they may be used in analyzing
data collected in the same context.
According to Zhang &Wildemuth (2009, p.2), “Data from qualitative content analysis
usually consist of purposively selected texts which can inform the research questions being
investigated”. Thus, the technique of “content analysis” was favoured for practical purposes as
identified closely with the studied phenomenon and its ways of inquiry.
The first hand experiences and views of the participants were interpreted to come up with
themes, as suggested by Conroy (2003) because the themes were an abstract construct that we
had to identify before, during, and after data collection procedures. An inductive coding and
tabulating of information was applied to identify and refine the themes to the point where they
could be inferred in the analysis. This involved a careful reading and segmenting the data and
comparing each theme with the rest. Emerging themes from the open-ended questionnaires were
analyzed and confirmed or refuted during the focus group discussions for validity and rigor. Extra
care was taken to concentrate on only those relevant practices to the understanding of the issues
being studied while eliminating those irrelevant and less useful practices so as not to cloud
essential judgments, as suggested by Sadala and Adorno (2002).
Simultaneous data collection and analysis allows progression from understanding emerging
information to the formation of new ideas in a logical manner (Morse 2002). We analyzed the
descriptions given by participants and divided them into meaning-laden statements, gathering
those meanings that were essential to the construct of the phenomenon being studied.
Other authors are of the opinion that content analysis leads to the formation of new theories,
or the verification or challenging of existing theories for understanding knowledge or phenomena.
These views gathered were grouped into systematic classes that would allow for interpretation of
each class of responses. This helped the researcher understand the emerging meanings from
initially collected data (Conroy, 2003; Van Manen, 1990).
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4.1. Preliminary data analysis and discussion at CPT Secondary School: questionnaires to
EFL teachers
This section included the outcomes of the questions, which we addressed to the teachers of
English who were involved in this study and there were two male teachers and two female
teachers involved.

4.2.1. Teacher qualification, gender and experience

The question was concerned with teachers training. The aim was to find out where the teachers
were trained before they started teaching. So, out of the total number of teachers which was four,
two teachers, corresponding to 50%, were trained at UP (Universidade Pedagógica); two teachers,
corresponding to 50%, were trained at Rovuma University. See the table below:
Table 6

Distribution of EFL class teacher training institution

Training institution Number of teachers at CPT Percentage

Secondary school

Grade 11 Grade 12

Pedagogical University 1 1 50

Rovuma university 1 1 50

Total 04 100

Source: Primary data, 2020

The first question posed in order to know the years of experience of the teachers involved in the
study. In this question, the results showed that out of the four teachers, all teachers, corresponding
to 100%, were experienced. See the table below:
Table 7

Years of experience

Years of 1-2 years 3-6 years 7-10 years More than 10

experience years

Teachers 2 2

Percentage 50 50

Source: primary data, 2020

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In question 2, we wanted to know teachers’learning experience from secondary to

university.This section analyses the results that were obtained from the survey questionnaires
with participants, and discusses the findings that have been made based on the collected
qualitative data. It begins with a characterisation of the study’s participants. The section proceeds
to examine in a systematic manner the main results based on the research questions that had been
formulated earlier on. The lived experiences of teachers of English are examined in the context of
the communicative language teaching approach. The findings’ patterns are then discussed and
interpreted in reference to the theoretical perspectives of the literature review, and those nuanced
in the theoretical framework. A conclusion to the section is then made which encapsulates the
most important findings.

It is reasonable to assume that interest in a subject will result in teachers being able to teach
more effectively. As teachers enjoy the subject hence the enthusiasm can be passed to the
students as a result the students gain interest in the subject. Interest in the subject thus becomes
one aspect in effective teaching of language.
The four participants had studied literature at University. Participant 2 and 4 respectively,
elaborated on this by saying:

At secondary level, I read some books of Mozambican writers but in Portuguese. At the level of
University, I had two subjects related to literature: Introduction to literature and didactics of
literature.

Actually, I have never had any literature experience at secondary school, but I had some
experience at university and I could say it was brilliant. Learning through literature helps a lot
because it was beneficial to life experience and cultural differences from all over the world while
I was at home.

As we mentioned above, one of the participants of this study had his experience of reading
literature in Portuguese at secondary level. At university level, the participant had two subjects
related to using literature in English language teaching.
Theoretically, and in reference to the scholarly ideas presented in the literature review, the
above participants’ outlook portrays an attitudinal and cultural perspective regarding the teaching
of English Language using Literature. Therefore, literature educate the whole person as stated in
the study by Lazar (1993, p.19).
By examining values in literary texts, teachers encourage learners to develop attitudes
towards them. These values and attitudes relate to the world outside the classroom. In the
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Mozambican context, the books selected to be used in secondary school, there is a unit dealing
with oral literature. As a pre-reading activity, students are asked to define traditional stories.
Actually, traditional stories do not appear written in the book. However, traditional stories
are seen as a means of communicating as well as retaining information about the past and present
aspects of life. It makes sense to say that short stories, oral traditional stories are means of
transmitting customs and traditions from one generation to the next, emphasizing certain virtues.
In question 3, we aimed to know how short stories help teachers develop learner’s reading
skills in the EFL classes. All participants assume the idea that short stories can help their students
to develop reading skills by giving them self-esteem based on achievement. Students that read
literary texts have access to a vast and diverse range of human experience and reflection and that
helps them learn about human relationships and understand more about themselves (Collie, and
Slater 1991, pp. 5-6). Therefore, the use of a traditional story structure, or narrative, has many
advantages that can be exploited in the teaching of English language skills in the EFL classroom:
“it is highly motivational in that learners want to continue reading in order to find out what
happens next; the conclusion is usually satisfying to readers, it allows for the development of
logical thought processes and it requires proper and precise use of language” (Randell 1999, p.3).

On the one hand, we argue that short stories may help teachers to motivate their students to
read more than they do. By doing so, students are exposed to meaningful interaction between
them and the text. On the other hand, Baleiro (2010) states that reading literary texts motivates
students to become fascinated readers since the power of absorbing and fascinating the reader
until the end of the plot is revealed and that certainly motivates students to read more. Baleiro
went on to say it is a fact that more students read, the more students want and love to read.
Therefore, teachers should encourage their students to read short stories. By doing so, prospective
EFL teachers should be trained as readers of literary texts. Rasey (2009, p.2) emphasises that
teachers who read for pleasure understand the importance of allowing students “to transact with
the text”.

In question 3, we asked teachers to state the advantages of including short stories in the EFL
instruction. Four participants elaborated on this by claiming:

Short stories are the best tool for learning vocabulary. It is beneficial in the sense that they have
an opportunity to let their students know different culture and they can improve their students’
vocabulary. It is beneficial in many aspects such as language proficiency, vocabulary learning,
life experience and cultural differences. Again, using short stories in the EFL classes can
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familiarize students with reading comprehension strategies and they may motivate students to
read more.

From the participants’ point of view, they know and recognize all the positive potentialities
that short stories may offer and the role they may play in any language teaching. But they have a
limited opportunity to use extra materials such as those of short stories, since they have to stick to
the syllabus in the books that they know that will be tested. All in all, short stories should be
included in syllabus as a component of English language syllabus in order to improve the students
reading skills and hence their vocabulary learning as it stated by the participants.
In question 4, We wanted the teachers to explain the challenges that they would face when
integrating short stories in EFL classroom. In this question, the participants cited problems related
to the integration of short stories in the teaching of EFL. Two participants cited pressure to
produce good results as one factor that makes teachers reluctant to integrate short stories in the
EFL classes. The participants reported that there is competition among teachers of different
subjects and teachers who have a high pass rate are praised and sometimes even rewarded. As a
result, those who do not produce good grades get dejected and do not want to teach the subject.
Participant 2 said:

‘I have had to avoid using literary texts with my present class because I felt I was putting too
much pressure on the students yet they were not coping. My fear was that they would not pass
and unfortunately when students fail the blame comes back to the teacher. It’s like you have not
done your best.’
‘For me now that I am teaching literature I involve my students and they get to love literature.
This is because now I don’t even come as a teacher…. You can lecture other subjects but not
literature. Now we bring in our feelings, opinions and we justify why we feel that way. We argue
and discuss and I feel that’s how Literature should be taught.’
Participant 1:
‘English is a difficult subject and most people perceive it as such. Both the teacher and student
must be committed. If a teacher cannot clearly impart his knowledge then the learner will also
find it difficult to understand literary texts. A teacher must love his subject and has confidence in
himself before he can pass on that love to his students.’
All participants said that another challenge in the use of literary texts in the classroom is the
ever changing list of textbooks to be studied. Every two years a new set is introduced and just
when the teacher is getting used to the contents of the text it is removed from the syllabus. Yet
the attitude that both teachers and students have towards a subject will determine how well it is
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delivered and received. For four participants the choice of books at Secondary level is not always
appropriate for the students. Expressing his feelings Participant 3 said:
‘The challenge is in the selection of texts. The teachers do not select their own books but select
from a narrow pre-selected list. Teachers perceive texts differently. If a text does not appeal to
the teacher it becomes difficult to teach that text.’

Criteria for text selection are not just applied to students, but they can also be valid for
teachers. From this point of view, the participant 3, we would argue that the students’ cultural
background, the students’ linguistic proficiency and the students’ literary background are the
main criteria for selecting texts and these criteria could also be applied to EFL teachers. Mckay
(1986, p.322) and Rivers (1981, p.230) point out that “students read and enjoy a text if the
subject-matter of the text is relevant to their life experience and interests.”

In question 5, we wondered if teachers would teach language components in their literature

and we asked them to justify their answers. As previously noted, all the participants cited
vocabulary as one language component that literature in English can enhance and improve. All
four participants believe that the study of literature enhances vocabulary whether intentionally
(where there is a deliberate intention to teach) or unintentionally (when learning of vocabulary is
spontaneous or not necessarily the intended outcome). The general feeling is that if you read you
are bound to pick up a few new words. Two of the four participants cited that their vocabulary
was strengthened by reading literary texts. The other two participants say that vocabulary was
learnt because the teacher paid attention to new vocabulary words. Lazar (1993, p.15) syntactic
knowledge and vocabulary enrichment can be accelarated through literary texts. In other words,
literature involves a profound range of vocabulary, dialogues and prose. When we asked teachers
if literature can be used to teach language components like vocabulary, Participant two, stated
that, by merely reading a literary text, vocabulary is enhanced.

In Literature students have the opportunity to learn the meaning of words in context. They
learn how to use these words because they will have learnt them in context.’
Participant 3
‘Learning Literature was very beneficial because it gave me the opportunity to expand my
vocabulary.’
Participant 1
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‘The students also pick easy vocabulary which they can use in their descriptive and
argumentative essays. They can pick words relating to feelings and mood or words that describe
specific things such as weather, feelings, places and people.’
In question 6, we would like to know why the participants wanted or not wanted short stories
to be a component of English Language syllabus. Two participants wanted short stories to be
made a compulsory subject for Secondary school learners. For the two participants short stories
should be an integral part of the program. Participant four felt that if Language was made
compulsory the integration of short stories must also be compulsory. It was the feeling that
language learning centered on the four language skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening
which are all enhanced during the use of short stories in EFL. Two of the participants felt that the
integration of short stories in EFL must be made a component of Language and not a stand -
alone subject. In this way all learners would be exposed to short stories and thus gather all the
benefits of short stories cited during the review of literature.
Analysis of close-ended questions
The responses of some close- ended questions on strategies used by secondary level EFL
teachers for their professional development have been analyzed below:
Teaching short stories from general background
In question number one, we asked the class EFL teachers how often they taught short stories
using general background. Their responses regarding this question showed that 1 (25%) class
EFL teacher sometimes taught short stories using general background. Similarly 1 (25 %) EFL
teacher always taught short stories using general background. However, 2 (50%) EFL teachers
never taught short stories using general background. Thus, most of the EFL teachers 2 (i.e. 50%)
never taught short stories using general background.
Asking the students to summarize the short Story
In question number two, we wanted to know how often EFL teachers asked the students to
summarize the short stories. Their responses regarding this question indicated that none of the
teachers sometimes asked students to summarize the short stories using general background.
However, 1 (25%) EFL teacher never asked students to summarize the short stories. Thus, most
of the teachers 2 (i.e. 50%) always asked students to summarize the short stories.
Start using short story from its coda of the story
In question number three, we asked the class EFLteachers how often they started using short
story from its moral value. Their responses regarding this question showed none of the EFL class
teachers always started using short story from its moral value. In fact, 1 (25%) EFL teacher
sometimes started using short story from its coda. Likewise, 1(25%) EFL teacher often started
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using short story from its moral. However, 2 (50%) EFL class teacher never started using short
story from its moral of short story.
Engaging students in role play
In question number four, we asked the teachers how often they engaged the students in role play.
Their responses regarding this question are as follows: 1 (25%) teacher often engaged the
students in role play. Similarly, 1 (25%) teacher sometimes engaged the students in role play.
However, 2 (50%) teachers never involved the students in role play.

4.2 Preliminary data analysis and discussion at CPT Secondary School: questionnaires to
learners
The questionnaire was administered to the sample selected from grades 11 and 12 learners at
Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary school. There were 160 (hundred sixty) leaners: 95 (ninty-five)
male and 65 (sixty-five) female learners. The main purpose of the questionnaire for students was
to find out whether students enjoyed short stories or not and activities used by their EFL teachers
with short stories.
In question number one, we wanted to know whether the students liked reading short stories or
not. Out of 160 students, 160 students corresponding to 100 % responded that they liked short
stories.
In question number two, we asked the students in order to know the types of literary texts they
would like to read in the class. Out of 160 students, 160 students corresponding to 100%
commented that they did not read any of the given literary genres. This had the implication that
most teachers did not use short stories in their lessons.
In question number three, we wanted to know the types of activities students practice in the class.
Out of 160 students, all of them corresponding to 100%, they practiced individual work focused
on teaching grammar rules.
In question number four, we asked students how often their EFL class teachers use stories in
classroom, out of 160 students, all of them corresponding to 100% they selected “never” that
meant they have never used short stories in the classrooms, but they had been doing reading
activities from non-literary texts.
In this question five, we wanted to know whether students liked telling the stories and listening to
them. Out of 160 students, all of them corresponding to 100% said that they liked telling short
stories and listening to them.
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4.2.1 Analysis and dscussion of grade 11 and grade 12 students’ textbooks

Cohen et al (2007, p.16) asserts that qualitative documents may embrace “public documents
(e.g, newspapers, minutes of meetings, official reports) or private documents (e.g, personal
journals and diaries, letters, e-mails.)”. We thus regard the students’textbooks we selected to be
integrated in the category of public documents. Cohen et al (ibid, p.19) pointed out as advantages
the fact that these documents can be assessed at a time convenient to researcher, represents data
to which participants have given attention and they are written evidence, saving the researcher the
time and expense of transcribing.

First of all, we collected some course books that have been selected for teaching English as
foreign language, that is, English textbooks used in Mozambican Curriculum. Second, we gave an
overview of Mozambican English curriculum and finally, we discussed the methodology in use.
The textbooks of grades 11 and 12 used at Secondary Level in Mozambique, in particular at
Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School where our supervision activities of teaching practice
took place have fifteen units. The textbooks (Inglês/11ᵃ and 12ᵃ classes), that were published in
2017 and 2020, respectively. The authors of the books are Justino Matola and Johannes
Magombo. They were published by Porto Editora.
The units comprise a number of lessons that introduce new contents and revise others. All
the lessons present different types of texts (grouping of texts which are similar in linguistic form,
irrespective of genre) throughout the book, but short stories are not included. There are pictures
illustrating the texts and themes; vocabulary boxes in which important vocabulary translated into
Portuguese is found; simple reading comprehension tasks; speaking tasks that promote discussion
and students’ oral participation; clear grammar explanation with examples; grammar exercises;
writing tasks that are closely related to the text students have read.
As previously indicated in the statement of the problem, the tendency of English language
classes was to practice language skills (reading, speaking, writing and listening) around topics of
learners’ textbooks from grades 11 and 12 related to sports, business, environment, entertainment,
technology, diseases, politics, arts and other topics different from those that might be provided by
short stories.
Besides, the nature of the current examinations has greatly affected the way the English
language is taught in Mozambique, particularly at Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School in
Niassa Province. There are challenges derived from CLT itself since the approach does not
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contemplate an effective and efficient assessment instrument and this is a barrier or weakness to
the effective implementation of CLT.
Therefore, we maintain that promoting reading skills through short stories can minimize the
aforementioned challenges because reading is a foundation and feeder of other skills. The
textbooks emphasize more some skills than others. If teachers of English use short stories or
literary texts in their classes, they are more likely to balance the development and use of receptive
and productive skills. Below, we are illustrating the checklist distribution of basic competencies.
They are not balanced as the two tables show below:
Table 8: Checklist distribution of basic competencies for grade 12 Course book

R Fr. % L Fr % S Fr. % W Fr %

R1 5 33.3 L2 1 6.7 S1 3 20 W1 5 33.3

R2 4 26.7 L4 1 6.7 S2 4 26.7 W2 5 33.3

R3 4 26.7 L7 1 6.7 S3 4 26.7 W3 5 33.3

R4 5 33.3 L8 1 6.7 S4 5 33.3 W4 5 33.3

R5 5 33.3 L11 1 6.7 S5 5 33.3 W5 5 33.3

R6 4 26.7 L12 1 6.7 S6 5 33.3 W6 5 33.3

R7 5 33.3 L13 1 6.7 S7 5 33.3 W7 6 40

R8 5 33.3 S8 6 40 W8 6 40

R9 2 13.3 S9 1 6.7 W9 2 13.3

R10 6 40 S10 6 40 W10 5 33.3

R11 5 33.3 S11 6 40 W11 6 40

R12 5 33.3 S12 6 40 W12 6 40

R13 5 33.3 S13 6 40 W13 6 40

R14 1 6.7 S14 4 26.7 W14 4 26.7

R15 4 26.7 S15 4 26.7 W15 4 26.7

Total 65 29.9 T 7 0.5 Total 70 32.2 Total 75 34.6

Adapted from author, researcher (2022)

R= reading; S= speaking; W= writing; L= listening; F= frequency; % = percentage

From the table above, we can easily see that total frequency of reading skills is 65%. It means
that reading should be the most practiced skill in the classroom. Nevertheless, listening is the
least practiced skill in grade 12.
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Table 9: Checklist distribution of basic competencies for grade 11 Course book

R F % L F % S F % W F %

R1 3 20 S1 2 13.3 W1 3 20

R2 4 26.7 S2 3 20 W2 4 26.7

R3 7 0.47 S3 6 40 W3 6 40

R4 2 13.3 S4 2 13.3 W4 2 13.3

R5 2 13.3 S5 2 13.3 W5 2 13.3

R6 2 13.3 S6 3 20 W6 3 20

R7 3 20 S7 3 20 W7 3 20

R8 8 0.53 S8 4 26.7 W8 8 0.53

R9 3 20 S9 8 0.53 W9 3 20

R10 4 26.7 S10 4 26.7 W10 4 26.7

R11 4 26.7 S11 3 20 W11 1 6.7

R12 6 40 S12 4 26.7 W12 4 26.7

R13 3 20 S13 4 26.7 W13 3 20

R14 1 6.7 S14 1 6.7 W14 1 6.7

R15 2 13.3 S15 2 13.3 W15 2 13.3

Total 54 35 T 51 33 T 49 32

Adapted from author, researcher, 2022

R= reading; S= speaking; W= writing; L= listening; F= frequency; % = percentage

The table above shows that listening skill is not practiced in grade 11. Indeed, we can infer
that the basic competencies are not balanced. In addition, listening appears to be the most
neglected skill in the textbooks. Listening is just practiced in grade 12 with just 0.5% of rate of
frequency. In contrast, reading comprehension appears to be dominant with 54% of frequency but
in reality and according to what we observed in the classrooms, reading has been the least
practiced in the classrooms. However, the instruction was form-focused whereby grammar rules
were only taught deductively.

Learners are usually not encouraged to make any personal connections with the text to their
previous knowledge or experiences or if they are, the text has already been worked hard and
students are no longer motivated to react and response. This approach is too abstract (Hurst,
2014). Moreover, much of the so-called “comprehension work” assumes that there is an inherent,
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unique, “correct” meaning to the text that exists beyond the reader; this approach is too limiting.
Learners end up “fishing” in the text for the pre-destined answers and are even encouraged to cite
exact words or phrases from the text to show that they have “landed” the correct answer.

Hurst (2014) argued that this teacher-centered approach does not allow for any kind of
counterpoint or interaction with the text, learners are simply required to confirm the authorized
viewpoint. Therefore, the opportunity to explore intercultural perspectives is also excluded: the
learner-reader’s assumptions, beliefs, attitudes and values are not brought into consideration. The
lack of tasks which require the interpretation, negotiation and creation of meaning excludes an
educational perspective informed by intercultural objectives (Gonçalves Matos, 2011).

4.2.2 Analysis of prospective EFL teachers’ lesson plans

The lesson plans of the four prospective EFL teachers are in the appendices 1, 2, 3 and 4. The
four prospective EFL teachers’ lesson plans are codified as T1, T2, T3 and T4. We will present
tables of teachers’ lesson plans on integrating short stories in EFL classrooms bearing in mind the
stages of teaching reading comprehension: objectives of the lesson, warmer and before reading,
understanding the text or general comprehension, understanding the language and follow-up
activities.

Table 10: Objectives of the lessons

T1 T2 T3 T4

Lesson focus: Media transfer Lesson focus: Whole class Lesson focus: Telling a Lesson focus:
activity – story to map jigsaw activity story
Stages of a
narrative.

At the end of the lesson,
students should be able to
draw the main character’s
route; understand the events
of the story entitled “The
Tortoise”; analyze the events
of the story; develop reading,
listening, speaking and
writing skills.
By the end of the lesson, At the end of the lesson,
students should be able to students should be able to
sequence the events of the short tell the story using
story entitled “The Man and the determiners in appropriate
Monkeys”; summarize the way; identify stressed and
story; report events using unstressed syllables.
regular and irregular past
forms.
At the end of the
lesson, students
should be able to
approach
narrative from the
concept of coda.

In this table we present the lesson plans focus before the objectives as we think there might
be a connection between lesson focus and the objectives. In the T1 lesson plan, we can see that
there is a total connection between the topic and the objectives of the lesson. Thus, all the
 122

objectives are related to the specific topic. In the T2 lesson plan, we can understand that the
objectives of the lessons are as well linked to the lesson focus mentioned above.

The next table will present another stage of the lesson plans that is warm-up.

Table 11: Warm-up and before the lesson

T1(plan 1) T2 (plan 2) T3 (plan3) T4 (plan 4)

The teacher checks
students’attendance then,
Warm-up and he revises the elements of
before the a story. Students work in
lesson pairs. The teacher writes
the pre-reading questions
on the chalkboard. Then,
he distributes the handouts
to paired students.
The teacher greets the The teacher greets the The teacher
students. The teacher students. Teacher asks revises the stages
writes the title of the story students where they have of a narrative:
on the chalkboard: “The been for their weekend.
Man and the Monkeys.” The teacher tells the Orientation,
students that in English, complication,
Students read the story some syllables are resolution and
silently. stressed more strongly the coda. Then,
than others.Teacher he explains each
Then, the teacher writes writes the title on the of the stages.
signpost questions on the chalkboard: “Mikidadi”.
chalkboard for the students Teacher asks students
to answer orally. what comes in their mind
when they the title of the
story. The students
discuss the question in
groups of five.

Teacher devises a warmer that gets students thinking about the topic of the story Mikidadi. This
could take several forms: a short discussion that students do in pairs, a whole class discussion, a
guessing game between the teacher and the class or a brainstorming of vocabulary around that
topic. For instance: the activity can be carried out for fun or for students to find answers to
questions given and explained to them before the reading activity starts.
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Table 12: Practice- while reading stage

T1(plan 1) T2 (plan 2) T3 (plan3) T4 (plan 4)

The teacher reads the The teacher asks students to The teacher asks Teacher writes up
story and he picks up work in groups of five. The the students to the saying Slow and
Practice some sentences from teacher writes jumbled read the text steady wins the race
the text that he thinks sentences on the chalkboard. twice silently and .
Understandin they contain difficult Teacher divides the text into he tells the Students in pairs,
g the text, words and he writes on sections or pieces. Teacher students to discuss the saying
general the chalkboard and he reads the whole story in choose the Slow and steady
comprehensio underlines the difficult correct order and he lets correct answer wins the race .
n words. Students work in students to find out the correct (see appendix) 3. Teacher asks the
pairs. As a feedback, sequence of the story. The students:
the teacher gives the teacher hands out a piece of Students work in a. In what
meaning of difficult the story to each student. Each pairs. circumstances might
words and compare student reads out hi/her piece this be said?
with the students’ of the story. Then, the teacher b. What does it
guessing meanings. tells the students to stand up mean?
and order themselves into a 4. Teacher writes up
long line following the the students’
sequence of the story. Teacher answers on the
reads the story aloud in the board.
correct position. The students
read their pieces in correct
order. After that students can
take their places and sit.

Often with short story, we like to read the whole thing to our students so that they can get more
of a “feel” for the text. It is important to let students approach a piece of literature the first time
without giving them any specific task other than to simply read it. One of the aims of teaching
literature is to evoke interest and pleasure from the language. If students have to do a task at
every stage of a literature lesson, the pleasure can be lost. However, the purpose of reading is
usually related to pleasure, information and general understanding (Williams, 1986). Once
students have read it once, the teacher can set comprehension questions or ask them to explain
the significance of certain key words of the text. Another way of checking comprehension is to
ask students to explain to each other (in pairs) what they have understood. This could be followed
up by more subjective questions (e.g. In what circumstances might this be said? What does it
mean?) Teacher writes up the students’ answers on the board.
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Table 13: Post-reading stage

T1 T2 T3 T4

The teacher asks discussion
questions:
Why did the fortune-teller’s
prediction come true?
Story to Map – Groupwork
Teacher asks students to draw a
character’s route in the story.
Draw main character’s route.
Teacher asks students to
compare each other’s Map.
Then, teacher asks the students
to retell the story using their own
words.
Students retell the story.
Teacher compares the students’
versions.
Teacher asks students to choose
a sentence that can make them to
think about the moral of the
story.
Teacher assigns the whole
class jigsaw activity
Teacher divides the text into
sections or pieces; he/she
jumbles them and lets
students to find out the
correct sequence of the story
after they have read the
jumbled sentences.
Teacher revises the The students work back
use of definite and from the coda and they
indefinite articles create a story with an
using the story text. orientation, a
complication and a
resolution, to which the
coda can be added.
Teacher helps the students
by asking them questions
to discuss:
- Who could be in the
story?
- Where might it be set?
- What might happen at
the beginning?
- What kind of conflict
could take place?
- How might this conflict
be resolved?
If time runs out, this
activity might set up as
homework.

In the the table above, students practice using the words they already understand the meanings
of. Students also profit from literary texts. What they read gives them the opportunity to come up
with their own insights and helps them speak the language in a more imaginative way. The
students become more creative since they are faced with their own point of view, that/those of the
main character(s) of the story and those of their peers. According to Oster (1989), this process
leads to critical thinking, by confirming, ´´Focusing on point of view in literature enlarges
students´vision and fosters critical thinking by dramatizing the various ways a situation can be
seen.´´ (p.85). This could happen because when students read, they interact with the text. By
interacting with the text, they interpret what they read. By interpreting what they read, they can
work toward speaking and writing English more creatively.
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4.2.3. Analysis and discussion of data obtained through observation

We observed ten lessons of four prospective EFL teachers of grades 11 and 12 using short
stories in their classes. The primary source of data has been obtained through observation
checklist as a tool of data collection. An attempt has been made here to describe in detail the
activities used in using short stories at Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary school. The activities
were analyzed and interpreted as follows:

Pre-reading activities

We observed ten (10) lessons of four prospective EFL English teachers of grades 11 and 12 to
find out the pre-reading activities for use with short story at secondary school. To know about the
facts about the pre-reading strategies, the following activities have been observed:

Table 14

Analysis of the pre-reading strategies

S.N Activities No. of lessons Percentage

1 Providing cultural & historical background 8 80
2 Motivating/Stimulating students’ interest 6 60
3 Predicting theme from the title of the story 3 30
4 Group discussion about title of the story
5 Brainstorming 5 50
6 Discussing the language of the story
7 Preparing the glossary 7 70
Source: researcher, 2022

Regarding providing cultural and historical background, the table shows that in most of the
lessons i.e. 8 (80%) the prospective EFL teachers provided a lot of information about the short
story. Similarly, 6 (60%) lessons were properly motivated or stimulated the students’ interest
before started their lessons. Likewise, 3 (30%) lessons were asked to predict theme from the title
of the story. In all the lessons they did not give group discussion about title of the short story
before starting their lessons in pre-reading period. Likewise, 5 (50%) lessons were of the teachers
involved the students in brainstorming and 7 (70%) lessons of the teachers prepared the glossary
before teaching short story. Thus, most of the lessons of the teachers 8 (i.e. 80%) provided
cultural and historical background before starting teaching short story. According to Lazar (1993,
p.83), “pre-reading activities help learners with cultural background. Pre-reading activities also
stimulate students’ interest in the story and pre-teach vocabulary”. However, group discussion
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about title of the story and the language of the story were the least used activities by prospective
EFL teachers.

While-reading activities
We observed ten lessons of four prospective EFL teachers to find out the while-reading
activities for use with short story at CPT secondary school. To know about the facts about the
while-reading activities the following activities have been observed:

Table 15

Analysis of the while-reading strategies

S.N Activities No. of lessons Percentage

1 Providing comprehension questions 6 60
2 Provide title for each paragraph
3 Arrange jumble sentence 2 20
4 Summarize the story 7 70
5 Ranking the character 10 100
6 Guessing meaning from multiple choice
7 Textual analysis
Source: researcher, 2022

As above table shows, 6 (60%) lessons of the teachers provided some questions in while
reading strategies. Similarly, 7 (70%) lessons summarized of the short story in while reading
strategies. Likewise, 10 (100%) lessons of the teachers ranked the character in while reading
activities whereas 2 (20%) lessons of the teachers arranged jumble sentence in while reading
activities and no lessons were provided title for each paragraph, guess meaning from multiple
choice and textual analysis in while reading activities. Thus, all the lessons, that is, 100% ranked
the character in while reading activities. In line with Lazar (1993, p.83), “while reading activities
help learners to understand the plot, characters and they also help learners to deal with difficult
vocabulary, style and language”. However, activities such as provide title for each paragraph,
guessing meaning from multiple choice and textual analysis were the least used activities by
prospective EFL teachers.

Post-reading activities
We observed 10 lessons of four prospective EFL teachers of grades 11 and 12 to find out the
post-reading activities for use with short story at CPT secondary school. To know about the facts
about the post-reading activities the following activities have been observed:
 127

Table 16

Analysis of the post-reading strategies

S.N Activities No. of lessons Percentage

1 Interpreting of the story 8 80 %

2 Providing general questions for debate 6 60%

3 Speculate symbolic association

4 Describing the events of the story 10 100%
5 Writing review of the story 3 30%

6 Focus on the end, the coda of the story

Source: researcher, 2022

As the above table shows, 10 (100%) lessons of the prospective EFL teachers helped learners
to describe the events of the story in the post reading activities. Similarly, 8 (80%) lessons of the
teachers interpreted of the story to the students in post reading activities. Likewise, 6 (60%)
lessons of the teachers provided general questions for debate to the students in the post reading
activities whereas 3 (30%) lessons of the EFL teachers wrote review of the story to the students in
the post reading activities. Thus, all the lessons of the teachers 10 (100%) described the events of
the story to the students in the post- reading activities. Post-reading activities help students to
make interpretations of the text, understand point of view, follow-up writing activities and
follow-up fluency activities (Lazar, 1993, p.84). However, activities such as speculate symbolic
association and focus on the end, the coda of the story were the least used activities by
prospective EFL teachers.

4.2.4 Analysis and discussion of data obtained through pre-tests and post-tests
In this section, we analyzed the tests designed for the students quantitatively. The tests were
comprehension tasks for students which consisted of twenty questions. Students had to read the
text and answer the ten questions. The tests were administered to grade 11 (group 1 and group 2)
and grade 12 (group 1 and group 2).
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4.2.5 Analysis of pre-proficiency tests results of grade 11

Control group (Group 1)

Table 17
Pre-test results for the Control group
Av abs s/dev
Language item no. Mn @95%co s/d hig low Medn from median
nf.(mn)
Reading Comp. 40 11,025 2,1895 13 5 12
Adapted from author.

The table above shows the pre-test results of grade 11 students in group 1. The pre-test was
administered to 40 students. The mean of reading comprehension was 11.025.
Table 18
Post-test results for the control group
Av abs s/dev
Language item no. Mn @ conf.(Mn) ? s/d hig low Medn from median
Reading Comp. 40 12,425 1,646 15 7 13
8
Adapted from author.

The table above shows the post-test results of grade 11 students in group 1. The post-test was
administered to 40 students. The mean of reading comprehension was 12.425.
Experimental group (Group 2)

Table 19
Pre-test results for the experimental group
Av abs s/dev
Language item no. Mn % conf.(mn) s/de hig low Medn from median
Reading Comp. 40 11,025 2,189 13 5 12
5
Adapted from author.

The table above shows the pre-test results of grade 11 students in group 2. The pre-test was
administered to 40 students. The mean of reading comprehension was 11.025.
Table 20
Post-test results for the experimental group
Av abs s/dev
Language item no. Mn % conf.(mn) s/de hig low Medn from median

Reading Compre 40 13,4 1,3922 15 10 14

Adapted from author.
 129

The table above shows the post-test results of grade 11 students in group 2. The post-test was
administered to 40 students. The mean of reading comprehension was 13.4.
Note: Mn= mean; no= number; % conf, (mn) = confidence of mean; s/dev= standard
deviation.

The difference mean of tests

Table 21

Difference mean of prestest score

Group Mean Std.err Std.Dev [95% conf. Interval]

Controle / 40 11,025 0.3462 2.1895 10.3247 11.7252

group 1

Experimental/ 40 11,025 0.3462 2.1895 10.3247 11.7252

Group 2

Combined 80 11.025 0.2432 2.1756 10.5408 11.5091

0 -0.9747 0.9747

Adapted from author.

The table above shows the difference of mean of pre-test score of grade 11 students in group 1
and group 2.
By analyzing and comparing the pre-test scores (in table above) for the grade 11 of group 1 and
group 2 (mean= 11.025 for reading comprehension), a difference of mean was reached at 0.
Based on this mean, we can conclude that the grade 11 of group 1 and group 2 were at the same
level of reading proficiency prior the beginning of the implementation of action project research.

Table 22

Difference of mean of post-test score

Group Mean Std.err Std.Dev [95% conf. Interval]

Controle/ group 1 40 12.425 0.2603 1.6468 11.8983 12.9516

Experime/group 2 40 13.4 0.2201 1.3922 12.9547 13.8452

Combined 80 12.9125 0.1780 1.5926 12.5580 13.2669

Diff -0.975 0.3409 -1.6538 -0.2961

Adapted from author.

As we analyze and compare the pre-test and post-test scores (in tables above) for the pre-test
of grade 11 of group 1 and post-test of group 2 (mean= 11.025 and 13.4 for reading
comprehension, respectively), a difference of mean was reached at 1.4. Based on this mean, we
 130

can conclude that the grade 12 of group 2 made considerable progress in reading comprehension.
By comparing the two mean differences (11.025 for the pre- test of group 1 and 13.4 for pro-test
of group 2) we can deduce that the latter performed considerably better compared to the former.

The tables above show that the mean scores of post-tests are higher than the mean scores of pre-
tests for both groups of grade 11 in reading comprehension. This is in line with what McKay
(1982, p.531) who says that literature does foster an ‘overall increase in language proficiency’.
The marginal superiority by group 2 (experimental group) over pre-tests may be attributed to the
interactive nature of literature based on reading. “The fact that the student is willing to interact
with the text is a critical motivation factor which may have enhanced their understanding of the
text and consequently, their apparent superior performance”, (McCarthy, 1998, pp.156-165).

Graph 1

Distribution of pre-test and post-test score for the control group

The graph 1 above shows the distribution of pre-test and post-test scores for the control group
for grade 11 hence eleven students out of forty students have poor score marks in pre-proficiency
test whereas three students out of forty students have poor score marks in post-proficiency test for
the control group. Two students out of forty have fair marks in pre-proficiency test for the control
group. Similarly, two students out of forty have fair marks. In addition, the distribution of pre-
proficiency and post-proficiency tests show that twenty-seven students out of forty have average
marks whereas twenty-six students out of forty have average marks in post-test for the control
group. Nine students out of forty have good marks in post-test for the control group.
 131

Graph 2

Distribution of pre-test and post-test score for

The graph 2 above shows the distribution of pre-test and post-test scores for the experimental
group for grade 11 hence eleven students out of forty students have poor score marks in pre-
proficiency test whereas two students out of forty students have fair score marks in pre- test
proficiency test for the experimental group. Four students out of forty have fair marks in pre-
proficiency test for the experimental group. Similarly, twenty seven students out of forty have
average marks. In addition, the distribution of pre-proficiency and post-proficiency tests shows
that fifteen students out of forty have average marks whereas fifteen students out of forty have
average marks in post-test for the experimental group. Twenty-one students out of forty have
good marks in post-test for the experimental group.

4.2.6 Analysis of proficiency pre-tests and post-tests results of grade 12

Control group

Table 23
Pre-test results for the control group
Av abs s/dev
Language item no. Mn @95%con s/d hig low Medn from median
f.(mn)
Reading Comp 40 11.025 2.1895 13 5 12
Adapted from author.

The table above shows the pre-test results of grade 12 students in group 1. The pre-test was
administered to 40 students. The mean of reading comprehension was 11.025.
Table 24
 132

Post-test results for the control group

Av abs s/dev
Language item no. Mn @ conf. s/d hig low Med from median
(Mn) ? n

Reading Compre 40 12.425 1.6468 15 7 12

Adapted from author.

The table above shows the post-test results of grade 12 students in group 1. The post-test was
administered to 40 students. The mean of reading comprehension was 12.425.
Experimental group

Table 25
Pre-test results for the experimental group
Av abs s/dev
Language item no. Mn % conf. s/de hig low Medn from median
(mn)
Reading Compre 40 10.875 1.066 13 9 11
Adapted from author.

The table above shows the pre-test results of grade 12 students in group 2. The pre-test was
administered to 40 students. The mean of reading comprehension was 10.875.

Table 26
Post-test results for the experimental group
Av abs s/dev
Language item no. Mn % conf.(mn) s/de hig low Medn from median
Reading Compre 40 13.125 1.113 15 10 13
7
Adapted from author.

The table above shows the post-test results of grade 12 students in group 2. The pre-test was
administered to 40 students. The mean of reading comprehension was 13.125.
Note: Mn= mean; no= number; % conf, (mn) = confidence of mean; s/dev= standard deviation.

DIfference mean of tests

Table 27

Difference mean of pre-test scores

Group obs Mean Std.err Std.Dev [95% conf. Interval]

Controle 40 11.025 0.3462 2.1895 10.3247 11.7252

experimenta 40 10.875 0.168 1.066 10.533 11.2161

 133

Combined 80 10.95 0.1915 1.712 10.5688 11.3312

diff 0.15 0.3850 -0.6166 0.9166

Adapted from author.

The table above shows the difference of mean of pre-test score of grade 12 students in group 1
and group 2.
By analyzing and comparing the pre-test scores (in table above) for the grade 12 of group 1 and
group 2 (mean= 11.025 for reading comprehension for group 1 and 13.125 for group 2), a
difference of mean was reached at 2.1.

Table 28

Difference mean of post- test scores

Group obs Mean Std.err Std.Dev [95% conf. Interval]

Controle 40 12.425 0.2603 1.6468 11.8983 12.9516

experimenta 40 13.125 0.1760 1.1137 12.7688 13.4811

Combined 80 12.775 0.1610 1.4405 12.4541 13.0955

diff -0.7000 0.3143 -1.3258 -0.0741

Adapted from author.

As we analyze and compare the pre-test and post-test scores (in tables above) for the pre-test
of grade 12 of group 1 and post-test of group 2 (mean= 11.025 and 13.4 for reading
comprehension, respectively), a difference of mean was reached at 1.4. Based on this mean, we
can conclude that the grade 11 of group 2 made considerable progress in reading comprehension.
By comparing the two mean differences (11.025 for the pre- test of group 1 and 12.425 for pro-
test of group 2) we can deduce that the latter performed considerably better compared to the
former.

The tables above show that the mean scores of post-tests are higher than the mean scores of pre-
tests for group 2 (experimental group) of grade 12 in reading comprehension. This is in line with
what McKay (1982, p.531) who says that literature does foster an ‘overall increase in language
proficiency’.
The marginal superiority by both grades of group 2 over pre-tests may be attributed to the
interactive nature of literature based on reading. “The fact that the student is willing to interact
with the text is a critical motivation factor which may have enhanced their understanding of the
text and consequently, their apparent superior performance”, (McCarthy, 1998, pp.156-165).
 134

Graph 3

Distribution of pre-test and post-test score for the control group

The graph 3 above shows the distribution of pre-test and post-test scores for the control group
for grade 12 hence eleven students out of forty students have poor score marks in pre-proficiency
test whereas three students out of forty students have poor score marks in post-proficiency test for
the control group. Two students out of forty have fair marks in pre-proficiency test for the control
group. Similarly, two students out of forty have fair marks in post- proficiency test for the control
group of grade 12. In addition, the distribution of pre-proficiency and post-proficiency tests show
that twenty-seven students out of forty have average marks whereas twenty-six students out of
forty have average marks in post-test for the control group. Nine students out of forty have good
marks in post-test for the control group.
 135

Graph 4

Distribution of pre-test and post-test score for the experimental group

The graph 4 above shows the distribution of pre-test and post-test scores for the experimental
group of grade 12 hence three students out of forty students have poor score marks in pre-
proficiency test whereas twenty-eight students out of forty students have fair score marks in post-
proficiency test for the experimental group whereas three students out of forty have fair marks in
post-proficiency test for the experimental group. Similarly, nine students out of forty have
average marks whereas twenty-one students have average marks in post- proficiency test for the
experimental group of grade 12. Sixteen students out of forty have good marks in post-test for the
experimental group of grade 12.
 136

5. Summarizing the Findings

This section presents a summary of the findings that were inferred from the collected data,
and analysed in the preceding sections. Since the study initially set out to document the
perceptions of EFL teachers on the role of short stories in the teaching of English as a foreign
Language at Cristiano Taimo secondary school in Lichinga district, the summary of findings is
presented in this section. The findings are summarized as responses to the initially set research
Hypothesis and questions presented below:
Research Hypothesis
As previously stated in presenting this study, we also examined the practicality of using short
stories in the EFL class, especially short stories as an alternative to EFL teaching at CPT
secondary school. Material designed around short stories was used to teach reading skills
alongside with prescribed coursebook texts. This study was motivated by the following
hypothesis: integrating short stories in EFL lessons may help EFL teachers develop the reading
skills of their learners.
The results of pre-proficiency and post-proficiency tests demonstrated learners progress which
had been made during a period of ten weeks, the post-tests score (mean values) are higher than
the pre-tests score (mean values). The results showed that the integration of short stories in EFL
lessons could help taechers develop the reading skills. It is quite pleasing to note from the study
that great success can be achieved if literary texts were used as an alternative materials alongside
with prescribed textbooks in EFL classroom. Therefore, the hypothesis was confirmed.

What are the additional potential benefits of using short stories in EFL class?
Prospective EFL teachers need to be well equipped with basic knowledge on an attempt to use
short stories in their EFL classes; they should understand the benefits of short stories and plan
classes that meet the needs of their students. Prospective EFL teachers need to be informed about
the benefits of using short stories in their classes so as they should be familiar with the
effectiveness of using short stories in their lessons. As professionals, EFL teachers need to
improve their teaching skills. Prospective EFL teachers need to give time by themselves to
exploit extra materials and develop extensive reading of short stories. In line with Lazar (1993),
short stories allow teachers to teach the four skills to all levels of language proficiency.
Murdoch (2002, p.9) indicates that “short stories can, if selected and exploited adequately, give
quality text content which will greatly enhance EFL courses for learners at intermediate levels of
proficiency”. According to him, short stories could be very beneficial materials in EFL
reinforcement by using them in learning activities such as discussion, writing and acting out
 137

dialogues. Short story can be a powerful and motivating source for writing in EFL classes, both
as a model and as a subject matter. Short story as a model occurs when students’ writing becomes
closely similar to the original work or clearly imitates its content, theme, organization, and/or
style. However, when student writing exhibits original thinking like interpretation or analysis, or
when it emerges from, or is creatively stimulated by the reading, literature serves as subject
matter.
In accordance with this, Bocarro (1997, p.8) asserts that “literature helps students to write more
creatively.” Short story can also be a powerful and motivating source for teaching both speaking
and listening. Oral reading, dramatization, improvisation, role playing and discussion are some
effective learning activities which center on a short story EFL classes can use for enhancing
speaking and listening. To sum up, short stories have linguistic, motivational and cultural
benefits.
How can prospective EFL teachers be trained to integrate short stories in EFL class?
The integration of short storie in EFL language classroom is without doubt, very important, but
particular competencies are required of the EFL teachers thereof for the learners to enjoy the
benefits of reading for developing language skills.

Research has revealed that EFL teachers who regularly read for pleasure are more likely to
include reading interventions in order to encourage their students to engage in pleasure reading
too, than those who never read for pleasure (Morrison, Jacobs &Swinyard, 1999; McKool &
Gespass, 2009; Rasey (2009, p.2). The reading teacher would offer opportunities to their students
to engage in reading through book clubs, for instance. Rasey (2009, p.2) emphasises that teachers
who read for pleasure understand the importance of allowing students “to transact with the text”.

On the one hand, Sulentic-Dowell, Beal & Capraro (2006) discovered in their study that
mathematics teachers who engaged in pleasure reading were more likely to employ
comprehension strategies for solving word problems and to check vocabulary understanding. On
the other hand, teachers who do not read for pleasure may lack strategies that would provide a
framework to assist students. In fact, prospective EFL teachers can be trained as readers in order
to integrate short stories in their lessons.
 138

What methods can be suggested to prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in
their classes?
There have been different models suggested on the teaching of literature to EFL students
(Carter & Long, Lazar). How the teacher will use a literary text depends on the model they
choose. Similarly, there should be various methods that can be proposed to prospective EFL
teachers to integrate short stories in their classes.
The cultural method views a literary text as a product. This means that it is treated as a source
of information about the target culture. It is the most traditional approach, often used in university
courses on literature. According to Lazar (19931), the cultural model will examine the social,
political and historical background to a text, literary movements and genres. There is no specific
language work done on a text. This approach tends to be quite teacher-centred.
The language model aims to be more learner-centred. As learners proceed through a text, they
pay attention to the way language is used. They come to grips with the meaning and increase their
general awareness of English. Within this model of studying literature, the teacher can choose to
focus on general grammar and vocabulary (in the same way that these are presented in
coursebooks for example) or use stylistic analysis. Stylistic analysis involves the close study of
the linguistic features of the text to enable students to make meaningful interpretations of the text
– it aims to help learners read and study literature more competently.
The personal growth model is also a process-based approach and tries to be more learner-
centred. This model encourages learners to draw on their own opinions, feelings and personal
experiences. It aims for interaction between the text and the reader in English, helping make the
language more memorable. Learners are encouraged to “make the text their own”. This model
recognises the immense power that literature can have to move people and attempts to use that in
the classroom (Lazar, 1993).
Indeed, we propose our EFL prospective teachers to use a combination of the language model and
the personal growth model because the two methods are congruent to Communcative Language
Teaching whereby the functional use of language is based on expressing students’ own opinions,
feelings and personal experiences.
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6. Conclusions
The action research work entitled "The training of prospective EFL teachers to integrate short
stories in EFL class" is an attempt to train prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in
the EFL classes and we propose stages of pedagogical implementation. We used mixed methods
the fact that the study is analytical descriptive. Therefore, qualitative and quantitative methods
were employed for conducting the action research. We selected four prospective EFL teachers
and four EFL teachers from CPT secondary school using purposive sampling procedure. The
questionnaire, classroom observation checklist and proficiency tests were used as the main
instruments for data collection. The collected data were discussed and analysed with the help of
tables. The questionnaire was addressed to EFL teachers at the aforementioned school because
we wanted to know their views on integrating short stories in EFL class. The results and
discussions showed that the majority of the reviewed studies explored the use of short stories to
develop students’ reading comprehension and vocabulary. Most of the studies administered the
before, during and after reading (BDA) strategy whose learning activities were adapted to the
class conditions and the objective of the studies, while the rest employed language-based model
and literature as a content model. We conclude that combination of short stories and action
research in EFL classrooms can provide outstanding results. This has been shown in pre-
proficiency and post-proficiency tests.
Further, the process of material design has given us in-depth understanding of the principles
of communicative language teaching. Prospective EFL teachers’ confidence in the literary text
as a basis for material design for communicative language teaching was resoundingly restored.
Weighing the evidence as presented in literature review of this study, it is clear that
incorporating literature as a resource for material design in EFL courses is not only desirable,
but necessary. At the onset of this study, the benefits of a full literature component in English as
a foreign language, even full integration of literature into existing language courses, was our
ideal.
The findings from questionnaire for EFL teachers revealed that most teachers knew the
importance of literary texts, particularly short stories. In addition, when teachers asked whether
short stories were advantageous most of them supported the idea. However, most EFL teachers of
English at Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School recognize the benefits of short stories in their
lessons but most EFL teachers have a little opportunity to use extra materials such as those of
short stories other than to stick to the syllabus in the books that they know that will be tested.
 140

In addition, students claimed that few EFL teachers at Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary school
used their own telling stories when they wanted to motivate their learners to develop English
Language Skills.
Since the goal of EFL teaching must be to help students to communicate fluently in the target
language, instructors should focus not only on linguistic benefits, but also on other benefits.
In addition to the four skills, short stories help instructors to teach literary, cultural and higher-
order thinking aspects. As far as culture and other benefits are concerned, Henning (1993)
believes that culture should be integrated into the curriculum and “literature is one feature . . . in
the cultural domain that provides . . . added value beyond the level of language acquisition.”
Literature helps students to expand their “linguistic and cognitive skills, cultural knowledge and
sensitivity” (quoted in Shanahan, 1997, p. 165). Consequently, one can say that integrating short
stories into the curriculum will help EFL students to become well rounded professionals and
human beings since short stories teach more than the skills necessary for survival in the target
language. Short stories teach literary, cultural and higher order thinking benefits.
Most of the students expressed their enthusiasm for taking part in a course that relies on short
stories in learning the English language. This proves that the students enjoyed these classes and
that being interested in the class will ultimately increase the probability of learning. The stress-
free environment and the real topics discussed created a good atmosphere for learning. As
Goldberg (2006, p. 5) argued, using arts in teaching the English language “places the learner in
the positions of truly working with ideas,” which provides great opportunities to personalize
learning. Thus, literary texts should be used in reading classes to provide students with
opportunities to be exposed to this genre. It would be interesting to take this study further and
compare students’ perceptions of the linguistic benefits gained from literature and EFL classes.
Selecting a literary text that is suitable and planning lessons to teach language skills based on
that text in an integrated manner become very plausible under the circumstances. While the
probable unsuitability and logistical causes for the resistance to such use of literary texts as
resource in EFL classrooms remain relevant, we hope that the case for the literary texts as a
resource for material design built by this study may contribute toward encouraging other EFL
teachers who may be apprehensive when it comes to teaching EFL communicatively around a
literary text not only in Niassa but also in other parts of Mozambique where English is taught as a
foreign language.
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6.1 Recommendations
Ministry of Education and Human Development should provide the training to the EFL teachers
of secondary level to make them familiar with pedagogical methods and practice the new
teaching activities for integrating short stories in EFL classrooms. For example: using stories by
brainstorming, co-operative learning.
Policy makers and curriculum designers should analyze the existing condition of teaching
activities used with short stories to make the teaching and learning process of short stories more
effective. And teaching learning materials and reference books should be made available on the
time according to the learners’ linguistic, social, psychological and economical condition.
EFL teachers should know the benefits of using short stories in EFL class. EFL teachers should
be laborious; they should find new and effective ways of using stories, and use them in the EFL
classroom.
The school should take care of the novice teachers because most of the novice teachers do not
have practical knowledge of how to use stories in the EFL classroom. While teaching vocabulary
of short stories the teachers are suggested to use pictures, give definitions, synonyms, antonyms,
matching items, etc. Meaningful learning occurs, when students are allowed to confront real
problems, make choices and find solutions. So, it is concluded that the students should be in the
center of the learning process.

6.2 Further Related study

This study was conducted only at one school in Lichinga district. Thus, the findings of this
study may not be generalizable to other schools because of the EFL teachers use different
activities in using short stories in secondary level. So, similar kind of research should be
conducted in other schools as well.
The sample of this action research was small and we only used Cristiano P. Taimo secondary
school teachers of English and prospective EFL teachers from Rovuma University- Niassa
brunch. Thus, more effective action research study should be conducted on the EFL teacher
training in order to integrate short stories in EFL classrooms. Therefore, further study can be
conducted in more schools at different level.
However, we would like not to claim this study as a completed and full-fledged on due to
several limitations. Thus, we would like to draw the attention on further studies in near future
covering other different skills other than reading skills.
 142

6.3 Potential limitations

The major constraint on the process was absence in the classroom setting. Due to the Covid
19, the number of the students allowed to participate in each lesson was also reduced and the
prospective EFL teachers were supposed to write lesson plan in pairs and accelerate the teaching
process because the student had been in quarantine. As a result, it was not easy to meet EFL
teachers at the same time because streams were split into small group of learners.

The first limitation of this study is that we used only one school for teaching practice. The data
collected from CPT secondary school cannot be accepted as true for all the schools in Lichinga
district or Niassa Province, considering that schools are different and perhaps even unique.

The second limitation is the sample size employed. The sample size is small and may not be
generalised to represent the views of all EFL teachers all secondary schools. This is a
preliminary study and a follow up research project employing a bigger population sample can be
carried out later. What obtains in one school may not be true for another. The results can be
meaningful if all schools are the same and have similar conditions and characteristics.

The fourth limitation is the fact that teachers are not accustomed to being observed in the
current context. Finally, another limitation is the fact that the findings of a case study might not
be generalized to all situations.
 143

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APPENDICES
 160

APPENDIX 1

Questionnaire for teachers

Name of the School: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Qualification: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Teacher’s Name: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Years of teaching experience: ----------------------------------------------------------------------

Open-ended and closed-ended Questionnaire

This questionnaire aims at finding out teachers’ views about using literary texts in enhancing
reading skills and frequency usage of short stories at Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School.
Please answer as many questions as you can and your answers will be kept strictly confidential.
The results will be used for research purposes only. There are ten questions. Please write your
answers in a single A4 paper or any type of paper you may have at your disposal.

1. How long have you been teaching English?

2. Please tell me briefly about your literature learning experience from secondary to University?

3. What would you say are the advantages of including Short stories in the EFL instruction?

4. Please explain what challenges you would face when integrating short stories in EFL
classroom?

5. Would you teach Language in your literature and why?

6. Why would you want or not want short stories to be a component of English Language
syllabus?
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Closed-ended questionnaire

7. How often do you use short story from its general background?

a) always b) often c) sometimes d) never

8. How often do you ask students to summarize the story?

a) always b) often c) sometimes d) never

9. How often do you use short story from its moral of the story (coda)?

a) always b) often c) sometimes d) never

10. How often do you make or act of the students in a classroom?

a) always b) often c) sometimes d) never

I am really grateful for your collaboration!

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APPENDIX 2

Questionnaire for students

O presente questionário visa recolher as informações sobre o emprego da oralidade nas aulas
de Inglês na escola Secundária Cristiano Paulo Taimo, concretamente nas 11ª e 12ª classes,
respectivamente. Agradece-se o favor de se fornecer a informação necessária. As respostas serão
rigidamente mantidas confidenciais e servirão apenas para a pesquisa intitulada “o uso de estórias
nas aulas de Inglês na escola Secundária Cristiano Paulo Taimo , 11ª classe e 12ª classe”.

Instruções: leia as questões abaixo e marque com um (x) na alternativa certa e/ou responda as
questões onde for necessário.

Género

Masculino Feminino

Idade

10 – 15 16- 20 20 – 25 26 ou mais

1. Gostas de ler estórias (lendas, contos, fábulas )?

Sim Não

2. Que tipo de estórias lês na sala de aulas?

a. Diálogo Entrevista Debate simulação

b. Outro , mencione-o --------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Que tipo de actividades o professor dá para praticar a língua em sala de aula?

a. Trabalho em pares
b. Trabalho em grupo
c. Trabalho individual

4. Quantas vezes o teu professor usa estórias na sala de aula?

Always Sometimes Never

 163

5. Gostas de contar e ouvir estórias na sala de aulas ?

Sim

Não

Comente: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Muito obrigado pela colaboração!

 164

APPENDIX 3

Observation cheklist

Name of the School: ------------------------------------------------ Qualification:

Teacher’s Name: Experience:

1. Pre-reading activities

S.N Activities Yes No Remarks

1 Providing cultural & historical background

2 Motivating/Stimulating students’ interest

3 Predicting theme from the title of the story

4 Group discussion about title of the story

5 Brainstorming

6 Discussing the language of the story

7 Preparing the glossary

Source: researcher, 2022

2. While-reading activities

S.N Activities Yes No Remarks

1 Providing guiding questions

2 Provide title for each paragraph

3
Arrange jumble sentence

4 Summarize the story

5 Ranking the character

6 Guessing meaning from multiple choice

7 Textual analysis

Source: researcher, 2022

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3. Post-reading activities

S.N Activities Yes No Remarks

1
Interpreting of the story

2 Providing general questions for debate

3 Speculate symbolic association

4 Describing the events of the story

5 Writing review of the story

6 Focus on the end, the coda of the story

Source: researcher, 2022
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APPENDIX 4

Pre-test for students

TEXT A

In 1990, the World Bank published a report showing that there were over a billion
people in the world with an income of just one dollar a day. At the start of this century,
the United Nations promised to halve this figure by 2015. It has been working hard to
keep this promise ever since. A series of short films was made to show what you can buy
in different countries with this tiny amount. In a market in Nepal, for example, they
could only buy four bananas and a loaf of bread. It was impossible to buy meat or any
protein.

Other people have been horrified to learn how enormous the problem is and have taken
action in different ways. A UK charity called 1 Dollar a Day has been raising money to
invest in projects to improve health, clean water, education, etc. They have also given
people loans to help them set up a business as it is difficult to borrow money if you have
no bank account.

In the US, two school teachers decided to try spending only one dollar each day on food
for a month and have now written a book about their experience. They say they were
often starving, and got bored with eating the same food. And they couldn’t afford to buy
healthy foods such as fresh fruit and vegetables. The book describes how much rich
countries waste, and how they try to save money by buying cheap food from other
countries.

The World Bank has recently published another report on how the situation has changed
since 1990. One dollar is worth less now, and food and fuel cost more, so it is difficult to
work out exactly how much progress there has been. However, there have clearly been
some amazing changes. Between 1990 and 2008, the number of people who earned
salaries below the poverty line went down from 43% of the developing world to 22%, so
the UN has already made a big difference. Of course there is still a huge amount to do to
improve the lives of millions of people throughout the world.
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TASK ONE: Read Text A and tick () A, B, or C. (5.0 marks; 0.5 each)

1 In _____ the UN made a promise to cut the poverty figures by half.

A 2015 B 1900 C 2000

2 In Nepal it costs one dollar to buy _____ and some bread.

A cheese B a few bananas C meat

3 The charity 1 Dollar a Day lends people money to _____.

A start a business B get water C buy food

4 Two school teachers spent one dollar a day on _____.

A eating B vegetables C a book

5 They were often very _____.

A tired B healthy C hungry

6 It wasn’t possible to buy _____ with a dollar.

A fruit B anything C unhealthy food

7 The book shows how much rich countries _____.

A spend each day B throw away C can afford to buy

8 Since 1990, the situation has changed _____.

A very little B a surprising amount C not at all

9 In 2008, _____ of the world’s population was very poor.

A 43% B over a billion C 22%

10 The writer says we still need to do _____ to help people.

A a little B some things C a lot
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TEXT B

Sara’s blog
Welcome to my blog where I talk about other blogs I have enjoyed reading!
This week I have been really inspired by two women who blogged about their
exciting experiments with shopping and fashion. First of all, there’s the English woman,
Belinda, who didn’t buy any new clothes for a year, and then decided to only shop at
charity shops. In her blog, Belinda explains that she loved fashion but she didn’t like the
fashion industry and that she was fed up with worrying about whether her clothes were
ethically made or not. For a year she didn’t walk into a single shopping mall or
department store. Can you imagine? She was also very good at sewing so she was able to
adapt the clothes she already had. If she had something that didn’t suit her or wasn’t
fashionable any more, she wasn’t afraid to change it and make it look different. She says
she liked knowing that she would never meet someone wearing exactly the same thing.
Another woman, a young American called Jennifer, did something even braver. She
actually wore the same ‘little black dress’ for a year (well, she had seven identical
dresses – one for each day of the week). People asked her if it was boring to put on the
same style of dress every day but being so creative, she found it easy and fun to invent
365 ways of wearing the same dress. In the photos on the blog she looks amazing just by
changing accessories (hats, scarves, belts, etc.), but she only used things she already
owned or that people gave her. So, why did she do it? She says she wanted to set herself
a style challenge, but she also realized that she wanted to do something useful with her
creativity. So she set up the Uniform project and asked people who visited her website to
donate money to help send street children in India to school. She has not only given
people lots of great fashion ideas, but has also succeeded in raising 100,000 dollars and
sending over 300 children to school. I think that’s really cool!

TASK ONE: Read Text B and tick () A, B, or C. (5.0 marks; 0.5 each)
Example: Sara’s blogs are about _____.
A other people’s blogs  B current fashion trends  C new kinds of shops 
1 Belinda decided not to buy any new clothes for _____.
A a month  B one year  C two years 

2 She could do this _____ fashion.

A even though she loved  B because she wasn’t interested in 
C because she was fed up with 

3 During this time Belinda says she never went into ______.
A charity shops  B markets  C shopping malls 
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4 Belinda sometimes ______ clothes herself.

A sewed buttons on  B made changes to  C made new 

5 She wanted to make her clothes _____.

A look good on her  B fit her  C look the same as other people’s 

6 Belinda liked creating clothes that ______ was wearing.

A nobody else  B everyone else  C someone else 

7 Jennifer had copies of her dress for each _____.

A week of the year  B day of the year  C day of the week 

8 She _______ dressing the way she did for a year.

A was unhappy  B felt frustrated  C didn’t mind 

9 Jennifer only wore things that she had _____ or that she already had.
A bought herself  B been given  C borrowed 

10 She used the money she raised to ______.

A buy clothes for poor children  B send children to school  C set up a website 
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Grade 12 – PRE-TEST

TEXT A

Shopping with mother?

I’m Cathy Huang and I’m 16. Welcome to my blog. This week I’m writing about

shopping with your mother. Thanks for reading!

Have you ever been shopping with your mother? I’d like to hear you say ‘Yes, and it

was fun.’ But are you really telling the truth? I went to the shopping centre yesterday

with my mum. She wanted to buy me a dress for her birthday party. She’s going to be 50

next weekend. So what’s the problem with that? I hear you ask.

Well, the problem is, my mother always wants to buy me what she wants, not what I

want. And we want very different things. I tried on a beautiful red dress, but she said it

didn’t fit. (It was very short!) Then I tried on a long skirt, but she didn’t like the colour.

(It was purple!) I was in and out of changing rooms all day and we couldn’t agree on

anything. She rolled her eyes and complained about everything I tried on. It was so

depressing and so boring. By 5 o’clock my feet were killing me and I still didn’t have a

dress for the party.

Next time Mum wants to take me shopping, I’m going to tell her my room is a terrible

mess and I have to tidy it now. I know it’s not very nice to lie, but shopping with my

mother is not fun. And, I’ve just seen a fantastic dress on eBay. It’s so chic. I’m going to

look amazing at Mum’s party.

TASK ONE: Read a teenager’s blog about shopping and tick ( ) A, B, or C. (5.0 marks; 0.5
each)
 171

Example: Cathy writes her blog every week.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

1 Cathy and her mum went to the shopping centre yesterday.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

2 Cathy’s mum wanted to buy her a skirt.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

3 Cathy’s mum is 50 next weekend.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

4 Cathy’s mum always buys too many clothes.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

5 Cathy tried on a beautiful red dress.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

6 Cathy and her mum agreed on everything.

A True B False C Doesn’t say

7 Cathy thought it was an exciting shopping trip.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

8 By 5 o’clock, Cathy wanted to go home.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

9 Cathy doesn’t want to go shopping with her mum again.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

10 Cathy isn’t going to her mum’s birthday party.

A True  B False  C Doesn’t say 

TEXT B

Changing lifestyles
Maggie, age 35
 172

‘I got skin cancer last year. It was very frightening. I’m better now, but I realised I
needed to change my lifestyle. You see, I loved the sun. Every holiday, I went abroad
and spent too long in the sun. I didn’t wear sunscreen. I didn’t visit the sights like the
other tourists. I wasn’t interested. I just spent my time at the beach. When I go on
holiday now, I spend more time at museums and art galleries. It’s safer and more
interesting.’
Vincenzo, age 31
‘I was a doctor and I loved my job. But I did too much work. And that’s unhealthy. I had
no time for my family or friends. I wasn’t getting enough sleep and I wasn’t doing
enough exercise. I felt irritable and stressed. I needed to slow down and change my
lifestyle. So I decided to work four days a week, not seven! Now I spend much more
time with my children. I sleep better and I do more sport. I have slowed down and I feel
happier.’
Clare, age 24
‘I work in a department store in the capital city. This city has the best restaurants I’ve
ever been to. It has the best-dressed people I’ve ever seen. And it has the most expensive
shops. So, although I like my job, I don’t have enough money to live here! Before, I
spent too much money on things I didn’t really need. I’ve changed my habits now. I try
to eat at home, not in restaurants. I don’t try to look like the people who come into the
department store. And I don’t go into the expensive shops. I’m much less frustrated
now!’

TASK ONE: Write M for Maggie, V for Vicenzo, or C for Clare. (3.0 marks; 0.5
each)

Example: I needed to slow down. V

1 I have a safer lifestyle now. _____

2 I have a job in a department store. _____
3 I have more time for my children now. _____
4 I don’t have enough money to live in this city. _____
5 I spent every holiday abroad. _____
6 I wasn’t sleeping enough. _____
TASK TWO: Read the article about three lifestyle changes and tick ()
A,B, or C (7.0 marks; 1.0. each)

Example: When Maggie went on holiday, she spent too long _____.
A at art galleries  B at museums  C in the sun 
1 On holiday, Maggie didn’t put on _____.
A sunglasses  B sunscreen  C a sunhat 
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2 She wasn’t interested in _____.

A sightseeing  B lying in the sun  C going to the beach 

3 When she goes on holiday now, she goes to _____.

A the shops  B the cafés  C museums and art galleries 

4 Vincenzo worked too much and didn’t have enough time _____.
A to do the housework  B to play golf  C for his family and friends 

5 He felt _____ and unrelaxed.

A lonely  B impatient  C bored 

6 He decided to stop working seven days a week and only work _____.
A four  B three  C two 

7 Before, Clare bought _____.

A expensive clothes  B things she didn’t need 
C presents for her friends 
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Pro-test for students

TEXT A

1. One of Britain’s fastest growing magazines, ‘The Big Issue’ preaches self -help and aims
to raise public awareness about homelessness. Described by its editor as a social
experiment, the magazine is sold exclusively by homeless people who keep 30 pence – the
cover price is 50 pence – from each issue they sell. In March, the magazine passed a
critical milestone, having helped the homeless organizations raise more than £1 million
for the homeless. More than 180 000 families in Britain are now homeless according to
government sources, although one homeless organization claims three million people are
on the streets or in temporary housing.

2. ‘The Big Issue’s slogan is “helping the homeless to help themselves” and Staff says the
sense of purpose that comes with selling the magazine is as important as the income it
brings. Nearly 3000 homeless people are registered sellers, though only 500-700 are
active at one time. Ten of The Big Issue’s 40 full and part-time staff were themselves
formerly homeless or are living in temporary accommodation including Editor John Bird,
who first ran from home when he was only 10, says Bird: “People always talk about the
homeless as though it’s a condition. But homeless is a presentation of something else –
That you’ve had a daddy education, lived in a crummy background, your parents have
killed you out, and you’ve had a crisis.”

3. Press Officer Lucie Russel says the magazine had helped more than 200 people off the
streets, but adds that it’s impossible to keep an accurate record because people rarely stay
in contact when they move on. She says: “We don’t necessarily see success as getting
people off the streets, getting accommodation, getting a job.

We see success as somebody who has never had anything in their life on their feet everyday
selling the paper, talking to the public, getting themselves sorted out slowly, It’s anybody
whose self/esteem has increased, who is happy doing what they are doing and is not
resorting to other means of making money.”
 175

4. Sellers of the magazine are split into teams that cover different areas of London. They are
monitored by the “outreach” team, a group of six each of whom previously sold the
magazine. Each seller has two training sessions and must sign a code of conduct before
being given a badge allowing them to buy copies of the magazine at 20 pence each. The
code declares that the seller is homeless, that he or she is not claiming social security
benefits, will not be sexist or racist in their dealings with the public, take drugs or drink
alcohol while selling.

5. In Central London, one of the most lucrative areas, the number of sellers has been
restricted after members of the public complained of being inundated with pitches from
the magazine sellers. Start-up funds of £30,000 were donated by Gordon Raddick,
Chairman of the retail Chain, The Body Shop, after he saw a similar scheme in the United
States. Launched as a monthly magazine in September, 1991 with a run of 30 000 it went
fortnightly in August 1992 and now has a run of 160 000. It is also sold in Manchester
and Brighton. Bird says the magazine is now breaking even, although losses for the
magazine is now breaking even , although losses for the year are £128 000. He is ever
conscious of the need for the magazine to be seen as a quality read, “We have to make the
paper look good and feel good so it sells in its own right, so it’s not a pity purchase or a
hand-out by another name.” But he admits “We are not there yet.” He describes the
magazine as a “typical good read” and says readers are mainly 18-40 year olds who are
interested in social issues but do not necessarily have a social conscience.

6. “The Big Issue’ is an unusual combination of entertainment listings, for alternative

cinema theatre, Music venue and restaurants, feature news items and articles usually about
issues affecting homeless people. Two pages are devoted to the writings of homeless
people including poetry, Letters and opinion pieces. Bird says the magazine is neither
politically left- wing nor right-wing. He calls the government attitude to the homeless
people patronizing and says their schemes to alleviate homelessness are “cosmetic”.
Terry, 46, is one of the many in London selling The Big Issue. He has been at it for 18
months. He became homeless four years ago after splitting up with his wife. At first
Terry begged on the streets, but a friend tipped him off about the magazine. : He said to
me, ‘get badged up and you will not be short of money’, and it’s true actually. I have
done well out of ‘The Big Issue’. “Terry sells between 60 and 80 copies each day.
 176

Now answer the following questions

1. The Big Issue
A. is sold like any other magazine by any vendor
B. has already been recognized as the biggest magazine in Britain
C. encourages self-reliance for people without homes.
D. has only one major role to play in society.

2. What, according to the passage, is the procedure followed in acquiring the magazine?
A. The homeless people sell the magazine on the street and then attend training.
B. The homeless people obtain a badge for them to sell the magazine; they then sell it
at 50 pence a copy and return all the money to the publishers.
C. The magazine is sold at 50 pence and the homeless are allowed to keep 20 pence
after they have registered, attended two sessions and obtained a badge.
D. a homeless person is registered, trained, given a badge and then allowed to buy the
magazine to sell.
3. How many people are homeless in Britain?
A. We cannot be sure
B We know there are 180 000 people.
C. There are only 7000 people
D. There are close to 3 million people
4. John Bird is mentioned specifically…..
A. as one of the homeless people
B. because he is the editor of the magazine
C. as a result of his training away from home at 10
D. as one of the former homeless people
5. According to Lucia Russell, in what ways has the magazine been successful?
A. In raising people’s ability to fend for themselves.
B. In getting the homeless off the streets
C. In funding the homeless a job
D. In restoring self-esteem and finding accommodation
6. In this passage, what are the other two words which mean the same as magazine
A. Newspaper and article
B. Issue and monthly
C. Paper and read
 177

D. Newspaper and monthly

7. According to paragraph 5, what is to “break even”?
E. To sell the magazine in more than one town.
F. To make a profit
G. To make loss
H. To make neither a profit nor a loss.
8. The Big Issue is an interesting magazine to read. Why?
A. Because it is read by people without a Social Conscience
B. It is full of entertainment
C. It talks about issues affecting homeless people
D. Because as a mixed bag, it contains all sorts of useful information
9. In the last paragraph the words, “he said to me” refer to
A. the author talking about Terry
B. Terry taking about the author
C. Terry talking about his friend
d. Terry’s friend talking about Terry.
10. What is the best title for the whole passage?
A. The Big Issue.
B. Magazine That Gives shelter to homeless
C. The Big Issue: a magazine for the Homeless
D. The Homeless on the Streets of London

READING

TEXT B

The transatlantic question

Charles Lindbergh’s 33-hour flight from New York to Paris in 1927 made aviation
history. Less known is the return flight to New York by two Frenchmen three years later.
Taking just over three hours longer, Costes and Bellonte made an equally exciting
journey from Paris to New York in their plane, the Question Mark. The first question
they faced, Captain Costes remembered in an article at the time, was “Would the plane
lift off the ground?” ‘That was our greatest concern. We had 5,200 litres of gasoline on
board.’
 178

This fear passed quickly but was followed by other hazards. They ran into three storms.
The third, and worst of all, was over Nova Scotia, in Canada. ‘In order to avoid it we had
to fly 100 miles out of our way. Time was passing and every minute meant the loss of
more of our precious fuel.’
They had another problem: ‘The sky was overcast, it was raining and we had to fly
below those rain clouds. Sometimes they were extremely low which meant they had to
fly as close to the water as ten metres.
‘There were many exciting moments during our trip, but I think the greatest thrill came
when we first saw the coast of North America,’ said Costes. He decided that three was
their lucky number. They had survived three storms – and at 3 a.m. French time, they
saw land. But their adventures weren’t over.
Suddenly, a mountain appeared out of the mist. ‘We were between the steep banks of a
river. It was a tight place. Bellonte was at the controls at that time and he had to think
fast. Fortunately, having flown thousands of miles, the plane was light.’ Bellonte
managed to turn the plane just in time. But Costes said, ‘It is not pleasant to think how
close we came to those cruel, jagged rocks.’
Fortunately, they succeeded where many others before them had failed, and the graceful
landing at the airport in New York was greeted by 10,000 cheering people. Among them
was Colonel Charles Lindbergh who said ‘I congratulate you!’ as he shook the hands of
the two heroes.

TASK TWO: Read Text A and tick () A, B, or C. (3.0 marks; 1.0 each)
Example: Lindbergh travelled from New York to Paris in _______.
A a boat c B a plane c C a ship c
1 Costes and Bellonte flew from Paris to New York in _______.
A 1927 c B 1930 c C 1933 c

2 They were most worried that the plane was _______ to fly.
A too light c B too small c C too heavy c

3 The storm in Canada was _______.

A quite small c B very serious c C not worrying c
4 They were worried that the plane _______.
A was losing fuel c B was flying too high c C was getting wet c

5 When it rained, they sometimes had to fly _______.

A above the clouds c B close to the sea c C around the clouds c

6 The most exciting part of the journey was when _______.

A they flew close to the sea c B they saw the American coast c
C they saw the third storm c

7 They saw the American coast when it was _______ in France.

 179

A early morning c B mid-afternoon c C midnight c

8 Costes thought they were going to _______.

A fly into the river c B fly into a storm c C crash into a mountain c

9 They _______ the airport in New York.

A landed at c B passed over c C missed c

10 Colonel Lindbergh congratulated them _______.

A on the phone c B in a letter c C at the airport c
 180

APPENDIX 5

Sample lesson plans and collection of short stories (Material design)

The Dove and the Ant (AESOP Fable)

An ant was hurrying through a forest alone, when it stopped and said out: “I’m really
thirsty.”
The ant heard a voice. It said softly: “Why don’t you get a drink from the stream over
there?” The ant looked up and saw a dove sitting in the branch above it. “The stream is
not far away. Just be careful that you don’t fall in.”
The ant ran to the stream and gratefully drank some water.
All of a sudden, the wind began to blow and pushed the ant into the water.
“Help!” cried the ant. “I’m going to drown!”
The dove heard the ant and flew quickly to the stream. It broke a stick off a tree with its
beak and dropped the twig into the water.
“Climb onto the twig, and floated back to the shore and was saved.
A few hours later, the hunt saw a hunter. He was setting a trap to catch the dove. The dove
didn’t see it, and flew towards it.
Quickly, the ant rushed over to the hunter and bit him on his ankle.
“Ow!” shouted the hunter in pain.
The dove heard the hunter and quickly flew away.
Coda: One good turn deserves another.
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Lesson Plan number one

Aim: to approach narrative from the concept of the coda
Language focus: stages of a narrative; focus on the end, the coda; extensive listening;
interpretive reading and collaborative writing.
Level: grades 11 and 12.
Time: 90 min.
Stage 1: Teacher writes the coda on the board: one good turn deserves another.
Stage 2: Teacher revises the stages of a narrative:
Orientation: the beginning of the story – the who, where, when, what, and how of the
story.
Complication: the part of the story that describes the conflict or dramatic point.
Resolution: the end of the complication.
Coda: the comment on the story that states the purpose of its telling – in this case, the
moral of the story.
Stage 3: the teacher tells students that the lesson today focuses on the coda. Teacher
explains or revises the meaning of coda.
Stage 4: next, the teacher writes up the saying one good turn deserves another. The
teacher asks students to discuss in pairs:
 In what circumstances might this be said?
 What does it mean?
Teacher writes up students’ answers on the board.

Stage 5: teacher asks students to read the story “The Dove and the Ant”. Then, teacher asks
students to go back to the coda and asks them to interpret it in terms of the story.

Stage 6: Group work - students work in groups of threes and each group receives the same coda.
Examples of coda:

Walls have ears.

When one door shuts, another opens.

If you run after two hares, you will catch neither.

The mango doesn’t fall very far from the tree.

 182

He can who believes he can.

You can’t tell a book by its cover.

The students work back from the coda and they create a story with an orientation, a complication
and a resolution, to which the coda can be added. To help the students, the teacher asks students
to discuss:

 Who could be in the story?

 Where might it be set?
 What might happen at the beginning?
 How might this conflict be resolved?
Stage 7: Writing task in groups.

Still in groups students write the stories for each coda. When the time of this task is up, teacher
lets the students hear or read each other’s stories. This activity can also be set as homework if the
time limit for the lesson is up.

The Ostrich in Love

On Sunday, the ostrich saw a lovely young woman walking through the park. He fell in
love with her immediately. He walked behind her from a distance, and put his feet in the
places where she had stepped.
On Monday, the ostrich went and picked some violets to give to her as a present. He
was too shy to give them to her directly, so he left them at her door, and then he ran away.
His heart was full of joy.
On Tuesday, he wrote a song about the woman he loved. He sang it again and again.
To him, it sounded like the most beautiful song in the world.
On Wednesday, the ostrich went to a restaurant where the lovely woman was eating,
and watched her have her dinner. He was so happy that he forgot to be hungry, and didn’t
eat anything.
On Thursday, the ostrich wrote a poem for the woman he loved. He had never written
a poem before, but he was too shy to read it to her.
On Friday, the ostrich bought a new suit. He made his feathers fluffy, he felt very
handsome. He hoped that the lovely young woman would notice him.
 183

On Saturday, the ostrich returned to the park. When he saw the young woman walking
there, his heart beat wildly, but he couldn’t speak to her. He said to himself: “Sadly, I am
too shy for love. Perhaps I will have the courage later. Still, I have had a wonderful
week.”
Coda: Love can be its own reward.

Lesson Plan number two

Aim: to approach narrative from the concept of the coda
Language focus: stages of a narrative; focus on the end, the coda; extensive listening;
interpretive reading and collaborative writing.
Level: grades 11 and 12.
Time: 90 min.
Stage 1: Teacher writes the coda on the board: Love can be its own reward.
Stage 2: Teacher revises the stages of a narrative:
Orientation: the beginning of the story – the who, where, when, what, and how of the
story.
Complication: the part of the story that describes the conflict or dramatic point.
Resolution: the end of the complication.
Coda: the comment on the story that states the purpose of its telling – in this case, the
moral of the story.
Stage 3: the teacher tells students that the lesson today focuses on the coda. Teacher
explains or revises the meaning of coda.
Stage 4: next, the teacher writes up the saying Love can be its own reward. The teacher
asks students to discuss in pairs:
 In what circumstances might this be said?
 What does it mean?
Teacher writes up students’ answers on the board.

Stage 5: teacher asks students to read the story “Love can be its own reward.” Then, teacher asks
students to go back to the coda and asks them to interpret it in terms of the story.

Stage 6: Group work - Students work in groups of threes and each group of students is exposed
to two different oral-tradition texts and the students’ task is to formulate the moral of the story.
The students work back from the stories and they identify an orientation, a complication and a
 184

resolution, to which the coda can be added. To help the students, the teacher asks students to
discuss:

 Who could be in the story?

 Where might it be set?
 What might happen at the beginning?
 How might this conflict be resolved?
Stage 7: Writing task in groups.

Still in groups students write the coda for the story the frog and the lizard. When the time of this
task is up, teacher lets the students hear or read each other’s stories. This activity can also be set
as homework if the time limit for the lesson is up.

The lizard and the Frog

The frog was jealous of the lizard’s shining and brilliant skin. One day he said to him,
“What did you to be able to go around looking so beautiful? Look at me, all dull and
wrinkled. Can you help me to do something about my skin so that it will look like yours?”
The lizard was ready to help, “Why not?” he said. “Now listen,” and he began to
explain. “Put some olive oil in a pot, and then put it on the fire. Afterwards…”
“I know already. I know already. I know already,” the frog cried out at once. And he
went jumping away, not waiting to hear any more.
So he arrived home and put some olive oil in a pot. When the oil began to boil, “Zap!”.
He threw himself into it, and his skin was burnt. Instead of being brilliant and beautiful
like that of the lizard’s, it became still uglier. And this all resulted from his vanity and
impatience.
Coda: Pride comes before a fall.

From English of Mozambique textbook.

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Lesson Plan number three

School: Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary school
Duration: 90 min. Level: grades 11 and 12.
Aim: to practice skimming and scanning.
Language focus: interpretive reading and collaborative writing.
Lesson Preparation: teacher prepares big pictures of a frog and a lizard. Teacher can
draw them or find them from the internet, and brings them to the classroom.
Stage 1: teacher displays the pictures of the frog and the lizard or he fixes them on the
wall, in front of the class.
- Teacher asks students the name of the animals in the pictures.
- Students answer. If they are not able to answer, teacher helps saying that they are the frog
and the lizard.
- Teacher can ask other questions about the frog and the lizard, like:
- Where do they live? What do they live?
Stage 2: Teacher asks students to read the text silently, and then students answer the
following questions in groups of five:
1. Why was the frog jealous of the lizard?
2. What happened when the frog threw himself into the pot of boiling olive oil?
3. Did the lizard want the frog to jump into the oil?
4. In the phrase “beautiful like that of the lizard”, what does that refer to?
5. “And this all resulted from his vanity and impatience.” What does this all refer to?
6. What different incidents in the story show
a) The frog’s vanity?
b) His impatience?
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Stage 3: language use

Students still work in groups of five. Teacher asks students to complete the table below:

Adjective Noun
…………………………………………… vanity
jealous …………………………..
beautiful ………………………
……………………….. Impatience
ugly …………………
brilliant ………………………

- Which of these sayings would be the best title for the story you have just read. Why do you
say so?

a) More haste, less speed.

b) Pride comes before a fall.

c) Look before you leap.

The man and the monkeys

1 Once upon a time, a man was walking to town with two baskets of hats. He wanted to
sell them. Half way, he stopped to rest. He put down his baskets and sat under a tree.
After some time he fell asleep.
Nearby there was an old monkey playing with a group of small monkeys. The old monkey
saw the baskets of hats under the tree and the man sleeping with his hat on his head. The
old monkey picked up one of the hats and put it on the way the man was wearing his.
When the small monkeys saw the old one put a hat on, they all did the same.
2 The old monkey climbed up the tree in his hat. The small monkeys also climbed up
after him in their hats. They looked at each other and jumped from branch to branch. They
screamed and laughed. Their noises woke the man. He opened his eyes. Huh! His baskets
were empty. He jumped to his feet. He looked everywhere, but he couldn’t find the hats.
3 The monkeys in the tree saw the man moving around looking for his hats. They all
burst out laughing. The man looked up. He saw the monkeys wearing his hats, and
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became very angry. He pointed at the monkeys and shouted, “You devils! Give me back
my hats at once!” The monkeys just screamed and jumped about. They didn’t give him his
hats back. The man became even angrier. He shouted again, “If you don’t give back my
hats, I’ll catch all of you.”
4 The monkeys imitated the man’s gestures. They kept the hats to themselves. Then the
man shook his fist and cried out at the top of his voice, “Will you give back those hats or
not? If you won’t, I’ll take you to prison in town!” Again the monkeys imitated him. They
shook their fists and shouted. They still kept the hats.
5 The man didn’t know what to do. He took off his hat and scratched his head. The
monkeys also took off their hats and scratched their heads. When the man saw this, he
said to himself, “Now, I know.” He threw his hat on the ground as hard as he could. When
the monkeys saw what the man had done, they did the same. They all threw down their
hats as hard as they could. The man quickly picked up the hats. He put them in his basket
and went on to the town.
(A tale from China); English for Mozambique, pp. 121-122.

Lesson plan number four

Aims: to organize ideas in the right order.
Language use: practice the first and second conditionals.
Lesson focus: skimming and scanning
Level: grades 11 and 12.
Time: 90 min.
Warm-up: the teacher revises regular and irregular verbs past forms.

Presentation:
The teacher asks students to read the text silently.
Practice: Pairwork
The teacher asks students to put the following statements in the right order:
A. Can you put these statements in the right order?
1 When the man woke up. He could not find his hat at first.
2 Some monkeys put on the hats.
3 Suddenly he realized what to do.
4 He sat under a tree and fell asleep.
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5 The monkeys did the same with theirs.

6 He shouted at the monkeys and waved his fist at them.
7 A man was on his way to sell hats.
8 The man quickly picked them up and went on to town.
9 He threw his hat on the ground.
10 The monkeys did the same.
11 Not knowing what to do, he took off his hat and scratched his head.
12 But then the monkeys laughed and he looked up and saw them.
13 But they just laughed and imitated him.
14 Then they jumped up into the tree.
B. Choose the correct answer.
1 the man scratched his head because
i. He wanted the monkeys to imitate him.
ii. He did not know what to do.
iii. His head itched.
2. Why the monkeys imitate the man’s gestures?

i. Because monkeys always imitate people.

ii. They dislike the man.

iii The story does not say.

C Put the verb in the correct form

1 You will be ill if you……….(eat) so much.
2 If he wants to play the guitar, I………(play) the piano.
3 He would come if you……………(call) him.
4 If you could do so, it………..(be) very nice.
Homework

Identify in the story conditional sentences.

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Lesson plan number four

Aims: to teach the use of a dictionary.
Language use: Parts of speech.
Lesson focus: Reading comprehension
Level: grades 11 and 12.
Time: 90 min.
Warm-up: the teacher revises regular and irregular verbs past forms.

Stage 1: Presentation (Pairwork)

A. Complete the word form chart below. The first word has been done for you. Remember
that some words do not have all forms.

Verb Adverb Participle Noun Adjective

Speak ------------- Speaking speaker Speakabl

---- e

Think ----------- ---------- ------------

-

------------ ------------- ----------- --------- Bright

-

------------- Bluntly ---------- --------- -----------

-

Understan ------------- ----------- ---------- ----------

d - -

There can be as many words as the teacher thinks necessary. However there should not
too many words included in a short story so as not to make students lose interest in the
activity. This activity helps students to learn more vocabulary, and it also teaches them
how to use a dictionary.
B. Write the letter of the definition/synonym in column B that most closely matches each
word/phrase in column A.

A B

a. lonely 1. a tiresome person

b. get well 2. provide an apology

c. make an excuse 3. recover, healed

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d. a tired person 4. without friends or companions

In this activity, the words/phrases in column A come from the story students are
reading. The definitions and/or synonyms provided in column B must match the meaning
of the words/phrases in the context of the story to help students to understand how a
different word/phrase can be used in the same context.
Stage 2: Practice (pairwork)
Choose the word/phrase from column A in the previous activity that best fits each of
the following sentences. You may need to add -s to a plural word or to a third person
singular of a verb in the present tense, -ed to the past tense of regular verbs, -ing for
present participle, etc.
a) She (not) __________ for being late for the meeting yesterday.
b) The doctor said that his great optimism helped him ______ soon.
c) After his wife’s death he always feels _______.
d) Almost nobody likes Ms Brown because she is a _______.
In activity 3, students practice using the words they already understand the meanings
of. Since “Bill” does not include a list of unknown words/phrases in bold and the
words/phrases do not have explanation and/or synonyms on the footnote, teachers should
add both. To motivate students do such activity, teacher may explain: “The list of words
helps you go on reading without troubling yourself stopping for too long to look them up
in a dictionary or thesaurus.”
High-intermediate and advanced students also profit from literary texts. What they read
gives them the opportunity to come up with their own insights and helps them speak the
language in a more imaginative way. They become more creative since they are faced
with their own point of view, that/those of the main character(s) of the story and those of
their peers. According to Oster (1989, p.85), this process leads to critical thinking. He
confirms, “Focusing on point of view in literature enlarges students’ vision and fosters
critical thinking by dramatizing the various ways a situation can be seen”. This could
happen because when students read, they interact with the text. By interacting with the
text, they interpret what they read. By interpreting what they read, they can work toward
speaking English more creatively.

B. Writing
Short story can be a powerful and motivating source for writing in EFL, both as a
model and as subject matter. Short story as a model occurs when students’ writing
becomes closely similar to the original work or clearly imitates its content, theme,
organization, and /or style. However, when student writing exhibits original thinking like
interpretation or analysis, or when it emerges from, or is creatively stimulated by, the
reading, literature serves as subject matter. In accordance with this, Oster (1989, p.85)
affirms that literature helps students to write more creatively.
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Teachers can create a variety of writing activities to help students to develop their
writing skills. They can ask students to write dialogues or more complex writing activities
if students have reached a high level of language proficiency. For example, if teachers
bring to class “Bill,” they can assign the following writing activities:
Write a dialogue between Bill and Minna at the evening when he says that he must never
kiss her beginning from that night.
Paraphrase paragraph seven of the short story.
Write a book report or summarize the story in five to seven sentences, including the main
character, setting, conflict, climax, and resolution.
Write one sentence on the theme of the story.
Write a paragraph to explain why Bill chooses the couple instead of the wealthy lady.
Write a book review on the story.
Write an essay on what makes a great father.
Activities 1 and 2 are suitable for middle intermediate levels; activities 3, 4, for upper
intermediate levels; and activities 5, 6, 7 for advanced levels.
C. Speaking and Listening
Short story can also be a powerful and motivating source for teaching both speaking and
listening. Oral reading, dramatization, improvisation, role-playing, reenactment, and
discussion are some effective learning activities which center on a short story EFL classes
can use for enhancing these two skills. Asking students to read story aloud can develop
their speaking as well as listening skills. Moreover, it also leads to improving
pronunciation.
The followings are some activities teachers can assign to develop students speaking skills
by using short stories.
The students read the story aloud as a chain activity. The first student reads the first
sentence. The second student takes the second sentence, the third student, third sentence,
and so forth. Such activity will enhance students’ pronunciation and fluency in an
interesting way. It is suitable for elementary class.
In an upper intermediate class, the students retell the story as a chain activity in small
groups. Each student will have a lot of opportunities to practice the relevant connectors or
other discourse markers in a meaningful context. (They certainly should have been given
a list of the connectors and discourse markers beforehand.)
In an advanced class, the students are grouped into two groups. Using “Bill”, the first
group is assigned to prepare arguments that Bill’s decision to find adoptive parents for
Minna is correct. Another group should prepare arguments that the decision is not correct.
An extending activity useful to develop students’ speaking skill and to make students
more involved in the story is role-play. This can be carried out by asking students to play
the role of several characters, i.e. by instructing them the followings:
Imagine you are the doctor who diagnoses that Bill has only six more months to live. Tell
Bill what he is suffering from. Make sure you are convincing.
Suppose you are the editor of the newspaper in which Bill publish his advertisement. Tell
Bill what you think of the content of the advertisement
To develop listening skill using a short story, teachers can do the followings:
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Read the story out loud so students have the opportunity to listen to a native speaker of
English (if at all possible); or
Play the story if a recording is available.
Stage 3: Production (Groupwork)
The activity can be carried out for fun or for students to find answers to questions given
and explained to them before the listening activity starts. For students to understand the
story when they listen to it for the first time, the questions can be based on literary
structures, such as:
Who is the main character of “Bill”?
Where/when does the story take place?
What is the problem (conflict) in the story?
How is the conflict resolved?
Text:
Bill
Bill was thirty when his wife died, and little Minna was four. Bill’s carpenter shop was
in the yard of his house, so he thought that he could keep his home for Minna and himself.
All day while he worked at his bench, she played in the yard, and when he was obliged to
be absent for a few hours, the woman next door looked after her. Bill could cook a little,
coffee and bacon and fried potatoes and flapjacks, and he found bananas and sardines and
crackers useful. When the woman next door said it was not the diet for four-year-olds, he
asked her to teach him to cook oatmeal and vegetables, and though he was always burned
the dishes in which he cooked these things, he cooked them everyday. He swept, all but
corners, and he dusted, dabbing at every object; and he complained that after he had
cleaned the windows he could not see as well as he could before. He washed and patched
Minna’s little garments and mended her doll. He found a kitten for her so that she
wouldn’t be lonely. At night he heard her say her prayer, kneeling in the middle of the
floor with her hands folded, and speaking like lightning. If she forgot the prayer, he either
woke her up, or else he made her say it the first thing in the morning. He himself used to
pray: “Lord, make me do right by her if you see me doing wrong.” On Sundays, he took
her to church and listening with his head on one side, trying to understand, and giving
Minna peppermints when she rustled. He stopped work for a day and took her to the
Sunday-school picnic. “Her mother would of,” he explained. When Minna was old
enough to go to kindergarten, Bill used to take her morning or afternoon, and he would
call for her. Once he dressed himself in his best clothes and went to visit the school. “I
think her mother would of,” he told the teacher, diffidently. But he could make little of the
colored paper and the designs and the games, and he did not go again. “There’s something
I can’t be any help to her with,” he thought.
Minna was six when Bill fell ill. On a May afternoon, he went to a doctor. When he
came home, he sat in his shop for a long time and did nothing. The sun was beaming
through the window in bright squares. He was not going to get well. It might be that he
had six months. … He could hear Minna singing to her doll.
When she came to kiss him that night, he made an excuse, for he must never kiss her
now. He held her arm’s length, looked in her eyes, said: Minna’s a big girl now. She
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doesn’t want Papa to kiss her.” But her lip curled and she turned away sorrowful, so the
next day Bill went to another doctor to make sure. The other doctor made him sure.
He tried to think what to do. He had a sister in Nebraska, but she was a tired woman.
His wife had a brother in the city, but he was a man of many words. And little Minna …
there were things known to her which he himself did not know—matters of fairies and the
words of songs. He wished that he could hear of somebody who would understand her.
And he had only six month.…
Then the woman next door told him bluntly that he ought not to have the child there,
and him coughing as he was; and he knew that his decision was already upon him.
One whole night he thought. Then he advertised in a city paper:
A man with a few months more to live would like nice people to adopt his little girl, six,
blue eyes, curls. References required.
They came in limousine, as he had hoped that they would come. Their clothes were as
he had hoped. They had with them a little girl who cried: “Is this my little sister?” On
which the woman in the smart frock said sharply: “Now then, you do as Mama tells you
and keep out of this or we’ll leave you here and take this darling little girl with us.”
So Bill looked at this woman and said steadily that he had now other plans for his little
girl. He watched the great blue car roll away. “For the land sake!” said the woman next
door when she heard. “You done her out of fortune. You hadn’t the right—a man in your
health.” And then the other cars came, and he let them go, this woman told her husband
that Bill ought to be reported to the authorities.
The man and woman who walked into Bill’s shop one morning were still mourning
their own little girl. The woman was not sad—only sorrowful, and the man, who was
tender of her, was a carpenter. In blooming of his hope and his dread, Bill said to them:
“You’re the ones.” When they asked: “How long before we can have her?” Bill said:
“One day more.”
That day he spent in the shop. It was summer and Minna was playing in the yard. He
could hear the words of her songs. He cooked their supper and while she ate, he watched.
When he had tucked her in her bed, he stood in the dark hearing her breathing. “I’m a
little girl tonight—kiss me,” she had said, but he shook his head. “A big girl, a big girl,”
he told her.
When they came for the next morning, he had her ready, washed and mended, and he
had mended her doll. “Minna’s never been for a visit!” he told her buoyantly. And when
she ran toward him, “A big girl, a big girl,” he reminded her.
He stood and watched the man and woman walking down the street with Minna
between them. They had brought her a little blue parasol in case the parting should be
hard. This parasol Minna held bobbing above her head, and she was so absorbed in
looking up at the blue silk that she did not remember to turn and wave her hand.
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Lesson plan number five

Name of the school: Cristiano Paulo Taimo secondary school.

Number of students: 40; Level: grade 12
Teaching materials: handouts from extra-material, blackboard, chalk.
Duration of the lesson: 90 minutes.
Topic: Co-operative dictation “The Wisdom of Solomon”.
Objectives: by the end of the lesson students should be able to reconstruct the story after
listening.
 To develop listening, reading, speaking and writing skills.
 To revise past forms of regular and irregular verbs
Exponent: teacher asks students to work in groups of 5 (five). Revise regular and irregular past
forms. E.g: solved – did not solve – solved – did…solve?; is/are – was/were- was not/were not –
was/were…?; know- knew- did not know- did…know..?

Salomon’s Judgement
Once upon a time two women called Sara and Eliza had terrible argument. Both them claimed
to be the real mother of a baby girl.
They went to King Solomon with their problem. The king listened to the two women carefully.
Then, he ordered his servant to cut the baby into two pieces with a big, sharp knife.
He said that “each woman could have half of the baby girl”. Sara cried out, “Oh please don’t
do that, give my child to Eliza”. The king then knew that Sara was the real mother, and in this
way he solved the problem.
Procedures:
Stage 1: Pre-reading activity (20 min)
Teacher writes the title of the story on the blackboard and asks the following questions:
a. What is justice?
b. How can people behave in a fair way?
c. Have you ever been treated unjustly? When? Why?
Students discuss the questions in small groups.
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Stage 2: Listening activity (15 min)

Teacher explains that students should listen and make notes in order to reconstruct the story in
groups, as accurately as possible.
Stage 3: Listening (20 min)
Teacher reads the story once while students just listen. Teacher reads the story twice, just slightly
slower than normal speed, while students take notes.
Stage 4: Speaking (15 min)
Students communicate in their groups in order to write the story accurately.
Stage 5: writing (15 min)
Feed back. Volunteers coming to write sentences on the blackboard; If time is short, teacher
could read the story out slowly so that students can correct their versions.
Stage 6: Discussion (10 minutes)
Teacher: Discuss the moral of the story.
Advantages: co-operative dictation develops listening, writing, speaking, reading skills. It creates
a need to communicate.
Co-operative dictation
A co-operative dictation based on the short story entitled “The Wisdom of Solomon” creates a
need to communicate. This activity is a kind of gap-filling exercise and its outline procedure is as
follows:
Teacher writes the title of the story and asks some pre-reading questions. Teacher could also
write a few simple guiding questions to be answered at the end of the activity. Teacher presents
any difficult vocabulary or names.
Teacher explains that should listen and make notes in order to reconstruct the story in groups, as
accurately as possible.
Teacher reads the story once while students just listen. Teacher reads the story twice, just slightly
slower than normal speed while students take notes.
Students communicate in their groups in order to write the story accurately.
As feedback, with volunteers coming to write sentences on the board; teacher could read the story
out slowly so that students can correct their versions.
Advantages of the activity: apart from creating a need for communication, the activity also
develops listening, reading, speaking and writing skills (Murdoch, 2002).
a. Write a dialogue between King Solomon and the guard holding the sword after the mother and
the son, and the other woman left the palace.
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b. Paraphrase the first four sentences of the paragraph, “And in this way they argued . . . whose
child it was” (fourth paragraph from the bottom).
c. Summarize the story in three sentences, including the main character, setting, conflict, climax,
and resolution.
d. Write one sentence on the theme of the story.
e. Write a paragraph on what causes people to lie.
f. Write a classification essay on different kinds of lies.
Activities a. and b. are suitable for beginning levels; activities c, d, for intermediate levels; and
activity f, for advanced levels.

The Moon and The Matedza

Once upon a time, the Matedza people were very strong and powerful. They and their
king ruled a whole kingdom called Gotora. The Matedza had a great army, full of brave
soldiers. No other army could fight against them and win.
The greatest and most powerful man among the Matedza was their king. Everyone had to
obey him and try to please him. If they did not, he sent his soldiers to kill them. The king
was the most powerful man everyone in Gotora had ever known. Because of this, the
people used to bring him gifts. If someone wanted something, they had to ask the king for
it. They sent him a gift first. If the king was pleased with the gift, he would see the person
and listen to them. If was not pleased with the gift, he would not even see the person.
A small gift was not enough. It had to be rare and expensive. If it was not, the king
would not like it. He might be angry. He might send his soldiers. Everyone tried to give a
gift which was rarer and more expensive than all the others. The most beautiful objects in
the kingdom were given to the king. He was given the best skins and pots and spears, the
most beautiful clothes and plates of gold and silver.
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At last the Matedza decided that their king should have the greatest gift in the world.
When they asked him what that was, he thought for some time. Then, he pointed to the
moon. It was shining like a great, golden plate in the sky. That was the greatest gift in the
world.
The Matedza had to reach the moon to get it for their king. They decided to build a
huge tower in the highest part of their kingdom in a place called Hokoyo. When the tower
was high enough, they would reach the moon. They would bring it down as a gift for their
king. They began to work. From the beginning there were problems. Huge stones were
needed, all of which had to be brought to the tower. People were needed to move the
stones. Soldiers brought them from the villages in the district. They brought men and
women and children. There were not enough. The builders of the tower needed more. The
soldiers had to go more villages, then more. In the end, the wholly army was busy
bringing people from villages all over the kingdom of Gotora.
As the tower grew higher, the work got more and more difficult. No one had ever built
anything so high before. They did not know what to do. They made mistakes. The tower
fell down and they had to start again. They could not stop. Their king wanted the moon as
a gift. They had to bring it to him.
Soon everyone in the kingdom of Gotora was working on the tower. Even the soldiers
were working. There were not enough people left in the villages to plant the crops. People
became poor and hungry. If they managed to grow anything, soldiers came and took it for
the workers on the tower.
Other kings in the kingdoms round about watched what was happening. They saw
that the king of the Matedza had grown weak. His people were hungry and his army was
too busy to fight.
Everyone in the kingdom thought of nothing but the tower. The other kings gathered
their armies and attacked. The king of Matedza could do nothing. His army was beaten
and he himself was killed.
Story from Zimbabwe

Hare, Hyena and Lizard

One day, Hare said to Hyena, “Brother Hyena, you know I like you very much. I would hate
to see you in trouble at any time at all whilst we are great friends like this. All I ask of you is that
you try to heed other people's advice. I personally have had a lot of experience in life and I feel
 198

that whenever and wherever we go out together you should always listen to what I tell you. All
right?” The two friends continued talking as they moved towards a mountain cave. On coming
close to the cave Hare said, “Brother Hyena, let us examine this cave to see whether it can
provide one with shelter in time of attack by an enemy.” Hyena agreed and followed Hare into
the cave.

Whilst they were still looking around Hare started screaming and shaking as if he were
retreating from imminent danger. “Eey, eeey! Brother Hyena we are in for trouble. This stone is
going to crash on our heads. Please watch out! Ooooh....help....heeeelp, Please he--elp!” Seeing
that Hare was putting in an effort to hold the stone back into position Hyena came over to help
him, stretching his hind limb to a breaking point. “This is right, Brother Hyena,” said Hare as he
pretended to be gasping for breath. “Keep on holding there without losing your grip, while I go to
summon more help.” Hare ran out of the cave crying and shouting aimlessly, “Help,
help....he..e..elp!” until he disappeared from sight and went home.

Poor Hyena continued holding the rock day and night without relaxing a muscle at all. He was
so hungry that his desire for food stretched to a point where he was almost ready to eat anything
that would come his way. On the fifth day a lizard who passed by everyday saw Hyena still
transfixed in the same position as he had seen him previously. “Brother Hyena,” he shouted,
“how are you getting on over there? Each day I pass here I see you supporting that rock. What is
wrong with you are you in trouble or something?” Hyena said, “I am in trouble, Brother. This
rock is threatening to fall on me! I sent Hare out the other day to go and seek for more help but
the fellow has not shown up as yet. It is really a long time since he left here. Please give me a
helping hand Brother Lizard.” Lizard said, “Don't be a fool, Brother! I cannot imagine that you
are that stupid. I have never seen such a stupid person. Don't you always see me walking on the
same rock leisurely? When has it ever shaken? Leave it alone and go home. Come on, leave that
rock and go your way!” As Hyena stepped back from holding the rock he stumbled and fell
down. He was weak and completely emaciated having stayed without food and drink for so long.
One could almost count his ribs which were showing out very clearly. “Thank you very much
Brother Lizard,” he said as he struggled to stand up. “Now give me your hand so that I can give
you a big thank you. Please come nearer!” As Lizard stretched out his hand Hyena grabbed it
hungrily and said, “I feel so hungry that you will have to excuse me if I count you as my first
meal today.” “No, no, no!” cried Lizard. “That would be very unkind of you.... I have helped you
 199

out of trouble and you now want to show me such ingratitude. Leave me alone....please leave me
alone.” But Hyena did not loosen his grip on Lizard's hand. He ate him up.

BUKUSO, Folktales. Kenya Literature Bureau, 134, nzdl.org

Why the Bat flies by Night

A bush rat called Oyot was a great friend of Emiong, the bat; they always fed together, but
the bat was jealous of the bush rat. When the bat cooked the food it was always very good, and
the bush rat said, "How is it that when you make the soup it is so tasty?" The bat replied, "I
always boil myself in the water, and my flesh is so sweet, that the soup is good." He then told the
bush rat that he would show him how it was done; so he got a pot of warm water, which he told
the bush rat was boiling water, and jumped into it, and very shortly afterwards came out again.

When the soup was brought it was as strong and good as usual, as the bat had prepared it
beforehand. The bush rat then went home and told his wife that he was going to make good soup
like the bats. He therefore told her to boil some water, which she did. Then, when his wife was
not looking, he jumped into the pot, and was very soon dead. When his wife looked into the pot
and saw the dead body of her husband boiling she was very angry, and reported the matter to the
king, who gave orders that the bat should be made a prisoner. Everyone turned out to catch the
bat, but as he expected trouble he flew away into the bush and hid himself. All day long the
people tried to catch him, so he had to change his habits, and only came out to feed when it was
dark, and that is why you never see a bat in the daytime.

By: Elphinstone Dayrell Published: 1910

The Hare and the tortoise

 200

Once upon a time, a hare was making a fun of a tortoise, saying how slow he was. As a
reply, the tortoise challenged the hare to a race. Laughing, the hare agreed, saying that he
was sure he would beat the tortoise without any difficulty. The day of the big race came.
All the other animals stood at starting line and excitedly awaited the race. The hare was
very quick to start, leaving the tortoise to make his own slow progress.

In very little time at all, the hare was half way to the finishing line. It was a hot day, and
the hare was hungry and thirsty. As he was racing down the road, he passed a carrot patch,
and he decided to stop and have a snack. Continuing on, he passed a cool, clear stream
and stopped to have a drink. It was cool by the stream under the trees, and the hare
decided to have a rest. “I’m so far ahead of poor old tortoise that it won’t make any
difference,” the hare laughed.

The tortoise, meanwhile, was still walking slowly on, keeping an even pace. Despite the
heat, he did not pause to rest. On and on he walked, slowly and steadily.

The hare eventually woke with a star. He got to his feet and ran quickly towards the
finishing line. He was still laughing at the idea of the tortoise believing he could win. He
came around the last bend and there stopped in shock. There was the tortoise stepping
over the finishing line, being cheered by all the other animals! The sped as fast as he
could, but not fast enough – the tortoise was the clear winner.

As the animals held him high on their shoulders, the tortoise winked at the hare and
said: “Slow and steady wins the race.”

The Rabbit and the Lion

Once, the lion was very hungry. He looked for other animals to eat, but did not find any.
In the end he decided to eat grass to his hunger.

One day, as he was eating grass, a rabbit appeared and said, “Why are you so thin, my
friend? Your ribs are showing. What’s the matter?”

“Well,” the lion replied, “I’m thin from hunger. I haven’t eaten for a long time. I can’t
find any animals to feed on. That’s why I’m eating grass. You know that grass isn’t what I
usually eat, but when you’re hungry, what can you do?”
 201

The rabbit said, “That’s right! So what will you do?’’

Before the lion could answer, the rabbit gave his own reply, “I know a place where
there are plenty of animals. If you like I’ll take you there and you can eat till you fill your
belly.” “Really?” Can you take me there?”

“Well, I’ll take you there on one condition. For us to go there without the animals
are being frightened there is something we must do. I’ll put you on a lead and you can
follow me as if you were my dog. Unless we do that, the animals will run away from
you.” “All right,” said the lion. “Let’s go there now.” The rabbit took a rope and tied it
round the lion’s neck. He then held one end, and they went to a spot where there were
many animals; antelopes, gazelles, buffaloes, warthogs and many others. “Oh, isn’t that
rabbit coming along there? But who is that behind him? It looks like a lion- but it can’t be,
because is on a lead. Ah, it’s rabbit’s dog.” The rabbit came up to them. “Hello, Hello, Mr
Rabbit. We can see that you’ve been on a long trip.”

“Oh, yes,” the rabbit told them. “I had to go to a far-off country to buy this dog,
because, as you know, we don’t have dogs of this kind in our country.”

“That’s right, Mr Rabbit. You’ve bought a fine dog. Which country did you buy him
in?”

“I bought him a long way away. The journey takes fifteen days.”

The animals came up to the lion and began to stroke him. “You’ve got a fine dog.
What’s his name?” “His name’s Famous.” “Well you are dog Famous is very handsome.
But is he dangerous?’’ “No, not at all. Quite the opposite. He’s quite tame. You can play
with him and he won’t do you any harm.”

The animals began to play with the lion and he remained calm. Once the rabbit had
convinced the other animals that the lion was his dog, he said good-bye and went off with
his “dog”.

On the way he stopped and said to the lion, “You saw the animals, didn’t you? Now I’ll
let you off the lead, and you can go back alone. The animals won’t run away as they are
 202

convinced that you’re my dog. When we are close, choose the one you want to eat.
Understood?”

The rabbit released the lion and went on his way. The lion went back to the animals.
When they saw him they shouted, “Look, here comes Rabbit’s dog. He must have run
away. Let’s catch him. Rabbit’s probably looking for him.”

So, they ran to him. When they were close to him, the lion killed the fattest animal and
began to eat. In the same way he went about killing gazelles, buffaloes and other animals.

Later, the rabbit met the lion and asked him, “Well, did you succeed?”

“Yes, my friend. Now I eat the best meat without the effort of hunting. The animals
come to meet me, as they’re convinced I’m your dog.” So the rabbit and the lion became
close friends.

`A Long Walk Home`

I grew up in the South of Spain in a little community called Estepona. I was 16 when
one morning my father told me I could drive him into a remote village called Mijas, about
18 miles away, on the condition that I take the car in to be serviced at a nearby garage.
Having just learned to drive and hardly ever having the opportunity to use the car, I
readily accepted.
I drove father into Mijas and promised to pick him up at 4 p.m., then drove to a
nearby garage and dropped off the car. Because I had a few hours to spare, I decided to
catch a couple of movies at a theatre near the garage. However, I became so immersed in
the films that I completely lost track of time.
When the last movie had finished, I looked down at my watch. It was six o’clock. I was
two hours late. I knew dad would be angry if he found out I’d been watching movies. He’d
never let me drive again. I decided to tell him that the car needed some repairs and that
they had taken longer that had been expected.
I drove up to the place where we had planned to meet and saw Dad waiting
patiently on the corner. I apologized for being late and told him that I’d come as quickly as
I could, but the car needed some major repairs. I’ll never forget the look he gave me. “I’m
disappointed that you feel you have to lie to me, Jackson.” “What do you mean? I’m
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telling the truth.” Dad looked at me again. “When you did not show up, I called the garage
to ask if there were any problems, and they told me that you had not yet picked up the car.
So you see, I know there were no problems with the car.”
A rush of guilt ran through me as I feebly confessed my trip to the movie theatre
and the real reason for my tardiness. Dad listened intently as a sadness passed through
him. “I am angry, not with you but with myself. You see, I realize that I have failed as a
father if after all these years you feel that you have to lie to me. I have failed because I
have brought up a son who cannot even tell the truth to his own father, I’m going to walk
home now and contemplate where I have gone wrong all these years.” “But dad, its 18
miles to home. It’s dark. You can’t walk home.” My protests, my apologies and the rest of
my utterances were useless.
I had let my father down, and I was about to learn one of the most painful lessons
of my life. Dad began walking along the dusty roads. I quickly jumped in the car and
followed behind, hoping he would relent. I pleaded all the way, telling him how sorry I
was, but he simply ignored me, continuing on silently, thoughtfully and painfully.
For 18 miles I drove behind him, averaging about five miles per hour. Seeing
my father in so much physical and emotional pain was the most distressing and painful
experience that I have ever faced. However, it was also the most successful lesson. I have
never lied to him since.
“The Wisdom of Solomon”

As the two women came to King Solomon to plead their case, one of them spoke first. “I plead
with you, Sir, to hear what I have to say!” “Speak!’ said the King. “What is your problem?” She
pointed to another woman who was standing near her with a tiny baby in her arms. “Sire, this
woman and I live in the same house. About two weeks ago I gave birth to a son. She helped me.

She and I were the only ones there.” As she spoke, tears came to her eyes. “Go on, my
daughter,” said the King. “Three days later, my lord, this woman also had a baby. And it, too,
was a son. I helped her give birth. There were still only two of us in the house.” Tears streamed
from her eyes as she continued. “A few days later, her baby died in the night because she
accidentally lay on it as she slept. And then she took my son from my bed while I was sleeping
and put her dead child beside me.” She continued to weep as she spoke. “When I got up in the
morning to nurse my son, I found that it was dead; but when I examined it, I discovered that it
was not my child.” “That’s not the way it was!” the other woman interrupted. “That’s not the
way it was at all! She’s just making up an emotional story for you, Sir, and she has produced
 204

some tears to go with it! This is my son; the dead child is hers!” “You’re lying!” said the first
woman. “And you know it! The living son is mine and the other is hers!” “Oh no it isn’t!” said
the other woman, as she held the child close to her. “It’s the other way around! This is my son!”
And in this way they argued back and forth in front of the King. Solomon had listened and
observed carefully and it seemed as though he had made up his mind.

However, he asked the woman to lay the child down in front of him. He looked intently at
the child and then at each of the women as thought he was trying to determine by appearance
whose child it was. Then, to the great surprise of all who heard, King Solomon said, “Bring me a
sword.” One of his guards came with a sword in his hands. “Divide the child in two parts!” he
said coldly. “Give half to one and half to the other!” As the guard raised the sword to obey the
King, the first woman cried out, “Don’t kill the child, my lord! Please don’t do it! Let him live
and give him to her.” The other woman, however, thought Solomon’s idea was a good one. “Cut
it in two!”

She shouted. “Then neither one of us will have it!” Then the King raised his hand and spoke.
“Don’t kill the child! Give it to the first woman!” he commanded, pointing to her. “She is the
mother!”

Mikidadi

When I finished Standard 6, I was chosen to continue my studies at boarding school. The
school I went to was a long way from my home. When I arrived at the school, I made friends
with Juma Mikidadi. He came from a nearby region. Juma became a very good friend of
mine. During the Easter holidays, the students whose homes were not far from the school
were allowed to go home. Juma invited me to go with him to his house. We asked the
headmaster for permission and he let us go.

Juma’s father, Mr Mikidadi, gave us a warm welcome. A chicken was killed for us to eat.
Lunchtime came. All the children in the house gathered together. A big mat was spread for us
to sit on. A plate of rice and a bowl of chicken curry were brought. There was silence. My
mouth watered. For a little while, we waited for Juma’s father to join us. Soon he came.

He took the bowl and powered the curry on rice. “Let’s eat boys. We’re feasting today.
It’s your day,” Juma’s father said, with a chicken leg in his mouth. He put the bowl which
contained chicken beside him. After two or three handfuls of rice he would take some meat
 205

and eat it. We, the boys, ate only the rice. Mr Mikidadi hadn’t given us any meat yet. He
would always say, “Let’s eat, boys. We’re feasting today.”

Mr Mikidadi ate all the meat except the wings and some of the insides. Then, he started
giving each of us some small pieces. Some of us got bones. I got a piece of the inside. I saw
my friend Juma getting a wing.

After he had given us the “meat” he told us to keep it in our left hands. Nobody was to eat
immediately. We had to finish the meal and then eat whatever each of us had got.

Juma’s father drank a glass of water. Then he washed his hands. He was satisfied. In a
minute or two, we also finished the meal. Then we started eating what the old man had given
us. That was all.

The man who Ate Ashes

Once there was a man who was a honey-gatherer. His wife worked in their field. They had
five children. There came a time when no rain fell and the family was very hungry. There was
no water in the rivers or in the ponds. The trees had no flowers on them.

So the woman advised her husband to stop gathering honey, and to help her in the field
instead. The man agreed and began to work every day. One day the man told his wife he
could not stand it anymore because he was so hungry, and added, “I’m going out to look for
honey for us and the children.”

“All right, go. But don’t forget to come back and help me in the field because the rain
might fall at any time and we must have our soil ready and well-weeded,” his wife replied. So
the man went out again to look for honey. He did not find any because there were no more
flowers on the trees. Everything has dried up. Then a little later he found a lot of honey in a
hole, produced by some small bees that lived deep in the earth. The man went to get a hoe. He
made the hole bigger, took out the honeycombs and squeezed them into a pot. Then he buried
this in a rubbish heap near his home. When he went he said. “I didn’t find a thing!”

“Well, let’s go to the field. One day the rain’s going to fall and we’ll have to sow.” The
man said he would go, but instead, he went to find a hollow cane to suck up the honey all by
himself. Then he called his children. He taught them a song, “Sing this while your father eats
ashes!”
 206

The children, believing that their father was really eating ashes, clapped their hands and
began to sing.

“Dad’s eating ashes.

“Dad’s eating ashes.”

And that’s what happened every day. In the morning he would go to the field with his wife
and would come back in the afternoon. Then the wife would cook for all the family to eat and
he would say, “No thanks. You eat with the children. I’m going to eat ashes.” And he would
go off to the rubbish heap with the children clapped and sang and his wife looked on from the
door.

One day, after she arrived for work in the field, the wife said, “I’m feeling a bit sick today. I
think I’ll go home right now. You can stay and finish off the work.” She went home and
headed straight for the rubbish heap. She dug, and soon found the pot of honey. She took it
and buried it somewhere else. Then she filled the hole in the rubbish heap so that it looked the
same as before. After that she cooked some food for the children. Her husband came back
from the field. She offered him a meal, but he only said, “No, not now, it doesn’t matter. I’m
going to eat some ashes!”

As on the other days, he called to the children, they went off to the heap. And he took his
cane, while the children sang the song.

“Dad’s eating ashes,

Dad’s eating ashes.”

While they were singing he buried the end of the cane in the ground. No honey came out.
Only ashes! So he went back into the house and asked his wife, “Did the children leave some
food today? I haven’t managed to eat any ashes this afternoon.” His wife gave him some and
he ate it up. On the following days the same thing kept happening.

Then the rains came and they sowed their field. At harvest time it produced plentifully. So
the wife called all their relations on her side, and all the people who lived in the village. They
all gathered together in a happy celebration.
 207

One by one they told everyone how they had lived during the time of famine. Finally in the
presence of all the relations, the wife began to tell them what had happened in her house. She
even went to find the pot of honey to show them all.

The people of the village supported the woman and her husband was expelled from the
village.

The frog and the centipede

The frog and the centipede were friends. One day they decided to look for girls to
marry. They packed their bags and travelled until they came to a village where there lived
a man who had two very beautiful daughters. They stopped beside the girls’ hut. Putting
their bags on the ground, they were to speak to the girls. The frog said, “We’re looking for
girls to marry.”
One of the girls replied, “Well, that’s fine, but you must speak to our father.” The girls
told their father about the two strangers. The man sent for them.
“I have two daughters, but anyone who wants to marry them must make a farm plot,” he
told them. The centipede and the frog agreed. Early next day the man showed them the
place. Without delay they began to clear the bush.
A month later, the centipede had cleared his share and went to ask his father-in-law for
seed, the rains having already begun. His friend, however, was lazy and his plot was as he
had received it. But to escape the shame of his idleness, when the frog saw his friend
asking for seed, he went to do likewise. The man gave them both the seed.
The centipede sowed his plot and after two months his field was looking good. The
maize had sprouted well. But the frog had not yet sowed his seeds.
The man was very keen on the frog. He saw him as a very hard-working son-in-law.
Every time the frog returned from the field, his hoe was encrusted with mud and so was
he. He always took a bath at the father-in-law’s home. But his friend, the centipede, took
 208

his bath by the field as soon as he had finished work. And as he appeared at the house
clean, the father-in-law believed he was lazy. “When you’re cooking, give the meat to the
frog and only vegetables to the lazy centipede,” the man told his wife. So while the frog
ate chicken, the centipede found himself eating green leaves every day.
But then one day, the man went to inspect the plots of his future sons-in-law. He began
with the frog’s field and found the field as it had been when handed over. He was very
angry.
“The frog had done nothing, perhaps the centipede is worse,” he told himself. He went
to inspect the centipede’s field and found it full of maize. In delight he said, “I give both
my daughters as wives to the centipede.” So the centipede won the man’s daughters.

APPENDIX 6

Results of pretest and post test

Grade 11- Group 1 (Control group)

No Student Pre-test Post-test

01 S1 9 12,0

02 S2 9 14

03 S3 9 13,0

04 S4 9 13,0

05 S5 13,0 14,0

06 S6 12 13,0

07 S7 12 13

08 S8 13,0 12,0

09 S9 12 12,0

10 S10 12 12,0

11 S11 13,0 14,0

12 S12 12 14,0

13 S3 12 13,0
 209

14 S14 8 13

15 S15 6 13,0

16 S16 8 11,0

17 S17 12 13,0

18 S18 13,0 12,0

19 S19 7 7

20 S20 12 12,0

21 S21 12 14,0

22 S22 12 13,0

23 S23 13 11,0

24 S24 12 12,0

25 S25 8 8

26 S26 8 8

27 S27 13 14

28 S28 13,0 15,0

29 S29 12 12,0

30 S30 11,0 13,0

31 S31 13 12,0

32 S32 12 13

33 S33 12 13,0

34 S34 13,0 14,0

35 S35 12 12,0

36 S36 12 12

37 S37 5 12,0

38 S38 12 13,0

39 S39 10,0 12,0

40 S40 13,0 14
 210

Grade 11- Group 2 (Experimental group)

No Student Pre-test Post-test

01 S 9 15,0

03 S 9 15

04 S 9 14,0

05 S 9 15,0

06 S 13,0 15,0

07 S 12 15,0

08 S 12 14

09 S 13,0 14,0

10 S 12 14,0

11 S 12 14,0

12 S 13,0 15,0

12 S 12 13,0

13 S 12 13,0

14 S 8 13

15 S 6 13,0

16 S 8 15,0

17 S 12 13,0

18 S 13,0 12,0

19 S 7 10

20 S 12 13,0

21 S 12 14,0

22 S 12 13,0

23 S 13 11,0
 211

24 S 12 12,0

25 S 8 10

26 S 8 10

27 S 13 14

28 S 13,0 15,0

29 S 12 14,0

30 S 11,0 13,0

31 S 13 12,0

32 S 12 13

33 S 12 13,0

34 S 13,0 14,0

35 S 12 14,0

36 S 12 14

37 S 5 13,0

38 S 12 14,0

39 S 10,0 13,0

40 S 13,0 15

Grade 12- Group 1 (Control group)

No Student Pre-test Post-test

01 S 9 12,0

03 S 9 14

04 S 9 13,0

05 S 9 13,0

06 S 13,0 14,0
 212

07 S 12 13,0

08 S 12 13

09 S 13,0 12,0

10 S 12 12,0

11 S 12 12,0

12 S 13,0 14,0

13 S 12 14,0

14 S 12 13,0

15 S 8 13

16 S 6 13,0

17 S 8 11,0

18 S 12 13,0

19 S 13,0 12,0

20 S 7 7

21 S 12 12,0

22 S 12 14,0

23 S 12 13,0

24 S 13 11,0

25 S 12 12,0

26 S 8 8

27 S 8 8

28 S 13 14

29 S 13,0 15,0

30 S 12 12,0

31 S 11,0 13,0

32 S 13 12,0

33 S 12 13
 213

34 S 12 13,0

35 S 13,0 14,0

36 S 12 12,0

37 S 12 12

38 S 5 12,0

39 S 12 13,0

40 S 10,0 12,0

Grade 12- Group 2 (Experimental group)

No de Students Pre-test Post-test

Ordem

01 S 10 14,0

03 S 10 13

04 S 10 12,0

05 S 10 14,0

06 S 12,0 14,0

07 S 11 14,0

08 S 11 13

09 S 12,0 13,0

10 S 11 13,0

11 S 11 13,0

12 S 13,0 14,0

12 S 13 14,0

13 S 13 14,0

14 S 10 13

15 S 10 14,0
 214

16 S 10 12,0

17 S 11 13,0

18 S 13,0 12,0

19 S 9 11

20 S 10 13,0

21 S 11 13,0

22 S 10 13,0

23 S 10 13,0

24 S 11 12,0

25 S 10 10

26 S 9 10

27 S 11 14

28 S 12,0 15,0

29 S 11 14,0

30 S 10,0 13,0

31 S 11 12,0

32 S 11 13

33 S 11 13,0

34 S 11,0 14,0

35 S 11 14,0

36 S 12 14

37 S 9 13,0

38 S 11 14,0

39 S 11,0 13,0

40 S 12,0 15
 215

APPENDIX 7

Prospective efl teachers’ lesson plans

LESSON PLAN 1
School: Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School

Level - grade 11
Time - 45 minutes
Number of students - 40
Age of students - 14 to 16 years old
Skills to be stressed: reading, speaking and listening.
Activity: Media transfer activity – story to map.
Objectives: Students should be able to retell the story and use past simple tense.

Draw the character’s route.

Understand and analyse the events of the story.
Develop reading, speaking and listening skills.
Work together as a class and in groups to support each other;s learning.
Respect each other’s ideas.

Text: The Tortoise

STAGES Teaching
PROCEDURE AIM materials
 216

Teacher checks students’ attendance

then, he revises the elements of a Revise the elements
story. of the story. Or to Chalkboard
Students work in pairs get students into
Teacher writes the following pre- learning mode.
Presentation reading questions on the chalkboard; Handouts
Teacher distributes the handouts to
the students.
10 min Students answer the questions in
pairs.
1. What does a bad luck mean? Prepare students for
2. How does bad luck manifest in reading the story.
people’s life?
3. What do people do when they
realize that they have a bad luck?
4. Have you ever experienced a bad Skimming and
luck? If yes, how did you feel? scanning.
Teacher gives feedback to pre-
reading questions.
Teacher writes the title of the story
on a chalkboard, “The Tortoise”. The
teacher asks students to read the text
silently.

Teacher picks up some sentences

from the text that he thinks they Pre-teach
contain difficult words and he writes vocabulary
on the chalkboard.
e.g. 1. “…so he went to a fortune- To check if the
teller to see what he could do about students have Chalkboard
it.” understood the Handouts
2. “…I hate telling you this, ….” story.
3. “Job ran back to his house.”
Practice 4. “….to avoid houses that might fall
on his head.”
5. “…he decided to go and live in the
countryside, on the top of a hill,…”
20 min 6. “…but she couldn’t persuade
her…”
7. “They never set foot…”
8. “…the fortune-teller’s prediction
came true…”

Pairwork chalkboard
Teacher asks students to replace the
underlined words by their synonyms
or different words with similar
meaning. If the students fail to find
out the meaning of some words,
 217

teacher will go through the meanings

or will provide the meanings
straightforward. Develop predicting
Students guess and give the meaning skills
of underlined words.
Feedback: teacher gives the meaning
of difficult words.
Guiding questions:
Teacher asks guiding questions to the Check students’
students: comprehension.
1 Where did Job live?
2 Why did Job go to a fortune-
teller?
3 What did fortune-teller say to Guess the meaning
Job? in context.
4 Where did Job and his wife go
to live?
5 Where did Job stand when he
got to his house?
Students answer the questions in
pairs
Teacher gives feedback.
Discussion questions
Teacher asks questions: A4 paper
1 Teacher asks students to choose a
sentence that can make them to think
about the moral of the story.
2 Why did the fortune-teller’s Develop speaking
prediction come true? and listening skills.
Story to Map – Groupwork
Production Teacher asks students to draw a
15 min. character’s route in the story. Draw
main character’s route.
Teacher asks students to compare
each other’s Map.
Then, teacher asks the students to
retell the story using their own
words.
Students retell the story.
Teacher compares the students’
versions.

Teacher praises the students and he

presents any remarks or comments.
As homework, teacher tells students
to talk to their parents, relatives or
any other person to tell them any
story and bring it the following class.
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LESSON PLAN 2
School: Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School
Date: 20th October, 2022

Level - grade 11
Time - 90 minutes
Number of students - 40
Age of students - 14 to 16 years old
Skills to be stressed: reading, speaking and listening.
Activity: Whole class Jigsaw activity.
Objectives: Students should be able to: follow the sequence of the story; skimming and scanning
the story; write the summary of the story. Practice past tense of regular and irregular verbs.

Text: The man and the monkeys

LESSON PLAN 2

STAGES Teaching
PROCEDURE AIM materials

1. Teacher greets the students. 1. Introduce to 1. Show

2. Teacher writes the title of the story the story flashcards with
on the BB: “The man and the pictures of
Presentation monkeys”. monkeys and a
3. Teacher writes guiding questions man carrying a
on the BB; students answer the basket.
questions orally.
a. Where was a man going to? 2. To sequence
20 min. b. What did a man want to do in the events of
town? the story.
c. What happened to the man when he 3. Extract the
fell asleep? main ideas
3. Teacher tells students they are of the story.
going to read the story about a man
and the monkeys and then they are
 219

going to see what happened.

4. Teacher asks students to read the

story silently.

5. Whole class jigsaw activity

Then, teacher asks students to work in 4. Organize the

groups of 5. Teacher writes the events of the
following sentences on the BB and story. BB
he/she tells them to put the sentences 5. Develop Handouts
Practice in the right order. Or he distributes speaking,
worksheets to each group containing listening and
the following sentences: reading.
- When the man woke up, he could
not find his hat at first.
30 min. - Some monkeys put on the hats.
- Suddenly he realized what to do.
While- -He sat under a tree and fell asleep.
reading - The monkeys did the same with
theirs.
- He shouted at the monkeys and
waved his fist at them.
- A man was on his way to sell hats.
- The man quickly picked them up and
went on to town.
- He threw his hat on the ground.
- The monkeys did the same.
- Not knowing what to do, he took off
his hat and scratched his heard.
- But then the monkeys laughed and
he looked up and saw them.
- But they just laughed and imitated
him.
- Then they jumped up into the tree.
6. Students exchange their answers
with other groups.
7. Teacher asks students to read the
text again as they compare their
answers with the original sentences of
the text.
Post-reading: whole class jigsaw 4. Reinforce
activity speaking skills. BB
- Teacher divides the text into sections
or pieces; he/she jumbles them and
lets students to find out the correct
sequence of the story. So, the teacher
prepares the text and cuts it into
Production sections and jumbles them. Teacher
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hands out a piece of the story to each

45 min student. Each student reads out his/her
piece of the story. Teacher tells the
students to stand up and order
themselves into a long line following
the sequence of the story.
Teacher reads the story in the correct
order and students may need to
change places to get into the correct
position.
Then, the students read their pieces in
correct order. After that students can
take their places and sit.
1. Develop
10. Teacher asks students to write a creative A4 paper
summary of the story. writing.

Set up homework. Identify the moral

of the story.

School: Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School

Date: 20th October, 2022

Level - grade 11
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Time - 45 minutes
Number of students - 40
Age of students - 14 to 16 years old
Skills to be stressed: reading, speaking and listening.
Activity: True or false
Objectives: Students should be able to: identify definite and indefinite articles; identify stressed
and unstressed syllables.

Text: Mikidadi
LESSON PLAN 3
STAGES TEACHING
PROCEDURE AIM MATERIALS

- Teacher greets the - Get the

students. students into
- Teacher asks students learning mode.
where they went for their - Explain the
weekend. difference
- Teacher tells the students between
that in English, some stressed and
syllables are stressed more unstressed
strongly than others. For determiners.
instance, the stressed
syllables in the following
Presentation words are printed in
10 min capitals: FATHer, Uncle,
SILent, STATion,
reMAIN.
- Notice that in all the
examples above, the
unstressed syllable
contains the sound /ə/.
- The words a, an and the
are called determiners.
- Teacher asks students how
many syllables do words
(a, an, the) have? These
little words are almost
NEVER stressed in
English. Unstressed, they
are usually pronounced
with the same /ə/ sound.
Telling a story: when we tell a
story, the first time we mention an
object we usually use a or an. If Revise determiners
we mention the object again, we
 222

use the, as in this little story.

Teacher writes the title on the Chalkboard
chalkboard: Handouts
Mikidadi
Teacher asks students what comes
in their mind when they read the
title of the text.
Students discuss the question in
groups.
4. Reinforce speaking
Teacher asks the students to read skills. BB
the text in handout twice silently
and tell the students to choose the
correct answer:
I. when the narrator of the story
finished Standard six
a. he got a place at a boarding
school. 2. Revise regular
b. he didn’t continue with his and irregular
studies. verbs.
c. he got a job.
2. Juma’s father “gave them a
warm welcome”. This means
Practice a. he received the boys well
b. he gave them warm food.
c. he did not give them a good
20 min welcome.
3.The children gathered together
a. to see Juma and his friend.
b. in order to eat.
c. so that they could sit on the
mat.
4.Mr. Mikidadi ate most of the
meat because
a. He was very hungry
b. the children did not like the
meat.
c. He was greedy.
5. Many children look sick and
thin because
a. their fathers eat all the meat.
b. they don’t eat a balanced diet.
c. they overeat.
6. “Such children perhaps eat
enough food.” The phrase such
children, refers here to children
who….
a. behave well during a meal
b. are thin and sickly
c. eat a balanced diet.
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3. Practice
Teacher revises the use of definite pronunciation A4 paper
Production and indefinite articles using the of stressed and
15 min story text. unstressed
syllables.
Set up homework. Identify the
moral of the story.

LESSON PLAN 4

Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School

Level: grades 11 and 12

Time: 45 min.
Size of the class: 40 students
Objectives: at the end of the lesson, students should be able to approach narrative from the
concept of the coda.
Lesson focus: Stages of a narrative. Focus on the end, the coda. Extensive listening. Interpretive
reading. Collaborative writing.
Story: The Hare and the Tortoise.
LESSON PLAN 4

STAGES PROCEDURE AIM Teaching

aids
1. Teacher greets Ss and checks - To get them
attendance. ready for the - Chalk board
Presentatio - the teacher revises the stages of a lesson.
n narrative. - revise the stages
Orientation: the beginning of a narrative.
10 min of a story the who, where, when, what
and how of the story.
Complication: the part of the
story that describes the conflict or
dramatic point.
Resolution: The end of the
complication.
Coda: the moral of the story.
2. Teacher writes up the saying Slow - to discuss the
and steady wins the race . moral of the story.
Practice Students in pairs, discuss the saying - to interpret the
Slow and steady wins the race . coda. - A4 papers.
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20 min. 3. Teacher asks the students:

a. In what circumstances might this be - to promote - Chalk board
said? interaction in the
b. What does it mean? class.
4. Teacher writes up the students’
answers on the board.

4. Now, the teacher can tell or

read out the story of the Hare
and the tortoise.
5. Students go back to the coda
and they interpret it in terms
of the story.
- listen the teacher
reading the story or
telling the story.
Handouts

6. Groupwork: Students in
fives.Teacher gives each
group the same coda: - Discussion - Bb

a. Walls have ears

b. When one door shuts,
another opens.
c. If you run after two hares,
you will catch neither.
d. The apple doesn’t fall very
far from the tree.
e. He can who believes he
can.

Students discuss the meaning of the

coda in groups.

7. The students work back from

the coda and they create a
story with an orientation, a
Production complication and a resolution,
15 min. to which the coda can be
added. - Bb
8. Teacher helps the students by - Discussion
asking them questions to
discuss:
- Who could be in the story?
- Where might it be set?
- What might happen at the
beginning?
- What kind of conflict could take
place?
- How might this conflict be
resolved?
If time runs out, this activity might set
 225

up as homework.

Reflection on the lesson plan. What

went well and what went wrong.
Teacher sets up homework, for
instance, teacher asks students to find
a folktale then, he/she asks students to
identify the stages of a story.

LESSON PLAN 5
Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School

Size of the class: 40 students

Aims: at the end of the lesson, students should be able to examine trustworthy in the time
of crisis or calamities. – to state habits in the past. - to create a need to communicate; - to share
good values. – approach the story from the concept of coda.

Lesson focus: re-ordering ideas.

Level: grades 11 and 12.

Time: 90 min.
Text: the man who ate ashes.

LESSON PLAN 5
STAGES PROCEDURE AIM Teaching aids
Warm-up 1. Teacher greets Ss and checks attendance. - To get them
- the teacher revises the stages of a narrative. ready for the - Chalk board
Orientation: the beginning of a story lesson.
the who, where, when, what and how of the - revise the stages - per student,
Presentation story. of a narrative.
Complication: the part of the story that one sheet of
15 min describes the conflict or dramatic point. blank paper.
Resolution: The end of the complication.
Coda: the moral of the story. - hand outs

2. Teacher writes up the title on chalkboard “the

man who ate ashes”. - To predict the
3. Based on the title of the story, students sit in main events of the
pairs and they predict what might happen in the story. - A4 papers.
story.
- Chalk board
The teacher asks students to sit in groups of five
students. Teacher distributes the handouts to
 226

Practice each group of students. Then, asks students to

read the story silently while they search for the
35 min answers for the following signpost questions:
1. Why was there no water in the rivers and - Read to find out
ponds? the details of the
2. What advice did the woman give to her story
husband?
3. One day the man told his wife that he was
going out to look for honey. Did he find any? - develop speaking
4. Why did the man bury what he found in a skills
rubbish heap?
5. Why did the children clap their hands and
begin to sing their father’s song?
6. One day the man’s wife said, “I’m feeling
sick today. I think I’ll go home right now.” Was
she really sick?
7. What do you think about the man’s behaviour?
8. Why was the man expelled from the village?

Pair work
Teacher asks students to work in pairs. He
writes the sentence on chalkboard:
Handouts
Sometimes would do means roughly the
same as used to (Past habit). - Bb

Now, which of these sentences can you

rewrite with used to
1. There was no rain and the wife
thought that the family would starve. - Report past
2. One day the man said that he would habits.
go out and look for honey. Develop writing
3. Another day he said he would go to and speaking skills.
the field.
4. Every day the wife would cook for
all the family and the man would say
he would go and eat ashes.

9. The students work back from the coda

and they create a story with an
orientation, a complication and a
Production resolution, to which the coda can be
added.
10. Teacher helps the students by asking - Bb
40 min them questions to discuss: - Discussion
- Who could be in the story?
- Where might it be set? Develop speaking
- What might happen at the beginning? and listening skills.
- What kind of conflict could take place?
- How might this conflict be resolved?
If time runs out, this activity might set up as
 227

homework.

Reflection on the lesson plan. What went well

and what went wrong.
Teacher sets up homework, for instance, teacher
asks students to find a folktale then, he/she asks
students to identify the stages of a story.

LESSON PLAN NUMBER

Aims: to teach the use of a dictionary.
Language use: Parts of speech.
Lesson focus: Reading comprehension
Level: grades 11 and 12.
Time: 90 min.
Warm-up: the teacher revises regular and irregular verbs past forms.
Stage 1: Presentation (Pairwork)
Students: A. Complete the word form chart below. The first word has been done for you.
Remember that some words do not have all forms.
Verb Adverb Participle Noun Adjective
Speak ----------------- Speaking speaker Speakable
Think ----------- ----------- ------------
------------ -------------- ----------- --------- Bright
-------------- Bluntly ---------- --------- -----------
Understand ------------- ------------ ----------- ----------

There can be as many words as the teacher thinks necessary. However there should not too
many words included in a short story so as not to make students lose interest in the activity. This
activity helps students to learn more vocabulary, and it also teaches them how to use a dictionary.

B. Write the letter of the definition/synonym in column B that most closely matches each
word/phrase in column A.
A B
 228

a. lonely 1. a tiresome person

b. get well 2. provide an apology
c. make an excuse 3. recover, healed
d. a tired person 4. without friends or companions

In this activity, the words/phrases in column A come from the story students are reading. The
definitions and/or synonyms provided in column B must match the meaning of the words/phrases
in the context of the story to help students to understand how a different word/phrase can be used
in the same context.
Stage 2: Practice (pairwork)

Students: Choose the word/phrase from column A in the previous activity that best fits each of
the following sentences. You may need to add -s to a plural word or to a third person singular of a
verb in the present tense, -ed to the past tense of regular verbs, -ing for present participle, etc.
a) She (not) __________ for being late for the meeting yesterday.
b) The doctor said that his great optimism helped him ______ soon.
c) After his wife’s death he always feels _______.
d) Almost nobody likes Ms Brown because she is a _______.
In activity 3, students practice using the words they already understand the meanings of.
Since “Bill” does not include a list of unknown words/phrases in bold and the words/phrases do
not have explanation and/or synonyms on the footnote, teachers should add both. To motivate
students do such activity, teacher may explain: “The list of words helps you go on reading
without troubling yourself stopping for too long to look them up in a dictionary or thesaurus.”
High-intermediate and advanced students also profit from literary texts. What they read gives
them the opportunity to come up with their own insights and helps them speak the language in a
more imaginative way. They become more creative since they are faced with their own point of
view, that/those of the main character(s) of the story and those of their peers. According to Oster
(1989, p.85), this process leads to critical thinking. He confirms, “Focusing on point of view in
literature enlarges students’ vision and fosters critical thinking by dramatizing the various ways a
situation can be seen”. This could happen because when students read, they interact with the text.
By interacting with the text, they interpret what they read. By interpreting what they read, they
can work toward speaking English more creatively.

B. Writing
Short story can be a powerful and motivating source for writing in EFL, both as a model and as
subject matter. Short story as a model occurs when students’ writing becomes closely similar to
the original work or clearly imitates its content, theme, organization, and /or style. However,
when student writing exhibits original thinking like interpretation or analysis, or when it emerges
from, or is creatively stimulated by, the reading, literature serves as subject matter. In accordance
with this, Oster (1989, p.85) affirms that literature helps students to write more creatively.
Teachers can create a variety of writing activities to help students to develop their writing
skills. They can ask students to write dialogues or more complex writing activities if students
have reached a high level of language proficiency. For example, if teachers bring to class “Bill,”
they can assign the following writing activities:
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Write a dialogue between Bill and Minna at the evening when he says that he must never kiss her
beginning from that night.
Paraphrase paragraph seven of the short story.
Write a book report or summarize the story in five to seven sentences, including the main
character, setting, conflict, climax, and resolution.
Write one sentence on the theme of the story.
Write a paragraph to explain why Bill chooses the couple instead of the wealthy lady.
Write a book review on the story.
Write an essay on what makes a great father.
Activities 1 and 2 are suitable for middle intermediate levels; activities 3, 4, for upper
intermediate levels; and activities 5, 6, 7 for advanced levels.
C. Speaking and Listening
Short story can also be a powerful and motivating source for teaching both speaking and
listening. Oral reading, dramatization, improvisation, role-playing, reenactment, and discussion
are some effective learning activities which center on a short story EFL classes can use for
enhancing these two skills. Asking students to read story aloud can develop their speaking as well
as listening skills. Moreover, it also leads to improving pronunciation.
The followings are some activities teachers can assign to develop students speaking skills by
using short stories.
The students read the story aloud as a chain activity. The first student reads the first sentence. The
second student takes the second sentence, the third student, third sentence, and so forth. Such
activity will enhance students’ pronunciation and fluency in an interesting way. It is suitable for
elementary class.
In an upper intermediate class, the students retell the story as a chain activity in small groups.
Each student will have a lot of opportunities to practice the relevant connectors or other discourse
markers in a meaningful context. (They certainly should have been given a list of the connectors
and discourse markers beforehand.)
In an advanced class, the students are grouped into two groups. Using “Bill”, the first group is
assigned to prepare arguments that Bill’s decision to find adoptive parents for Minna is correct.
Another group should prepare arguments that the decision is not correct.
An extending activity useful to develop students’ speaking skill and to make students more
involved in the story is role-play. This can be carried out by asking students to play the role of
several characters, i.e. by instructing them the followings:
Imagine you are the doctor who diagnoses that Bill has only six more months to live. Tell Bill
what he is suffering from. Make sure you are convincing.
Suppose you are the editor of the newspaper in which Bill publish his advertisement. Tell Bill
what you think of the content of the advertisement
To develop listening skill using a short story, teachers can do the followings:
Read the story out loud so students have the opportunity to listen to a native speaker of English
(if at all possible); or
Play the story if a recording is available.
Stage 3: Production (Groupwork)

The activity can be carried out for fun or for students to find answers to questions given and
explained to them before the listening activity starts. For students to understand the story when
they listen to it for the first time, the questions can be based on literary structures, such as:
Who is the main character of “Bill”?
Where/when does the story take place?
 230

What is the problem (conflict) in the story?

How is the conflict resolved?

LESSON PLAN 7
Cristiano Paulo Taimo Secondary School
Presentation:
The teacher asks students to read the text silently.
Practice: Pairwork
The teacher asks students to put the following statements in the right order:
A. Can you put these statements in the right order?
1 When the man woke up. He could not find his hat at first.
2 Some monkeys put on the hats.
3 Suddenly he realized what to do.
4 He sat under a tree and fell asleep.
5 The monkeys did the same with theirs.
6 He shouted at the monkeys and waved his fist at them.
7 A man was on his way to sell hats.
8 The man quickly picked them up and went on to town.
9 He threw his hat on the ground.
10 The monkeys did the same.
11 Not knowing what to do, he took off his hat and scratched his head.
12 But then the monkeys laughed and he looked up and saw them.
14 ut they just laughed and imitated him.
14 Then they jumped up into the tree.
B. Choose the correct answer.
1 the man scratched his head because
i. He wanted the monkeys to imitate him.
ii. He did not know what to do.
iii. His head itched.
2. Why the monkeys imitate the man’s gestures?

i. Because monkeys always imitate people.

ii. They dislike the man.

iii The story does not say.

 231

C Put the verb in the correct form

1 You will be ill if you……….(eat) so much.
2 If he wants to play the guitar, I………(play) the piano.
3 He would come if you……………(call) him.
4 If you could do so, it………..(be) very nice.
Production
Homework

Identify in the story conditional sentences.

APPENDIX 8

COOLECTION OF SHORT STORIES

Bill
Bill was thirty when his wife died, and little Minna was four. Bill’s carpenter shop was in the
yard of his house, so he thought that he could keep his home for Minna and himself. All day
while he worked at his bench, she played in the yard, and when he was obliged to be absent for a
few hours, the woman next door looked after her. Bill could cook a little, coffee and bacon and
fried potatoes and flapjacks, and he found bananas and sardines and crackers useful. When the
woman next door said it was not the diet for four-year-olds, he asked her to teach him to cook
oatmeal and vegetables, and though he was always burned the dishes in which he cooked these
things, he cooked them everyday. He swept, all but corners, and he dusted, dabbing at every
object; and he complained that after he had cleaned the windows he could not see as well as he
could before. He washed and patched Minna’s little garments and mended her doll. He found a
kitten for her so that she wouldn’t be lonely. At night he heard her say her prayer, kneeling in the
middle of the floor with her hands folded, and speaking like lightning. If she forgot the prayer, he
either woke her up, or else he made her say it the first thing in the morning. He himself used to
pray: “Lord, make me do right by her if you see me doing wrong.” On Sundays, he took her to
church and listening with his head on one side, trying to understand, and giving Minna
peppermints when she rustled. He stopped work for a day and took her to the Sunday-school
picnic. “Her mother would of,” he explained. When Minna was old enough to go to kindergarten,
Bill used to take her morning or afternoon, and he would call for her. Once he dressed himself in
his best clothes and went to visit the school. “I think her mother would of,” he told the teacher,
diffidently. But he could make little of the colored paper and the designs and the games, and he
did not go again. “There’s something I can’t be any help to her with,” he thought.
Minna was six when Bill fell ill. On a May afternoon, he went to a doctor. When he came
home, he sat in his shop for a long time and did nothing. The sun was beaming through the
window in bright squares. He was not going to get well. It might be that he had six months. … He
could hear Minna singing to her doll.
 232

When she came to kiss him that night, he made an excuse, for he must never kiss her now. He
held her arm’s length, looked in her eyes, said: Minna’s a big girl now. She doesn’t want Papa to
kiss her.” But her lip curled and she turned away sorrowful, so the next day Bill went to another
doctor to make sure. The other doctor made him sure.
He tried to think what to do. He had a sister in Nebraska, but she was a tired woman. His wife
had a brother in the city, but he was a man of many words. And little Minna … there were things
known to her which he himself did not know—matters of fairies and the words of songs. He
wished that he could hear of somebody who would understand her. And he had only six month.…
Then the woman next door told him bluntly that he ought not to have the child there, and him
coughing as he was; and he knew that his decision was already upon him.
One whole night he thought. Then he advertised in a city paper:
A man with a few months more to live would like nice people to adopt his little girl, six, blue
eyes, curls. References required.
They came in limousine, as he had hoped that they would come. Their clothes were as he had
hoped. They had with them a little girl who cried: “Is this my little sister?” On which the woman
in the smart frock said sharply: “Now then, you do as Mama tells you and keep out of this or
we’ll leave you here and take this darling little girl with us.”
So Bill looked at this woman and said steadily that he had now other plans for his little girl. He
watched the great blue car roll away. “For the land sake!” said the woman next door when she
heard. “You done her out of fortune. You hadn’t the right—a man in your health.” And then the
other cars came, and he let them go, this woman told her husband that Bill ought to be reported to
the authorities.
The man and woman who walked into Bill’s shop one morning were still mourning their own
little girl. The woman was not sad—only sorrowful, and the man, who was tender of her, was a
carpenter. In blooming of his hope and his dread, Bill said to them: “You’re the ones.” When they
asked: “How long before we can have her?” Bill said: “One day more.”
That day he spent in the shop. It was summer and Minna was playing in the yard. He could
hear the words of her songs. He cooked their supper and while she ate, he watched. When he had
tucked her in her bed, he stood in the dark hearing her breathing. “I’m a little girl tonight—kiss
me,” she had said, but he shook his head. “A big girl, a big girl,” he told her.
When they came for the next morning, he had her ready, washed and mended, and he had
mended her doll. “Minna’s never been for a visit!” he told her buoyantly. And when she ran
toward him, “A big girl, a big girl,” he reminded her.
He stood and watched the man and woman walking down the street with Minna between
them. They had brought her a little blue parasol in case the parting should be hard. This parasol
Minna held bobbing above her head, and she was so absorbed in looking up at the blue silk that
she did not remember to turn and wave her hand.
 233

Text
The man and the monkeys
1 Once upon a time, a man was walking to town with two baskets of hats. He wanted to sell them.
Half way, he stopped to rest. He put down his baskets and sat under a tree. After some time he
fell asleep.
Nearby there was an old monkey playing with a group of small monkeys. The old monkey saw
the baskets of hats under the tree and the man sleeping with his hat on his head. The old monkey
picked up one of the hats and put it on the way the man was wearing his. When the small
monkeys saw the old one put a hat on, they all did the same.
2 The old monkey climbed up the tree in his hat. The small monkeys also climbed up after him
in their hats. They looked at each other and jumped from branch to branch. They screamed and
laughed. Their noises woke the man. He opened his eyes. Huh! His baskets were empty. He
jumped to his feet. He looked everywhere, but he couldn’t find the hats.
3 The monkeys in the tree saw the man moving around looking for his hats. They all burst out
laughing. The man looked up. He saw the monkeys wearing his hats, and became very angry. He
pointed at the monkeys and shouted, “You devils! Give me back my hats at once!” The monkeys
just screamed and jumped about. They didn’t give him his hats back. The man became even
angrier. He shouted again, “If you don’t give back my hats, I’ll catch all of you.”
4 The monkeys imitated the man’s gestures. They kept the hats to themselves. Then the man
shook his fist and cried out at the top of his voice, “Will you give back those hats or not? If you
won’t, I’ll take you to prison in town!” Again the monkeys imitated him. They shook their fists
and shouted. They still kept the hats.
5 The man didn’t know what to do. He took off his hat and scratched his head. The monkeys
also took off their hats and scratched their heads. When the man saw this, he said to himself,
“Now, I know.” He threw his hat on the ground as hard as he could. When the monkeys saw what
the man had done, they did the same. They all threw down their hats as hard as they could. The
man quickly picked up the hats. He put them in his basket and went on to the town.
(A tale from China); English for Mozambique, pp. 121-122.
 234

The Tortoise

Once upon a time, there was a man called Job who lived in a little town in Greece. He was
having quite a lot of bad luck in his life, so he went to a fortune-teller to see what he could do
about it. The fortune-teller took one look at Job and said, “I hate telling you this, but I’m quite
sure that you’re going to be killed by a house falling on your head.”

Job was understandably very shocked. He tried to get the fortune-teller to give him some
more details, but the fortune-teller looked at him and shook his head.

Job ran back to his house. He was careful to keep to the very centre of the road, to avoid
houses that might fall on his head. When he got to his house, he stood outside in the garden and
shouted to his wife to come outside. He told her that he had decided to go and live in the
countryside, on the top of a hill, far away from any buildings. Job’s wife was surprised and
angry, but she couldn’t persuade her husband to change his mind.

So Job and his wife left their house in the town, and went to live on the top of a hill a few
miles away. They made a tent out of goat skins and lived a quiet and peaceful life for several
years. They never set foot in the town again.

One day, Job was sitting outside his tent thinking what a good decision he’d made to live in the
countryside. “It seems that it’s not so hard to escape your destiny”, he thought to himself, “as
long as you’re clever like me”.

At that moment, an eagle was flying overhead with a big tortoise in his claws. The eagle
dropped the tortoise which fell directly on to Job’s head, killing him instantly.

In this way, the fortune-teller’s prediction came true, in a way that Job had never imagined. He
was killed by a house falling on his head - a totoise’s house.

The Hare and the tortoise

Once upon a time, a hare was making a fun of a tortoise, saying how slow he was. As a
reply, the tortoise challenged the hare to a race. Laughing, the hare agreed, saying that he
was sure he would beat the tortoise without any difficulty. The day of the big race came.
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All the other animals stood at starting line and excitedly awaited the race. The hare was
very quick to start, leaving the tortoise to make his own slow progress.

In very little time at all, the hare was half way to the finishing line. It was a hot day, and
the hare was hungry and thirsty. As he was racing down the road, he passed a carrot patch,
and he decided to stop and have a snack. Continuing on, he passed a cool, clear stream
and stopped to have a drink. It was cool by the stream under the trees, and the hare
decided to have a rest. “I’m so far ahead of poor old tortoise that it won’t make any
difference,” the hare laughed.

The tortoise, meanwhile, was still walking slowly on, keeping an even pace. Despite the
heat, he did not pause to rest. On and on he walked, slowly and steadily.

The hare eventually woke with a star. He got to his feet and ran quickly towards the
finishing line. He was still laughing at the idea of the tortoise believing he could win. He
came around the last bend and there stopped in shock. There was the tortoise stepping
over the finishing line, being cheered by all the other animals! The sped as fast as he
could, but not fast enough – the tortoise was the clear winner.

As the animals held him high on their shoulders, the tortoise winked at the hare and
said: “Slow and steady wins the race.”

The Rabbit and the Lion

Once, the lion was very hungry. He looked for other animals to eat, but did not find any.
In the end he decided to eat grass to his hunger.

One day, as he was eating grass, a rabbit appeared and said, “Why are you so thin, my
friend? Your ribs are showing. What’s the matter?”

“Well,” the lion replied, “I’m thin from hunger. I haven’t eaten for a long time. I can’t
find any animals to feed on. That’s why I’m eating grass. You know that grass isn’t what I
usually eat, but when you’re hungry, what can you do?”

The rabbit said, “That’s right! So what will you do?’’

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Before the lion could answer, the rabbit gave his own reply, “I know a place where
there are plenty of animals. If you like I’ll take you there and you can eat till you fill your
belly.” “Really?” Can you take me there?”

“Well, I’ll take you there on one condition. For us to go there without the animals
are being frightened there is something we must do. I’ll put you on a lead and you can
follow me as if you were my dog. Unless we do that, the animals will run away from
you.” “All right,” said the lion. “Let’s go there now.” The rabbit took a rope and tied it
round the lion’s neck. He then held one end, and they went to a spot where there were
many animals; antelopes, gazelles, buffaloes, warthogs and many others. “Oh, isn’t that
rabbit coming along there? But who is that behind him? It looks like a lion- but it can’t be,
because is on a lead. Ah, it’s rabbit’s dog.” The rabbit came up to them. “Hello, Hello, Mr
Rabbit. We can see that you’ve been on a long trip.”

“Oh, yes,” the rabbit told them. “I had to go to a far-off country to buy this dog,
because, as you know, we don’t have dogs of this kind in our country.”

“That’s right, Mr Rabbit. You’ve bought a fine dog. Which country did you buy him
in?”

“I bought him a long way away. The journey takes fifteen days.”

The animals came up to the lion and began to stroke him. “You’ve got a fine dog.
What’s his name?” “His name’s Famous.” “Well you are dog Famous is very handsome.
But is he dangerous?’’ “No, not at all. Quite the opposite. He’s quite tame. You can play
with him and he won’t do you any harm.”

The animals began to play with the lion and he remained calm. Once the rabbit had
convinced the other animals that the lion was his dog, he said good-bye and went off with
his “dog”.

On the way he stopped and said to the lion, “You saw the animals, didn’t you? Now I’ll
let you off the lead, and you can go back alone. The animals won’t run away as they are
convinced that you’re my dog. When we are close, choose the one you want to eat.
Understood?”
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The rabbit released the lion and went on his way. The lion went back to the animals.
When they saw him they shouted, “Look, here comes Rabbit’s dog. He must have run
away. Let’s catch him. Rabbit’s probably looking for him.”

So, they ran to him. When they were close to him, the lion killed the fattest animal and
began to eat. In the same way he went about killing gazelles, buffaloes and other animals.

Later, the rabbit met the lion and asked him, “Well, did you succeed?”

“Yes, my friend. Now I eat the best meat without the effort of hunting. The animals
come to meet me, as they’re convinced I’m your dog.” So the rabbit and the lion became
close friends.

A Long Walk Home

I grew up in the South of Spain in a little community called Estepona. I was 16 when
one morning my father told me I could drive him into a remote village called Mijas, about
18 miles away, on the condition that I take the car in to be serviced at a nearby garage.
Having just learned to drive and hardly ever having the opportunity to use the car, I
readily accepted.
I drove father into Mijas and promised to pick him up at 4 p.m., then drove to a
nearby garage and dropped off the car. Because I had a few hours to spare, I decided to
catch a couple of movies at a theatre near the garage. However, I became so immersed in
the films that I completely lost track of time.
When the last movie had finished, I looked down at my watch. It was six o’clock. I was
two hours late. I knew dad would be angry if he found out I’d been watching movies. He’d
never let me drive again. I decided to tell him that the car needed some repairs and that
they had taken longer that had been expected.
I drove up to the place where we had planned to meet and saw Dad waiting
patiently on the corner. I apologized for being late and told him that I’d come as quickly as
I could, but the car needed some major repairs. I’ll never forget the look he gave me. “I’m
disappointed that you feel you have to lie to me, Jackson.” “What do you mean? I’m
telling the truth.” Dad looked at me again. “When you did not show up, I called the garage
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to ask if there were any problems, and they told me that you had not yet picked up the car.
So you see, I know there were no problems with the car.”
A rush of guilt ran through me as I feebly confessed my trip to the movie theatre
and the real reason for my tardiness. Dad listened intently as a sadness passed through
him. “I am angry, not with you but with myself. You see, I realize that I have failed as a
father if after all these years you feel that you have to lie to me. I have failed because I
have brought up a son who cannot even tell the truth to his own father, I’m going to walk
home now and contemplate where I have gone wrong all these years.” “But dad, its 18
miles to home. It’s dark. You can’t walk home.” My protests, my apologies and the rest of
my utterances were useless.
I had let my father down, and I was about to learn one of the most painful lessons
of my life. Dad began walking along the dusty roads. I quickly jumped in the car and
followed behind, hoping he would relent. I pleaded all the way, telling him how sorry I
was, but he simply ignored me, continuing on silently, thoughtfully and painfully.
For 18 miles I drove behind him, averaging about five miles per hour. Seeing
my father in so much physical and emotional pain was the most distressing and painful
experience that I have ever faced. However, it was also the most successful lesson. I have
never lied to him since.

The Wisdom of Solomon

As the two women came to King Solomon to plead their case, one of them spoke first. “I
plead with you, Sir, to hear what I have to say!” “Speak!’ said the King. “What is your
problem?” She pointed to another woman who was standing near her with a tiny baby in her
arms. “Sire, this woman and I live in the same house. About two weeks ago I gave birth to a son.
She helped me. She and I were the only ones there.” As she spoke, tears came to her eyes. “Go
on, my daughter,” said the King. “Three days later, my lord, this woman also had a baby. And it,
too, was a son. I helped her give birth. There were still only two of us in the house.” Tears
streamed from her eyes as she continued. “A few days later, her baby died in the night because
she accidentally lay on it as she slept. And then she took my son from my bed while I was
sleeping and put her dead child beside me.” She continued to weep as she spoke. “When I got up
in the morning to nurse my son, I found that it was dead; but when I examined it, I discovered
that it was not my child.” “That’s not the way it was!” the other woman interrupted. “That’s not
the way it was at all! She’s just making up an emotional story for you, Sir, and she has produced
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some tears to go with it! This is my son; the dead child is hers!” “You’re lying!” said the first
woman. “And you know it! The living son is mine and the other is hers!” “Oh no it isn’t!” said
the other woman, as she held the child close to her. “It’s the other way around! This is my son!”

And in this way they argued back and forth in front of the King. Solomon had listened and
observed carefully and it seemed as though he had made up his mind. However, he asked the
woman to lay the child down in front of him. He looked intently at the child and then at each of
the women as thought he was trying to determine by appearance whose child it was. Then, to the
great surprise of all who heard, King Solomon said, “Bring me a sword.” One of his guards came
with a sword in his hands. “Divide the child in two parts!” he said coldly. “Give half to one and
half to the other!” As the guard raised the sword to obey the King, the first woman cried out,
“Don’t kill the child, my lord! Please don’t do it! Let him live and give him to her.” The other
woman, however, thought Solomon’s idea was a good one. “Cut it in two!”

She shouted. “Then neither one of us will have it!” Then the King raised his hand and spoke.
“Don’t kill the child! Give it to the first woman!” he commanded, pointing to her. “She is the
mother!”

Mikidadi

When I finished Standard 6, I was chosen to continue my studies at boarding school. The
school I went to was a long way from my home. When I arrived at the school, I made friends
with Juma Mikidadi. He came from a nearby region. Juma became a very good friend of
mine. During the Easter holidays, the students whose homes were not far from the school
were allowed to go home. Juma invited me to go with him to his house. We asked the
headmaster for permission and he let us go.

Juma’s father, Mr Mikidadi, gave us a warm welcome. A chicken was killed for us to eat.
Lunchtime came. All the children in the house gathered together. A big mat was spread for us
to sit on. A plate of rice and a bowl of chicken curry were brought. There was silence. My
mouth watered. For a little while, we waited for Juma’s father to join us. Soon he came.

He took the bowl and powered the curry on rice. “Let’s eat boys. We’re feasting today.
It’s your day,” Juma’s father said, with a chicken leg in his mouth. He put the bowl which
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contained chicken beside him. After two or three handfuls of rice he would take some meat
and eat it. We, the boys, ate only the rice. Mr Mikidadi hadn’t given us any meat yet. He
would always say, “Let’s eat, boys. We’re feasting today.”

Mr Mikidadi ate all the meat except the wings and some of the insides. Then, he started
giving each of us some small pieces. Some of us got bones. I got a piece of the inside. I saw
my friend Juma getting a wing.

After he had given us the “meat” he told us to keep it in our left hands. Nobody was to eat
immediately. We had to finish the meal and then eat whatever each of us had got.

Juma’s father drank a glass of water. Then he washed his hands. He was satisfied. In a
minute or two, we also finished the meal. Then we started eating what the old man had given
us. That was all.

The man who Ate Ashes

Once there was a man who was a honey-gatherer. His wife worked in their field. They had
five children. There came a time when no rain fell and the family was very hungry. There was
no water in the rivers or in the ponds. The trees had no flowers on them.

So the woman advised her husband to stop gathering honey, and to help her in the field
instead. The man agreed and began to work every day. One day the man told his wife he
could not stand it anymore because he was so hungry, and added, “I’m going out to look for
honey for us and the children.”

“All right, go. But don’t forget to come back and help me in the field because the rain
might fall at any time and we must have our soil ready and well-weeded,” his wife replied. So
the man went out again to look for honey. He did not find any because there were no more
flowers on the trees. Everything has dried up. Then a little later he found a lot of honey in a
hole, produced by some small bees that lived deep in the earth. The man went to get a hoe. He
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made the hole bigger, took out the honeycombs and squeezed them into a pot. Then he buried
this in a rubbish heap near his home. When he went he said. “I didn’t find a thing!”

“Well, let’s go to the field. One day the rain’s going to fall and we’ll have to sow.” The
man said he would go, but instead, he went to find a hollow cane to suck up the honey all by
himself. Then he called his children. He taught them a song, “Sing this while your father eats
ashes!”

The children, believing that their father was really eating ashes, clapped their hands and
began to sing.

“Dad’s eating ashes.

“Dad’s eating ashes.”

And that’s what happened every day. In the morning he would go to the field with his wife
and would come back in the afternoon. Then the wife would cook for all the family to eat and
he would say, “No thanks. You eat with the children. I’m going to eat ashes.” And he would
go off to the rubbish heap with the children clapped and sang and his wife looked on from the
door.

One day, after she arrived for work in the field, the wife said, “I’m feeling a bit sick today. I
think I’ll go home right now. You can stay and finish off the work.” She went home and
headed straight for the rubbish heap. She dug, and soon found the pot of honey. She took it
and buried it somewhere else. Then she filled the hole in the rubbish heap so that it looked the
same as before. After that she cooked some food for the children. Her husband came back
from the field. She offered him a meal, but he only said, “No, not now, it doesn’t matter. I’m
going to eat some ashes!”

As on the other days, he called to the children, they went off to the heap. And he took his
cane, while the children sang the song.

“Dad’s eating ashes,

Dad’s eating ashes.”

While they were singing he buried the end of the cane in the ground. No honey came out.
Only ashes! So he went back into the house and asked his wife, “Did the children leave some
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food today? I haven’t managed to eat any ashes this afternoon.” His wife gave him some and
he ate it up. On the following days the same thing kept happening.

Then the rains came and they sowed their field. At harvest time it produced plentifully. So
the wife called all their relations on her side, and all the people who lived in the village. They
all gathered together in a happy celebration.

One by one they told everyone how they had lived during the time of famine. Finally in the
presence of all the relations, the wife began to tell them what had happened in her house. She
even went to find the pot of honey to show them all.

The people of the village supported the woman and her husband was expelled from the
village.

The frog and the centipede

The frog and the centipede were friends. One day they decided to look for girls to
marry. They packed their bags and travelled until they came to a village where there lived
a man who had two very beautiful daughters. They stopped beside the girls’ hut. Putting
their bags on the ground, they were to speak to the girls. The frog said, “We’re looking for
girls to marry.”
One of the girls replied, “Well, that’s fine, but you must speak to our father.” The girls
told their father about the two strangers. The man sent for them.
“I have two daughters, but anyone who wants to marry them must make a farm plot,” he
told them. The centipede and the frog agreed. Early next day the man showed them the
place. Without delay they began to clear the bush.
A month later, the centipede had cleared his share and went to ask his father-in-law for
seed, the rains having already begun. His friend, however, was lazy and his plot was as he
had received it. But to escape the shame of his idleness, when the frog saw his friend
asking for seed, he went to do likewise. The man gave them both the seed.
The centipede sowed his plot and after two months his field was looking good. The
maize had sprouted well. But the frog had not yet sowed his seeds.
The man was very keen on the frog. He saw him as a very hard-working son-in-law.
Every time the frog returned from the field, his hoe was encrusted with mud and so was
he. He always took a bath at the father-in-law’s home. But his friend, the centipede, took
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his bath by the field as soon as he had finished work. And as he appeared at the house
clean, the father-in-law believed he was lazy. “When you’re cooking, give the meat to the
frog and only vegetables to the lazy centipede,” the man told his wife. So while the frog
ate chicken, the centipede found himself eating green leaves every day.
But then one day, the man went to inspect the plots of his future sons-in-law. He began
with the frog’s field and found the field as it had been when handed over. He was very
angry.
“The frog had done nothing, perhaps the centipede is worse,” he told himself. He went
to inspect the centipede’s field and found it full of maize. In delight he said, “I give both
my daughters as wives to the centipede.” So the centipede won the man’s daughters.
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Annex

An Informed consent to act as research study participant

July, 2022

Dear participant,

Informed Consent Letter

My name is Chiossa Luís. I am a Doctoral student under the supervision of Professors Carla
Maciel (PhD) in Faculty of Language Sciences, communication and Art, Pedagogical University
of Maputo in Mozambique and my co-supervisor, Assistant Professor specialized in English
studies Nicolas Robert Hurst (PhD), University of Porto, Faculty of Letters, Department of
Language Acquisition in Portugal. I will be conducting my research in your school, Cristiano
Paulo Taimo Secondary School. In order to gather information for the research, you will be given
questionnaires and you are afforded two days time to look up information. Please note that:

 Your confidentiality is guaranteed as your inputs will not be attributed to you in person,
but reported only as a population member opinion.
 Any information given by you cannot be used against you, and the collected data will be
used for purposes for this research only.
 Data will be stored in secure storage and destroyed after five years.
 You have a choice to participate, not participate or stop participating in the research. You
will not be penalized for taking such an action.
 The research aims at training prospective EFL teachers to integrate short stories in ELT.
 Your involvement is purely academic purposes only and there are no financial benefits
involved.
I can be contacted at: chiossaluis@gmail.com
Cell: 862120464
 245

As already mentioned above, my supervisors: Carla Maciel (PhD). Her office is located at
Research Department of Language sciences, communication and arts. Cell: 843136191;
e.mail: carlamacielmoz@gmail.com
Professor Nicolas Robert Hurst (PhD)
Assistant Professor specialized in Anglo-American studies (English studies)
Faculty of Letters – University of Porto
Via Panorâmica s/nº
4150 – 564 Porto
Portugal
Email: nrhurst@letras.UP.pt

Thank you for your contribution to this research

Sincerely
----------------------------------
Chiossa Luís