Study Guide in CHEM 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Module 5: The Chemistry of Environment

Module No. 5

MODULE TITLE
The Chemistry of Water

MODULE OVERVIEW
This module offers a thorough investigation into the distinctive and essential attributes of water, with a
specific emphasis on its physical and chemical properties. Its purpose is to enrich students' comprehension of
water and its importance across scientific, environmental, and biological domains. By incorporating theoretical
knowledge and practical illustrations, participants will develop a deeper understanding of the wide-ranging
properties that contribute to water's remarkable nature.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, the students should be able to:
• Understand and determine the chemical properties of water as well as the different substances
possibly mixed in water due to its affinity to a variety of substances.
• Classify water pollutants and it’s effect on the environment .
• Describe the purpose and operational steps of key water treatment processes used to improve water
quality including: Coagulation, Flocculation, 2 Sedimentation, Filtration, Disinfection, and Corrosion Control.

LEARNING CONTENTS
In the chemistry of water, the following subtopics must be encountered:
a. Properties of Water
b. Earth’s natural water
c. Human Activities and Water Quality
d. Water Purification

LEARNING POINTS
• To categorize the different water and thermal properties.
• To define the water cycle, water pollutants, and water purification.
• To acquire knowledge about the water treatment process and industrial waste water management.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

PROPERTIES OF WATER

The Water Molecule

The properties of water can best be understood by considering the structure and bonding of the water molecule:

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 Study Guide in CHEM 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of Environment

Water is a molecule made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It has the formula H2O. When oxygen
and hydrogen combine (H-O-H) they form a v-shaped triangular molecule.
While water molecules are electrically neutral, the oxygen atom holds a small negative charge and the two
hydrogen atoms hold small positive charges. Water molecules are attracted to each other, creating hydrogen
bonds. These strong bonds determine almost every physical property of water and many of its chemical properties
too. Scientists believe this unusual electrical balancing, called polarity, gives water some of its remarkable
properties.

A large part of the mass of most organisms is simply water. In human tissues the percentage of water ranges from
20% in bones to 85% in brain cells. The water content is greater in embryonic and young cells and decreases as
aging occurs. About 70% of our total body weight is
water; as much as 95% of jellyfish or certain plants is
water. Water is not only the major component of
organisms but also one of the principal environmental
factors affecting them. Many organisms live within the
sea or in freshwater rivers, lakes, and puddles. The
physical and chemical properties of water have
permitted living things to appear, to survive, and to
evolve on this planet.
Water is the solvent, the medium and the participant in
most of the chemical reactions occurring in our
environment.

* Water the Universal Solvent

Scientists often call water the “universal solvent”
because water can dissolve more substances than any
other liquid. Some substances, like common table salt,
NaCl, dissolve in water very easily. When placed in
water, sodium chloride molecules fall apart. The
positively charged sodium ion (Na+ ) binds to oxygen, while the negatively charged chloride ion (Cl- ) attaches to
hydrogen. This property of water allows for the transport of nutrients vital to life in animals and plants. A drop of
rainwater falling through the air dissolves atmospheric gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects the quality of
the land, lakes and rivers.

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• Water can dissolve many substances and creates solutions.

– Hydrophilic means “water-loving” these substances dissolve in
water.
– Hydrophobic means “water fearing” These substances do NOT
dissolve in water
Solution -a homogeneous mixture of a solvent and solute
• Parts of a solution
– Solute – the substance that is being dissolved.
– Solvent – the substance that does the dissolving.

* Surface Tension
Water molecules at the surface (next to the air) hold closely together,
forming an invisible film. Water’s surface tension can hold the weight
that would normally sink. You can carefully float a paper clip on top of
the water. Some aquatic insects such as the water strider or pond
skater rely on surface tension to walk on water. Surface tension is
essential for the transfer of energy from wind to water to create
waves. Waves are necessary for rapid oxygen diffusion in lakes and
seas.

WATER IS STICKY
* Cohesion — Water molecules stick to each other
(Water attracted to more water). This is due to the
hydrogen bonds among the molecules. Water
molecules at the surface have a much greater
attraction for each other than for molecules in the
air. This cohesiveness creates a high surface
tension at the surface of the water. The water
molecules at the surface crowd together, producing
a strong layer as they are pulled downward by the
attraction of other water molecules beneath them.
* Adhesion — Water molecules stick to other
substances (Attraction between unlike molecules).
You can see this property when water creeps up
the inside of a drinking glass. Think of a sponge or
a paper towel used to “soak up” spilled water. This
is how water makes things wet. Water also clings
to living things. Most plants have adapted to take advantage of water’s adhesion that helps move water from the
roots to the leaves. This is called capillary action (water rises in a narrow tube against the force of gravity). This
can also be seen as blood moves through our capillaries, carrying nutrients to each cell within our body. [One of
the tallest plants is the redwood tree. Water moves from its roots to its leaves, more than 90 m above the ground.
As a plant loses water through pores in the leaves, more water moves up from roots and stems to replace the lost
water. The process of water loss by leaves is known as transpiration.]

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Example of capillary action

* Viscosity - is the property of fluid having high resistance to
flow. We normally think of liquids like honey or motor oil being
viscous, but when compared to other substances with like
structures, water is viscous. Liquids with stronger intermolecular
interactions are usually more viscous than liquids with weak
intermolecular interactions.

THERMAL PROPERTIES
Water absorbs or releases more heat than many substances for
each degree of temperature increase or decrease. Because of
this, it is widely used for cooling and for transferring heat in
thermal and chemical processes. Differences in temperature between lakes and rivers and the surrounding air
may have a variety of effects. For example, local fog or mist is likely to occur if a lake cools in the surrounding air
enough to cause saturation—small water droplets are suspended in the air. Large bodies of water, such as the
oceans or the Great Lakes, have a profound influence on climate. They are the world’s great heat reservoirs and
heat exchangers and the source of much of the moisture that falls as rain and snow over adjacent landmasses.
When water is colder than the air, precipitation is curbed, winds are reduced, and fog banks are formed. These
properties of water are crucial in stabilizing temperatures on earth.

* Specific Heat -- Water has a high specific heat. The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of water
by one degree Celsius is quite large. Because so much heat loss or heat input is required to lower or raise the
temperature of water, the oceans and other large bodies of water have relatively constant temperatures. Thus,
many organisms living in the oceans are provided with a relatively constant environmental temperature. The high-
water content of plants and animals living on land helps them to maintain a relatively constant internal temperature
(Ours is about 36 ˚C). The specific heat of water is 5 times greater than of sand.
– The measure of the heat energy required to increase the temperature of a unit quantity of a substance by a
certain temperature interval.
– The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.

* Heat of Vaporization -- Water has a high heat of vaporization.

Water absorbs heat as it changes from a liquid to a gas; the human
body can dissipate excess heat by the evaporation of its sweat. A
leaf can keep cool in the bright sunlight by evaporating water from its
surface. Water’s high heat conductivity makes possible the even
distribution of heat throughout the body.

* Boiling and Freezing -- Pure water at sea level boils at 100 ˚C and freezes at 0 ˚C, but extra energy is needed
to push water molecules into the air. This is called latent heat—the heat required to change water from one phase
to another. At higher elevations (lower atmospheric pressure) water’s boiling temperature decreases. This is why it
takes longer to boil and egg at higher altitudes. The temperature does not get high enough to cook the egg
properly. If a substance is dissolved in water, then the freezing point is lowered. Energy is lost when water freezes.

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Water density -- Water is most dense at 4 ˚C and then begins to expand again (becoming less dense) as the
temperature decreases further. This expansion occurs because its hydrogen bonds become more rigid and
ordered. As a result, frozen water (ice floats) upon the denser cold water. The expansion of water takes place
even before it actually freezes. This explains why a pond freezes from the surface down, rather than from the
bottom up. As water temperature drops, the colder water (0-4 ˚C) where it is less dense— rises to the pond
surface. It freezes to form a lid of ice. This ice insulates the water below from the wintry chill that it is less likely to
freeze. Organisms that inhabit the pond are able to survive the frigid winter below the icy surface

* Solid Expansion (expansion on freezing) -- For most substances, solids are denser than liquids. But the
special properties of water make it less dense as a solid. Ice floats on water! Strong hydrogen bonds formed at
freezing 0 ˚C lock water molecules away from each other. When ice melts, the structure collapses and molecules
move closer together. Liquid water at 4 ˚C is about 9% denser than ice.
* pH -- Water molecules have a tendency to ionize. They dissociate into ions (charged particles) hydrogen ions
(H+) and hydroxide ions (OH- ). In pure water a very small number of water molecules form ions in this way. The
tendency of water to dissociate is balanced by the tendency of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions to reunite to form
water. A neutral solution contains an equal number of hydroxide ions and hydrogen ions. A solution with a greater
concentration of hydrogen ions (H+ ) is said to be acidic. A solution with a greater concentration of hydroxide (OH-
) Ions is said to be alkaline or basic.

Earth's Natural Water

Earth is known as the "Blue Planet" because 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered with water. The earth
has an abundance of water, but unfortunately, only a small percentage (about 0.3 percent), is even usable by
humans. The other 99.7 percent is in the oceans, soils, icecaps, and floating in the atmosphere. Still, much of the
0.3 percent that is useable is unattainable. Most of the water used by humans comes from rivers. The visible
bodies of water are referred to as surface water. The majority of fresh water is actually found underground as soil
moisture and in aquifers. Groundwater can feed the streams, which is why a river can keep flowing even when
there has been no precipitation. Humans can use both ground and surface water.
Water also exists below land surface and as water vapor in the air. Water is a finite source. The bottled water that
is consumed today might possibly be the same water that once trickled down the back of a wooly mammoth. The
Earth is a closed system, meaning that very little matter, including water, ever leaves or enters the atmosphere;
the water that was here billions of years ago is still here now. But, the Earth cleans and replenishes the water
supply through the hydrologic cycle.

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Distribution of the water on Earth

• Ocean water: 97.2 percent

• Glaciers and other ice: 2.15 percent
• Groundwater: 0.61 percent
• Fresh water lakes: 0.009 percent
• Inland seas: 0.008 percent
• Soil Moisture: 0.005 percent
• Atmosphere: 0.001 percent
• Rivers: 0.0001 percent.

Surface water is far easier to reach, so this becomes the most common source of potable water. About 321 billion
gallons per day of surface water is used by humans. About 77 billion gallons of groundwater are used each day.

4 TYPES OF WATER

• Surface Water- is any body of water above ground, including oceans, rivers and streams, lakes, and
reservoirs.

• Ground Water- water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in
and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.

• Wastewater- water that has been affected in quality by human activities. include the following domestic or
household activities: Human excreta (feces and urine) often mixed with used toilet paper or wipes; this is
known as blackwater if it is collected with flush toilets

• Stormwater- Rain and snow flow over streets, parking lots, and roofs collecting excess nutrients and
pollutants before entering into a storm drain or water body.

Surface waters
Surface waters can be simply described as the water that is on the surface of the Earth. They constitute
approximately 80 percent of the water used on a daily basis. Surface waters make up the majority of the water
used for public supply and irrigation. Oceans, which are the largest source of surface water, comprise
approximately 97 percent of the Earth's surface water. However, since the oceans have high salinity, the water is
not useful as drinking water. Efforts have been made to remove the salt from the water (desalination), but this is a
very costly endeavor.
Rivers and streams constitute the flowing surface waters. Rivers obtain their water from two sources:
groundwater, and runoff. Rivers can obtain their water from the ground if they cut into the water table, the area in
which the ground is saturated with water.

Groundwater
Groundwater is defined as water that is found beneath the surface of the Earth in conditions of 100 percent
saturation (if it is less than 100 percent saturation, then the water is considered soil moisture). Groundwater, which
makes up around 22% of the water we use, is the water beneath the earth’s surface filling cracks and other
openings in beds of rock and sand.

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It exists in soils and sands that are able to retain water. The water table is the line between unsaturated soil
and saturated soil. Below the water table is where rocks and soil are full of water.
Ninety-eight percent of Earth's available fresh water is groundwater. It is about 60 times as plentiful as the
fresh water found in lakes and streams. Groundwater can be found in aquifers. An aquifer is a body of water-
saturated sediment or rock in which water can move readily. There are two main types of aquifers: unconfined and
confined. This is known as a flowing water well. The pressure of the water is called the hydraulic head.
Groundwater movement, or velocity, is measured in feet (or meters) per second.

Wastewater
Wastewater is any water that has been affected in quality by human activities. Wastewater can develop
from agricultural activities, urban water use, and sewer inflow and stormwater runoff just to name a few.
Wastewater from a municipality is also called sewage. Most of us don’t want to think about it, but at times the
water that swirls in the bowl ends up being treated and ends up in our taps. This is recycled water.

Stormwater
Stormwater is defined by U.S. EPA as the runoff generated when precipitation from rain and snowmelt
events flows over land or impervious surfaces without percolating into the ground. This water runs over surfaces
like asphalt containing pollutants like engine oil, fertilizer, and radiator fluid. Stormwater not soaking into the
ground ends up as surface runoff draining into rivers, lakes, streams and oceans. In the future capturing more
stormwater draining to the ocean is critical to meeting water demands in the United States. This covers four basic
types of water that our critical to our survival.

• Solid water—ice is frozen water. When water freezes, its molecules move farther apart, making ice less
dense than water. This means that ice will be lighter than the same volume of water, and so ice will float in
water. Water freezes at 0° Celsius, 32° Fahrenheit.
• Liquid water is wet and fluid. This is the form of water with which we are most familiar. We use liquid
water in many ways, including washing and drinking.
• Water as a gas—vapor is always present in the air around us. You cannot see it. When you boil water,
the water changes from a liquid to a gas or water vapor. As some of the water vapor cools, we see it as a
small cloud called steam. This cloud of steam is a inversion of the clouds we see in the sky. At sea level,
steam is formed at 100° Celsius, 212° Fahrenheit.

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WATER CYCLE

One problem facing the cycle of water on Earth is water contamination. Chemicals that go into the water
often are very difficult, if not impossible, to remove. One potential source of contamination of water is runoff, the
overland flow of water. While precipitation causes the runoff to occur, stripping vegetation from land can add to the
runoff in a particular area. The sediment and soil from these areas, not to mention any pesticides or fertilizers that
are present, are washed into the streams, oceans, and lakes. What happens to the rain after it falls depends on
many factors, such as the intensity and duration of rainfall, the topography of the land, soil conditions, amount of
urbanization, and density of vegetation. A common misconception about rain that it is tear-shaped, when in
actuality it is shaped more like a hamburger bun. Raindrops also are different sizes, due to the initial difference in
particle size and the different rate of coalescence.

Human Activities and Water Quality

Water Quality- describes the condition of the water, including chemical, physical, and biological characteristics,
usually with respect to its suitability for a particular purpose such as drinking or swimming

Chemical indicators commonly used to describe and assess water quality, include:
1. Water temperature - is one of the most important characteristics of an aquatic system
2. Dissolve Oxygen - The amount of oxygen that dissolves in water can vary in daily and seasonal patterns,
and decreases with higher temperature, salinity, and elevation.
3. Conventional variables - (pH, dissolved solids, conductivity, and suspended sediments) are those
indicators that are often measured to establish a general picture of the aquatic environment, including the
influences of the drainage basin and local environmental conditions, seasonal and annual variability, and
the ability to support aquatic life.
4. Nutrients- nitrogen, and phosphorus are the most important, as they are most often in short supply
relative to the needs of plants, algae, and microbes.

Human Activities Affecting Water Quality

Agriculture
A huge contributor to water pollution, is from fertilizers used for row crops to the manure created by large-scale
animal agriculture. Nitrates, when found in high levels, can cause serious health problems for both infants and
adults with compromised immune systems. Elsewhere, industrial production of crops like corn and soy, which rely
heavily on fertilizers to increase yields, can lead to dangerous algal blooms which, when toxic, can shut down
drinking water for entire cities.

Fossil fuel production

Another human activity that places considerable strain on drinking water —and not just because fracking and coal
mining use a great deal of water, but because their waste products can pollute groundwater, and therefore
drinking water, as well.

Sewage
In some places, population growth has strained wastewater treatment plants to the point where they cannot handle
the amount of sewage that is produced by the city or town.

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In Gauteng, a province in South Africa, for example, population growth has forced two sewage treatment stations
and a wastewater treatment plant to run at 200 percent capacity, which in turn causes raw sewage to back up and
spill into surrounding fields, contaminating ground and surface water

Pharmaceuticals
Ninety percent of the pharmaceuticals in our drinking water end up there via excretion, while some find their way
into drinking water through improper disposal or manufacturing discharges. Most wastewater treatment facilities
aren’t equipped to remove traces of pharmaceuticals from water, and the EPA has not set standards for safe
levels of pharmaceuticals in drinking water. Antibiotics are a particular concern, because they could lead to
antibiotic resistance.

Development
Development and land-use changes—or the changing of land from rural to urban —is a big part of what the PNAS
study published Monday looked at when considering the degradation of drinking water. In some places, like in
Asia, population density in key watersheds has expanded rapidly since the beginning of the 20th century. Globally,
the population density around key urban watershed sources has increased by a factor of 5.4 since 1900, with the
most rapid development happening in the last few decades. Development is a massive driver of that pollution —
when urbanization or agriculture comes into a watershed, land that was previously covered with native vegetation
is cleared.

What Is Water Pollution?

Water pollution occurs when harmful substances—often chemicals or microorganisms—contaminate a stream,

river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to humans or the
environment.

What are the effects of Water Pollution?

On human health
Water pollution kills. In fact, it caused 1.8 million deaths in 2015, according to a study published in The Lancet.
Contaminated water can also make you ill. Every year, unsafe water sickens about 1 billion people. And low-
income communities are disproportionately at risk because their homes are often closest to the most polluting
industries.

Death of aquatic (water) animals

The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills organisms that depend on these water bodies. Dead
fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and many other animals often wind up on beaches, killed by pollutants in
their habitat (living environment).

Disruption of food-chains
Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants such as lead and cadmium are eaten by tiny animals.
Later, these animals are consumed by fish and shellfish, and the food chain continues to be disrupted at all higher
levels.

Diseases
Eventually, humans are affected by this process as well. People can get diseases such as hepatitis by eating
seafood that has been poisoned. In many poor nations, there is always outbreak of cholera and diseases as a
result of poor drinking water treatment from contaminated waters.

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Destruction of ecosystems
Ecosystems (the interaction of living things in a place, depending on each other for life) can be severely changed
or destroyed by water pollution. Many areas are now being affected by careless human pollution, and this pollution
is coming back to hurt humans in many ways.

Types of Water Pollutants

Pathogens
Pathogens can be bacteria, protozoa or viruses. Bacteria, for example, are commonly found in water; it is when
they start to increase in numbers that are above safe levels that water contamination occurs. Two of the most
common pathogenic bacteria are coliform and E. coli bacteria. Coliforms are normally present in the environment
in safe levels and can actually be used to detect other pathogens in water. However, if coliforms increase in
number, they can be dangerous for the health of the environment. The presence of E. coli bacteria usually
indicates that water has been contaminated with human or animal waste.

Inorganic Material
Inorganic materials — in particular heavy metals like arsenic, mercury, copper, chromium, zinc and barium —
though harmless in very small concentrations, act as pollutants when they end up concentrated in water. This can
be due to leaching from waste disposal, increased human activity or industrial accidents. This kind of water
pollution, especially in higher concentrations, can cause severe health problems in humans and other organisms,
up to and including death.

Organic Material
These materials contain molecules that have carbon in their makeup. One of the most frequently detected volatile
organic chemicals is methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE). MTBE was formerly used as an air-cleaning gas additive.
Although it is now a banned chemical, it will take years before MBTE is thoroughly removed from contaminated
water systems. Water contaminated with this organic chemical can cause leukemia, lymphoma and tumors in the
testicles, thyroid glands and kidneys.

Macroscopic Pollutants
Macroscopic pollutants are large, visible items in waterways or bodies of water. The first common pollutant is
trash: especially plastic waste. Plastic waste is often thrown directly into large bodies of water illegally, but can
also end up collecting in oceans and lakes after being deposited in streams and rivers by accident.

WATER PURIFICATION

History of water treatment

Significant historical events forming the basis for today's water treatment systems
In ancient Greek and Sanskrit (India) writings dating back to 2000 BC, water treatment methods were
recommended. People back than knew that heating water might purify it, and they were also educated in sand and
gravel filtration, boiling, and straining. The major motive for water purification was better tasting drinking water,
because people could not yet distinguish between foul and clean water. Turbidity was the main driving force
between the earliest water treatments. Not much was known about micro-organisms, or chemical contaminants.

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After 1500 BC, the Egyptians first discovered the principle of coagulation. They applied the chemical alum for
suspended particle settlement. Pictures of this purification technique were found on the wall of the tomb of
Amenophis II and Ramses II. After 500 BC, Hippocrates discovered the healing powers of water. He invented the
practice of sieving water, and obtained the first bag filter, which was called the ‘Hippocratic sleeve’. The main
purpose of the bag was to trap sediments that caused bad tastes or odors.

What is water purification?

Water purification is the transition of dirty harmful (Contaminated) water into clean safe water. Water purification
generally means freeing water from any kind of impurity it contains, such as contaminants and micro-
organisms.

Why purifies water?

Water is of major importance to all living things. We purify water to get rid of contaminants that can be detrimental
to our health. Up to 60 percent of the human body is water. Therefore, the quality of water we drink is very
important. The drinking water should be totally clean, pure and free of any disease-causing microbes, and that’s
why it should be properly treated and disinfected before using it for drinking purpose.

What is removed during the process?

– Dirt and other mixed contaminants.
– Parasites (Giardia, Cryptosporidium etc.)
– Bacteria, Algae, Viruses, Fungi
– Minerals including toxic metals lead, copper, iron, manganese etc.
– Man made chemical pollutants

Methods of purifying water

– Purification on large scale.
– Purification of medium scale.
– Purification of small scale. (Domestic Methods)

Purification on Large scale

When sources of water are Rivers, Lakes, Streams etc.
Then water is purified by:
– Coagulation
– Filtration
– Storage
– Sedimentation
– Disinfection

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Purification on a Medium scale

When sources of water are Well, Springs, Tanks etc.
Then water is purified by addition of Bleaching powder/ Chlorinated lime as it is.
– Cheap
– Easy to use
– Reliable and safe

Purification on Small scale

Boiling -For 5-10 minutes kills almost all organisms and remove temporary hardness.

Distillation - Distillation is the technique of heating a liquid to create vapor which is collected when cooled
separate from the original liquid. It's based on the different boiling point or volatility values of the components. The
technique may be used to separate components of a mixture or to aid in purification.
Addition of chemicals:
– Iodine solution -.02 drops of 2% Soln./Litre.
– KMnO4 -An amount that gives just pink coloration of the water.
– Alum -Used for turbid water in a dose 0.1-0.4 grains/5 litres of water.

Water Treatment on Large scales

Where does the water come from?
– Surface waters (Rivers, Streams, Lakes, and Reservoir)
– Ground water (wells)

Large scales methods

1. Storage
2. Filtration
• Slow Sand Filter
• Rapid Sand Filter

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3. Disinfection
- Chlorination
- Ozonation
- Other agents
- Membrane process

STORAGE
- In natural or artificial reservoir
- Optimum period of storage is 2 weeks
- Effects of storage
- Physical (90% suspended impurities settle down in one day
- Chemical (oxidizing action)
- Biological (10% of bacteria remains after 1 week)

Filtration
Slow Sand Filter
- First used in Scotland on 19th century

Elements of slow sand filter

- Filter box
- Supernatant water
- Sand Bed
- Under the drainage system

- Filter control valves

- To regulate the flow of water in and out

Rapid Sand Filter

- First in 1885 in USA

⚫ Coagulation
- is a process used to neutralize charges and form a gelatinous mass to trap (or bridge) particles thus forming
a mass large enough to settle or be trapped in the filter.

⚫ Rapid mixing
- Violent mixing of alum (minutes)

⚫ Flocculation
- is gentle stirring or agitation to encourage the particles thus formed to agglomerate into masses large
enough to settle or be filtered from solution.

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⚫ Sedimentation
- Clear water above goes for filtration. Sedimentation is a simple, physical pre-treatment of water prior to
application of other purification treatments such as filtration and disinfection.

⚫ Filtration
- Graded gravel, 30-40 cm
- Rate of filtration 5-15 m3/m2/hr
- Remaining alum floc forms a slimy layer over sand bed, it holds back bacteria and oxidize organic matter
- Back washing: by air bubbles or water when floc layer becomes very thick, takes about 15 min.

Disinfection

1. Chlorination - As an effective yet inexpensive disinfectant, chlorination is the most commonly used disinfection
method in drinking water treatment plants all over the world. Chlorine kills pathogens and oxidizes iron,
manganese, and taste and odour compounds in water. It can be added to water as a primary disinfection as pre-
chlorination, between sedimentation and filtration, or as a final treatment step before distribution. It can also be
added as a secondary disinfection to water leaving the plant or within distribution networks to prevent
recontamination and ensure drinking water safety.

2. Ozonation - Today it is applied for the disinfection of drinking water, for the removal of effluents from
wastewater treatment plants in a process called ozonation.

3. Other Disinfection Methods

a) Ozone
b) Chlomarine
c) UV rays

4. Membranes Process
• High-pressure processes
a) Reverse Osmosis - is one of the processes that makes desalination (or removing salt from seawater)
possible. Beyond that, reverse osmosis is used for recycling, and wastewater treatment, and can even
produce energy.
b) Nanofiltration - Effective for the removal of color-forming organic compounds.
• Low-pressure processes
a) Ultrafiltration - is a variety of membrane filtration in which forces like pressure or concentration
gradients lead to a separation through a semipermeable membrane.
b) Microfiltration - Used for water treatment in combination with coagulation

Types of Water Purifications

• Drinking Water
• Industrial Water / Wastewater
• Ultra-pure water / Nano water
• DEMI water
• Electro-deionization
• Desalination

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 Study Guide in CHEM 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of Environment

Industrial Wastewater Management

Wastewater Treatment

1. Pretreatment
Equalization
- the most important pretreatment device
- it is important to equalize wastewater flows and concentration
Neutralization
- wastewater must be neutralize prior to discharge
Grease and Oil Removal
- through water phase by gravity and skimming this grease and oil will be removed
Toxic Substances
- industries is responsible for determining if any of its wastewater components are toxic and to remove
prior before discharging it

2. Primary Treatment
Screens
- this is used to remove moderate size particles that are not easily compressed under fluid flow
Grit Chambers
- useful for rapid separation of these inert particles
Gravity Sedimentation
- slowly settling particles are removed trough this device
- design for the basis retention time, surface overflow rate and minimum depth
Chemical Precipitation
- used to agglomerate the tiny particles into large particles that settle rapidly in normal sedimentation tanks

3. Secondary Treatment
Design of Biological Treatment Systems
- use to separate and recycle microorganisms.
Reactor Concepts
- separate the microorganisms from the other.
Activated Sludge
- use to remove soluble organics, colloidal, particulates and inorganics trough adsorption and entrapment in
the biological flock.

Dissolved Oxygen Deficit Formula

DO Deficit = saturation DO – Actual DO

Example Problem:
Determine the dissolved oxygen deficit at 20 C for a river with an ambient dissolved-actual
oxygen concentration of 5 mg O2/L and with a dissolved oxygen saturation of 9.1 mg O2/L
Solution
D = 9.1/ - 5 = 4.1mg O2/L

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 Study Guide in CHEM 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of Environment

Questions:
1) What makes water known as the universal solvent and why is its property significant?

2) What is the term used to describe the phenomenon of water molecules sticking together due to hydrogen
bonding?

3) In water surface tension, why Surface tension is essential for the transfer of energy from wind to water to
create waves?

4) What are some real-world examples or practical applications of the concepts of cohesion and adhesion?

5) Why is it important to determine water quality, which includes describing the water's condition, including
chemical, physical, and biological characteristics?

6) Give at least three Types of Water Purifications

7) True or False. Coagulation is a process used to neutralize charges and form a gelatinous mass to trap
particles thus forming a mass large enough to settle or be trapped in the filter.

8) is far easier to reach, so this becomes the most common source of potable water. Humans use
about 321 billion gallons per day. About 77 billion gallons of groundwater are used each day.

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 Study Guide in CHEM 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of Environment

Answer:

1. Because it dissolves more substances than any other liquid, water is known as the universal solvent,
Some substances, like common table salt, NaCl, dissolve in water very easily. This is due to water's
polarity, which allows it to dissolve a wide range of polar and ionic substances. The solvent property of
water is important because it is required for many biological processes, such as the transport of nutrients
and waste products in living organisms. The ability of water to dissolve substances also aids in the
purification of water in natural systems and water treatment processes.

2. Cohesion

3. When the wind blows across the surface of the water, it creates little disturbances called capillary waves
or ripples. The motion of a ripple is governed by surface tension, which is the restoring force for capillary
waves. The energy from the wind is transferred to the water through the circular motion of the water
molecules, which creates the crest of the wave as it moves through the water's surface. Therefore, surface
tension plays a crucial role in the formation of waves by providing the restoring force for capillary waves
and allowing the transfer of energy from wind to water.

4. Some real-life
• Water droplets forming on surfaces, such as leaves, which can help plants to absorb water and
nutrients

• Water beading up on a hydrophobic surface

• Water molecules sticking to each other to form a sphere

• Water striders rely on surface tension to stay afloat on the surface of water Adhesion

• Water climbs upwards through thin glass tubes, called capillary tubes, placed in a beaker of water

• Wetting of a paper towel

• Water flowing up from the roots to the tip of a plant through capillary action

• Adhesive and cohesive forces together induce capillary action, which is used in ink, paint, glue,
cement, and tar

5. Water quality determination is critical for human health, environmental health, industrial and domestic use,
regulatory compliance, and research and monitoring. It is critical to ensure the safety of water for human
consumption and other uses, as well as to protect the environment.

6. Types of Water Purifications

▪ Drinking Water
▪ Industrial Water / Wastewater
▪ Ultra-pure water / Nano water
▪ DEMI water
▪ Electro-deionization
▪ Desalination

7. TRUE

8. Surface Water

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