STS FINALS REVIEWER
transparent insoluble substances
NANOTECHNOLOGY & ITS APPLICATIONS
What is Nanotechnology?
 NANO (Greek for DWARF or SMALL)
 1 NANOMETER = 10-9 m (billionth of a
meter)
 Size of the NANOSCALE :
o A sheet of paper : about 100,000
nm thick
o A strand of human DNA : 2.5
meters in diameter
o 1 inch : 25,400,000 nanometers
o A strand of human HAIR : 80,000 –
100,000 nm
o If a marble were a nanometer,
then one (1) meter would
o be the size of the Earth
Just HOW SMALL is NANO-SMALL?
- A nanometer (nm) a
hundredthousandth the
width of a human hair
NANOSCIENCE
 The study and application of structures
and materials that have dimensions at the
nano scale level
 The study of nanomaterials and their
properties, and the understanding of how
these materials, at the molecular level,
provide novel properties and physical,
chemical and biological phenomena that
have been successfully used in innovative
ways in a wide range of industries.
 When structures of materials are made
small enough (at nanoscale ranges), they
take on interesting and useful PROPERTIES
(physical and chemical):
- opaque materials become
become soluble color of gold can
be changed to violet, red and more
✓Strength
✓Weight/mass
✓Control of light spectrum
✓Chemical reactivity
✓Boiling/melting point
✓Density
✓Color
What is NANOTECHNOLOGY?
 The science and technology of objects at
the nanoscale level, the properties of
which differ significantly from that of their
constituent material at the macroscopic
or even microscopic scale.
 It is a multidisciplinary field that
encompasses understanding and control
of matter at about 1-100 nm, leading to
development of innovative and
revolutionary applications.
 It covers all types of research and
technologies that deal with the special
properties of matter on an atomic
molecular and supramolecular scale
 It also involves DESIGN,
CHARACTERIZATION, PRODUCTION, and
APPLICATION of structures, devices, and
systems by controlling SHAPES and SIZES
at the nanometer scale
 It is CONVERGENT. It brings TOGETHER
various fields of science through its
innovations, such as DNA silicon chips,
converging with semiconductor science
(inorganic chemistry) and biology, with
applications in the medical industry.
 It is ENABLING. It provides the platform
and the tools to produce innovations
 Physicist RICHARD FEYNMAN: the Father
of Nanotechnology
  Naturally occurring
✓ Volcanic ash
✓ Forest fires
✓ Ocean spray
✓ Fine sand
✓ Dust
 Incidental / Anthropogenic
✓ Produced as a consequence of
human activities
 Combustion Process (e.g. Vehicles)
✓ Engineered / Manufactured /
Industrial
NANOMATERIALS ✓ Intentionally produced for a
 Materials used to create displays that ‘SPECIFIC’ purpose
have better color, lower energy NANODEVICE
consumption and longer service life.  A device with at least one overall
 Chemical substances or materials that are dimension in the nanoscale, or comprising
manufactured and used at a very small one or more nanoscale components
scale (1-100 nm) essential to its operation
 Developed to exhibit novel characteristics
compared to the same material without ✓ Photonic, plasmonic and metamaterial devices
nanoscale features: increased strength, ✓ Bio/chemical/nano sensing devices
chemical reactivity or conductivity ✓ II-VI/III-V compound optoelectronics and laser
✓ Carbon nanotubes devices
✓ Diamond ✓ Electron and nuclear spin devices
✓ Quantum dots ✓ Energy harvesting systems (photonic)
✓ Fullerenes ✓ Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS)
✓ Graphite ✓ Microfluidics and Microsystems
✓ Graphene ✓ Low dimensional nanostructures
✓ Graphene oxide ✓ Topological insulator electric and photonic
✓ Dendrimers systems
✓ Liposomes ✓ Bioelectronics
✓ DNA
✓ Titanium Oxide (TiO2)  (In medicine) are nanoparticles that are
created for the purpose of interacting
✓ Silver
with cells and tissues and carrying out
✓ Iron Oxide (FeO2)
very specific tasks e.g., imaging tools
(miniature cameras)

Importance of Nanotechnology
 To improve existing industrial processes,
materials and applications by scaling them
down to the nanoscale in order to
ultimately fully exploit the unique
quantum and surface phenomena that
matter exhibits at the nanoscale
Nano SOURCES
  To improve existing products by creating - A type of scanning probe
smaller components and better microscope invented in 1982 by
performance materials, all at a lower cost scientists working in IBM and first
used experimentally in 1986
Nanotech products - Its functioning is enabled by three
become: of its major working principles:
✓ Lighter ✓ Surface sensing
✓ Stronger ✓ Detection
✓ Faster ✓ Imaging
✓ Smaller
✓ More durable - Measure properties (primary role):
✓ More efficient ✓ Magnetism
✓ Height
Antecedents of Nanotechnology ✓ Friction
How It All Started
1. The ideas & concepts behind nanoscience
& nanotechnology started with a talk
entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the
Bottom” by physicist Richard Feynman at
an American Physical Society meeting at
the California Institute of Technology on
December 29, 1959, long before the term
nanotechnology was used.
2. Feynman described a process in which
scientists would be able to manipulate
and control individual atoms and
molecules.
3. Over a decade later, in his explorations of
ultra-precision machining, Professor Norio o Scanning Tunnelling Microscope (STM)
Taniguchi coined the term - A type of microscope used for
nanotechnology. imaging surfaces at the atomic
4. The microscopes needed to see things at level
the nanoscale were invented relatively - Developed in 1981 by inventors,
recently in the early 1980s. Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer
5. It wasn't until 1981, with the development - Can distinguish features smaller
of the SCANNING TUNNELING than 0.1nm with a 0.01 nm (10
MICROSCOPE (STM) that could "see" pm) depth resolution
individual atoms that modern
nanotechnology began.
6. Once scientists had the right tools…
✓ SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE
(STM)
✓ ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE (AFM)
The age of nanotechnology was born.

o Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

Two Approaches to Nanotechnology

 1. Top-down Approach
- Bulk materials are broken down
into smaller and smaller particles
(Norio Taniguchi)

2. Bottom-up Approach
- Nanoparticles are built up an
atom/ molecule at a time (Richard
Feynman)

Applications of Nanotechnology
Applications to Everyday Life

Nanotechnology in Medical Robotics

 Nano-robotics, although having many
applications in other areas, have the most
useful and variety of uses in medical
fields.
 Potential applications include early
diagnosis and targeted drug delivery for
cancer, biomedical instrumentation,
surgery, pharmacokinetics, monitoring of
diabetes, and health care.
  Future medical nanotechnology expected
to employ nanorobots injected into the
patient to perform treatment on a cellular
level.

Nanomaterials in Medicine & Pharmaceuticals

Environmental and Energy Applications

Nanotechnology in Medicine
 Drug Delivery and Disease Treatment
 Potential to revolutionize the
cancer treatment
 Nanocrystals can be effective
agents for selective targeting and Nanotechnology in Agriculture
destruction of cancer cells
✓ Small particle size
✓ Surface functionalization is
possible
✓ Unique properties (magnetic,
optical)
 Imaging and Diagnostics
 Nanoplex Biomarker Detection
✓ Silica-coated Surface Enhanced
Raman Scattering (SERS) – active
metal nanoparticles allow robust,
ultrasensitive, highlymultiplexed
biomarker quantitation in any
biological matrix, including blood

Nanotechnology in Gene Therapy Nanotechnology in the Food Industry

  Nanoscale TiO2 and ZnO
particles provide broad-
spectrum UV protection in
a transparent formulation

Nanotechnology in Defense & Security

 Body Armor
 Improved body armor is a
major focus for military
nanotechnology research.
Nanotechnology in Textiles Several different
technologies have been
explored, some of which
will be operational in just a
few years’ time:
- Si or TiO2 nanoparticles embedded in
epoxy matrix
- SiO2 nanoparticles in a liquid
polymer which hardens on ballistic
impact (Shear Thickening Fluid)
- Iron nanoparticles in inert oil
which hardens on stimulation with
an electrical pulse
(Magnetorheological Fluid)

Nanotechnology in Sports

Nanotechnology in Cosmetics
 Sunscreen
 UVB exposure – sunburn
and carcinoma
 UVA exposure – melanoma Other Applications
and premature aging  Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
  Transparent Conducive Coating
 Indium Tin Oxide (ITO)
✓ CRTs
✓ Photographic films
✓ Touch screens

Major Impacts to Society

Positive Impacts
1. Nanotech products will be smaller,
cheaper, lighter, more functional and
easier to use, requires less energy and
fewer raw materials to manufacture
2. Increase in manufacturing production of
products at significantly reduced costs
3. Allows for more accurate and fast delivery
of services
4. Molecular Scale Manufacturing’ ensures
that very little raw materials is wasted.
5. Better performance of products compared
to those made with conventional
materials

Negative Impacts
1. TOXICITY risks to human health and the
environment (associated with 1st –
generation nanomaterials)
2. Pulmonary diseases due to inhalation of
airborne particles and nanofibers
 Photocatalysis
 Carbon nanotubes are as harmful
 Photocatalytic reactions
as asbestos when inhaled in
can PURIFY water, air,
sufficient amounts
surfaces and fabrics
3. When toxic wastes from nanoparticles are
 TiO2 nanocrystals/films
flushed into our waters, our water
 Propellants
resources become endangered
 Of the 502,126 kg of propellant
used in the solid rocket boosters of
Advantages and Disadvantages
the Space Shuttle, 16% is atomized
Al powder
 Nanoscale Al powder have higher
burn rates
 Magnetic Recording Tapes
✓ Audiocassettes
✓ Videocassettes
✓ Data storage tapes
✓ Floppy disk
✓ Hard disks Social Issues and Concerns
✓ Use of Fe Oxide or Co-Fe Oxide Nanotechnology, Nanomedicine: Ethical Aspects
  HEALTH ISSUES self-replicate.
1. The cost of nanodevices and nanosurgery ✓ Nanotechnology
tools and the unknown technical capacity has the potential for
of these devices and tools revolutionary
2. The effect on the relationship between advancements in
physician and patient military power.; a
3. The effect on the HEALTH SYSTEM threat when it falls on
the wrong hands
Environmental
 SOCIETAL ISSUES
hazards
1. The effect on developing countries
✓ Nanoparticles have
2. Getting the roles of the process
the potential to
cycle of nanotechnology remain and
3. The change in the need for raw accumulate in the
materials environment.
4. The effect on laborers ✓ Water resources
5. Undetermined employee security become endangered
6. Unprescribed dangers resulting when TOXIC wastes
from nanoproducts are flushed into our
7. The effect on managerial issues waters
SOCIAL influence
 FUTURISTIC ISSUES Health risks
1. Enlarging expectations and ✓ Nanoparticles could
unsubstantial estimations have unforeseen
impacts on human
2. Possible risks
health.
3. Clinical applications of
✓ Nanoparticles could
nanotechnological processes
accumulate in the
4. The problem of confidentiality food chain.
5. The problem of equality
6. The problem of definition of being Economic effects
a human
Educational avenues
Issues on Nanotechnology: Ethical, Social and Privacy breach
Legal Influences Regulations
✓ Unless rapid action is
INFLUENCE ISSUES
taken, research into
ETHICAL influence Social divides nanotechnology could
✓ If the rich countries progress faster than
are the main drivers systems can be put in
of the development of place to regulate its
nanotechnology, applications and their
LEGAL influence
applications which uses.
benefit developing ✓ The public has not
nations will be side- been sufficiently
lined involved in debates on
the applications, uses,
and regulation of
Technology abuse
nanotechnology.
✓ 'Grey goo': Tiny
robots generated with Property rights
nanotechnology could
acquire the ability to
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS
Biotechnology & Bioengineering
BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Use of living systems, organisms,
or biologically derived materials to
develop or make products
(Sharfstein, 2017).
 Fundamentally, applied biology
and increasingly, the interface
between biology and engineering
(Sharfstein,2017).
BIOENGINEERING
 The word comes from: Biology and
Engineering, or simply, Biological
Engineering.
 The application of principles of biology
and the tools of engineering to create
usable, tangible, economically-viable
products (Abramovitz, Melissa (2015))
WHAT IS BIOTECHNOLOGY?
 United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity defines biotechnology as: “Any
technological application that uses
biological systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof, to make or modify
products or processes for specific use.”
 Biotechnology is often used to refer to
genetic engineering technology of the
21st century
 Biotechnology is technology based on
biology, especially when used in
agriculture, food science, and medicine
BRANCHES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

SIMILAR, DIFFERENT OR CONNECTED?

 Biotechnology is focused on life science.
Its aim is to create and develop products
that can be useful in various industries,
such as the food and medical industries.
 Bioengineering, on the other hand, makes
use of engineering principles to solve
problems that arise in medicine as well as
biology. It makes use of engineering
methods and scientific concepts to find
solutions.
 Although they are a bit different, the two
are connected!
 Biotechnology makes use of technology
when studying and using biological
systems.
 On the other hand, bioengineering relates
to designing and transforming the
technology in biotechnology.
 To see how this would work in real life, we
can say that biotechnology creates the
cells that will develop pharmaceutical
drugs. Bioengineering, on the other hand,
develops a process that will ensure those
drugs can be produced faster.
 to make proteins. Some genes act as instructions
to make molecules called proteins.

Encode how to make a protein:

DNA → RNA → Protein

Genetically Modified Organisms GENETIC ENGINEERING

WHAT ARE GENES? Also called recombinant DNA technology
A gene is the basic physical and functional which involves the group of techniques used to
unit of heredity. This is carried on a chromosome. cut up and join together genetic material,
Genes are made up of Deoxyribonucleic especially DNA from different biological species,
Acid (DNA). and to introduce the resulting hybrid DNA into an
organism in order to form new combinations of
GENES VS DNA ? heritable genetic material (Rosenberg, 2017).

 Process of manipulating genes for

practical purposes.
 Process in which biologists make changes
in the DNA code of a living organism.
 A technology in which the genome of a
living cell is modified for medical or
industrial use.

MANIPULATING DATA
In 1973, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer
isolated a gene from DNA of the African E. coli
bacteria. During transcription, the rRNA the first
genetically altered organisms.

RECOMBINANT DNA
 Genetic engineering can involve building
recombinant DNA
 DNA molecules that are artificially made
from two or more different organisms

STEPS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING

1. Cutting DNA
1. DNA from the organism containing
the gene of interest is cut by
restriction enzymes.
2. Restriction enzymes are enzymes
that destroys foreign DNA
molecules by cutting them at
specific sites.
PROTEIN MAKING 3. Restriction enzymes are bacterial
Through the processes of transcription enzymes that recognize and bind
and translation, information from genes is used to specific short sequences of
 DNA, and then cut the DNA
between specific nucleotides
 The cells can transcribe and translate the
gene of interest to make the protein
within the sequence.
coded for in the gene
 The DNA from a vector is also cut.
4. Screening
 Vector – is an agent that is used to carry
the gene of interest into another cell.
APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Forensics
Commonly used vectors include:
 Gene Therapy
✓ Viruses
- the insertion, alteration, or
✓ Yeast
removal of genes within an
✓ Plasmids – from bacterial cells
individual's cells and biological
tissues to treat disease
Plasmid are circular DNA molecules that can
 Vaccines
replicate independently of the main
chromosomes of bacteria
- Through the recombinant-DNA
procedure, it is now possible to
transfer the genes that stimulate
antibody formation to a harmless
microorganism and use it as a
vaccine against the particular
disease. Vaccines have been
successfully created using the
harmless cowpox virus, the herpes
simplex type I virus (cold sores),
the influenza virus, and the
hepatitis B virus through gene
splicing.
2. Making Recombinant DNA
 Cloning
 The DNA fragments from the organism
containing the gene of interest are
- A clone is a member of a
population of genetically identical
combined with the DNA fragments from
cells produced from a single cell.
the vector.
 The host cells then take up the
recombinant DNA.
In 1997, Ian Wilmut cloned a
3. Cloning sheep called Dolly.
 Gene Cloning – many copies of the gene
of interest are made each time the host
cell reproduces
 Remember that bacteria reproduce
asexually by binary fission so it produces
identically offspring.
 Cells that received the particular gene of
interest are distinguished, or separated,
from the cells that did not take up the
gene of interest.

 Transgenic Organisms
 An organism described as transgenic,
contains genes from other species.
 Transgenic bacteria produce
important substances useful for health
and industry. Transgenic bacteria have
been used to produce:
✓ insulin
✓ growth hormone
✓ clotting factor
 Transgenic Plants
- Transgenic plants are now an
important part of our food supply.
- Many of these plants contain a
gene that produces a natural
insecticide, so plants don’t have to
be sprayed with pesticides.
 Transgenic Animals
- Transgenic animals have been
used to study genes and to
improve the food supply.
- Mice have been produced with
human genes that make their
immune systems act similarly to
those of humans. This allows
scientists to study the effects of
diseases on the human immune
system.
- Researchers are trying to produce
transgenic chickens that will be
resistant to the bacterial infections
that can cause food poisoning.
EXAMPLE OF GMOS
 Genetically Modified Crops
- GMO are organisms in which the
genetic material has been altered
in a way that does not occur
naturally by mating and/or natural
recombination (Bleotuetal., 2018).
Genetically Modified Maize
- using Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis)
which is a bacterium found in soils
- Naturally produces crystal-like
proteins (Cry proteins) that
selectively kill a few specific insect
species.
- to express agriculturally desirable
traits such as resistance to pests
and to herbicides.
- however, may have possible
health effects, impact on other
insects and impact on other plants
viagene flow
Genetically Modified Papaya
- Papaya orchards throughout most
of the world are severely damaged
by the destructive disease caused
by the papaya ringspot virus
(Suzuki and Gonsalves, 2007)
Roundup Ready Soy Bean
- a genetically engineered crop
resistant to glyphosate gene
allowing resistance to glyphosate
was taken from a type of bacteria
called Agrobacteria
- Roundup contains glyphosate
which is toxic to standard plants
that contain its target protein The
plants containing this protein are
destroyed upon exposure to
glyphosate, indicated by the red X.
Roundup Ready crops have been
engineered to contain a gene from
Agrobacteria, making them
immune to the herbicide

Golden Rice
- It is intended to be used in
combination with existing
approaches to overcome VAD such
as eating foods that are naturally
high in vitamin A or beta carotene,
eating foods fortified with vitamin
A, taking vitamin A supplements,
and optimal breastfeeding
practices
- Golden rice is a genetically
modified, biofortified crop.
- Biofortification increases the
nutritional value in crops
- Golden rice is genetically modified
in order to produce beta carotene,
which is not normally produced in
rice
- Beta carotene is converted into
Vitamin A when metabolized by
the human body
Arctic Apple
- trademark for a group of patented
apples that contain a non-
browning trait (when the apples
are subjected to mechanical
damage, such as slicing or bruising,
the apple flesh remains as its
original color) (USDA APHIS 2012)
- gene silencing reduces the
expression of polyphenol oxidase
(thus delaying the onset of
browning (Vincent, 2017)
AquAdvantage Salmon
- typical growth hormone regulating
gene in the Atlantic salmon was
replaced with the growth hormone
regulating gene from Pacific
Chinook salmon.
- gene enables the GM salmon to
grow year round instead of only
during spring and summer
(Yaskowiak et al 2006)
CONCERNS OF THE SOCIETY
➢ Arctic Apple
• Is this food safe?
• Should food be labeled?
• Are there adverse environmental effects?
• Patenting of seeds?
• Discrimination against the poor
• Who benefits?
ALL OF THESE CONCERNS APPLY TO FOOD AND
AGRICULTURE IN GENERAL
BENEFITS AND DETRIMENTS
 The Benefits (Bleotu et al., 201
1. Increased productivity
through effective
combating of weeds,
diseases and pests;
2. Positive impact on
biodiversity, contributing to
environmental protection
through overall reduction
of the quantities of
pesticides;
3. Improved consumer health
through reducing adverse
effects based on reducing
dependence on
conventional pesticides;
4. Improving ground water
and surface water based on
reducing pesticide
residues;
5. Higher profits for
producers by reducing the
cost of production; and
6. Lower prices for
consumers.
POTENTIAL RISKS OF GMO
1. In adequate studies on the effects of GMO
to humans and the environment
2. Promotes mutation in organisms, which
the long-term effects are still unknown
 3. Human consumption might have the
following effects more allergic reactions,
gene mutation, antibiotic resistance and
change in nutritional value
 LONG LASTING TOMATOES
Advantages:
• GM Tomatoes can remain fresh longer
• GM tomatoes can tolerate lengthier
transport time
Disadvantages:
• Tomatoes are resistant to antibiotics
SAFEGUARDS IN GMO
BIOSAFETY ON GMOs
1. Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) –
responsible for the development of
standards, codes of practices, guidelines,
and recommendations on food safety (has
developed principles for the human health
risk analysis of GM food products)
2. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety –
international environmental treaty that
regulates the transboundary movements
of GMOs
3. International Trade Agreement on
Labeling of GM food and food products –
an agreement that requires exporters of
GM food and food products to label their
products and give rights to importing
parties to rejector accept the GM
products (consumers have the right to
know and the freedom to choose)
GENE THERAPY
DEFINITION & HISTORY
DNA REPLICATION MISTAKES
In humans, genes vary in size from a few
hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases.
If genes don't produce the right proteins
or don't produce them correctly, a child can have
a genetic disorder.
DNA replication is a highly accurate
process, but mistakes can occasionally occur as
when a DNA polymerase inserts a wrong base.
Uncorrected mistakes may sometimes lead to
serious consequences, such as cancer.
WHAT IS GENE THERAPY?
Gene therapy is an experimental
technique that uses genes to treat or prevent
disease. It seeks to alter genes to correct genetic
defects in order to prevent or cure genetic
diseases.
It is a medical approach that treats or
prevents disease by correcting the underlying
genetic problem.
Gene therapy techniques allow doctors to
treat a disorder by altering a person's genetic
makeup instead of using drugs or surgery.
HOW IT STARTED?
In the 1980s, Scientists began to look into
gene therapy.
• They would insert human genes into a bacteria
cell.
• Then the bacteria cell would transcribe and
translate the information into a protein.
• Then they would introduce the protein into
human cells
FIRST CASE
The 1st gene therapy was performed on
September 14th, 1990
• Ashanti De Silva was treated for SCID (Severe
combined immunodeficiency)
• Doctors removed her white blood cells, inserted
the missing gene into the WBC, and then put
them back into her blood stream.
• This strengthened her immune system but…
worked for a only a few months
TYPES & APPROACHES
TYPES OF GENE THERAPY
 SOMATIC CELL GENE THERAPY (SCGT)
- The transfer of a section of DNA to
any cell of the body that doesn’t
produce sperm or eggs therapeutic
genes transferred into the somatic
cells of the patient: such as, bone
 marrow cells, blood cells, skin a recombinant virus containing the
cells, etc. and hence the new DNA desired therapeutic gene. These
doesn’t enter the eggs or sperm modified cells are then
any such modifications affects the reintroduced into the patients
individual patient only…and are body, where they produce the
not inherited by the offspring (are needed proteins that correspond
not passed on to the patient’s to the inserted gene.
children)

 GERMLINE GENE THERAPY (GGT)

- The transfer of a section of DNA to
any cell of the body that doesn’t
produce sperm or eggs therapeutic
genes transferred into the somatic
cells of the patient: such as, bone
marrow cells, blood cells, skin
cells, etc. and hence the new DNA
doesn’t enter the eggs or sperm
any such modifications affects the HOW DOES EX VIVO GENE THERAPY WORK?
individual patient only…and are Step 1. Treatment begins by isolating cells
not inherited by the offspring (are with genetic defect from a patient.
not passed on to the patient’s Step 2. These cells are then grown in
children) culture in the laboratory.
Step 3. Therapeutic gene will be
introduced into the cultured cells using a virus
 GERMLINE GENE THERAPY (GGT)
called Vector. The virus’s DNA is taken out and
• The transfer of a section of DNA to cells
replaced with the one that treats the patient.
that produce eggs or sperm (therapeutic
Step 4. Patient’s sample target cells are
genes transferred into the germ cells)
now genetically altered with therapeutic genes
• involves the modification of germ cells
and reinjected into the patient’s body.
(gametes) that will pass the change on to
the next generation (inheritable by
 IN VIVO - introduction of therapeutic gene
offspring)
into the vector injected directly to the
• for safety, ethical and technical reasons,
body.
IT IS NOT attempted at present.
• Countries prohibiting the application of
HOW DOES IN VIVO GENE THERAPY WORK?
GGT in human beings: AUSTRALIA,
Involves direct delivery of the therapeutic
CANADA, GERMANY, ISRAEL,
gene into the target cells of a particular
NETHERLANDS, SWITZERLAND
tissue of a patient
WHAT ARE THE APPROACHES OF GENE THERAPY?
Potential tissue candidates include liver,
 EX VIVO - transfer of genes in cultured
muscle, skin, spleen, lung, brain and blood
cells and will be reinjected to the body of
cells.
the patient.
- Ex vivo gene is performed with the Can be carried out using (1) viral or (2)
genetic alterations of patient’s non-viral vectors
target cells happening outside of
the body in a culture. Target cells Success depends on:
from the patient are infected with
 - efficiency of the uptake of the
therapeutic gene by the target
cells intracellular degradation of
the gene and its uptake by nucleus
the expression capability of the
gene.
Gene therapy can use this to insert genes that
encode for a desired protein to create the desired
trait
4 different types of VIRAL VECTORS
• Retroviruses
• Adenoviruses
• Adeno-associated viruses
• Herpes Simplex viruses

RETROVIRUS
It is a kind of virus that inserts a copy of its RNA
genome into the DNA of a host cell that it
invades, thus changing the genome of that cell

It is a virus composed of RNA and not of DNA

Have an enzyme, called REVERSE
TRANSCRIPTASE, that gives them the unique
TYPES OF VECTORS property of transcribing their RNA into DNA after
To transfer the desired gene into a target entering a cell.
cell, a carrier is required. VECTORS are
responsible for gene delivery The retroviral DNA can then integrate into the
chromosomal DNA of the host cell, to be
2 MAIN CLASSES: expressed there.
Viral Vectors Non-Viral vectors HIV is a RETROVIRUS.
Recombinant viruses Naked DNA or DNA
(sometimes called complexes Non-viral ADENOVIRUS
biological vectors are currently
being evaluated for
• These are a group of common viruses that
nanoparticles) infect the lining of your eyes, airways and lungs,
long-term expression of
the therapeutic genetic intestines, urinary tract, and nervous system
Viral vector gene
material. • They're common causes of fever, coughs, sore
delivery has been
utilized in a number of throats, diarrhea, and pink eye.
The most actively
gene therapies due to • Infections happen in children more often than
researched non-viral
the virus’ natural vectors include in adults, but anyone can get them.
ability to access the - chemical disruption • Target cell’s Immune response is HIGH.
cells of the body. -electroporation, and • The common cold is an ADENOVIRUS
-polymer-based vectors
a) Retro Viruses ADENO-ASSOCIATED VIRUSES (AAV)
b) Adeno Viruses a) Naturally Occurring • These are small (25 nm) viruses that infect
c) Adeno Associated compounds
humans and some other primate species.
Viruses b) Enhance delivery
• Small, single stranded DNA that insert genetic
d) Herpes Simplex by physical methods
c) Enhance delivery by material at a specific point on chromosome 19
Virus
chemical methods • From parvovirus family- causes no known
disease and doesn't trigger patient immune
WHAT ARE VIRUSES? response.
Replicate by inserting their DNA into a host cell • Low information capacity
• Gene is always "on" so the protein is always
being expressed, possibly even in instances when
it isn't needed.
• Target cell’s immune response is VERY LOW.

HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUSES

Double stranded DNA viruses that infect
neurons; contagious and can be transmitted from
person to person through direct contact
Example:
human herpes viruses
herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) –
highly contagious
herpes simplex virus type 2
varicella-zoster virus
cytomegalovirus
Epstein-Barr virus
human herpesvirus 6
human herpesvirus 7
Kaposi’s Sarcoma herpesvirus

VIRAL VECTOR USED IN COVID19 VACCINES

For COVID-19 viral vector vaccines, the
vector (not the virus that causes COVID-19, but a
different, harmless virus) will enter a cell in our
body and then use the cell’s machinery to
produce a harmless piece of the virus that causes
COVID-19. This piece is known as a spike protein
and it is only found on the surface of the virus
that causes COVID-19. The cell displays the spike
protein on its surface, and our immune system
recognizes it doesn’t belong there. This triggers
our immune system to begin producing
antibodies and activating other immune cells to
fight off what it thinks is an infection.
At the end of the process, our bodies have
learned how to protect us against future infection
with the virus that causes COVID-19. The benefit
is that we get this protection from a vaccine,
without ever having to risk the serious
consequences of getting sick with COVID-19. Any
temporary discomfort experienced after getting
the vaccine is a natural part of the process and an
indication that the vaccine is working.
OTHER VECTORS IN COVID-19 VACCINES
Other vaccines for Covid-19 uses
nanotechnology, and traditional approach
(Inactivated virus of SARS-CoV-2)
NON-VIRAL VECTORS
Direct introduction of therapeutic DNA
But only with certain tissue
Requires a lot of DNA
Creation of artificial lipid sphere with aqueous
core, liposome
Carries therapeutic DNA through
membrane
Chemically linking DNA to molecule that will bind
to special cell receptors
DNA is engulfed by cell membrane
Less effective
Trying to introduce a 47th chromosome
Exist alongside with the 46 others
Could carry a lot of information
 But how to get the big molecule through
membranes?
STATUS & ISSUES
CURRENT STATUS OF GENE THERAPY
FDA hasn’t approved any human gene
therapy product for sale
Reasons:
In 1999, 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger died from
multiple organ failure 4 days after treatment for
omithine transcarboxylase deficiency.
Death was triggered by severe immune
response to adenovirus carrier January 2003, halt
to using retrovirus vectors in blood stem cells
because children developed leukemia-like
condition after successful treatment for X-linked
severe combined immunodeficiency disease
CURRENT STATUS OF GENE THERAPY
Published in 2021.
Gene therapy can be done in either somatic or
germline cells. In somatic cells, gene therapy only
the modified tissues will be affected, but in
germline cell gene therapy, genetic changes
transmit to the offspring. So, there is no clinical
trial on human germline gene therapy. Currently,
somatic gene therapy is safe for the management
of several disorders in human beings.
Gene therapy effectively treats several diseases
due to increased understanding of disease
pathogenesis and improved gene delivery
technologies.
ISSUES ON GENE THERAPY
Short Lived
Hard to rapidly integrate therapeutic DNA
into genome and rapidly dividing nature
of cells prevent gene therapy from long
time
Would have to have multiple rounds of
therapy
Immune Response
New things introduced leads to immune
response increased response when a
repeat offender enters
Viral Vectors
Patient could have toxic, immune,
inflammatory response also may cause
disease once inside
Multigene Disorders
Heart disease, high blood pressure,
Alzheimer’s, arthritis and diabetes are
hard to treat because you need to
introduce more than one gene. May
induce a tumor if integrated in a tumor
suppressor gene because
insertional mutagenesis
THE FIRST GENE EDITED BABIES
In November 2018, media from all over
the world reported that two twin girls had been
born with modified genes to make them HIV
immune. Their birth was the result of an
‘experiment' (presently it can only be called that)
conducted by He Jiankui with couples in which
the males were HIV carriers.
However, Chinese existing regulation,
thought not very detailed, does not provide legal
basis for the experiment carried out by He Jiankui
and his team (Nie, 2018; Nie & Cheung, 2019). In
particular, the 2003 “Ethical Guiding Principles for
Research on Embryonic Stem Cell” issued by
China's Ministry of Science and Technology and
then Ministry of Health (now National Health
Commission), very clearly bans research to be
performed on human in vitro embryos after the
14th day of existence, and its subsequent
implantation into a human uterus
THE FIRST GENE EDITED BABIES: THE ROGUE
SCIENTIST
 Dr. He Jiankui announced he had
edited the genome of seven
human embryos and one of them
transferred into the mother’s
uterus and she successfully
delivered a twins whose
pseudonyms are Lulu and Nana in
 an exclusive interview with the
journalist of the Associated Press
just in the eve of the 3rd
International Summer Meeting on
Human Genome Editing in Hong
Kong.
 He was detained in November
2018 and convicted by a Chinese
court in December 2019. He was
accused to have “deliberately
violated” medical regulations and
had “rashly applied gene editing
technology to human assisted
reproductive medicine”, and
sentenced for three years in prison
and fined CNY 300 million (=USD
430,000) and later was released
from prison and He also got the
nickname “Rogue Scientist”
THE FIRST GENE EDITED BABIES: THE MISTAKE
“Germline Genome Editing Is Ethically
Unjustifiable Today Due to the Unfavorable Risk-
Benefit Ratio to CRISPR Babies”.
 Ethical problems caused by germline
genome editing involves the issues of risk-
benefit assessment to the patients who
are the owner of germline cell (eggs and
sperm, zygote, embryo) and the future
parents of the children, and how to
ensure them to exercise the right to
informed consent, the issues of the health
of the future children and their offspring,
and the issues involving the other people
in the society, the society as a whole and
humanity.
 Due to the immaturity of current gene
editing technology, off-target effect often
occurs. Off-target editing is performed far
from the target, cutting or altering DNA
(normal genes) to produce abnormal
mutations. Especially if there are similar
DNA sequences in the genome. Such off-
target excision can cause health problems
for CRISPR persons, such as cutting out
tumor fighting genes.
 These mistakes clearly show that current
gene editing technology is premature to
be applied in humans, whether it is in
clinical trial or in clinical practice. Due to
the premature of gene editing technology,
if germline cell genome is to be edited,
the assessment of risk-benefit ratio would
be not favorable or very unfavorable, that
is, the risks will greatly exceed the benefit.
And after editing, the risks would greatly
outweigh the risks of not editing at all.
THE FIRST GENE EDITED BABIES: UPDATE
During interview, he was asked about the
updates of the babies…..
“Lulu and Nana are living a normal, peaceful,
undisturbed life and we should respect them,” he
said. “We respect patient privacy and, for me, I
put the happiness of the family first and the
science discovery second.”
------ Dr. He Jiankui --------
Was also asked whether the past four years had
been difficult, He said he preferred to focus on
the future. “I like the Beatles song Let It Be,” he
said. “Let’s move on to my new project.”
He might move on, but in his case three children
will continue to carry the changes he made to
their DNA, with uncertain health consequences
STEM CELL THERAPY
DEFINITION, TYPES & USES
WHAT ARE STEM CELLS?
These inner cell mass from a blastocyst. These
stem cells can become any tissue in the body. For
example: neuron, chondrocyte, enterocytes, red
blood cells, muscle, fat or epithelial cells
Stem cells are cells from which all other cells with
specialized functions are generated. Under the
right conditions in the body or a laboratory, stem
cells divide to form more cells called daughter
cells.
At the point when a stem cell isolates, every
daughter cell can possibly either remain an stem
cell or turn into another sort of cell with specific
capacity, for example, muscle cell, red platelet or
cerebrum cell.
MORE ABOUT STEM CELLS
 They are essential cells that replace
damaged cells or cells lost due to diseases
 They are the earliest cells of the cell
lineage in all tissues and are found in both
embryonic and adult organisms
 They provide a continuous supply of new
cells that make up the tissues and organs
of animals and plants.
 They have been of great interest as a
therapeutic method for various diseases
and conditions. Stem cells in the
embryonic organism are present in the
inner cell mass of the blastocyte, which
then differentiates into all other cells in
the body. Stem cells in adults, however,
are localized to specific areas within the
body (ex., in the bone marrow and the
gonads)
STEM CELL CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
Unspecialized or undifferentiated‘ (‘blank cells’)
All stem cells are present as a mass of
cells that differentiate later during their
period of division.
Proliferation and renewal
Stem cells, of all origins, are capable of
dividing and renewing themselves for long
periods of time.
These cells undergo a period of cell
proliferation while preserving the
undifferentiated state.
Differentiation
Have the potential to give rise to
specialized cells that together make up
different tissue types.
These cells can either be PLURIPOTENT or
MULTIPOTENT
THE TWO DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS
TYPES OF STEM CELLS
 Totipotency cell: Ability to differentiate
into cell lineages from all three germ
layers: mesoderm, endoderm, and
ectoderm including placental cell.
Ex. cells from early (1-3 days) embryos
 Pluripotent cell: Ability to differentiate
into cells from all three germ layers with
the exception of placenta.
Ex. some cells of blastocyst (5 to 14 days)
 Multipotent cell: Ability to differentiate
into a limited number of types from one
germ layer.
Ex. Fetal and adult stem cells, umbilical
cord stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells,
and mesenchymal stem cells.
 Unipotent cell: Ability to produce cells of
their own type.
Ex. in the testes spermatogonia give rise
only to sperm
WHAT IS STEM CELL THERAPY?
Stem cell therapy, also known as
regenerative medicine, promotes the repair
response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured
tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. It is
the next chapter in organ transplantation and
uses cells instead of donor organs, which are
limited in supply.
USES OF STEM CELLS
 Tissue regeneration
- Tissue regeneration is probably the
most important use of stem cells.
Until now, a person who needed a
new kidney, for example, had to
wait for a donor and then undergo
a transplant. There is a shortage of
donor organs but, by instructing
 stem cells to differentiate in a
certain way, scientists could use
them to grow a specific tissue type
or organ.
 Cardiovascular disease treatment
- In 2013, a team of researchers
from Massachusetts General
Hospital reported in PNAS Early
Edition that they had created
blood vessels in laboratory mice,
using human stem cells. Within 2
weeks of implanting the stem cells,
networks of blood-perfused
vessels had formed. The quality of
these new blood vessels was as
good as the nearby natural ones.
The authors hoped that this type
of technique could eventually help
to treat people with cardiovascular
and vascular diseases.
 Brain disease treatment
- Doctors may one day be able to
use replacement cells and tissues
to treat brain diseases, such as
Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.
Researchers have already tried
differentiating embryonic stem
cells into these types of cells, so
treatments are promising.
 Blood disease treatments
- Doctors now routinely use adult
hematopoietic stem cells to treat
diseases, such as leukemia, sickle
cell anemia, and other
immunodeficiency problems.
Hematopoietic stem cells occur in
blood and bone marrow and can
produce all blood cell types,
including red blood cells that carry
oxygen and white blood cells that
fight disease.
IMPORTANCE, DONATING & HARVESTING
IMPORTANCE OF STEM CELLS
1. Stem cells can replace diseased or
damaged cells
2. Stem cells allow us to study development
and genetics
3. Stem cells can be used to test different
substances (drugs and chemicals)
PLANARIANS USED IN STEM CELLS STUDIES
Planarians are flatworms that are capable
of profound regenerative feats dependent upon a
population of self-renewing adult stem cells
called neoblasts. Regeneration in planarians
offers a paradigm for understanding the
molecular and cellular control of the repair and
regeneration of animal tissues, and could provide
valuable insights for the safe use of stem cells to
repair damaged, diseased and ageing human
tissues with little or no regenerative capacities.
The goal of stem cell research to know the
fundamental stem cell concepts of regeneration
using Planaria as a model organism.
WHERE DO STEM CELLS NATURALLY COME
FROM?
Stem cells originate from two main sources: adult
body tissues (Adult Stem Cells) and embryos
(Embryonic Stem Cells). Scientists are also
working on ways to develop stem cells from other
cells, using genetic “reprogramming” techniques.
Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells, found
all through the body after improvement, that
increase by cell division to renew dying cells and
recover harmed tissues.
Embryo Stem Cells are cells derived from the
inner cell mass of the blastocyst prior to
implantation. They are pluripotent and have an
unlimited capacity for self-renewal and the ability
to differentiate into any somatic cell type.
DONATING OR HARVESTING STEM CELLS
A. Frozen Embryos:
To be used for stem cell research, are
thawed and cells from the pluripotent
inner cell mass is removed and grown in a
Petri dish in a research laboratory. Under
the right conditions, these embryonic
stem cells can self-renew (make more of
themselves by dividing) indefinitely.

B. Therapeutic Cloning:
Is a technique used to create stem cells
that are a genetic match to a donor. It has
been used to clone non-human animals,
the most famous being the sheep Dolly.
Therapeutic cloning has been negatively
associated with the idea of human
reproductive cloning but the majority of
scientists do not support the reproductive
uses of this procedure in humans.
 Bone marrow: These cells are taken under
a general anesthetic, usually from the hip
or pelvic bone. Technicians then isolate
the stem cells from the bone marrow for
storage or donation.
 Peripheral stem cells: A person receives
several injections that cause their bone
marrow to release stem cells into the
blood. Next, blood is removed from the
body, a machine separates out the stem
cells, and doctors return the blood to the
body
 Umbilical cord blood: Stem cells can be
harvested from the umbilical cord after
delivery, with no harm to the baby. Some
people donate the cord blood, and others
store it. This harvesting of stem cells can
be expensive, but the advantages for
future needs include:
1. The stem cells are easily accessible
2. Less chance of transplanted tissue
being rejected if it comes from the
recipient’s own body.
 Adult Cells (Skin Cells): can be
reprogrammed to behave like
undifferentiated human embryonic stem
cells, producing induced pluripotent stem
cells, or iPS cells. Pluripotent cells are able
to develop into any of the hundreds of cell
types in the human body, such as muscle,
nerves, cartilage, blood or bone
ISSUES & CONTROVERSY
ISSUES CONCERNING STEM CELLS
Ethical and Social Issues. It's a topic that
brings up some big questions such as:
• When does human life begin?
• Can we have the benefits of stem cell
research without using embryos?
• Might stem cell research make human
cloning more likely and does this matter?
• Is it a good idea to do stem cell research
at all when there are people suffering from
preventable diseases (like TB) in developing
countries?
• We need to decide what we think and feel
about embryos.
• Is an embryo just a ball of cells?
• Does it have the potential to be human
but is not yet human?
• Or is an embryo a human being right from
fertilization?
In the UK, stem cell research is regulated
by the Human Fertilization and Embryology
Authority (HFEA). They allow limited research to
do with fertility treatment relating to IVF (In Vitro
Fertilization), and research into 'serious diseases'
CONTROVERSY ON STEM CELLS
 There has been some controversy about
stem cell research. This mainly relates to work on
embryonic stem cells.

 Use of embryos for stem cells

- The argument against using
embryonic stem cells is that it
destroys a human blastocyst, and
the fertilized egg cannot develop
into a person. Nowadays,
researchers are looking for ways to
create or use stem cells that do BIODIVERSITY, THREATS AND
not involve embryos CONSERVATION LAWS IN THE
 Mixing humans and animals
PHILIPPINES
- Stem cell research often involves
inserting human cells into animals, BIODIVERSITY: DEFINITION & LEVELS
such as mice or rats. Some people
argue that this could create an WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?
organism that is part human. In
➢ Variability in life forms within and between
some countries, it is illegal to
species in an ecosystem (animals, plants, fungi,
produce embryonic stem cell lines.
and even microorganisms like bacteria) that make
In the United States, scientists can
up our natural world.
create or work with embryonic
➢ It provides the assurance of food, countless
stem cell lines, but it is illegal to
raw materials for clothing, materials for shelter,
use federal funds to research stem
fertilizer, fuel and medicines.
cell lines that were created after
➢ It is a source of work energy in the form of
August 2001.
animal traction.
 Stem cell therapy and FDA regulation
➢ It maintains the ecological balance necessary
- Some people are already offering
for planetary and human survival.
“stem-cells therapies” for a range
of purposes, such as anti-aging
LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
treatments. However, most of
BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION refers to the
these uses do not have approval
hierarchy of levels at which living organisms are
from the U.S. Food and Drug
organized, studied and understood.
Administration (FDA) Trusted
Source. Some of them may be
1. ATOMS: smallest unit of an element
illegal, and some can be
composed of electrons, protons and
dangerous. Anyone who is
neutrons
considering stem-cell treatment
2. MOLECULE: union of 2 or more atoms of
should check with the provider or
the same or different elements
with the FDA that the product has
3. CELL: the structural and functional unit of
approval, and that it was made in a
all living things
way that meets with FDA
4. TISSUE: a group of cells with a common
standards for safety and
structure and function
effectiveness.
5. ORGAN: composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
 6. ORGAN SYSTEMS: composed of several
organs working together
7. ORGANISM: an individual, complex
individuals contain organ systems
8. POPULATION: organisms of the same
species in a particular area
9. COMMUNITY: interacting populations in a
particular area
10. ECOSYSTEM: a community plus the
physical environment

11. BIOSPHERE: regions of the earth’s crust,  2 – SPECIES DIVERSITY

waters and atmosphere inhabited by ➢ Variety of species within an ecosystem
living things or habitat or a region (rainforests, coral
reefs…)
LEVELS (TYPES) OF BIODIVERSITY ➢ Species are grouped together into
Biodiversity is the variety of plants and families according to shared or similar
animals inhabiting in an ecosystem. It occurs at 3 characteristics
different levels, namely: ➢ defined as the number of different
species present in an ecosystem and
 1 – GENETIC DIVERSITY relative abundance of each of those
Variety of genes within a species species
✓ Every species is made up of
individuals that have their own Diversity is greatest when all the species present
particular genetic composition are equally abundant in the area.
✓ A species may have different
populations, each having different
genetic compositions
✓ GENES – serve as basic units of
all life on earth
- they are responsible for
both the similarities and
differences between
organisms

The greater the genetic diversity, the higher is

the chance of a long-term survival
 3 – ECOSYSTEM BIODIVERSITY
➢ Variety of ecosystems within a
geographical location

ECOSYSTEM
✓ a system or community of organisms
and their physical environment interacting
together (whole forest, or a small area,
such as a pond)
ECOSYSTEMS: DIFFERENT TYPES ✓ Mountainous Landscape
✓ Diverse Habitats
2 MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS ✓ Tropical Climate
1 - Aquatic 2 - Terrestrial ✓ Soil Types
Ecosystems Ecosystems  MOUNTAINOUS TOPOGRAPHY
➢river ecosystem ➢forest ecosystem ❑ Rugged topography supports
➢lake ecosystem ➢grassland numerous mountain ecosystems with
➢coastal ecosystem ecosystem
stratified forest habitats
➢marine ecosystem ➢tundra
➢deserts
Stratification – a pattern of vertical
➢savannas layering in a forest community

❑ Mountains are divided into

montane and lowland forests, each
habitat with a unique set of highland &
lowland fauna

❑ Lowland forms
✓ Philippine Scops Owl
✓ Gray-backed Tailorbird
✓ Yellow-bellied Warbler
❑ Highland forms
BIODIVERSE COUNTRIES ✓ Luzon Mt. Scops Owl
❑ The Philippines is considered as ✓ Gray-backed Warbler
megadiversity country in the world. ✓ Mountain Tailorbird
❑ It has diverse flora and fauna and high
levels of endemics
❑ It belongs to the World’s
Biologically Wealthiest Nations

 DIVERSE HABITAT TYPES

❑ Forest ecosystems such as the
mossy forest, montane forest (ecosystem
found in mountains), dipterocarp forest
(lowland rainforest) and agroforest
(interaction of agriculture and trees) in
protected areas
❑ Some are disturbed areas
✓ urban areas,
FACTORS AFFECTING PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY ✓ residential areas and
✓ Archipelagic Nature ✓ commercial areas
 ✓ Medinillas,
 VARIED SOIL TYPE ✓ Molave for Bonsai,
❑ dictate different forest habitats ✓ Tree Ferns,
❑ Soils are a vital component of ✓ Alocacias,
ecosystems because: the majority of ✓ Begonias,
plants grow in soil. ✓ Zingibers (wild gingers), and
✓ Soils determine the nutrients such as ✓ Agarwood)
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium,
calcium, magnesium and micronutrients Endemic birds in the Philippines
that are available for plants. o Philippine trogon
✓ soils, with climate and topography, can o Philippine falconet
determine the available water for plants. o Philippine duck
o Rufous hornbill
 TROPICAL CLIMATE TYPE
o Philippine serpent eagle
❑ Climate is a single best predictor of
o Red-vented cockatoo
ecosystem structure and functioning
o Bukidnon woodcock
❑ Geographic distribution of climate
o Pink-bellied imperial pigeon
(precipitation and temperature, NPP)
o Plain bush-hen
❑ Temporal variation in climate
o Southern silvery kingfisher
depends on solar input, surface
o Philippine hanging parrot
properties, and the capacity of the
o Luzon bleeding-heart
atmosphere to trap heat
o Philippine coucal
❑ Spatial and temporal variation in
o Palawan hornbill
climate used to predict many of the
o Pygmy flowerpecker
ecosystem patterns
o Short-crested monarch
Endemic Animals of Philippines o Philippine pygmy woodpecker
o Philippine Flying Lemur (Kagwang) o Giant scops owl
o Philippine Tarsier o Bicolored flowerpecker
o Visayan Warty Pig o Philippine nightjar
o Philippine Crocodile o Philippine Bulbul
o Giant Golden-Crowned Flying Fox o Naked-faced spiderhunter
o Luzon Bleeding-Heart o Olive-backed flowerpecker
o Tamaraw Philippine Eagle o Spotted imperial pigeon
o Indigo-banded kingfisher
10 Commonly Poached Threatened Plants o Philippine oriole
(Protected and Regulated under R.A. 9147), o Yellow-bellied whistler
an Act providing for the conservation and o Philippine fairy-bluebird
protection of wildlife resources and their o Red-eared parrotfinch
habitats, appropriating funds therefor and for o Philippine pitta
other purposes. o Yellow-crowned flowerpecker
o Cebu flowerpecker
Threatened plants are categorize as o Philippine spine-tailed swift
follows: o Elegant tit
✓ Orchids, o Philippine hawk-cuckoo
✓ Ferns, o Philippine swiftlet
✓ Cycads, o Yellow-breasted fruit dove
 o Negros fruit dove
o Philippine green pigeon
o Philippine eagle-owl
o Spotted buttonquail
o Mountain shrike
o Worcester's buttonquail
o Mindoro bleeding-heart
o Azure-breasted pitta
o Sulu bleeding-heart
o White-fronted tit
o Whitehead's swiftlet
o Celestial monarch
o Negros bleeding-heart pigeon
o Handsome sunbird
ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
Three (3) major types of ecological relationships
in which communities are organized:
 COMPETITION
Interspecific competition
✓ Members of two different species
use the same limited resource and
therefore compete for it.
✓ Competition negatively affects
both participants (as either species would
have higher survival and reproduction if
the other was absent.)
✓ Species compete when they have
overlapping niches, that is, overlapping
ecological roles and requirements for
survival and reproduction.
EXAMPLE: predators of different species
might compete for the same prey
Intraspecific competition
✓ Intraspecific competition occurs
between members of the same species.
Example: two male birds of the same
species might compete for mates in the
same area.
 PREDATION
✓ A member of one species (the predator)
eats part or all of the living, or recently living,
body of another organism (the prey - victim).
✓ This interaction is beneficial for the
predator, but harmful for the prey
✓ Predation may involve two animal species,
but it can also involve an animal, such as a
mammal, bird, or insect consuming part of a
plant, a special case of predation known as
herbivory.
 SYMBIOSIS
✓ a general term for interspecific interactions
in which two species live together in a long-
term, intimate association.
✓ Close relationship between two organisms
of different species in which at least one of
the organisms benefits.
✓ For the other organism, the relationship
may be beneficial or harmful, or it may have
no effect.
There are 3 basic types of symbiosis:
✓ Mutualism
✓ Commensalism, and
✓ Parasitism
 SYMBIOSIS: PARASITISM
✓ Symbiotic relationship in which
an organism from one species, called the
parasite, benefits, while an organism from
the other species, called the host, is
harmed.
✓ In parasitism, two species have a
close, lasting interaction that is beneficial
to one, the parasite, and harmful to the
other, the host
 SYMBIOSIS: COMMENSALISM
✓ Symbiotic relationship in which
an individual from one of the species
benefits while an individual from the
other species is unaffected
 SYMBIOSIS: MUTUALISM
 - Symbiosis refers to a close and
prolonged association between
two organisms of different species.
Mutualism refers to mutually
beneficial interactions between
members of the same or different
species.
FOOD CHAIN
✓ A linear sequence of organisms through
which nutrients and energy pass as one
organism eats another.
✓ The sequence of transfers of matter and
energy in the form of food from organism
to organism.
✓ Plants, which convert solar energy to
food by photosynthesis, are the primary
food source.
✓ In a predator chain, a plant-eating
animal is eaten by a flesh-eating animal.
FOOD WEB
✓ Consist of many interconnected food
chains and are more realistic
representation of consumption
relationships in ecosystems
✓ Intertwine locally into a food web
because most organisms consume more
than one type of animal or plant.
✓ In food webs, arrows point from an
organism that is eaten to the organism
that eats it.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT
➢ is a biogeographic region that is both a
significant reservoir of biodiversity and is
threatened with destruction;
➢ specifically refers to the 25 biologically
rich areas around the world that have lost
at least 70 percent of their original habitat
FOREST COVER
✓ Extent of Forest Cover Loss in the
Philippines for the Last 100 Years
PHILIPPINE CONSERVATION LAWS
REPUBLIC ACT 9147 - Wildlife Resources
Conservation and Protection Act
❑ AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE
CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION OF WILDLIFE
RESOURCES AND THEIR HABITATS,
APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFORE AND FOR
OTHER PURPOSES.
SECTION 27. ILLEGAL ACTS under RA 9147
(a) Killing and destroying wildlife species, except
in the following instances;
(i) when it is done as part of the religious
rituals of established tribal groups or
indigenous cultural communities;
(ii) when the wildlife is afflicted with an
incurable communicable disease;
(iii) when it is deemed necessary to put an
end to the misery suffered by the wildlife.
(iv) when it is done to prevent an
imminent danger to the life or limb of the
human being; and
(v) when the wildlife is killed or destroyed
after it has been used in authorized
research or experiments
(b) inflicting injury which cripples and/or impairs
the reproductive system of wildlife species;

(c) effecting any of the following acts in critical
habitat(s):
(i) dumping of waste products detrimental
to wildlife;
(ii) squatting or otherwise occupying any
portion of the critical habitat;
(iii) mineral exploration and/or extraction;
(iv) burning;
(v) logging; and
(vi) quarrying;
(d) introduction, reintroduction, or restocking of
wildlife resources;
(e) trading of wildlife;
(f) collecting, hunting, or possessing wildlife,
their by-products and derivatives;
(g) gathering or destroying of active nests, nest
trees, host plants and the like;
(h) maltreating and/or inflicting other injuries
not covered by the preceding paragraph ; and
(i) transporting of wildlife.
10 PRIORITY PROTECTED AREAS
1. BATANES PROTECTED LAND & SEASCAPES
2. NORTHERN SIERRA MADRE NATURAL
PARK
3. MANGYAN HERITAGE NATURAL PARK
4. APO REEF MARINE NATURAL PARK
5. MT. CANLAON NATURAL PARK (NEGROS
ISLAND)
6. WILDLIFE SANCTUARY (SURIGAO DEL
NORTE)
7. MT. KITANGLAD PARK (BUKIDNON)
8. MT. APO NATURAL PARK
9. AGUSAN MARSH WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
10. TURTLE ISLAND MARINE NATURAL PARK
(SULU)
REPUBLIC ACT 7586 – National Integrated
Protected Areas System Act 1992
❑ An Act providing for the establishment
and management of national integrated
protected areas system, defining its scope and
coverage, and for other purposes.
PROHIBITED ACTS under RA 7586
(a) Hunting, destroying, disturbing, or
mere possession of any plants or animals
or products derived therefrom without a
permit from the Management Board;
(b) Dumping of any waste products
detrimental to the protected area, or to
the plants and animals or inhabitants
therein;
(c) Use of any motorized equipment
without a permit from the Management
Board;
(d) Mutilating, defacing or destroying
objects of natural beauty or objects of
interest to cultural communities (of
scenic value);
(e) Damaging and leaving roads and trails
in a damaged condition;
(f) Squatting, mineral locating, or
otherwise occupying any land;
(g) Constructing or maintaining any kind
of structure, fences or enclosures,
conducting any business enterprise
without a permit;
(h) Leaving in exposed or unsanitary
conditions refuse or debris, or depositing
in ground or in bodies of water; and
(i) Altering, removing destroying or
defacing boundary marks or signs.
PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT BOARD
(PAMB)
▪ A decision-making body created by RA
7586, which exercises jurisdiction over a
protected area within its area of responsibility
▪ The PAMB is basically responsible for
making sure that the
Management Plan is properly implemented frequency of events, ozone layer
depletion, biodiversity loss,
vegetation change, and drought –
almost all negative impacts.

According to Working Group II of the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC); Climate change refers to any change in
the climate over time, whether due to natural
variability or as a result of human activity
CLIMATE CHANGE AND IMPACTS TO
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
SOCIETY
Climate change, is caused by both natural
WHAT IS CLIMATE? events and human (anthropogenic) activities.
 Climate is the average daily weather for Scientists now agree that most of the global
an extended period of time at a certain warming today have been caused by human
location. activities.
 Weather reflects short term conditions of
atmosphere, it can change from minute-
to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-day and
season-to-season. Climate is the average
of weather over time and space.
 It consists of many kinds of weather
events, their periodicities, intensities, and
nature of dynamism.
 When we talk about climate change,
refers to longterm shifts in temperatures HUMAN (ANTHROPOGENIC) SOURCES OF GHGs
and weather patterns.

CLIMATE CHANGE
 Climate change is a term that refers to
major changes in temperature,
rainfall,snow, or wind patterns lasting for
decades or longer.
Ex., changes in ocean current,
melting of ice, and loss of
biodiversity are included in climate
change; they are not discussed as
conventional events of weather. SOURCES OF GREENHOUSE GASES
 The consequences or effects brought Human-
about by climate change to the Greenhouse Natural
Induced
Gas Sources
environment maybe detrimental. Sources
Carbon ▪ Soils ▪ Burning of
Consequences of Climate change: Dioxide (CO2) (biological fossil fuels
emission of pollutants, processes) (coal, oil, gas)
temperature rise, precipitation ▪ Ocean for:
change, sea level rise, flooding, -
intensified cyclones, abrupt power/energy
generation
 - effect causing Earth’s surface temperature
manufacturing to rise
- industrial Greenhouse gas concentrations increasing
processes
- fuel for
transportation
▪ Land-use
changes,
deforestation
Methane ▪ Wetlands ▪ Flooded rice
(CH4) ▪ Termites agriculture
▪ Ocean ▪ Livestock FACTORS THAT CAUSE EARTH’S CLIMATE TO
production CHANGE MANY TIMES
▪ Waste I. Variations in the sun’s energy reaching earth
management
system II. Changes in the reflectivity of earth’s
(landfills, etc.) atmosphere and surface
Nitrous ▪ Tropical ▪ Nitrogen-
Oxides soils (wet based III. Changes in the amount of greenhouses gases
forests) fertilizers and that changes the current greenhouse effect,
▪ Ocean chemicals which affects the amount of heat retained by
▪ Acid
earth’s atmosphere.
production
processes,
other GREENHOUSE EFFECT
industrial - refers to rise in global temperature due
processes to the process by which the gases in the
▪ Combustion atmosphere trap the heat coming from the sun
processes in that is re-radiated by the earth’s surface. Because
vehicles of how they warm our world, these gases are
CFCs, HFCs, ▪ None ▪ Coolants referred to as greenhouse gases.
PFCs, SF6 ▪ Sealants
▪ Insulations Most greenhouses look like a small glass
house. Greenhouses are used to grow plants,
especially in the winter. Greenhouses work by
trapping heat from the sun. The glass panels of
the greenhouse let in light but keep heat from
escaping. This causes the greenhouse to heat up,
much like the inside of a car parked in sunlight,
and keeps the plants warm enough to live in the
cool seasons.

How does the greenhouse effect work?

Greenhouse Gas Emission
 Since the industrial revolution began in
1750 human activities have contributed
substantially to climate change by adding
CO2 and other heat trapping gases to the
atmosphere. These greenhouses gas
emissions have increased the greenhouse
- without the greenhouse effect, the
Earth’s average surface temperature would be
some 30°C colder or approximately -15°C and
possibly not warm enough to sustain life.
Unfortunately, humans are affecting
atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations by
introducing new sources or by interfering with
natural processes that destroy or remove GHGs.
 Earth’s temperature depends on the
balance between energy entering and
leaving the planet’s system.
 When incoming energy from the sun is
absorbed by the Earth system, earth
warms.
 When the sun’s energy is reflected back
into space, earth avoids warming.
 When absorbed energy is released back
into space, earth cools.
 Many factors both natural and human can
cause changes in earth’s energy balance.
IMPACT OF HUMAN BEINGS
► It is very likely that most of the climate change
in the current era is the result of human
activities.
► Humans are increasingly influencing the
climate and the earth’s temperature by burning
fossil fuels, cutting down rainforests and farming
livestock.
Human activities have increased
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
These gases trap heat and cause the Earth
to warm
► These human activities release large amounts
of CO2 (which is the primary greenhouse gas) in
addition to those naturally occurring in the
atmosphere, gases of increasing the greenhouse
effect and global warming.
► Scientists have known that CO2 is one of the
main greenhouse importance to Earth’s energy
balance.
► Since CO2 is already in the atmosphere
naturally, why are EMISSIONS from human
activity significant?
► Human activities have significantly disturbed
the natural carbon cycle by extracting long-buried
fossil fuels and burning them for energy thus
releasing
CO2 to the atmosphere.
How do greenhouse gases influence climate
change?
By burning fossil fuels due to
industrialization and to sustain our modern
lifestyle, the level of GHGs increase rapidly. The
higher the concentration of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere, the stronger the greenhouse
effect making it into enhanced greenhouse effect.
Increased concentration of CO2
- Burning fossil fuels in cars, industry and
homes
- Deforestation
- Burning of forests
CONSEQUENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
EXPANSION OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT
 The sun’s radiation that strikes the Earth’s
atmosphere in the form of light,
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV) and Infrared
Radiation(IR).
 UV radiation has a shorter wavelength
and a higher energy level than visible
light, while IR radiation has a longer
wavelength and a weaker energy level.
 30 percent of the radiation striking Earth's
atmosphere immediately reflected back
out to space by clouds, ice, snow, sand
and other reflective surfaces.
CHANGING PRECIPITATION PATTERNS
 Some areas will get more water, some
areas will have greater droughts.
Ex: Hurricanes/Tropical Cyclones will likely
get stronger
GLOBAL WARMING
• Gas molecules that absorb thermal infrared
radiation, in sufficient quantity, can force the
climate system. These type of gas molecules are
called greenhouse gases
• Examples of greenhouse gasses are Carbon
dioxide (CO2), water vapor, methane, nitrous
oxide (N2O), etc.
• The greenhouse gases act like a blanket,
absorbing IR radiation and preventing it from
escaping into outer space.
• The net effect is the gradual heating of Earth's
atmosphere and surface, a process known as
global warming.

CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBAL WARMING

 Increase in sea level which results in
flooding and erosion of coastal and low
lying areas
• The two major causes of global sea-
level rise are thermal expansion
caused by warming of the oceans
(since water expands as it warms) and
the loss of landbased ice, such as
glaciers and ice sheets, due to
increased melting.
 Extreme weather
• Flooding, forest fires, typhoons,
wildfires, droughts, heat waves

 Risk to human health

• increase in number of heat-related and
cold- related deaths
 Risk for wildlife extinction
• Loss of habitat and species
 Imposes heavy cost on society and
economy
• agriculture, forestry, fisheries, tourism,
infrastructure

MELTING OF POLAR ICE SHEETS AND GLACIERS

 Large ice formations, like glaciers and the
polar ice caps, naturally melt back a bit
each summer. But in the winter, snows,
 made primarily from evaporated
seawater, are generally sufficient to
balance out the melting.
 Higher temperatures caused by
global warming have led to
greater-than-average summer
melting as well as diminished
snowfall due to later winters and
earlier springs.
 Increased heat is also causing the
massive ice sheets that cover
Greenland and Antarctica to melt
at an accelerated pace.
 Scientists also believe meltwater
from above and seawater from
below is seeping beneath
Greenland's and West Antarctica's
ice sheets, causing them to move GLOBAL WARMING IMPACTS
more quickly into the sea. Changes in temperature, weather patterns and
sea level rise
EVIDENCE OF GLOBAL WARMING: ICE Coastal/
Human
Glaciers are retreating . . . Marine Agriculture
Health
Unteraar Glacier which used to reach the Ecosystem
Swiss central Alps has retreated to higher • Coastal • Added • Increase in
elevation receding as much as a mile after erosion heat stress, vectorborne
• Storm surges shifting diseases
temperature has risen. Source: National
• Coastal monsoons, • Increase in
Geographic Magazine (2004)
flooding drier soils, cardiovascular
• Saltwater water illnesses
intrusion shortages/ • Increase in
• Coral irrigation upper
bleaching demands respiratory
• Ocean • Decreased illnesses
acidification rice/crop • Occurrence
production of
• Impact on infectious
livestock diseases
production
• Occurrence
of weed
infestation &
diseases

Water Forest/ Industry and

Resources Biodiversity Energy
• Impact on • Shift in • Changes in
hydrological feeding point energy supply
cycle, and and demand
changing disruption in • Impact on
evaporation, flight patterns energy
precipitation for migratory infrastructure
and birds. • Impact on
runoff • Extinction of industries
patterns some such as wine,
which could mountain tourism,
affect plants and livestock,
water animals fishing,
resources Changes in insurance,
(freshwater species holiday
quantity distribution, resorts,
and quality) composition mining, and
• Impact on • Invasion of others.
power weeds and
generation alien species
• Loss and RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MITIGATION AND
migration of ADAPTATION
plant and
animal
species

WHAT IS HAPPENING?

MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION

Mitigation
 Locate/invent alternative fuels to fossil
fuels
 Increase efficiency of cars and trucks
LINKAGES BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE AND
 Sequestering carbon before it is emitted
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
 Plant and Maintain trees to naturally
sequester carbon
Adaptation
 Rising sea levels and coastal populations
-Move inland
-Construct dikes and levees
 Adapt to shifting agricultural zones

CLIMATE CHANGE IS A CORE DEVELOPMENT

ISSUE
• Driver: Warming of the atmosphere is caused
by fossil fuel use to power development as well
as land conversion for production and
DEALING WITH CLIMATE CHANGE
development
• Outcomes: Impacts of climate change
jeopardize the inputs to development and
people’s ability to benefit from and sustain
development gains
• Solutions: Solutions to the consequences of
climate change will be achieved through low-
carbon and climate- resilient development

REDUCTION OF CARBON EMISSIONS

 Burn less fossil fuel
 Plant Trees for shade and CO2 uptake
 Insulate your house
 Replace old appliances
 ⮚Use compact fluorescence light bulbs
 Use renewable energy