CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Aphrodisiacs are substances that are believed to enhance sexual desire, arousal, and
performance. Throughout history, various cultures have sought natural or synthetic substances to
improve sexual experiences. The biochemistry of aphrodisiacs involves the interaction between
these substances and the human body, specifically targeting physiological and psychological
processes associated with sexual function. While the concept of aphrodisiacs has existed for
centuries, the scientific understanding of their biochemistry is an ongoing field of research
(Erhabor and Idu, 2017).

Sexual feelings are an inevitable part of life. Sexual intercourse is one of the most cherished,
indispensable, and integral parts of every individual and can as well be a cradle of pleasure and
satisfaction (Erhabor and Idu, 2017). A satisfying sexual relationship is dubbed as one of the
most important parts of a sexual or marital relationship (McCarthy 1999). When sexual
difficulties become persistent or recur frequently and cause marked distress and interpersonal
difficulties, then, such a person may be said to have sexual dysfunction. Sexual dysfunction
occurs in different forms in men. It may be acute or situational, as it may be due to response to
the environment, loss of loved one, or job. It may also be persistent or chronic due to an
underlying disease condition. However it occurs, sexual dysfunction may readily depreciate the
quality of a sexual relationship and the general wellbeing of the person affected. The inability to
maintain a healthy sexual and reproductive life has been indicated in depression, nervousness,
anxiety, fear, and decline in quality of life.

Interestingly, a good number of divorce cases that occur annually, have some bearing with sexual
dysfunctions (Armato and Previti, 2003). Erectile dysfunction, formerly referred to as
“impotence”, is defined as the persistent inability to achieve or maintain an erection for
satisfactory sexual performance over a period of three months. It is one of the prevalent forms of
sexual dysfunction. It may be managed with the help of aphrodisiacs (Malviya et al., 2011).
Aphrodisiacs are substances or agents (food, drug, scent, or device) that stimulate the erotic
instinct, induce venereal desire, and surge pleasure and performance (Malviya et al., 2011). The
study of aphrodisiacs is needed for effective corroboration of traditional medicine practice with a
scientific approach on information, collection, preparation, side effects, efficacy, safety, and
standardization of some of the plant parts. Interestingly, many effective herbal aphrodisiacs are
accessible and have slight or no side effects (Indurwade et al., 2005).

Poor sexual performance may also be due to erectile dysfunction which occurs as a result of both
physiological and mental factors. Low sexual desire is expected to be associated with low sexual
activity. Like sexual desires, sexual activity also declines with age. W.H.O estimated over 48.5
million infertile couples worldwide. Poor sexual performance can be manifested in the first three
phases of sex viz; stimulation, the plateau and the climaxing phase. These manifestations are
usually in the form of low libido, painful sex, premature ejaculation, poor lubrication in women
which can hinder pleasurable sex and the inability to achieve orgasm. According to (Lisiana,
2016), poor sexual performance can be attributed to numerous factors including hormonal
imbalance, congenital disorders such as micropenis and peyronie’s disease, smoking, excessive
alcohols, small penis size or an excessive penis size, fatigue, stress, performance anxiety, past
sexual trauma, age factor and poor body image. Sound sexual health can be achieved through
counseling and sex therapy, medication, and lifestyle changes.

Medical checkups are regularly recommended to ensure it is not due to any untreated medical
condition, quitting smoking, sexual compatibility and regular kergel exercise. In Ayurveda, poor
sexual performance includes a cessation of the sexual desire owing to increased thoughts and
forced intercourse, excessive use of certain substances with pungent, acid or saline taste or heat
making articles which leads to loss of Saumya Dhatu (watery principle) of the organism, virile
impotency resulting from inadequate semen in persons addicted to excessive sexual pleasure,
diseases such as syphilis, Sahaja impotency (congenital or sexual incapacity from birth),
voluntary suppression of the sexual desire by a strong man observing perfect continence and
impotency due to the destruction of local Marma (spermatic cord) (Singh et al. 1985). Male
impotence or erectile dysfunction is caused mainly by cardiovascular leakages and diabetes
among other factors and the use of plants or plant based products to stimulate sexual desire and
to enhance performance and enjoyment is almost as old as human race itself. Androgens play
significant role in male reproductive health as it acts centrally and peripherally during initiation
and sexual intercourse. Stimuli such as steroids (testosterone) are known to either upregulate or
downregulate androgen response (Ganthaman et al., 2000). Treatment of erectile dysfunction
may involve psychotherapeutic approach and pharmacotherapy using drugs such as papaverin,
alprostadil, vardenafil and central stimulants like apomorphine or herbal drugs with aphrodisiac
activity (Neelesh et al., 2011).

The ability to procreate is enhanced through sound sexual health. Poor sexual performance is a
major factor that must be overcomed for lasting peace in some marriages. Sexuality is a central
aspect of being human throughout life and encompasses sex, gender and roles, sexual orientation,
eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in
thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviour, practices, roles and
relationships. It is also important to note that while sexuality can include all of these dimensions,
not all of them can be experienced or expressed. Sexuality is influenced by the interaction of
biological, social, economic, political, cultural, ethical, historical, and religious and spiritual
factors (Patel et al., 2011; Sabna et al., 2013).

Sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships as
well as the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences free of coercion,
discrimination and violence. The concept of sexual performance varies from one individual to
another. Sexual performance is naturally important to men due to their ego and instincts to
procreate. The ability to satisfy a woman, the size of a man’s penis which is often though
wrongly associated with sexual ability is what makes up every man. Poor sexual performance
causes low self-esteem and due to natural sexual instinct, humans are able to attract suitable
mates and procreate. Sexual performance in male sex is fundamental in the following areas; the
ability to satisfy a woman and give her orgasms and the ability to impregnate a woman
(Aggarwal, 2013). Poor sexual performance can be defined in various ways based on one’s
concept of sexual health. The inability to give a woman an orgasm, inability to erect and sustain
and erected penis, premature ejaculation, being selfish towards your lover’s needs during sexual
intercourse, ignoring foreplay, being too uptight during sex which can make the experience less
sensual, routine and boring sex as well as poor communication constitutes poor sexual
performance (Higgins et al., 2010).
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Sexual Function

Various factors can cause sexual dysfunction and contribute to sexual function. Some are
mentioned below;

 Psychological: Erectile Dysfunction can also be caused by psychological conditions

and social problems such as stress, depression, and unhappy relationships. Erectile
dysfunction may be caused by diseases that affect libido and the brain’s perception of
arousal, such as Alzheimer’s, stroke, Parkinson, or brain trauma and injury to the
spinal cord which may interrupt neural pathways to the sacral region, preventing or
inhibiting the process of achieving erection (Lasker et al., 2010).
 Hormonal Abnormalities: Hormonal abnormalities such as low level of testosterone
or androgen have been implicated in the modulation of erectile functions, and high
level of prolactin which could cause hypogonadism and low blood testosterone
concentration levels could lead to decrease in sex drive. Prolactin increases the
production of breast milk and suppresses the secretion of Luteinising Hormone (LH)
and Follicle Stimulating Hormone. The role of prolactin in men is not known.
However, high level of prolactin in men may cause hypogonadism; low blood
testosterone levels, decrease in sex drive (libido) and sexual function (Aversa and
Fabbri, 2001). Any medicinal agents that could suppress the production of prolactin
would enhance the production of Luteinising Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH) and by extension increases testosterone concentration (Pardridge,
1986).
 Aging: As men age there is a natural decrease in testosterone production and this
could contribute to erectile dysfunction by decreasing the sex drive. Sexual
dysfunction increases with age, men age between 40-70 years old could be affected
by this disorder called erectile dysfunction. This could be due to alteration of nitric
oxide (NO) synthesis or low level of testosterone. This could be one explanation for
the increasing incidence of erectile dysfunction with aging men (Sullivan et al.,
1999).
  Penile injury or disease: Peyronie’s diseases, priapism, anatomical defect could lead
to poor sexual performance (Singh et al., 2013).
 Chronic diseases: such as diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular, hypertension, vascular
disease, dyslipidemia, renal failure and hepatic disease could also affect erectile
function. National Institutes of Health (NIH) reports that 35 to 50 percent of men with
diabetes experiences erectile dysfunction (Nwafor, 2019).
 Lifestyle: Poor diet, relationship issues, cigarette smoking, alcohol abuse, lack of
exercise and overweight could lead to poor sexual performance (Schlichthrost et al.
2016). High levels of alcohol consumption could result in Zinc deficiency (Shalny et
al., 2018).
 Medication or drugs: Medication may cause erectile dysfunction through similar
pathophysiological mechanism. Medications are estimated to be responsible for
approximately 10-25% of cases of erectile dysfunction (Keene and Davies, 1999).
The use of many common medications such as blood pressure drugs, antihistamines,
antidepressant, tranquillizer, appetite suppressant, chemotherapy, hormone
replacement and antiulcer drugs such as cimetidine, could cause erectile dysfunction
as a side effect (Clayton et al., 2002).

2.1 Male Reproductive Organ

The penis, male genital organ, has two functions; sexual and urination. It is located above the
scrotum, linked to the pubic syphilis by ligaments as Fig 2.1 (Mutambirwa and Segone 2013).
The penis is innervated by autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic) and somatic (Sensory
and Motor). The sympathetic pathway originates from the 11th thoracic to the second lumbar
spinal segments and passes through the white rami to sympathetic chain ganglia (International
journal of impotence research). The blood supply to the penis comes from the terminal branches
of the pudendal artery, which is a branch of the internal iliac artery with venous drainage
following the same reverse route. Nerve supply is both Somatic (arising from root S2-S4) and
Autonomic (sympathetic nerve root T10-L2 and Parasympathetic) which all contribute to the
pelvis plexus (Mutambirwa and Segone, 2013). The penis is composed of three bodies of erectile
tissue running in parallel; the Corpus Spongiosum encompassing the urethra and terminating in
the glands penis and the two Corpora Cavernosa (CC), which functions as blood filled
capacitors, providing structure for the erect organ. The penile tissue, corpora cavernosa are
highly specialized vascular structures that are morphologically adapted to their function of
becoming engorged during arousal. There are three main arteries in the penis cavernosal, dorsal
and bulbourethral. Novel findings revealed that pudendal arteries contribute about 70% of the
total penile vascular resistance (Nunes and Webb, 2012).

2.2 Physiology and Mechanism of Normal Erector

Penile erection is a complex neurovascular event involving the interaction of the three
physiological systems; the Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous System and Penile
arterial and Trabecular smooth muscle (Wagner and Mulhail, 2001). Erectile function is a
balance between two contrasting forces with orgasm happening in between, these are flaccidity
or DE tumescence which is an active smooth muscle process with constriction of the arterial bed
mainly a postsynaptic alpha sympathetic function but with contribution from other neurovascular
factors including Angiotensin II, Prostagladin EF2 (PGF2) and endothelins (Anderson and
Michel, 2011). Penile erection involves central and peripheral pathways. Erection is initiated
after central processing and integration of tactile, visual, olfactory and imaginative stimulus upon
sexual stimulation. Signals are generated to the peripheral tissues involved (Nunes and Webb,
2012). Stimulation of the parasympathetic and non-adrenergic, non-cholinergic nerves (NANC),
promotes vascular and cavernosal relaxation, leading to an increase in blood flow and intra-
cavernosal pressure resulting to penile erection. Also, stimulation of parasympathetic nervous
system inhibits noradrenaline release and evokes acetylcholine release, which binding to
muscarinic receptors in endothelial cells promotes endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS),
activation and consequently, production of nitric oxide (NO). Nitric oxide is formed from the
amino acid precursor LArginine by enzymatic action of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), which exist
in three main isoforms neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), inducible nitric oxide synthase
(iNOS) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) are detected in penile tissue and these could
increase the concentration of 3 15 1 - cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate (cGMP), which is
released from the smooth muscle (Bella et al., 2008). There are two main intracellular
mechanism for relaxing the cavernosal smooth muscle granulate cyclase (cGMP) and Adenylate
cyclase (cAMP) pathways. Nitric oxide upon its release diffuses locally into adjacent tissues
(Mullhall et al., 1997). Several central transmitters are involved in erectile control; dopamine,
acetylcholine, nitric oxide, and peptides, such as oxytocin, adrenocorticotropin stimulating
hormone have facilitatory role, where as serotonin may be either facilitatory or inhibitory. The
balances between contracting and relaxant factors control the degree of contraction of the smooth
muscle of corpora cavernosa and determine the functional state of the penis (Mullhall et al.,
1997). Relaxation of penile smooth muscle is necessary for erection, which allows blood to flow
into the penile structures resulting in increase in cavernosal pressure. The relaxation of cavernous
smooth muscle depends on the known neurotransmitter prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) and nitric oxide
(NO). The smooth muscle relaxation during erection depends upon promoting of Ca2+ efflux
from smooth muscle cells, as well as the sequestration of intracellular calcium in the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. The relaxation of penile is mediated mainly by nitric oxide, which
activates the enzyme granulate cyclase. This enzyme (granulate cyclase) increases the formation
of cGMP as a second messenger and in turn promotes the efflux of Ca2+ ion, enabling the
smooth muscle of corpora cavernosa to relax, resulting in erection. The cGMP is hydrolyzed to
GMP by Phosphodiesterase 5 enzyme (PDE-5) [Burnett 1999]. The enzyme phosphodiesterase -
5 degrades cGMP leading to penile smooth muscle contraction, DE tumescence, and inhibitions
of these enzymes enhances nitric oxide and facilitate erections. It also increases the level of
cAMP which is also an erotogenic (Dean and Lue , 2005). DE tumescence enhances vascular
drainage and this could result to decrease in the intra-cavernosal pressure. The flaccid state of
penis is maintained by contraction of penile smooth muscle caused by intracellular accumulation
of Ca2+ ion, affected by the stimulation of α1 - adrenergic receptors by noradrenaline (Hedlund
and Anderson, 1985).

2.3 Pathophysiology of Erectile Dysfunction

Sexual dysfunction may occur due to loss of desire (libido), problems with ejaculation and
failure of the testes to make normal amount of male sex hormones and this could be a very
distressing condition for men. It can erode the male essence (Essien et al. 2017). Failure of
adequate venous supply or occlusion has been proposed as one of the most common causes of
vasculogenic impotence. Veno-occlusive dysfunction may result from the following
pathophysiological processes;

a. The presence or development of large venous channels draining the corpora cavernosa.
 b. Degenerative changes or traumatic injury to the tunica albuginea (penile fracture)
resulting to adequate compression of the subtunical and emissary vein.
c. Brain and brain stem: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH), oxytocin may stimulate
erection in animals, ACTH may act by inhibiting the effects of opioid and oxytocin as an
excitatory neurotransmitter and is localized in pathways not only to the brains stem, but
also the spinal autonomic centers, and on the other hand, the activating of ɤ –amino
butyric acid, α2- adrenergic, opiate, prolactin or neuropeptide, ɤ - receptor, in these
regions of the brain, appear to have anti-erectile function. Stimulation of parasympathetic
nerves induces penile erection, while sympathetic nerves induce penile DE tumescence
and terminate erection (Chuang and Steers, 1999).

2.4 Mechanism of Action Aphrodisiac Agents

Various substances both natural and synthetic have been suggested to have aphrodisiac
properties, but their mechanisms of action can vary.

i. Neurotransmitters and Hormones:

Aphrodisiacs often exert their effects by influencing the levels or activity of neurotransmitters
and hormones involved in sexual arousal and pleasure. For example, dopamine, a
neurotransmitter associated with reward and pleasure, plays a crucial role in sexual motivation.
Substances that increase dopamine levels or enhance its activity may contribute to heightened
sexual desire. Similarly, serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, can influence
sexual function. Some aphrodisiacs aim to modulate these neurotransmitters to enhance sexual
experiences.

ii. Nitric Oxide (NO) Pathway:

The production of nitric oxide (NO) is a critical biochemical process in sexual arousal and
erectile function. NO acts as a vasodilator, relaxing the smooth muscles in blood vessels and
increasing blood flow to the genitalia. This increased blood flow is essential for the physiological
responses associated with sexual arousal in both men and women. Certain aphrodisiacs are
thought to promote NO production or inhibit its breakdown, thereby improving blood flow and
sexual performance.
 iii. Endocrine System:

The endocrine system, particularly the regulation of sex hormones, plays a fundamental role in
sexual function. Testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone are hormones involved in sexual
desire, libido, and performance. Aphrodisiacs may influence hormone levels or receptor activity,
thereby modulating sexual function. For instance, substances that increase testosterone
production or mimic its effects might enhance sexual desire and performance in both males and
females.

iv. Psychological Factors:

Psychological factors significantly influence sexual desire and arousal. Stress, anxiety, and mood
disorders can negatively impact sexual function. Some aphrodisiacs aim to address these
psychological aspects by promoting relaxation, reducing anxiety, or improving mood. These
substances may act on the central nervous system, modulating neurotransmitter activity and
promoting a positive psychological state conducive to sexual experiences.

v. Placebo Effect:

The psychological phenomenon known as the placebo effect can also play a role in the
biochemistry of aphrodisiacs. Expectations and beliefs about the efficacy of a substance can
influence the individual's perception of sexual function. The placebo effect can lead to
improvements in sexual experiences, even if the aphrodisiac lacks specific biochemical
mechanisms of action.

vi. Serotonergic modulation:

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation and has complex effects on sexual
desire and function. Some aphrodisiacs may influence serotonin levels or receptor activity,
potentially enhancing sexual arousal and pleasure. However, the exact mechanisms are not well
understood, and manipulating serotonin levels can have diverse effects on different individuals.
vii. Endorphin release:

Endorphins are natural chemicals produced by the body that act as pain relievers and mood
enhancers. It is believed that certain aphrodisiacs can stimulate the release of endorphins, leading
to feelings of euphoria and heightened sexual pleasure.

viii. Phytochemical compounds:

Many natural aphrodisiacs, such as certain herbs and plants, contain bioactive compounds that
may have a range of effects on the body. For example, some plants contain phytoestrogens,
which are estrogen-like compounds that could influence hormonal balance and sexual function.
Other plants may contain alkaloids, flavonoids, or other compounds that could affect
neurotransmitters or blood flow.

ix. Sensory stimulation:

Aphrodisiacs can also work through sensory stimulation, enhancing the senses and creating a
more pleasurable sexual experience. For example, certain scents, flavors, or textures can
stimulate the senses and contribute to an increased state of arousal.

2.5 Mechanism of Action of Aphrodisiac Agents used in Traditional Medicine

Aphrodisiac agents used in traditional medicine could act via the following mechanisms:

a. Some aphrodisiac substances provide a burst of nutritional value improving the

immediate health or wellbeing of the consumer and consequently improving sexual
performance and libido. Such nutritional components are potassium, calcium, zinc,
magnesium also play significant role in all the processes that promote penile erection
(Samuel et al. 2016).
b. This group includes aphrodisiacs that have more specific physiological effects but are
not centrally active. These agents affect blood flow, increase duration of sexual
performance by numbing the genital area, due to reduction of the penile organ to stimuli;
for example, Samsu oil, which contains Ginger rhizome, as a major constituent,
 Kaempferia parviflora, Wall. Ex Baker (Zingiberaceae) Beberis vulgaris L.
(Berberiaceae) (Chen et al., 2018).
c. Compounds that are psychoactive cross the blood brain barrier and stimulate some area
of sexual arousal in the brain. Substances often used as aphrodisiac cross the blood brain
barrier and mimic or stimulate some area of sexual arousal in the central nervous system.
These substances may also limit the influence of sympathetic nervous system in order to
correct erectile dysfunction (Gundidza et al., 2009). These categories include some
hormones, pheromones and a wide range of neurotransmitters. Example of such plant is
Pausinystalia yohimbe (K. Schum) W. Brandt, Rubiaceae (Semwal et al., 2013).
d. Increase in testicular, serum cholesterol and testosterone levels have been shown to be
linked to the aphrodisiac activity of medicinal plants. This is sequel to cholesterol being a
precursor for the production of several physiologically important steroids which include
sex hormone, bile acid and vitamin D. Following the increase in cholesterol, testosterone
concentration may increase via steroidogenesis which should normally reflect in a
corresponding increase in libido (Yakubu and Ogunro, 2014).
FIG 2.1 A diagram of the male reproductive organ (Google Scholar)
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Aphrodisiac Plants

The term ‘aphrodisiac’ was derived from the Greek word ‘aphrodite’ which represents a symbol
of love and beauty. Over the years, a large number of natural remedies have played different
roles as aphrodisiacs in different cultures and civilizations. There is a natural interest of human
beings for substances that stimulate libido, potency, virility, and sexual pleasure as it takes care
of sexual desires, ejaculation, orgasm and erectile dysfunction. An aphrodisiac literally includes
substances that have played significant roles in the management of sexual dysfunction and which
also improves sexual behaviour and satisfaction in humans and other animals (Sing and Singh,
2012).

According to Ayurveda, aphrodisiacs are classified in the following categories; drugs which
increase the quantity of semen or stimulate the production of semen such as Microstylis
wallichii, Roscoea procera, Polygonatum verticillatum, Mucuna pruriens and Asparagus
racemosus, drugs which purify and improve the quality of semen for example, Saussurea lappa,
Myrica nagi, Sesamum indicum, Vetiveria zizanoides and Anthocephalus cadamba, drugs which
improve ejaculatory functions for example, Strychnos nux vomica, Cannabis sativa, Myristica
fragrans and Cassia occidentalis, drugs delaying the time of ejaculation or improving ejaculatory
performance such as Sida cordifolia, Asparagus racemosus, Cinnamomum tamala, Anacyclus
pyrethrum, Mucuna pruriens and Cannabis sativum, drugs arousing sexual desire, namely.
Withania somnifera, Asparagus rcaemosus, Datura stramonium, Anacyclus pyrethrum, Hibiscus
abelmoschus and opium (Neyehev and Mitev, 2005). The use of plant based products to
stimulate sexual desires and enhance performance and pleasure is almost as old as human race
itself since man cannot alienate self from using plants and plant based products for the treatment
of his ailments.

Aphrodisiacs are basically grouped into two; psychophysiological stimuli (visual, tactile,
olfactory and aural) preparations and internal preparations such as food, alcoholic drinks and
love portion. Aphrodisiacs can also be categorized based on their mode of action into three
groups; substances that increase libido (sexual desire and arousal), substances that increase
sexual potency (effectiveness of erection) and substances that increase sexual pleasure (Chauhan
et al., 2014). From a scientific standpoint, many historically “powerful” aphrodisiacs may have
had such strong results due to mere belief or their powers by users, while nowadays, because of
science, many foods are considered to be helpful in your sex life because of the nutrients,
vitamins and minerals which they contain. Many herbs have been scientifically proven to
increase sexual desire and much more. Plants which possess ability to boost sexual performance
and virility include the following; Almonds, Asparagus, Avocado, Banana, Coconut, Dates,
Garlic, Mango, Mushroom, Olive, Onion, Sesame seeds, Parsely, Wheat grass, Mints, Aloe, and
Celery among others (Dale, 2008). Apart from medicinal plants, several other drugs of metal and
mineral origin are also described in ayurveda for their spermatogenic and virility activities.
These include varatika (calcium), gold, etc, Animal products such as meat soup of cock,
peacock, swan or sparrow; semen of crocodile, etc. have been reported to possess aphrodisiac
activity (Charaka et al., 2007).

3.1 Mechanism of Action of Aphrodisiac Plants

Penile erection is controlled by the balance between the factors leading to the contraction and
relaxation of smooth muscles of the corpus cavernosa, these effects may occur directly on the
central nervous system and/or on the peripheral nervous system by the alteration of blood flow to
the genitalia. Neurochemical systems such as norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine
and histamine work together for increase in sexual arousal. There are different mechanisms of
action of aphrodisiacs such as nitric oxide (NO)-based mechanism of action and androgen based
mechanism of action. The neurotransmitter NO drives the relaxation of the penile vasculature
and trabecular smooth muscles which play significant roles in penile erection. Relaxation of the
trabecular smooth muscles of the corpus cavernous leads to decreased vascular resistance and
increased blood flow to the penis. A decrease on outflow is ensurd by the compression of the
subtunical venules. Both increased inflow and decreased outflow results to penile engorgement
and erection. Vasolidation is mediated by NO from the vascular endothelium of the sinusoids
and nonadrenergic, noncholinergic and cavernosal nerves. Androgens such as testosterone play
crucial role in the development of secondary sexual characters such as epididymis, vas deferens,
seminal vesicle, prostate and the penis. The conversion of testosterone to estradiol in the
hypothalamus increases sexual functions. Penile erections are also caused by cyclic adenosine
monophosphate pathway (cAMP) through the mediation of corporal smooth muscles and
respective enzymes and proteins such as prostalglandin and the protein kinase G which causes
smooth muscles relaxation and also increases the concentration of Ca2+ which induces a loss of
the contractile tone of the penile smooth muscles and increase blood flow in the cavernous body
thus yielding and erection (Andersson, 1995).

3.2 Medicinal Plants with Aphrodisiac Properties

3.2.1 Phoenix dactylifera

The date palm pollen (DPP) is used in the traditional medicine for male infertility. The effect of
Phoenix dactylifera, pollen, on sperm parameters and reproductive system of adult male rats was
studied and the results indicated that the consumption of DPP suspensions improved the sperm
count, motility, morphology, and DNA quality with a concomitant increase in the weights of
testis and epididymis. Constituents and the date palm contains estradiol and flavonoid
components that have positive effects on the sperm quality.

Pheonix dactylifera or Date Palm Pollen (DPP), the male reproductive dust of palm flowers,
belongs to the family Arecaceae (angiosperms, monocotyledon). It is a subtropical fruit tree,
native to Iraq and other countries of the Middle East and West Africa, and it is the only phoenix
species grown for its edible fruits. It is commonly known as Palmera, Tamara, Palmadatilrira,
Datilero, Hurma (Abdelmajid, 2005) and its names among some ethnic groups in Nigeria include
dabino (Hausa), Esoanobi (Yoruba), ubeokpoko (Igbo). DPP is widely cultivated in Saudi Arabia
and it is fascinating to point that approximately 1000 tons of DPPs are reproduced every year by
millions of palm trees grown in the Arabic regions (Mohammed et al., 2015). The use of date
palm in folk treatment of erectile dysfunction and infertility in males by the people of western
Africa (Nigeria) has been reported (Abdi et al., 2017). Phytochemical analysis reveals that date
palm pollen contains a variety of compounds including flavonoids, saponins, sterols, glycosides,
phenolic acids, amino acids, fatty acids. However, since estrogen has been reported to contribute
to the control of spermatogenetic stem cells and male reproductive tissues with estrogen
receptors, date palm pollen which holds estrogenic gonad stimulating compounds, estrogen,
sterols, and other useful micronutrients, can help treat erectile dysfunction. The mechanism of
the aphrodisiac effect of the phytochemicals constituents of P. dactylifera on some enzymes and
receptors involved in sexual functions such as PDE-5, aromatase, and arginase II using virtual
and molecular docking techniques.
FIG 3.1: Image of Phoenix dactylifera (Wikipedia)
3.2.2 Chione venosa

The Caribbean island of Grenada furnishes the popular aphrodisiac drug ‘Bois Bande’, which
consists of the stem bark and the roots of Chione venosa (SW.) URBAN var. venosa
(Rubiaceae), a native tree growing in the islands rain forest. The phytochemical investigation of
dichloromethane and methanolic-aqueous extracts of the bark and the roots yielded three
acetophenone derivatives described for the first time in plants and ortho-hydroxyacetophenone
azine, acetophenone2-O-[β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1’,6’)-β-D-glucopyranoside] and acetophenone-2-
O-β-D-glucopyranoside, along with five known compounds, α-morroniside, sweroside,
diderroside, daucosterol and βsitosterol. Their structures were elucidated by 1D and 2D NMR
analysis, UV-Vis and ESI-MS spectroscopy. It was concluded that the study of the chemical
composition of Chione venosa (SW.) URBAN var. venosa has revealed the presence of three
acetophenones hitherto unknown in plants, three iridoids and two well-known triterpenes. These
results not only enhance the knowledge of a traditionally used medicinal plant but also contribute
to the aphrodisiac potential of the plant (Lendl et al., 2005)
FIG 3.2 Image of Chione venosa (Wikipedia)
3.2.3 Fadogia agrestis

The phytochemical constituents and the aphrodisiac potential of the aqueous extract of Fadogia
agrestis (Rubiaceae) stem in male albino rats were evaluated. All the doses resulted in
significant increase in mount frequency, intromission frequency and significantly prolonged the
ejaculatory latency (p < 0.05) and reduced mount and intromission latency (p < 0.05). There was
also a significant increase in serum testosterone concentrations in all the groups in a manner
suggestive of dose-dependence (p < 0.05). The Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of
alkaloids and saponins while antraquinones and flavonoids are weakly present. The aqueous
extract of Fadogia agrestis stem increased the blood testosterone concentrations and this may be
the mechanism responsible for its aphrodisiac effects and various masculine behaviors. It may be
used to modify impaired sexual functions in animals, especially those arising from
hypotestosteronemia (Yakubu et al., 2005).
FIG 3.3 Image of Fadogia agrestis (Wikipedia)
3.2.4 Satureja khuzestanica

Satureja khuzestanica Jamzad is an endemic plant that is widely distributed in the Southern part
of Iran. It is famous for its medical uses as analgesic and antiseptic in folk medicine. The genus
Satureja belongs to the family Lamiaceae, subfamily Nepetoideae and the tribe Mentheae. There
are evidences indicating that carvacrol and flavonoids are the main constituents of Satureja spp.
Four compounds β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, ursolic acid and 4’,5 , 6-
trihydroxy-3’,7- dimethoxyflavone were characterized from the dichloromethane extract of the
aerial parts of Satureja khuzistanica. The study was undertaken to see the effect of Satureja
khuzestanica essential oil (SKEO) in male rat fertility. SKEO was administered orally at doses of
75, 150, and 225 mg/kg/day for 45 days in drinking water. Treated and control rats were mated
with female on day 45 of treatment. SKEO significantly improved all the parameters evaluated
such as potency, fecundity, fertility index, and litter size. It contains more than 0.5% of essential
oil. The concentrations of FSH and testosterone were significantly increased in SKEOtreated
groups. Also the weights of testes, seminal vesicles, and ventral prostate weights were increased
by SKEO (225 mg/kg). Histopathological analysis showed that in male rats treated with SKEO
(150, 225 mg/kg) the number of spermatogonium, spermatid cords, Leydig cells, and
spermatozoids were increased (Haeri et al., 2006).
FIG 3.4 Image of Satureja khuzestanica (Wikipedia)
3.2.5 Eurycoma longifolia

Eurycoma longifolia Jack commonly known as Tongkat Ali is well known among various ethnic
groups in Malaysia for treating disease and enhancing health and as such, it is sometimes
referred to as ëMalaysian ginsengí. A recent research reports the isolation of several quassinoids
from Eurycoma longifolia. Certain quassinoids, isolated from Eurycoma longifolia are known to
possess a variety of biological activities, including antitumor, antiviral, antifeedant, antiamoebic
and anti-inflammatory activities. The effects of Eurycoma longifolia Jack were studied on the
sexual qualities of middle aged male rats after dosing them with 0.5 g/kg of various fractions of
E. longifolia whilst the control group received 3 mL/kg of normal saline daily for 12 weeks.
Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, lactones and phenolics. The study
shows that E. longifolia Jack enhanced the sexual qualities of the middle aged male rats, and
further studies should be conducted to determine if this plant has the above property in middle
aged men (Ang et al., 2003).
FIG 3.5 Image of Eurycoma longifolia (Wikipedia)
3.2.6 Ruta chalepensis

Ruta chalepensis has been used medicinally in many ancient cultures. In ancient Turkish and
Chinese literature, its use as an abortifacient and uterine stimulant was reported. Plant showed
the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, coumarins, tannins, volatile oil, sterols and/or triterpenes.
The plant had a spermotrophic action demonstrated by Abdullah and Qarawi, in experimental
study, by an increase in sperm count, motility, living percent, and a decrease in encountered
sperm abnormalities. The hormonal profile was also influenced by the R. chalepensis extract.
The testosterone and FSH levels were significantly increased with no change in the LH and
prolactin levels. From the naturally occurring coumarins, only the 3-phenylcoumarins have been
present in Ruta chalepensis possessing potent estrogenic activity. The stimulatory effect of Ruta
chalepensis mediated through a pituitarytesticle axis participating in the physiological events of
spermatogenesis (Abdullah et al., 2005).
FIG 3.6 Image of Ruta chalepensis (Wikipedia)
3.2.7 Butea frondosa

B. frondosa (Fabaceae), is traditionally claimed to possess aphrodisiac, expectorant,

emmenagogue, diuretic and astringent properties. The plant Butea frondosa has also been
indicated in the Indian system of medicine as a plant augmenting memory and as a rejuvenator.
The skin of the bark and resin contains tannic and gallic acids. The plant gives a resin gum,
called as Kino oil, proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes, palasonin, sitosterol, amyrin, monospermin,
lectins and lactone. The study done by S. Ramachandran, confirmed the claims of B. frondosa as
an aphrodisiac agent. Sexually active and inactive animals showed increased and improved
sexual performance, when B. frondosa extract (400 mg/kg b. w.) was administered for a period
of 21 to 28 days. Mount latency (ML), intromission latency (IL), ejaculation latency (EL),
mounting frequency (MF), intromission frequency (IF), ejaculation frequency (EF) and post-
ejaculatory interval (PEI) were the parameters observed before and during the sexual behavior
study. Monoamines were present as an active constituent. The extract reduced significantly ML,
IL, EL and PEI (p < 0.05). The extract also increased significantly MF, IF and EF (p < 0.05).
These effects were observed in sexually active and inactive male rats (Ramachandran et al.,
2004).
FIG 3.7 Image of Butea frondosa (Wikipedia)
3.2.8 Myristica fragrans

M. fragrans commonly known as nutmeg, widely used as spice and in alternative medicine, has
been reported to have aphrodisiac, stomachic, carminative, tonic, nervous stimulant, aromatic,
narcotic, astringent, hypolipidemic, antithrombotic, antifungal, antidysentric and anti-
inflammatory properties. Nutmeg is the dried kernel of broadly ovoid seed of Myristica fragrans
Houtt. (Myristicaceae). It has been mentioned in Unani medicine to be of value in the
management of male sexual disorders. The study was undertaken to evaluate the aphrodisiac
effect of 50% ethanolic extract of nutmeg along with its likely adverse effects and acute toxicity
using various animal models. The suspension of the extract was administered (100, 250 and 500
mg/kg, p.o.) to different groups of male rats daily for seven days. The female rats involved in
smating were made receptive by hormonal treatment. The general mating behavior, libido and
potency were studied and compared with the standard reference drug sildenafil citrate. The
nutmeg contains a volatile oil, a fixed oil, proteins, fats, starch and mucilage. The fixed oil
contains myristin and myristic acid. Nutmeg yields 5-15% of volatile oil, which contains pinene,
sabinene, camphene, myristicin, elemicin, isoelemicin, eugenol, isoeugenol, methoxyeugenol,
safrole, dimeric phenylpropanoids, lignans and neolignans. The 50% ethanolic extract of nutmeg
possesses aphrodisiac activity, increasing both libido and potency, which might be attributed to
its nervous stimulating property. The study thus provides a scientific rationale for the traditional
use of nutmeg in the management of male sexual disorders (Tajuddin et al., 2005).
FIG 3.8 Image of Myristica fragrans (Wikipedia)
3.3 Classification of conventional aphrodisiac agents

Aphrodisiac is derived from Aphrodite the Greek goddess of sex, love, sweetness and beauty.
Aphrodisiac is defined as an agent (food/drug) that arouses sexual activity. From time
immemorial man’s endeavor has been to improve his sexual prowess because sexual
relationships are the most important social and biological relationship in human life (Singh et al.,
2012). Sexual health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing in all aspects
related to the reproductive system. Compromised sexual abilities may lead to infertility. This
may affect the personal and social life of the couples and also contribute to infertility (Sharma et
al., 2014). Sexual feelings are innate part of life, sex is the most cherished, indispensable and
integral part of every individual and it can be a cradle of pleasure and satisfaction. The goal of
treatment is to ensure improvement in the quantity and quality of penile erection suitable for
intercourse (Erhabor and Idu, 2017). Conventional aphrodisiac agents could be classified
according to their mechanisms of action.

 Phosphodiesterase inhibitors e.g. Sildenafil, Tadalifil, Vardenafil and Papaverine which

is isolated from Papaver somniferum L Papaveraceae (Porst et al., 2003). Sildenafil is a
drug of choice for the management of erectile dysfunction, but side effects with this drug
are headache, flushing, dyspepsia, nasal congestion and priampism (Cahil et al., 2012).
 Adenylcyclase stimulant e.g. Alprostadil (Lee, 2005)
 Hormonal Replacement Therapy: This involves the use of testosterone and its analogue to
enhance the plasma concentration of testosterone which could potentiate the sexual
activity in men (Lee, 2005).
 Others Trazodone, Yohimbine and Phentolamine, Dapoxetine and Lidocaine. These
drugs have limited efficacy (Lee, 2005).
FIG 3.9 Structure of Prostagladin E1 (Wikipedia)
FIG 3.10 Chemical structures of some phosphodiesterase inhibitors, Adenylcyclase stimulant
and miscellaneous agents used. (PubChem)
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Conclusion

The biochemistry of aphrodisiacs is a complex and multifaceted subject that involves various
physiological and psychological factors. While there is a long history of the use of substances
believed to enhance sexual desire and performance, the scientific understanding of aphrodisiac
biochemistry is still evolving.

One important aspect of aphrodisiac biochemistry is the impact on neurotransmitters in the brain.
Neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine play crucial roles in
regulating sexual desire, arousal, and satisfaction. Some aphrodisiacs are believed to affect these
neurotransmitters, either by increasing their release or inhibiting their reuptake, leading to
enhanced mood and heightened sexual response. Dopamine is associated with pleasure and
reward, and its elevation can potentially enhance sexual motivation and enjoyment. Another
neurotransmitter of interest is serotonin, which is involved in regulating mood and emotional
well-being. Some aphrodisiacs are thought to modulate serotonin levels, potentially leading to a
positive impact on sexual desire and mood.

In addition to neurotransmitters, aphrodisiac biochemistry also involves the endocrine system,

particularly hormones such as testosterone and estrogen. These hormones are closely linked to
sexual desire and play a crucial role in reproductive function. Some aphrodisiacs have been
suggested to modulate hormone levels, potentially increasing sexual desire and improving sexual
performance.

Furthermore, the psychological aspect of aphrodisiacs cannot be overlooked. The power of

suggestion and the anticipation of a desired effect can have a significant influence on an
individual's sexual experience. The context in which aphrodisiacs are consumed, such as a
romantic setting or with a partner, can also contribute to their perceived efficacy.

It is important to emphasize that while some substances may exhibit aphrodisiac properties, the
research in this area is limited and often inconclusive. The scientific community has yet to
definitively identify universally effective aphrodisiacs, and the concept of what constitutes an
aphrodisiac can vary culturally and individually.
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