(BELT —] [oate | SC ——— Sian. Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeanneralconwl, 1t 1s Just the same thing. ‘TER AMH et aes Physical Properties of Ethanol a pleasant smell and a burning taste. Ethanol | Ethanol is a colourless liquid having ae is a volatile liquid having a i boiling point of 78°C (351 Kk). It is lighter than water, a Ethanol mixes with water in any proportion. The solubility of ethanol in wales is due to the presence of hydroxyl group in it. Ethanol containing piped cent water is called rectified spirit. Rectified spirit is the commercial alcohol. 100% pure ethanol is called absolute alcohol. Ethanol is a covalent compound. Ethanol does not contain any hydrogen ions, so it is a neutral compound. Thus, ethanol has no effect on any litmus solution. In fact, all the alcohols are neutral compounds and hence do not affect litmus. ‘ Fisn Scanned with CamScanner ‘earned with Camscanerheat the ¢ ‘©Mpound com ‘nic Compound, Produced during sony Test 3m oxidation ea of ethanol SAMAK ig ant ie 5 and stance Eth Aoxide ang Water vay Pour, and rele, heat and HOH + 30, —Sembustion Peutoand easing Ethane gen Waning > 2co, eu anol 9 lot of heat and light Heat Light AS Prostuce beat and tight, * a ful. Since ethanol Sountties add ethang! 1 Petrol. For examples Br 1 burns with a to Petrol to be azil, a mixture oi ihn i ek Figure 43. Ethanol burns with Tigure 44, dear flame. His ae The picture on left shows sug n © On Fight Side shows su Fields. ‘The picture on right sid ge scale from, oduced on a large pro Figure keane crop inthe This is mutasses A cae, Ethanol iy high ib prot of industry), Paha is eta eset in milan, Susur pesent in Scanned with CamScanner ‘earned with Camscaner= +L because it gives only harmless produc, gas like carbon monoxide, ¢! jon of carbon monoxide from a “ins ethanol and petrol is used as a fuel for cars. Ethanol is a clean fue aa dioxide and water vapour on burning, It does not produce any bine addition of ethanol to petrol has the advantage of reducing the en Ethanol is produced on a large scale from sugar cane crop. Sugar care Jue IS tae {o cotin “Uae by & the process of crystallisation. After the crystallisation of sugar aa “ tendead = Shan, ii, / thick, dark brown liquid called molasses is left behind. Molasses stil cont ene Soh could not be separated by crystallisation. Ethanol is produced by the fermental or stgee a EY ym of the cane sugar present in molasses. Fthanol provtuced by the fermentation of Sus 1 S88 ang mixed with petrol and used as fuel for runi ‘anol alone can also us ase ve for cars, Before we describe the next reaction of ethanol, we should know the meaning of alkaline Potassiug, f Permanganate solution’ and ‘acidified potassium dichromate solution’. An aqueous solution of pots ‘| Permanganate containing sodium hydroxide is called alkaline potassium permanganate solution, Thy. alkaline potassium permanganate solution is KMnO, + NaOH. The potassium dichromate solyig” containing sulphuric acid is called acidified potassium dichromate solut potassium dichromate solution is KxCr,O; + H)SO,. A substance which giv called an oxid strong, oxidi in. In other words, Acidifiey — F oxygen (For oxidation ig yf ing agent. Alkaline potassium permanganate and acidified potassium dichromate ay ing agents (because they provide oxygen for oxidising other substances). Please note thy hascent oxygen is freshly generated atomic oxygen which is very, very reactive. Keeping these poins jn mind, we will now describe the oxidation of ethanol 2. Oxidation. ‘Oxidation’ means ‘controlled combustion’. When ethanol is he ted with alkaline potassium permanganate solution (or acidified potassium dichromate solution), it gets oxidised to ethanoic acid + : Mkaline KMn(, : Heat , il CH;CHOH + {0} akidiidKeaoy? «CHRCOOH + 1,0 yi Ethanol Nascent oxygen Ethanie acid Water yi (FthyL alcohol) (From oxidising agent) (Acetic acid) This reaction can be carried out by adding a 5 per cent aqueous solution of potassium permanganate in sodium hydroxide solution to ethanol dropwise till the purple colour of potassium perman, ysanate solution 1 no longer dis Ppears. On warming the lest-tube containing ethanol and alkaline potassium permanganate solution gently in hot water bath, ethanol is oxidised to ethanoic acid. Thus, ethanoic acid is formed by the oxidation of ethanol by using a strong oxidising, agent, This ethanoic acid (or acetic acid) formed bythe oxidation of ethanol can turn blue litmus to red We can also carry out the above reaction of the oxidation of ethmol to ethanvic acid by using acid ‘ Potassium dichromate as the oxidising agent (in place of alkaline potassium permanganate). Please note! that the conversion of ethanol into ethanoic acid is callec! an oxidation reaction because oxygen is added to it during this conversion (see the equation given above). In fact, all the alcohols can be oxidised to the corresponding carboxylic acids by strong oxidising agents fi 5. Reaction with Sodium Metal. Ethanol rracts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen f gas: 2QHOH + Na 5 2GLO-Nas H; Ethanol Sodium So (thy! aleohot) jum vthoxide Hydrogen This reaction is used as a test for ethanol. When a sm, sodium metal is put into ethanol in a dry test-tube, ra due to the evolution of hydrogen gas is produced. The hydrogen gas produced can be tested by burning, When a burning splinter is brought ee, near the mouth of the test-tube, the gas burns with a ‘pop’ sound, which is Figure 46, Sodium metal reas i a characteristic of hydrogen gas. This shows that the gas produced by the ethanol giving off hydrogen 2% all piece of pid effervescence Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeannerall the alcohols react with sodium metal tw evolve se Mgation. Dehydration of an alcohol men 4, DemyO™ cess of concentrated sulphuric vith © will nsaturated hydrocarbon) ins Femoval of water molecule from it. ¥ acid at 170°C (443. kK), it pets dehydrated to form CHy-CH.OH Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol) * CH=CH, + HO Fthen Water i ydration of ethanol molecule (CI 1g dehydration of ethanol molecule (CH;-CH,OH), H from the CH nd O Ch ri Bern sroup and OH from oat EE ion noe mice molecule (H30) resulting in the formation of «4 2 molecule MF got n this reaction, ntrated sulphuric aci wy ByecHe). In sulphuric acid ing agent ( sd cule from the ethanol molecule) acto asia dehy dratingioBee! er mon noi Fe wat peaction with eta ° 4 id (Formation of Ester). Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid on warming # ge presene® of a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid to form a sweet smelling este eth cH;COOH + GHsOH = _CmeHS0, | CHCOOGH; + HO hanoic acid Ethanol Pitsitaventd de (Suvt sel ‘The reaction in which a carboxylic acid combines with an srotol to form an ester is called esterification, Esterfcaton takes ace in the presence of a catalyst like concentrated sulphuric acid. Beaker) rimspove reaction is an example of esterification, The formation of kes Theat smelling esters is used as a test for alcohols as well as" —= carboxylic acids. We can carry out the reaction between ethanol and ethanoic acid to form an ester as follows : (9 Take 1 mL of pure ethanol (absolute alcohol) in a test-tube and add 1 mL of glacial ethanoic acid to it. Then add 2 or 3 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid to the mixture. (i) Warm the test-tube containing above reaction mixture in hot water bath (a beaker containing, hot water) for about 5 minutes (see Figure 47). (i) Pour the contents of the test-tube in about 50 mL of water taken in another beaker and smell it Figure 47. Formation » {io) A sweet smell is obtained indicating the formation of an ester. Please note that all the alcohols react with carboxylic acids in the presence of a little of concentrated Sulphuric acid to form sweet-smelling esters. Tests for an Alcohol An alcohol can be tested by any one of the following tests : 1. Sodium Metal ‘Test, Add a small piece of sodium metal to the organic liquid (to be tested), taken in ds test-tub . If bubbles (or effervescence) of hydrogen gas are produced, it indicates that the given *Banic liquid is an alcohol. ie Ester Test for Alcohols. The organic compound (to be tested) is warmed with some glaci and ilphurie acid. A siveet smell (due to the formation of ester) indi ethanoic cates 4 few drops of concentrated § organic compound is an alcohol. a al Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeannerUses of Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol) SA RRREBE 1. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is used in the manufacture of paints, varnishes, lacquers, medicines, perfumes, dyes, soaps and synthetic rubber. 2. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is used as a solvent. Many organic compounds which are insoluble in water, are soluble in ethyl alcohol. 3. Being a good solvent, ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is used in medicines such tincture iodine, cough syrups and many tonics. 4. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is used as a fuel in cars aiongwith petrol. It is used as a fuel in spirit lamps. 5. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is used in alcoholic drinks (beverages) like Whisky Figure 48. fine tinciueis wine, beer and other liquors. Whisky contains about 35% of ethyl alcohol, gnjiseptic solution. I ivesohe wine contains 10% to 20% of ethyl alcohol, and beer contains about 6% Of tion of iodine in ethanol, odine ahs aloshat. is the real germ killer. Ethan 6. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is used as an antiseptic to sterilize wounds and £™\ eect syringes in hospitals and dispensaries. not mach soluble in water, Harmful Effects of Drinking Alcohol ee _ We should not use any alcoholic drinks because of the following, ha 1. Alcohol slows down the activity of the nervous system and the brain due to which the judgement of a person is impaired and his ‘reaction’ becomes slow. So, a person driving a car under the influence of alcohol cannot judge a situation properly and act quickly in case of an emergency. In this way, leads to increased road accidents [see Figure 49(a)] in) due to which a drunken man becomes ses violence and crime in society. as. also, rmful effects which they produce drunken drivin 2. Alcohol drinking lowers inhibitions (mental restraj quarrelsome. This leads to quarrels and fights which incre, (by Alcohol drinking causes (09 The Fiver shown atthe top> erson himself healthy. The liver shown a the bottom is sullering from disease celled cirrhosis which has been caused by heavy alcohol risking (ay Drunken driving is & major cause of outd avcidents all ever the world misery to aay well as to the family, Figure 49. Some of the harmful effects of drinkin alcohol (such ay whisky. beer. ett.) alcohol heavily on a particular occasion leads to staggered movement, slurred speech (undeat dizziness, and vomiting. Drinking of large quantities of alcohol makes # 49(b)]. He may even die, a long period of time can damage the stomach, liver, heart and 8 3. Drinking speech), blurred vision, cious [see Figure man une 4. Heavy drinking of alcohol mak financially bankrupt (divwaliya). . drinking of alcohol over brain. The liver disease known as ‘cithosis’ caused by alcohol c s a person alcoholic (addicted to alcohol). This makes the an lead to death [see Figure * Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeannerone’ off drinking of adulterated alcohol containin, severe poisoning, 4. The OO to blindness and even death, : leo 13 methyl alcohol (methanol), causes ase of Methanol. When taken internally, methanol isa poison. So, unlike ethanol, drinking methanol rie Cory small quantity can ease severe poisoning lending wo blindness and even death This happens iets liver of a ec Tve causing permanent blindness in a person. ee to methanal ri we Ver Of a person. This methanal reacts rapidly with the components of the cells ceagulation of their protoplasm. Due to this the cells stop functioning normally. This leads to the he person who drinks methanol i ed Alcohol (or Denatured Ethanol) . eth off a ature RESEDY jot of ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is used in industry for manufacturing various ott For industeel porposes ethyl alcohol is supplied ‘duty free” (without erg production t2x) Py the Government, This makes the industrial alcohol much ciar6 an its market rate, To prevent the misuse of industrial alcohol for drinking esPe” (or black marketing), ethyl alcohol meant for industrial purposes is denatured Lae ding small amounts of poisonous substances like methanol, pyridine or copper By ate et The ation ofthese posonous substances makes the elhyl alcohol unfit anking. We con now say that; Denatured alcohl i ethyl alcohol which has ee nmade unfit for drinking purposes by adding small amounts of poisonous So Tensy, a cin epatances Hike methanol, pyridine, copper sulphate, et. Please note that the addition ean cing, denatured small ammount of copper sulphate imparts a blue colour to industrial ethyl alcohol Seah orga itcan be identified easily ETHANOIC ACID (OR ACETIC ACID) Ethanoic acid is the second member of the homologous series of carboxylic acids (the first member wanoic acid). The fornvula of ethanoic acid is CHj;COOH. The common name of ethanoic acid is teing meth: seetic acid. A dilute solution of ethanoic acid in water is called vinegar. Vinegar contains ‘ ‘pout 5 to 8 per cent ethanoic acid. In other words, vinegar contains about 5 to 8 per cent ge ieatic acid. Vinegar is used widely as a preservative in pickles, LA Physical Properties of Ethanoic Acid 1. Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid having a sour taste and a smell of vinegar. The boiling point of ethanoic acid is 118°C (91 K). When pure ethanoic acid is cooled, it freezes to form a colourless, ice-like solid (avhich looks like a glacier). Due to this, pure ethanoic acid is called glacial ethanoic acid (or glacial acetic acid). 4. Ethanoic acid is miscible with water in all proportions. Figure $1. Vinegar Chemical Properties of Ethanoic Acid IES eee ining 5 to 8 per 1. Action on Litmus, Ethanoic acid is acidic in nature. Being acidic in nature, ethanoic cent ethanoic acid. id tums blue litmus solution red. In fact, all the carboxylic acids turn blue litmus to red. site il now compare the strength of carboxylic acids (ike ethanoic acid) and mineral acids (ike Ischia, Let us test both, ethan ac and hydrohloiaeid wth Blue Hts paper and universal Hcator paper, one by one. |. (9 Dilute ethanoic acid tums blue litmus paper to red, showing that it is acidic in nature. Dilute aper to red, showving that it fs also acide in nature, Thus, litmus ¥dtochto: ric acid also turns blue litmus p acid, are acidic in nature but the litmus test does not st i oe ns that both, ethanoic acid and hydrochloric hhich one is a strong acid and which one is a weak acid. Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeannerae eee (#) Dilute ethanoic acid tums universal indicator paper to orange, showing that its pH is about 4, This tells us that ethanoic acid is a weak acid. On the other hand, dilute hydrochloric acid turns unig, indicator paper to red, showing that its pH is about 1. This shows that hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, From this discussion we conclude that the comparison of pH with universal indicator tells us tha ethanoic acid and hydrochloric acid are not equally strong, It shows that ethanoic acid is a weak acid whereas hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. Actually, carboxylic acids (like ethanoic acid) are only partially ionised in solution (to give a small number of hydrogen ions), so they are weak acids. On the other hand, mineral acids (like hydrochloric acid) are completely ionised in solution (and give a large umber of hydrogen ions), due to which they are strong acids. Due to its acidic nature, ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates, hydrogencarbonates, and bases (or alkalis) to form salts. These reactions of ethanoic acid are described below, 2. Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogencarbonates. Ethanoic acid reacts With carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to evolve carbon dioxide gas alongwith the formation of salt and water. The reactions of ethanoic acid with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate are as follows () Reaction with Sodium Carbonate. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodi m ethanoate and carbon 2CH,COOH + NasCO, Ethanoic acid Sodium carbonate (Acetic acid) ioxide gas » 2CH,COONa + CO, + H,0 Sodium ethanoate Carbon Water (Sodium acetate) dioxide When sodium carbonate is added to a solution of ethanoic acid, brisk effervescence of carbon dioxide is given off, The salt formed in this reaction is sodium ethanoate. The common name of sodium ethanoate is sodium acetate. All other carboxylic acids re: th sodium carbonate in a similar way Gi Reaction with te. Ethanoie acid reacts with sodium hydrogencarbonate t isk effervescence of carbon dioxide gas CH.COOH + NaHCO. CH.COONa + CO; + HO Ethanoie acid Soci ogencarbonate Sodium ethanoate Carbon Water Soa dioxid This re, (see Figure 52). In fact, all ion is used as a test for ethanoic acid (or acetic acid) is decompose sodium hydrogencarbonate giving brisk ‘nce of carbon dioxide gas. The reaction between e and sodium carbonate can be performed as follows : Take a tube and put about 05 g of sodium carbonate in boil will observe that brisk effervescence o! jute ethanoic acid to t We on dioxide gas is lime wate ng tube (throug! wn in Figure 3 taken in a test- are 53). We will find that lime water turns turn lin So, this sodium carbonate, then carbon dioxide gas is evolved. We can repeat this experiment by using sodium hydrogencarbonate in place of produced. Let us pass this gas throug tube (as shown in Fi milky. Only carbon dioxide gas ¢ experiment proves that when ethanoic acid reacts Figure lime water milky), ure $2. Bi reacts with sodium hydiogen- carbonate to produce brisk effervescence of carbon dioxide gx Gass foe tube Lime water (Turns miky) Ethanofe acid reaets with sodium oH bbonate to produce carbon dioxide gas which mms _aae ‘Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeannera peaction carbon dioxide . . de as (which will tury lime water milky), Je. Ethanwie acie ai -ethanaic acid reacts with sodium hasten gent bases for akais) te for sats ane oy fo m hydroxide to form a salt called sodium ate ether SNM CHCOOH 4 NaOH Ethanoic acid Sodium hydroxide eo tiibases al Sextium ethanoate Water anction with bases, ethanoic acid behaves a fri eth bases (or alkalis) like {tet Tike anineral acids (ICL ete). In fx et il sodium hydroxide to fort the mation of Esters, Hthanoie Cid 10 form esters, For ¢ with Alcohols : certrexponding eal acid reacts with alcohols vntrated sulphuric ance eon ce of a few «drops of concentrate SS peel alr we ofa ? neentrated sulphuric acid, a sweet smelling este efoned ® 7 c ayCOOH + GOH Same. 80, sis action in which a sweel smelling ester is formed, is used as a test for gene ttn otal he carossic acids neat thy Acie moe ca cocentated Sulphuric ai 0 form pleasant amin esters The 2a oxic acd with an alcohol to fri an eter i alle ester siers are usually volatile liquids having sweet smell or pleasant smell. The ae aso said to have fruity smell, Esters are used in making ati Aleit scents). This fs because of the fat that most ofthe esters have a pleasant (a Esters are also used as flavouring agents. This means that esters are used in sng artificial flavours and essences used in ice-cream, sweats and cold drinks, ne of the most important reactions of esters is that they can be hydrolysed park to the alcohol and carboxylic acid (from which they are originally formed). This is discussed below, esters. ction ial perfumes Hydrolysis of Esters. When an ester is heated with sodium hydroxide solution then the ester gets hydrolysed (breaks down) to form the parent alcohol and sodium salt of xid. For example, when ethyl ethanoate ester is boiled with sodium hydroxide solution ehanoate and ethanol are produced CH,COOC,H; + NaOH HSL, CH,COONa + oH Ethyl ethanoate Sodium hydroxide Sodium ethanoate Ethanol (Ethyl acetate) (Sodium acetate) (Ethyl alcohol) The alkaline hydrolysis of esters (using alkali like sodium hydrovide) is Known as saponification (boap making). This is because of the fact that this reaction is used for the pre sition of soaps. When the ters of higher fatty acids with glycerol (oils and fats) are hydrolysed with sodium hydronte solution, we fet sodium salts of higher fatty acids which are called soaps. Tests for Carboxylic Acids a ny one of the followin A carboxylic acid can be tested by 1.Sodium Hydrogencarbonate ‘est. The organic compoundd (to be tested) is taken iy a testetube anata Finch of sodium hy«lroge vnldea! bait, Evolution ot carbon dioxide yas with brisk effervescence rbonate is ws that the given organic compound is 4 carboxylic acta 2 Ester Test for Acids, The organic compound (te be tested) 1s warmed with some ethanol and 2 or 3 Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeannerdrops of concentrated sulphuric acid. A sweet smell (due to the formation of ester) shows that the Organi compound is a carboxylic acid. 5. Litmus Test. Some blue litmus solution is added to the organic compound (to be tested). If the biy, litmus solution turns red, it shows that the organic compound is acidic in nature and hence it 1S a carbony acid. Uses of Ethanoic Acid (or Acetic Acid) am 1. Dilute ethanoic acid (in the form of vinegar) is used as a food preservative in the preparation of pickles and sauces (like tomato sauce). As vinegar, it is also used as an appetiser for dressing food dishes. 2. Ethanoic acid is used for making, cellulose acetate which is an important artificial fibre. 3. Ethanoic acid is used in the manufacture of acetone (propanone) and esters used in perfumes. » 55, Ethanoic (acid) anhydride i used in the manufacture of aspirin, Agi rin is an analgesic and antipyretic (And- | gesic is a drug which relieves pain andar. | 5, Ethanoic acid is used to coagulate rubber from latex. lipyretic is a drug which reduces fever = . Ethanoic acid is used in the preparation of dyes, plastics and pharmaceuticals. Scanned with CamScanner ‘earned with Camscaner: I Carbon Combouind i oO. Cl) ¢lg= c= 0-H +H=6-Gits _ | Concentrated H)SO, (ately St) v 6 the Sen + HO Ester _ —EE =r E-=ottof-ceActd and =H of ~alebef —— . aL - have beey—removed ts “fowen Hof I as Oct b= 0-W + HONS Eo Np eu Ano nett Nady 2c, | te henbaylaii — Fa Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeanneree Ee OE SOAPS AND DETERGENTS ‘ash our dirty hands with water alone, detergent powder, the cleaning becomes very easy. called a detergent. In other words, any substance types of detergents : soapy NOn-soapy detergent we talk of a dete: detergent (or cle, body (sanit discu: If we w they do not get cleaned. But if we use some soap or Any substance which has cleansing action in water is ‘ance which removes dirt is called a detergent. There are two and non-soapy. In everyday language, soapy detergents are called soaps and are called ‘synthetic detergents’ or just ‘detergents’. So, in everyday language, when rgent, it means synthetic detergent, though in the real sense of the word soap is also a ‘ansing agent). Soaps and detergents are used for washing clothes (laundry), cleaning our ‘ation), shaving soaps, hair shampoos, cleaning utensils and in textile manufacture, We will now Soaps and detergents in detail, one by one. SOAPS A soap is the sodium salt (or potassium salt) of a long chain carboxylic acid (fatty acid) which has cleansing properties in water. A soap has a large non-ionic hydrocarbon group and an ionic group, COO-Na* Examples of the soaps are ; Sodium stearate and Sodium palmitate. (i) Sodium Stearate, Ci7H3sCOO-Nat. Sodium stearate ‘soap’ is the sodium salt of a long chain saturated fatty acid called stearic acid, Ci7HssCOOH. Sodium stearate soap has a long alkyl group CypHgs and an ionic carboxylate group COO-Na’. (ii) Sodium Palmitate, C);H3;COO-Na*. Sodium palmitate ‘soap’ is the sodium salt of a long chain saturated fatty acid called palmitic acid, C)s;H3,;COOH. , A soap is the salt of a strong, base (sodium hydroxide) and a weak acid (carboxylic acid), so a solution of soap in water is basic in nature. Being basic, a soap solution turns red litmus paper to blue. Manufacture of Soap igure 56. Soap. SARMRIDS. 2.6o 0 Soap is made from animal fat or vegetable oils. Fats and vegetable oils are naturally occurring esters of higher fatty acids (long chain carboxylic acids) and an alcohol called glycerol. When fats and oils (obtained Scanned with CamScanner ‘earned with Camscanerfrom animals and plants) are heated with sodium hydroxide solution, they split to form sodium salt of,” higher fatty acid (called soap) and glycerol. This is described below. ; f Soap is made by heating animal fat or vegetable oil with concentrated sodium hydroxide sotutiog (caustic soda solution). The fats or oils react with sodium hydroxide to form soap and glycerol : Fat or Oil + Sodium hydroxide _Heat Soap + Glycerol / (An ester) (An alkali ) (Godium salt (An alcohol) i of falty acid) I The process of making soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalis is called saponification, | In other words, the process of splitting the fat or oil to form soap is called saponification. The above reaction # is an example of saponification. Please note that it is not necessary to use animal fats for preparing soaps, Vegetable oils like castor oil, cotton seed oil, soyabean oil, linseed oil, coconut oil, palm oil and olive oil are» also used for preparing soaps. We can also prepare soap ourselves in the school laboratory or at home, Preparation of Soap in the Laboratory (or at Home) OEE Samm The main raw materials required for preparing soap in a school laboratory or at home are : ( Vegetable oil (like Castor oil, Cottonseed oil, Linseed oil or Soyabean oil) & | (if) Sodium hydroxide (Caustic soda) 8 # (iii) Sodium chloride (Common salt) é Procedure. Soap can be prepared in the laboratory (or at home) as follows = 1, Take about 20 mL of castor oil (cottonseed oil, linseed oil or soyabean oil) in a beaker. 2. Add 30 mL of 20% sodium hydroxide solution to it. 3. Heat the mixture with constant stirring till a paste of soap is formed. 4, Then add 5 to 10 grams of common salt (sodium chloride). 5. Stir the mixture well and allow it to cool. On cooling the solution, solid soap separates out, Figure $7. Castor lis 6. When the soap sets, it can be cut into pieces called ‘soap bars’. (We can also 2 vegetable oil, It is add perfumes before the soap sets). used for making soap. Why Common Salt (Sodium Chloride) is Added in Soap Making. Common salt is added to the mixture to make the soap come out of solution. Though most of the soap separates out on its own but some of it remains in solution. Common salt is added to precipitate out all the soap from the aqueous solution. Actually, when we add common salt to the solution, then the solubility of soap present in it decreases, due to which all the soap separates out from the solution in the form of a solid. The dirty clothes and dirty body have usually oil or grease particles which hold dirt on clothes and skin, respectively. The soap which is used for washing clothes (or bathing) works by making the oil and grease particles dissolve in water (because normally the oil and grease are insoluble in water). In oniet to understand the cleansing action of soap, we should first know the structure of a soap molecule. This is described below. Structure of a Soap Molecule A soap molecule is made up of two parts :a long, hydrocarbon part and a short ionic part containing —COO-Na' group. The soap molecule is said to have a tadpole structure (sev Figure 58). The long hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic (water-repelling), so the Lena msicearon shinee hydrocarbon part of soap molecule is insoluble in water but soluble in (Oiscubley (Water sou) oil and grease. The ionic portion of the soap molecule is hydrophilic es (water-attracting) due to the polar nature of water molecules. So, the Pi8ure SS. Structure oF a soap mls = — Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeanner% oN oth :. From this discussion we ore that the hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule is soluble in oil or grease, so it can attach to the ont dd grease particles present on dirty clothes. On the other hand, the short ionic part of the soap vil ule (having negative charge) is soluble in water, so it can attach to the water particles (in which 0 oap iS dissolved and dirty cloth is dipped). Keeping these two unique properties of the soap molecules Path we will now explain how soap actually cleans the dirty clothes. We will be using a term ‘micelle’ in oh ‘spherical aggregate of soap molecules’ in the soap solution in water is called a ‘micelle’. Please that a soap solution is a colloidal solution. A soap solution appears cloudy because the soap micelles enough to scatter light ‘on of soap molecule is soluble in water but insoluble in oil and greas te ire ESE * -aine Aetian af Saan aceonesesemneonnnn — Scanned with CamScanner ‘earned with Camscanerie oinid inwaeedvine °° ARNE CES eo form ehenal Mloware * colloidal suspension in water in which the soap molecules jh Oe sng atte nysivounten pate ee SO. tn acnony aulcelle, ine scp moleoion tee one radially directed outward S directed towards the centre and ionic ends directed outwards 4 te ee ete ori negative charges at the ends repel one another) [see Figure Fee ie hydrophobic (oater repelling eget SOap #8 added to water because the hydrocarbon chains of Soe een racting) ad lene ela el ae insoluble in tear, bul the one ends of sop molecules are am pili tater i aided te a He i" Twater. Another point to be noted is that micelle formation will me is sre solvents Tike eth ets Hie ethanol Because the hydrocarbon chains of soap molecules ws oon SP ‘Soap molecules ‘Soap molecules Dirt particle (Oilor Grease) which was attached todiry cloth (a Soap micelle (©) Soap micelle entraps the dirt particle Figure 59. Cleansing action of soap. When a dirty cloth is put in water containing dissolved soap, then the hydrocarbon ends of the soap nolecules in the micelle attach to the oil or grease particles present on the surface of dirty cloth. In this way the soap micelle entraps the oily or greasy particle by using its hydrocarbon ends {as shown in Figure 586) The ionic ends of the soap molecules in the micelles, however, remain attached to water [see Figure 590). When the dirty cloth is agitated in soap solution, the oily and greasy particles present on its surface _ and entrapped by soap micelles get dispersed in water due to which the soap water becomes dirty but the doth gets cleaned. The cloth is cleaned thoroughly by rinsing in clean water a number of times. Pease note that the whole purpose of using soap for washing is to make the oily and greasy ditt | Pitcles soluble in water so that they can be washed away with water during agitating and rinsing, The fic that soap acts by making oily and greasy particles mix with water can be demonstrated as follows : 1 Take about 10 mf ater in test-tube anda a He cooking oi to The oi des not min wit] water. It floats on water. . ‘| 2 Put a cork on the test-tube andi shake it well fora few minutes. Even then oi floats on water and) does not mix in it 3. Now add a little of soap and shake it again. Eo a I RR Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeanner- ween = ose ene + 4, This time the oil and water mix and form a milky emulsion. 5. From this we conclude that soap has made the oil mix in water. TELE as jum salts. Soap is not suitable for washing clothes with jay4 Limitations of Soap Hard water contains calcium and magn water because of two reasor 1. When soap is used for washing clothes with hard water, a large amount of soap is wasted in reacting with the calcium and magnesium ions of hard water to form an insoluble precipitate ‘ ES called scum, before it can be used for the real purpose of washing. f So, a larger amount of soap is needed for washing clothes when f the water is hard. ‘ 2. The scum (or curdy precipitate) formed by the action of hard ¢ water on soap, sticks to the clothes being washed and interferes - with the cleaning ability of the additional soap. This makes the : cleaning of clothes difficult. £ The formation of lather or foam (jhaag) is necessary for removing # dirt from clothes during the washing of clothes. Soap does not give % lather easily with hard water because it first reacts with the calcium Figure 60. Soap forms ‘scum with ha wag, 7 ions and magnesium ions present in hard water to form insoluble , precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids. Soft water, however, does not contain any talcium ions or magnesium ions and, therefore, lathers easily when soap is added. This will become dear from the following experiment. Please note that distilled water is the softest water we can have. On the ¥ other hand, well water and hand-pump water are hard water. # ( Take about 10 mL soft water (distilled water or rain water) in a testtube and add five drops of soap lather (jluaag) is formed quickly {see solution to it, Shake the test-tube vigorously. We will see that a lot of | Figure 61(a)). From this we conclude that soap forms lather easily zit soft water. No lather formed Lot of ‘Only scum is formed lather formes Wot water (Hard water) ‘Soap solution (shake well) Distiled water (Soft water) ive huther easily (a) Soap forms lather easily (b) Soap does not with soft water with hard water Figure 61. Behaviour of soap with soft and hard water G9 Take about 10 mL hard water (well water or hand-pump water) in another test-tube and add five t Ghake the test-tube vigorously. We will see that no lather (jliaag) is formed a like scum is formed on the surface of water [see Figure 61(()}. From this ¥6 We will have to add much more soap to OPH drops of soap solution to it first. Only a dirty white cur conclude that soap does not fornt lather easily with hard water. lather with hard water. Note. If hard water ( experiment, we can prepare a sa little of calcium salt or magnesium ig the above dissolving? shih @ well water or hand-pump water) is not available for performin mple of hard water ourselves. Hard water can be made by alt ina beaker of water. The calcium and magnesium salts 1 Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeanner4 to obtain hard water are ; calcium hyd: e, calcium chloride, i : wdrogencarbonate, calcium sulphate, calc ‘ ' sm hydrogencarPonale, magnesium sulphate or mapgesioms chose Place mote that tap wate 15 fe water DETERGENTS i ee 9 e just seen that it fs quite difficult to wash dothes ws when é havShard. This dificulty has been overceens by ubing aantrer tind of Her ents called detergents, Detergents ave also called ‘soap-less soaps’ ja ough they act like a soap in having the cleansing properties, they | ota the usual ‘Soaps ike sodium stearate, etc. Detergents are {) #20 jeansing agents than soaps because they do not form ieclce ein . 5 mieTggnesim salts with hard water, and hence ean be used for shin sad mp hard water. Unlike soap, a detergent can lather well even with hard eset ais ean be shown as follows, te a rake about 10 mL hard water (well water or handspump water) in a test ; date and add 3 drops of a detergent solution to it. Shake the testetube FHRUFE eae ie gusly. We will See that a lot of lather (oF foam) is formed quickly (See "on Hetensent Pe ve 63). From this we conclude that a detergent forms lather ecliy raee ae Falter, Please note that We would not be able to check whether sample sisters hard by wsing 2 detergent (because a detergent forms lather easily tren with hard water). We will have to use a soap for this purpose, A detergent is the sodium salt of a long chain benzene sulphonic acid wet ware (or the sodium salt of a long chain alkyl hydrogensulphate) which has enters ing properties in water. A detergent has a large non-ionic hydrocarbon pera gen cleansing Pi 5 90 wp ane! an ionic group like sulphonate group, SOyNa*, or sulphate group (0 wa 2°. Examples of detergents are : Sodium n-dodecyl benzene sulphonate iach @lecenyl sulehales iHsse ou peeve, below " Ceres Sp oAaaueruent tSimt odium 1 P lather easly even with hard water. (CH), C,H; -SOs-Na* (CH.—(CH));—CH;—SO;-Na* Sodium n-dodecyl benzene sulphonate Sodium it Mn, [045 A ie oe 9a —oH err on Ee Cy bef SUI To Tag TST I A Ramzan ral ees ect | eS ne [io Re Ee EE i Be a se 1 6 i Reduclt 9) ae ae Reece | Penne 1/3 Aveo R= eS one Nia Plat © Dee a Cadditien) DS i Cb) R= cS ee Ho, rac Bas Ot fe ey eels “i cays) si ae Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeannerST he yet A RH = _ tA) Roe—w Say her 2 cud a 2 La AL He = = er ree Ro ee cay fT 44 hi Alia (lA t ay ae 2 Sot —- 4 to —felymer scion Rexating ——- tary tet aneP. = Ethene tid . +t a ie _Chenpmer) tk at ed Ce = tn et 4 oe Tere Liuavoathene CEP | ” Tef isnt Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeanner[pate ‘ia ose all are Called | “SMminal ahKy neds “in voliicl S attached i 2 DY), 5 ° ley MN alRynek ave acidic Minal alk S - New == i May he. re eg ——— a a — = | ae we d CS | EB ute = (= g ine Gi iF Nea Terminal _ alone == tS uae 2-—VWne ! FO SN T CNow= Acidic ) a i i Scanned with CamScanner ‘Seamed with CanSeannerAMS Uk PAU PUL, UU to PLUPAUAURL Gein COAL AND PETROLEUM A fuel is a material that has energy stored inside it Wh mai en a fuel is burned, the energy is released may as heat (and some Nigh). This heat energy can be used for various purposes Tike cooking food, ‘ing water, and for running generators in thermal power stations, machines in factories and engines of motor cars. Most of the common fuels are either free carbon or carbon compounds. For example, the fuels such as coal, coke and charcoal contain free carbon whereas the fuels such as kerosene, petrol, LPG and natural gas, are all carbon compounds. ’ ’ ; When carbon in any form (coal, coke, charcoal, etc.) is burned in the oxygen (of air), it forms carbon dioxide gas and releases a large arnount of heat and some light : Cc + O, —_ CO, + Heat + Carbon Oxygen Carbon dioxide (Coal, coke (From air) or charcoal) Light Though diamond and graphite are also free carbon, they are not burned as fuels. Most of the fuels which we use today are obtained from coal, petroleum and natural gas. Actually, coal, petroleum and natural gas are known as fossil fuels. Let us see why they are called fossil fuels. Fossils are the remains of the pre-historic animals or plant 5 buried under the earth, millions of years ago. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are known as fossil fuels because they were formed by the decomposition of the remains of the pre- Scanned with CamScanner ‘earned with Camscaner