Republic of the Philippines

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Course CHEM111E (Chemistry for Engineers)

Title of the
Unit IV. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY – (Chemistry of Water)
Module
Module No. Module 4 - 2
At the end of this module, the student shall be able:
Learning
a. Discuss the physical, chemical and biological properties of water
Objectives
b. Differentiate permanent hardness from temporary hardness of water.
Content I. Water Properties
Contributor/s Engr. Caesar P Llapitan

Introduction
Water is nature’s most wonderful, abundant, useful compound and is an essential without it one cannot
survive. It occupies a unique position in industries. Its most important use is as an engineering material
in the steam generation. Water is also used as coolant in power and chemical plants. It is also used in
other fields such as production of steel, rayon, paper, atomic energy, textiles, chemicals, ice and for air-
conditioning, drinking, bathing, sanitary, washing, irrigation, etc.

Occurrence:
Water is widely distributed in nature. It has been estimated that about 75% matter on earth’s surface
consists of water. The body of human being consists of about 60% of water. Plants, fruits and vegetables
contain 90-95% of water.

Sources of Water:
Different sources of water are:
Surface Waters: Rain water (purest form of natural water), River water, Lake Water, Sea water (most
impure form of natural water).
Underground Waters: Spring and Well water. Underground waters have high organic impurity.

Since all environmental processes involve water, the characteristics of water play an important role in
identifying environmental processes.
I. WATER CHEMISTRY
A. Physical properties of water
 Water, due to its high boiling point, occurs primarily in its liquid state in a range of
conditions where life thrives, while the other two forms, ice and steam, play an important role
in shaping the environment.
 Water has a high surface tension. Surface tension forces overpower gravity and viscous
forces, and the air-water interface becomes an essentially impenetrable barrier. This is now a
significant influence in the climate and lifestyle of small insects, bacteria and other
microorganisms.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

 Important thermal properties:

Water has a high specific heat capacity meaning that it needs to gain a lot of energy to raise its
temperature. Conversely it also needs to lose a lot of energy to lower its temperature. Water’s specific
heat capacity is 4.2 kJ/g/oC
Water has a high latent heat of vaporisation which means a lot of energy is required to evaporate it.
When it evaporates, water draws thermal energy out of the surface it’s on, which can be observed in
sweating.
Water also has a high latent heat of fusion meaning that at 0°C water must lose a lot of thermal
energy before it freezes, thus liquid water can reach temperatures of down to -10oC before it forms ice.

RELEVANCE TO WATER TREATMENT

 The fundamental physical properties of water that are important to environmental science
are density and viscosity.
1. Density – measure of the concentration of matter
a. mass density, ρ = mass/volume
o dissolved impurities change the density in direct proportion to their concentration and
their own density

b. specific weight,  = force/volume (kN/m3) = ρg

c. specific gravity, s
s = ρ/ρo = /o

where ρo = density of water at 4oC

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

= 1000 kg/m3

= 9.81 kN/m3

2. Viscosity – a measure of resistance to movement of fluids

a. Dynamic viscosity, or absolute viscosity, μ (mass/length-time) Pa-s
b. Kinematic viscosity, ν
ν = μ/ρ (m2/s)

B. States of Solution Impurities

Classifications of solution impurities:
1. Dissolved substance
o The substance is homogeneously dispersed in liquid. They can be simple atoms or
complex molecular compounds
o Dissolved substance can be removed through phase change processes.
a. Distillation – either the liquid or the substance itself is changed from a liquid phase to a gas
phase to achieve separation.
b. Precipitation – substance in the liquid phase combines with another chemical to form a solid
phase, thus achieving separation from water
c. Adsorption – adsorbed substance reacts with a solid particle to form a solid particle-
substance complex
d. Liquid Extraction – the substance is extracted and carried away by another liquid

2. Suspended solids
o Defined as those solids that can be filtered by a glass fiber filter disc and are properly
called filterable solids. Suspended solids can be removed from water by physical methods
such as sedimentation, filtration and centrifugation.
3. Colloidal Particles
o The size range between dissolved substances and suspended particles
o They are in a solid state and can be removed from the liquid by physical means such as
very high-force centrifugation or filtration through membranes with very small pose
spaces

Tyndall Effect
o When light passes through a liquid containing colloidal particles, the light is reflected by
the particles

Turbidity
o Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a liquid created by a significant number of
individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, comparable to smoke in
the air.
o The dynes to which a colloidal suspension reflects light at a 90 o angle to the entrance
beam.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Figure 1. Turbidity is measured in a unit called NTUs. The lower the NTU, the lower the turbidity
http://www.clevelandwater.com/blog/understanding-turbidity-and-why-it-matters.

4. Color
o Combination of dissolved and colloidal materials
o Caused by colloidal iron or manganese complexes, although the most common cause of
color is from complex organic compounds that originate from the decomposition of
organic matter. One common source of color is the degradation of soil humus, which
produces humic acids – imparts reddish-brown color to water

MW: = 800 (dissolved)

= 50,000 (colloidal)

Chemical Units
 Used to perform stoichiometric calculations
1. Weight percent, P
o Employed to express appropriate concentration of commercial chemicals or of solid
concentrations of sludge.
W
P= ×100 %
W+W0

where: W = weight of substance

W0 = grams of solution

Analyst usually give results directly in mass per volume (mg/L) for very dilute solution, the pressure
of the substance does not change the density of water:

Since 1 mL = 1 g water

1 mg 10-3 mL 10-3 mL 1 mL
= = 3 = 6 = 1 ppm
L L 10 mL 10 mL

1 mg/L = 1 ppm

W 1 mg (100) 10-3 g (100)

P= ×100= = = 1 × 10-4 %
W1 + W2 1 10 3 g

Translated into 1 % = 10,000 mg/L

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

In chemical reaction:

M = molarity = no. of moles in a liter of solution

1 mg/L = molarity  molecular weight  103

= (mole/L) (g/mole) (103 mg/g)

2. Equivalent weight (EW)

o Frequently used in softening redox
o EW = MW divided by the number (n) of electrons transferred in redox reaction or the
number of protons transferred in acid/base reactions.
Acids/Base reaction:

o n is the number of hydrogen ions that the molecules transfer

Precipitation reaction:

o n is the valence of the element in question

o for compounds, n is the number of hydrogen ions that would be required to replace the
cation

N = no. of EW per liter of solution

N = nM
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Example 1:

1. Commercial sulphuric acid, H2SO4, is often purchased as a 93-weight percent solution. Find the
mg/L of H2SO4 and the molarity and normality of the solution sulfuric acid has a specific gravity of
1.839.

Solution:
1 L HW = 100 g
1 L H2SO4 of 100% H2SO4: 1000(1.839) = 1839 g

For a 93% solution:

0.93(1839) = 1710 g H2SO4 or 1.710  106 mg/L of H2SO4 in a 93% solution

1710 g / L
M= = 17.45 mole/ L or 17.45 M
98 g / mol

N = nM = (17.45 mole/L) (2 equiv/mole) = 34.9 equiv/L

______________________________________________________________________________
Example 2.
Find the weight of sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, necessary to make a 1M solution. Find the normality
of the solution.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Solution:
Concentrations can also be reported in moles per liter (molarity) or in gram-equivalents per liter
(normality). In the case of chemical reactions, molarity concentrations or normality can be used.
Molarity is related to milligrams per liter.

The molecular weight of NaHCO3 is 84; therefore, the mass that must be added can be determined
by

MW NaHCO3 = 84
mg/L = (1 mole/L) (84 g/mole) = 84 g/L
N = nM = 1 normal

For the preparation of a 1 M solution, 84 g sodium bicarbonate must be added to 1 L of solution.

Since HCO−3 is capable of donating or taking only one proton, n = 1. We can see that normality is the
same as molarity.

____________________________________________________________________________
Example 3.
Find the equivalent weight of each of the following: Ca2+, CO32-, CaCO3

Solution:
Atomic or MW mg
EW = =
n meq

Ca2+: n=2

EW = 40.08/2 = 20.04 g/eq or 20.04 mg/meq

CO32-: n=2

EW = 60.01/2 = 30.00 g/eq or 30.00 mg/meq

CaCO3: n=2

EW = 100.09/2 = 50.04 mg/meq

____________________________________________________________________________
3. pH
- pH is the term used universally to express the intensity of the acidity of a solution
- More precisely, acids are defined as those compounds that release a proton (H+, hydrogen ion)
whereas bases are those compounds that accept protons. Thus, pH is the measurement of
hydrogen ion (H+) activity.
- Pure water dissociates to yield equivalent concentrations of hydrogen [H+] and hydroxide

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

[OH-] ions:
H 2O H   OH 

The equilibrium for pure water is [H+] × [OH-] = Kw = 10-14 =10-7 × 10-7

Therefore, at equilibrium, [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7 = pH of 7

The scale ranges from 0 to 14 [H+] = 10 0 to 10-14

- pH is a critical measurement. Life depends upon it. For instance, human blood is basic with a
pH between 7.3 and 7.5.
o If the blood pH drops < 7.3, acidosis occurs (diabetes).
o If blood pH rises > 7.5, alkalosis occurs (Tums OD).
o Below 7.0 and above 7,8, death occurs

- One unit in pH equals a 10 change in acidity.

o Two units means 100 times change,
o 3 units is 1000 times and so on.

 pH describes a water’s relative acidity, provides no measure of how the water will tolerate
addition of acid or base to the system.
 pH is measured according to electrometric principles based on the Nernst equation. Temperature
is the only variable.
 pH affects nearly every water and wastewater treatment function (wherever some chemistry is
involved)

C. Hardness of water
Hardness of water is a characteristic property by which water “prevents lathering of soap”. This is
due to presence of certain salts like Ca2+, Mg2+ and other heavy metals dissolved in water.

o Soaps (Sodium or Potassium salts of higher fatty acids) like (C 17H35COONa)

C 17 H 35COONa  H 2O  C 17 H 35COOH  NaOH

soap stearic acid

Hard Water: The water which does not give lather with soap is called hard water. This is due to
presence of certain salts like Ca2+, Mg2+ and other heavy metals dissolved in water


2 C 17 H 35COONa  CaCl2 / MgCl2  C17 H 35COO Ca / Mg  2 NaCl 2
soap (soluble) salts (soluble) insoluble scum

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Thus the cause of hardness is the precipitation of the soap and hence prevents lathering at first. When the
hardness causing ions are removed as insoluble soaps, water becomes soft and forms lather.
Causes of Hardness

Rain
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

Top Soil Bacterial action  CO2

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Subsoil ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
↓ CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

Limestone
CaCO3(s) + H2SO3 → Ca(HCO3)2
MgCO3(s) + H2SO3 → Mg(HCO3)2

Hardness of water is due to the presence of Bicarbonates, Chlorides, Sulphates and Nitrates of Calcium
and Magnesium. These soluble salts get mixed with natural water due to the following reasons:

1. When natural water containing CO2 flows over the rocks of the limestone (CaCO3) and Dolamite
(CaCO3 and MgCO3), they get converted into soluble bicarbonates. Thus, water gets hardness.
CaCO3  H 2O  CO2  Ca HCO3 2
insoluble soluble

2. When natural water flows over the rocks containing chlorides and sulphates and Nitrates of Calcium
and magnesium, these salts dissolve in water. Thus water gets hardness.

Note:
 CaCO3 and MgCO3 are both insoluble in water but the bicarbonate is quite soluble.
 Gypsum (CaSO4) and MgSO4 may also go into solution to contribute to the hardness

Hard Water Classification

Hardness Range (mg/L CaCO3) Description
0-75 Soft
75-100 Moderately Hard
100-300 Hard
>300 Very Hard
 Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts are predominant contributors to hardness.

Disadvantages of Hardness

1. In Domestic use:
o Washing: Hard water, when used for washing purposes, does not producing lather freely with
soap. As a result, cleaning quality of soap is decreased and a lot of it is wasted.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

o Bathing: Hard water does not lather freely with soap solution, but produces sticky scum on the
bath-tub and body. Thus, the cleaning quality of soap is depressed and a lot of it is wasted.
o Cooking: The boiling point of water is increased because of presence of salts. Hence more fuel
and time are required for cooking.
o Drinking: Hard water causes bad effects on our digestive system. Moreover, the possibility of
forming calcium oxalate crystals in urinary tracks is increased.

2. Industrial Use
o Textile Industry: Hard water causes wastage of soap. Precipitates of calcium and magnesium
soaps adhere to the fabrics and cause problem.
o Sugar Industry: The water which containing sulphates, nitrates, alkali carbonates are used in
sugar refining, cause difficulties in the crystallization of sugar.
o Dyeing Industry: The dissolved salts in hard water may reacts with costly dyes forming
precipitates.
o Paper Industry: Calcium, magnesium, Iron salts in water may affect the quality of paper.
o Pharmaceutical Industry: Hard water may cause some undesirable products while preparation
of pharmaceutical products.

3. Steam generation in Boilers:

o For steam generation, boilers are almost invariably employed. If the hard water is fed directly to
the boilers, there arise many troubles such as: Scales & sludges formation, Corrosion, Priming &
Foaming and Caustic embrittlement.
Types of Hardness

Hardness of water is mainly two types: Temporary Hardness and Permanent Hardness

1. Temporary Hardness or carbonate hardness

- defined as the amount of hardness equal to the total hardness or the total alkalinity, whichever is
less
- caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of Calcium, Magnesium (Ca (HCO 3)2, Mg
(HCO3)2) and the carbonate of Fe2+


Ca HCO3 2 
heating
 CaCO3   H2O  CO2

Mg  HCO3  
heating
 Mg  OH 2   2 CO2
2

- Temporary Hardness can be largely removed by boiling of water.

o At pH < 8.3, HCO3- is the dominant form of alkalinity, and total alkalinity is nominally taken
to be equal to the concentration of HCO3-

2. Permanent Hardness or non-carbonate hardness

- It is due to the presence of dissolved Chlorides, Nitrates and Sulphates of Calcium, Magnesium,
Iron and other metals. Permanent hardness responsible salts are CaCl 2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4,
FeSO4, Al2(SO4)3.
- total hardness in excess of the alkalinity
o If the alkalinity is equal to or greater than the total hardness, then there is no noncarbonated
hardness.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

- Permanent Hardness cannot be removed by boiling but it can be removed by the use of
chemical agents.
Total Hardness (TH) = Ca2+ + Mg2+ (mg/L as CaCO3 or meq/L)

In terms of the two components of hardness:

a. HCO3 anion (carbonate hardness, CH)
b. Noncarbonated hardness (NCH)

TH = CH + NCH

Expression and Units of Hardness

The expression of hardness producing salts usually expressed in terms of an equivalent amount of
CaCO3. Calcium Carbonate is chosen as a standard because:

i Its molecular weight (100) and equivalent weight (50) is a whole number, so the calculations in
water analysis can be simplified.
ii It is the most insoluble salt that can be precipitated in water treatment.

1. Calculation of equivalents of CaCO3:

The conversion of the hardness-causing salts into CaCO3 equivalents can be achieved by using the
following formula:
Chemical equivalents as CaCO3 = (mg/L as species) EWCaCO3/EWspecies
Or
Chemical equivalents as CaCO3 = (Weighthardness-causing salt)(100)(50)/MWsalt
Multiplication factor for
Chemical Equivalent Or
Salt/ion Molar mass converting into equivalents of
Equivalent Weight
CaCO3
Ca(HCO3)2 162 81 100/162
Mg(HCO3)2 146 73 100/146
CaSO4 136 68 100/136
CaCl2 111 55.5 100/111
MgSO4 120 60 100/120
MgCl2 95 47.5 100/95
CaCO3 100 50 100/100
MgCO3 84 42 100/84
CO2 44 22 100/44
Ca(NO3)2 164 82 100/164
Mg(NO3)2 148 74 100/148
HCO3- 61 61 100/122
OH- 17 17 100/34

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

CO32- 60 30 100/60
NaAlO2 82 82 100/164
Al2(SO4)3 342 57 100/114
FeSO4.7H2O 278 139 100/278
H+ 1 1 100/2
HCl 36.5 1 100/73

2. Units of Hardness
1. Parts per Million (ppm): The number of parts of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness presents
in 106 parts of water.
1 ppm = 1 part of CaCO3 eq hardness in 106 parts of water.

2. Milligrams per litre (mg/l): The number of milligrams of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness
presents in litre of water.
1 mg/L = 1 mg of CaCO3 eq hardness in 1 liter of water.

But one liter of water weights = 1 kg = 1000g = 1000  1000 mg = 106 mg = 1 ppm

3. Clark’s degree (°Cl): The number of parts of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness presents in
70,000 or (7 × 104) parts of water.
1° Clarke = 1 part of CaCO3 eq hardness per 70,000 parts of water

4. Degree French (°Fr): The number of parts of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness presents in 105
parts of water.
1° Fr = 1 part of CaCO3 hardness eq per 105 parts of water

Relationship between various units of hardness

1 ppm = 1 mg/L = 0.1° Fr = 0.07° Cl

1 mg/L = 1 ppm = 0.1° Fr = 0.07° Cl

1 ° Cl = 1.433° Fr = 14.3 ppm = 14.3 mg/L

1 ° Fr = 10 ppm = 10 mg/L = 0.7° Cl

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Example 4.
A sample of water is found to contains following dissolving salts in milligrams per liter Mg(HCO3)2 = 73,
CaCl2 = 111, Ca(HCO3)2 = 81, MgSO4 = 40 and MgCl2 = 95. Calculate temporary and permanent hardness
and total hardness.

Chemical Engineering Department Module 4 – 2: Page 11

 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Solution:

Name of the Amount of the Molecular weight of

Amounts equivalent
hardness hardness causing hardness causing
to CaCO3 (mg/Lit)
causing salts salts (mg/liter) salts
Mg(HCO3)2 73 146 73 × 100/146 = 50
CaCl2 111 111 111 × 100/111 = 100
Ca(HCO3)2 81 162 81 × 100/162 = 50
MgSO4 40 120 40 × 100/120 = 33.3
MgCl2 95 95 95 × 100/95 = 100

Temporary hardness = Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2

= 50 + 50 = 100 mgs/Lit.

Permanent hardness = CaCl2 + MgSO4 + MgCl2

= 100 + 33.3 + 100 = 233.3 mgs/Lit.

Total hardness = Temporary hardness + Permanent hardness

= 100 + 233.3 = 333.3 mgs/Lit.

______________________________________________________________________________

Example 5.
A sample of water is found to contains following dissolving salts in milligrams per litre Mg(HCO3)2 =
16.8, MgCl2 = 12.0, MgSO4 = 29.6 and NaCl = 5.0. Calculate temporary and permanent hardness of water.
Solution:

the hardness- Amount of the hardness Molecular weight of Amounts equivalent to

causing salts causing salts(mg/Lit) hardness causing salts CaCO3 (mg/Lit)

Mg(HCO3)2 16.8 146 16.8 × 100/146 = 11.50

MgCl2 12.0 95 12.0 × 100/95 = 12.63

MgSO4 29.6 120 29.6 × 100/120 = 24.66

NaCl 5.0 NaCl does not contribute any hardness to water

hence it is ignored.

Temporary hardness = Mg(HCO3)2 = 11.50 mgs/Lit.

Permanent hardness = MgCl2 + MgSO4 = 12.63 + 24.66 = 37.29 mgs/Lit.

______________________________________________________________________________

Chemical Engineering Department Module 4 – 2: Page 12

 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Example 7.
A sample of water is found to contains following analytical data in milligrams per litre Mg(HCO3)2 =
14.6, MgCl2 = 9.5, MgSO4 = 6.0 and Ca(HCO3)2 = 16.2. Calculate temporary and permanent hardness of
water in parts per million, Degree Clarke’s and Degree French.

Solution:

of the Amount of the

Molecular weight of Amounts equivalent to
hardness hardness causing salts
hardness causing salts CaCO3 (mg/Lit)
causing salts (mg/Lit)

Mg(HCO3)2 14.6 146 14.6 × 100/146 = 10

MgCl2 9.5 95 9.5 × 100/95 = 10
MgSO4 6.0 120 6.0 × 100/120 = 5
Ca(HCO3)2 16.2 162 16.2 × 100/162 =10

Temporary hardness [Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (HCO3)2] = 10 + 10 = 20 mg/Lit

= 20 ppm

= 20 × 0.07°Cl = 1.4 °Cl

= 20 × 0.1 °Fr = 2 °Fr

Permanent hardness [MgCl2 + MgSO4] = 10 + 5 = 15 mg/Lit

= 15 ppm

= 15 × 0.07 °Cl = 1.05 °Cl

= 15 × 0.1 °Fr = 1.5 °Fr

_______________________________________________________________________________

Example 8.
Calculate the amount of temporary and permanent hardness of a water sample in Degree Clarke’s,
Degree French and Milligrams per Litre which contains following impurities. Ca(HCO3)2 = 121.5 ppm,
Mg(HCO3)2= 116.8 ppm, MgCl2 = 79.6 ppm and CaSO4 = 102 ppm.

Chemical Engineering Department Module 4 – 2: Page 13

 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Solution:

Hardness- Amount of the hardness Molecular weight of Amounts equivalent

causing salts causing salts(ppm) hardness causing salts to CaCO3 (ppm)

Ca(HCO3)2 121.5 162 121.5 × 100/162 = 75

Mg(HCO3)2 116.8 146 116.8 × 100/146 = 80

MgCl2 79.6 95 79.6 × 100/95 = 3.37

CaSO4 102 136 102 × 100/136 = 75

Temporary hardness [Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (HCO3)2] = 75 + 80 = 155 ppm

= 155 × 0.07 °Cl = 10.85 °Cl

= 155 × 0.1 °Fr = 15.5 °Fr

= 155 × 1 mg/Lit = 155 mg/Lit

Permanent hardness [MgCl2 + CaSO4] = 10 + 5 = 15 mg/Lit

= 15 ppm

= 15 × 0.07 °Cl = 1.05 °Cl

= 15 × 0.1 °Fr = 1.5 °Fr

__________________________________________________________________________________

References:

1. Mackenzie, D. L. and Masten S. J. (2020). Principles of Environmental Engineering and

Science, 4th Edition. Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY
10121
Self-Assessment Activity:

1. Define cohesion and adhesion.

2. Why do icebergs floats on the sea surface?
3. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of water sample containing Mg(HCO3)2=
7.3mg/L, Ca(HCO3)2= 16.2mg/L, MgCl2= 9.5mg/L, CaSO4=13.6mg/L).
4. Calculate the temporary and total hardness of a water sample containing Mg(HCO3)2= 73mg/L,
Ca(HCO3)2= 162mg/L, MgCl2= 95mg/L, CaSO4=136mg/L.

Chemical Engineering Department Module 4 – 2: Page 14