What is Ideology?

The word ideology does not have a single clear definition and is used in a variety of ways. Its most common use in
every-day language is to describe a broad, cohesive set of political ideas and beliefs (e.g. liberalism, socialism,
conservatism, etc.) You will encounter ideology used in this way in sociology, but you will encounter it used in other
ways too, most particularly by Marxists.

The Marxist concept of ideology is a word to describe a set of ideas and beliefs that are dominant in society and are
used to justify the power and privilege of the ruling class. While the mainstream use of the word ideology is
effectively neutral (it can be a good or bad thing depending on your perspective) this is clearly a negative concept of
ideology: ideology is used to obscure the truth, to give people a false picture of how the world works in order to
manipulate and control them. In related, but subtly different, definitions, ideology is also used to describe an official
set of beliefs and ideas associated with a political system (usually an oppressive, authoritarian system based on a
single ideology) or the world-view associated with a religion.

The Marxist view of ideology is shared by many feminists who argue that it is patriarchal ideology that maintains the
dominant role of men in society. According to radical feminists, one of the ways it achieves this is by convincing
women that patriarchy is natural, normal or even desirable. This is very similar to the Marxist concept of false
consciousness.

Marxists argue that if the proletariat really understood the exploitative nature of capitalist society and their place
within it, there would be a revolution. What prevents revolution is ideology: a set of ideas that creates an illusion. That
convinces the workers (or enough of them) that capitalism is fair; that they are not being exploited by the system and
those who are wealthy have worked hard and deserve their success. Marxists argue that this ideology is reinforced by
a wide range of institutions in society (what Althusser called ideological state apparatus). Religion forms part of that
ideological state apparatus, as we shall see in the next section.

Evaluating the Marxist view of ideology

 Somewhat ironically, Marxism itself could be said to have performed the role described by Marx in the Soviet
Union and other communist countries.
 Karl Popper argues that the Marxist view of ideology is impossible to study scientifically, because its effects
are impossible to falsify. If a worker expressed contentedness with their situation or the system, how could
this be scientifically shown to be false consciousness as a result of ideology? For traditional Marxists this is
almost an article of faith as it is clearly the case that such a view would go against the worker’s own material
interests.
 Some neo-Marxists suggest that the idea that the working class do not know their own mind and have been
indoctrinated by bourgeois ideology is patronising and disempowering. Many feminists (other than radical
feminists) take a similar view regarding the idea that women have been brainwashed by patriarchal ideology
and therefore do not know what they want. Arguably, the suggestion that ideology leads to false
consciousness is just a convenient explanation for not being able to persuade people of the strength of their
arguments!
 The suggestion in traditional Marxist approaches to this is that there is just that one ideology in society, but
some neo-Marxists argue that this is just the dominant ideology. There are other competing sets of ideas in
society, some of which can be developed in opposition to the ruling class. This idea is developed particularly
by Antonio Gramsci and his concepts of hegemony and counter-hegemony.

Ideology

Karl Marx defined ideology as a set of ideas and beliefs that are manipulative and convincing on the surface level, but
are not actually true - what he called false consciousness.

The meaning of ideology

First, let's look at a definition of ideology.
Ideology usually refers to a set of ideas, values, and a world-view. Ideology can shape the thoughts and actions of
individuals and wider society. It has an influence on social structures, economics, and politics.

What are the functions of ideology?

Karl Marx created this concept to explain how the ruling class justifies their elite status through the sociocultural
beliefs they spread in society. As we mentioned, for Marx, ideology meant a set of ideas and beliefs that seemed true
and convincing on the surface but was not actually true - this is what he called false consciousness.

Ideology in sociology
Ideology continues to mean a sense of false consciousness in sociological research. Scholars of the sociology of
knowledge, such as Max Weber and Karl Mannheim, used ideology to refer to manipulative, partly true
philosophies and sets of beliefs. Their critics often pointed out that, according to their explanations, the sociology of
knowledge would constitute an ideology as well.

Ideology and Karl Marx

Karl Marx viewed society as being divided into two groups: the oppressor (the ruling class) and the oppressed
(the working class). According to his concept of the base and superstructure, the lower class is first exploited
through its role in generating profits in the modes of production (the base). Then, working-class people are
manipulated into thinking that their conditions in society are natural and in their interest. This happens through
institutions in the superstructure e.g. education, religion, cultural institutions, and the media. It is this
ideological illusion that prevents the working class from gaining class consciousness and starting a revolution. Marx's
perspective on ideology is also called the dominant ideology thesis. Karl Popper was critical of Marx's views on
ideology, pointing out that they are impossible to study scientifically. No one can definitively claim that a worker's
degree of satisfaction with their circumstances is the result of false consciousness and not other, perhaps more
personal factors.

Ideology and Antonio Gramsci

Gramsci came up with the concept of cultural hegemony.
According to this theory, there is always one culture that overpowers all the others in society, becoming the
mainstream culture. Gramsci saw ideology as even more manipulative and powerful in terms of creating
consciousness than Marx. Social and educational institutions spread concepts, values, and beliefs that silence and to a
certain extent comfort the lower classes, making them obedient workers in a social system that fully serves the interest
of the ruling class.

Ideology and Karl Mannheim

Mannheim saw all world-views and belief systems as one-sided, representing the opinions and experiences of only
one particular social group or class. He differentiated between two types of belief systems, one he called ideological
thought and the other utopian thought. Ideological thought refers to the conservative belief system of the ruling
classes and privileged groups, while utopian thought refers to the views of the lower classes and underprivileged
groups who want social change. Mannheim argued that individuals, especially followers of both these belief systems,
must be lifted from their social groups. They should work together on issues faced in society by creating a total world-
view that kept everybody's interests in mind.

Gender ideology and feminism

The dominant ideology thesis is shared by many feminists. Feminist sociologists argue that patriarchal
ideology prevents women from taking dominant roles in society, resulting in gender inequality in many areas of life.
Pauline Marks (1979) recorded that male scientists and doctors justified women's exclusion from education and work
by stating that it would be a distraction from, and a potential disadvantage for, women's 'true' vocation - to become
mothers. Many religions claim that women are inferior to men. For instance, Catholicism blames all women for Eve's
sin, and many cultures see menstruation as a sign of female impurity. Examples of ideologies

 The three major political ideologies in contemporary Britain are liberalism, conservatism, and socialism.
 In the United States, four of the most dominant political ideologies
are liberalism, conservatism, libertarianism, and populism.
  Josef Stalin's regime in the 20th century Soviet Union was based on totalitarian ideology.
Every ideology mentioned has its unique approach to rights and law, duties, and liberties within a society.

Characteristics of ideologies on the Right:

 Nationalism
 Authority
 Hierarchy
 Traditionalism

Characteristics of ideologies on the Left:

 Freedom
 Equality
 Reform
 Internationalism

Characteristics of ideologies in the Centre:

 Centrist ideology highlights the positive points of both Right and Left ideologies and tries to find a midpoint
between them. It usually strives to keep the balance between the extremes of the Right and the Left.

While ideology is often referred to using political terms, it can also represent economic views (such as Keynesianism),
philosophical views (such as Positivism), scientific views (such as Darwinism), and so on.

The difference between ideology and religion

Ideology and religion are both considered belief systems. Both are concerned with questions of truth and aim to
describe the ideal conduct for either individuals or society. One major difference between ideology and religion is that
ideologies do not typically view reality in divine or supernatural terms, nor is ideology typically concerned with the
goings-on before birth or after death.

Individuals belonging to a certain religion may ascribe their views to faith and revelation, while people subscribing to
a certain ideology are likely to cite a particular theory or philosophy.

From a functionalist perspective, ideology is similar to religion, as it provides a lens through which certain groups
view the world. It offers individuals with similar beliefs a shared sense of belonging.

From the Marxist and feminist perspectives, religion itself can be considered ideological because religion supports
powerful groups in society. To Marxists, religion creates a false consciousness: the powerful groups in society use it
to lead less powerful groups through a deceptive set of beliefs.

From the feminist perspective, religion and science can both be considered ideological because each has been used to
define women as inferior.

Ideology of religion
Religion is a set of beliefs. There is no universal definition of religion, but most religious beliefs are faith-based, as
opposed to secular or scientific beliefs. Commonly, these beliefs explain the cause and purpose of the universe and
include a moral code intended to guide human conduct.

Functionalist theory of religion

According to functionalism, religion contributes to social solidarity and integration and adds value to people's lives. It
helps people cope with stress and gives their lives meaning.
Marxist theory of religion
Marxists see religion as a way of maintaining class divisions and oppressing the proletariat. They think it stops people
from clearly comprehending their class situations. Marxists think religion serves capitalism in two ways:

 It allows the ruling class (capitalists) to oppress people.

 It softens the blow of oppression for the working class.

Neo-Marxist theory of religion

This theory proposes that rather than being a conservative force, as Marx claims, religion can be a force for radical
social change. Otto Maduro has spearheaded this approach, stating that because most religions are independent of state
control, they can be a force for change.

Feminist theory of religion

Feminist theorists tend to be critical of religion because of its patriarchal foundations. Simone de Beauvoir argued in
the 1950s that religion reinforces gender roles within the household, and traps women in the domestic side of family
life.

Postmodernist theory of religion

Postmodernists believe other theories of religion are outdated, and that society is changing; religion is changing
alongside. Jean-François Lyotard states that religion has become very personal due to all the complexities of our
modern society. He also thinks that religion is becoming increasingly influenced by science, leading to new-
age religious movements.

Ideology of science
Science is an open belief system characterised by observation and the rigorous testing of hypotheses. There is no
universal definition of science, but it is considered an objective pursuit of knowledge through experimental methods.

One distinguishing characteristic of science is that it is cumulative; science aims to improve our understanding of the
world by building on the discoveries of previous scientists.
Despite the wealth of knowledge that has been produced through scientific means because science itself is constantly
evolving, it is not a sacred or absolute truth. As Karl Popper pointed out, the ability of science to improve our
understanding of the world is the direct result of the discarding of claims which are proven to be false through the
scientific process.

Within sociology, scientific belief is considered to be a product of rationalisation. After the start of the Protestant
Reformation and the Scientific Revolution in the early to mid-1500s, scientific knowledge grew rapidly. Robert K.
Merton argued that scientific thought developed as rapidly as it did over the last few centuries due to support from
institutions such as economic and military establishments.

Merton identified the CUDOS norms - a set of norms that form the principles of the pursuit of scientific knowledge.
These are outlined below:

 Communism: Scientific knowledge is not private property and is shared with the community.
 Universalism: All scientists are equal; the knowledge they produce is subject to universal and objective
criteria rather than any of their personal attributes.
 Disinterestedness: Scientists are committed to making discoveries for discovery's sake. They publish their
findings, accept that their claims will be verified by others, and do not seek personal gain.
 Organised scepticism: All scientific knowledge should be challenged before it is accepted.

Ideology - Key takeaways

 Ideology, religion, and science are all examples of belief systems.

 Ideology usually refers to a set of ideas, values, and a world-view. Ideology can shape the thoughts and
actions of individuals and wider society. It has an influence on social structures, economics, and politics.
 The concept of ideology was first created by Karl Marx. Now, ideology continues to mean a sense of false
consciousness in sociological research.
 Religions are faith-based belief systems that include a code of moral conduct. Unlike ideological or scientific
beliefs, the concerns of religious beliefs commonly extend to the afterlife.
 Science is an open and cumulative pursuit of knowledge based on objective reasoning and experimental
methods. Some theorists argue that science is a closed system because it is developed within a paradigm.