Manuel S.

Enverga University Foundation

Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER

Water is one of the most unique molecules known to man and also one of the most
important to biological systems. Not only does water exist in nature in all three states
of matter (solid, liquid, gas), it also covers 75 percent of the earth and composes
roughly 78 percent of the human body.

The uniqueness of water comes from its molecular

structure. Because it is a polar covalent molecule, it has a
slight positive and slight negative charge on opposite ends.
Examine the illustration Water molecule and note two
important characteristics. First, notice the location of the
slight positive and negative ends. Second, observe that
water is a bent molecule, not linear or straight.

Because water is a bent, partially polar molecule, it

possesses the following biologically important
characteristics of what is formed by the joining of many
water molecules—all of them are critical to the creation and
support of life on Earth.

Properties of Water
Water exists naturally on the planet in all three states. When the temperature of the
water is below freezing (32 degrees Fahrenheit), it is a solid. Between the freezing
point and the boiling point, it is a liquid. And above the boiling point (212 degrees
Fahrenheit), it is a gas. Aside from the three states, water has a number of unique
properties. Most liquids get smaller as they get colder, but not water. Water will stop
getting smaller at about 39 degrees Fahrenheit, and then will reverse and start to
expand as it gets even colder. Another property is referred to as cohesion, which means
that water is attracted to other water.

Water molecule
▪ Polarity
▪ Hydrogen bonding
▪ Cohesion
▪ Surface tension
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

THE POLARITY OF WATER

Water has a simple molecular structure. It is composed of one

oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom is
covalently bonded to the oxygen via a shared pair of electrons.
Oxygen also has two unshared pairs of electrons. Thus there are 4
pairs of electrons surrounding the oxygen atom, two pairs involved
in covalent bonds with hydrogen, and two unshared pairs on the
opposite side of the oxygen atom. Oxygen is an "electronegative" or
electron "loving" atom compared with hydrogen.
Water is a "polar" molecule, meaning that there is an
uneven distribution of electron density. Water has a partial
negative charge ( ) near the oxygen atom due to the unshared pairs
of electrons, and partial positive charges ( ) near the hydrogen
atoms.
An electrostatic attraction between the partial positive charge near
the hydrogen atoms and the partial negative charge near the oxygen
results in the formation of a hydrogen bond as shown in the
illustration.

HYDROGEN BONDING

When water molecules align with each other, a weak bond is established between the
negatively charged oxygen atom of one water molecule and the positively charged
hydrogen atoms of a neighboring water molecule. The weak bond that often forms
between hydrogen atoms and neighboring atoms is the hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bonds
are very common in living organisms; for example, hydrogen bonds form between the
bases of DNA to help hold the DNA chain together. Hydrogen bonds give water molecules
two additional characteristics: cohesion and surface tension.

Many other unique properties of water are due to the hydrogen bonds. For example,
ice floats because hydrogen bonds hold water molecules further apart in a solid than in
a liquid, where there is one less hydrogen bond per molecule. The unique physical
properties, including a high heat of vaporization, strong surface tension, high specific
heat, and nearly universal solvent properties of water are also due to hydrogen bonding.
The hydrophobic effect, or the exclusion of compounds containing carbon and hydrogen
(nonpolar compounds) is another unique property of water caused by the hydrogen
bonds. The hydrophobic effect is particularly important in the formation of cell
membranes. The best description is to say that water "squeezes" nonpolar molecules
together.
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

COHESION
Because of the extensive hydrogen bonding in water, the molecules tend to stick to
each other in a regular pattern. This phenomenon, called cohesion, is easily observed
as you carefully overfill a glass with water and observe the water molecules holding
together above the rim until gravity overtakes the hydrogen bonding and the water
molecules spill down the side of the glass. Likewise, the cohesive property of water
allows tall trees to bring water to their highest leaves from sources below ground.

SURFACE TENSION
A special type of cohesion is surface tension. The tension on the surface of water occurs
when water molecules on the outside of the system align and are held together by
hydrogen bonding to create an effect similar to a net made of atoms. For example, the
surface tension of water allows water spiders to literally walk on water.

Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, the force in dynes required to break
a film of length 1 cm. equivalently, it can be stated that as surface energy in ergs per
square centimeter. Water at 200 C has a surface tension of 72.8 dynes/cm compared to
22.3 for ethyl alcohol and 465 for mercury.

Surface tension is responsible for the shape of a liquid droplet. Although easily
deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive
forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of
virtually all liquids would be perfectly spherical. If no force acts normal (perpendicular)
to a tensioned surface, the surface must remain flat. But if the pressure on one side of
the surface differs from pressure on the other side, the pressure difference times the
surface area results in a normal force. In order for the surface tension forces to cancel
out this force due to pressure, the surface must be curved when all the forces are
balanced, the curvature of the surface is a good measure of the surface tension, which
is described by the Young-Laplace equation:
ΔP = γ (1R1+1R2) ΔP = γ (1R1+1R2)
▪ where ΔPΔP is the pressure differential across the interface,
▪ γγ is the measured surface tension,
▪ and R1,R2R1,R2 are the principal radii of curvature, which indicate the degree
of curvature.
This equation describes the shape and curvature of water bubbles
and puddles, the “footprints” of water-walking insects, and the
phenomenon of a needle floating on the surface of water. Even
though the needle is denser than water, it floats because surface
tension is a contractive tendency of the surface of a liquid that
allows it to resist an external force. This property is caused by
cohesion of similar molecules and is responsible for many of the
behaviors of liquids.
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

As per the suggestion given by World Health Organisation (WHO) and by Indian Council of
Medical Research (ICMR), the following are the important characteristics of potable water.

• It should be clear, colourless and odourless.

• It should be cool and pleasant to taste.
• It should be free from harmful bacteria and suspended impurities.
• It should be free from dissolved gases like CO2, H2S, NH3, etc., and poisonous
minerals like lead, arsenic, manganese, etc.,
• Hardness should be less than 500 ppm.
• Chloride ion content should be less than 250 ppm.
• Fluoride ion content should be less than 1.5 ppm.
• Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) content should be less than 500 ppm. 9. pH of the
potable water should be 6.5 – 8.5
SOURCE:
bch101 engineering chemistry - Bharath Institute of Higher ...
www.bharathuniv.ac.in › courseware_ece › notes › 1 BC..

WATER CYCLE

Telenganatoday.com

The water cycle has no starting point. But, we'll begin in the oceans, since that is where most of
Earth's water exists. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the oceans. Some of it
evaporates as vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Rising air
currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere, along with water from evapotranspiration, which is
water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The vapor rises into the air where cooler
temperatures cause it to condense into clouds.
Air currents move clouds around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky
as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which
can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks in warmer climates often thaw and melt
when spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland as snowmelt.
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where, due to gravity, the precipitation flows
over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with
streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff, and groundwater seepage, accumulate and are
stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, though. Much of it soaks into the ground
as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers (saturated
subsurface rock), which store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time.
Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the
ocean) as groundwater discharge, and some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and
emerges as freshwater springs. Over time, though, all of this water keeps moving, some to reenter
the ocean, where the water cycle "ends" and begin again.

QUALITY OF WATER
The quality of water describes the state of water, including the biological, chemical and
physical characteristics.
The quality of water is measured by several factors, such as the concentration of dissolved
oxygen, bacteria levels, the amount of salt (salinity) and or the amount of material suspended
in the water. Other contaminants may also affect the quality of water such as the concentration
of algae, pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals.
It is important to know the quality of water since poor quality can affect the health of people
and can also be a risk for the ecosystem.

DETERMINANTS ON THE QUALITY OF WATER

The following water properties are important in determining water quality:

Temperature
Water temperature is important to fish and aquatic plants. Temperature can affect the level
of oxygen, as well as the ability of organisms to resist certain pollutants.

Acidity – Ph
The measurement of pH is a measure of the amount of hydrogen ions (H+) present in a substance
such as water. Knowing the amount of hydrogen in a substance allows us to judge whether it is
acidic, neutral, or basic.

Dissolved Oxygen
A small amount of oxygen, about ten molecules of oxygen per million molecules of water, is
dissolved in water. Fish and microscopic organisms need dissolved oxygen to survive.

Turbidity
Turbidity makes the water cloudy or opaque. Turbidity is the amount of particulate matter
(such as clay, silt, plankton, or microscopic organisms) suspended in water.

Specific Conductance
Specific conductance measures the capacity of water to conduct an electrical current. It
depends on the amount of dissolved solids, such as salt, in the water.
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

Hardness
The amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in water determines its “hardness.” Water
hardness varies throughout the United States.

Suspended Sediment
Suspended sediment is the amount of soil circulating in water. The amount depends in part on
the speed of the water flow. Fast-flowing water can pick up and hold, or suspend, more soil
than calm water

WATER POLLUTANTS

Water pollution can be defined as the contamination of a stream, river, lake, ocean or any other
stretch of water, depleting water quality and making it toxic for the environment and humans.

Types of Water Pollution

Organic Pollution
• This is due to microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses that is/are present in the water,
generated by excrement, animal and vegetable waste.

Chemical Pollution
• This pollution is generated by chemicals like nitrates and phosphates that came from
pesticides, human and animal drugs, household products, heavy metals, acids and
hydrocarbons used in the industry.

PURIFICATION OF WATER

Larger-scale, industrial methods to clean large amounts of water include reverse osmosis, ultra-
filtration and electro-deionization. Smaller-scale, household methods include filters and
boiling. Often, these processes are combined in order to effectively remove contaminants.

Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis is one type of filtration method. The two left images show examples of reverse
osmosis membrane layers. The two right images show example set-ups for the reverse osmosis
process for large scale water purification. The system is composed of a series of membranes
and pumps. As the water passes through the membrane, the larger contaminants are left
behind, leaving cleaned water.

Filters
Sand filtration is a natural filtration process that occurs in groundwater systems, and is often
used when treating natural water resources, such as rivers, to make them clean enough for
drinking water. Water pitchers with activated carbon filters are used for small-scale water
purification at home.

Activated Carbon:
Activated carbon is an important component of many home water purification systems. Looking
at the top left image, poultry manure pellets (top pile) are converted through a manufacturing
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

process into activated carbon pellets (left pile), and then ground into either a granular (center
pile) or powdered (right pile) form. A magnified image shows the tiny pores through which
water flows through the activated carbon and out the filter. If desired, show students online
illustrations of how activated carbon pores provide increased surface area for gas and chemical
pollutants to adsorb; see the URLs in the Additional Multimedia Support section.) A system of
water filtration includes many layers of materials through which water flows. In this one, the
activated carbon layer is the fourth level from the bottom, and other layers include pebbles,
palm fiber, alum, gravel, chlorine and sand.

Boiling Water
Boiling water used to be the only way to purify water, but now is considered the "last resort"
purification method. Boiling water destroys most bacteria and viruses, but can still leave behind
harmful chemicals.

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