CHAPTER BIODIVERSITY AND THE HEALTHY SOCIETY: 2. Learning Outcomes: 1 Discuss the concept of biodiversity; Determine the interrelatedness of society, environment, and health; . Perform a biodiversity mapping activity; . Appreciate the value of conserving biodiversity. 189Meaning of Biodiversity iversi i iter G. Rosen in 198g iodiversity was first coined by Wall i 1986.1, a eel word, bios, meaning "life" and the Latin term oF : eee diversitas, meaning “variety. iologi iversil i iodiversity, represents the g Biological diversity, abbreviated as biodiversit he sum total of ean life forms such as unicellular fungi, protozoa, bacteria, anq multi-cellular organisms such as plants, fishes, and mammals at varios biological levels including gens, habitats, and ecosystem. The biosphere comprises a complex collections of innumerable organisms, known as the biodiversity, which constitute the vital life support for survival of human race. This means that biodiversity is the variety of life forms on earth and the essential interdependence of all living things. As defined in a convention that initiated the study on Biological Diversity at Rio De Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992 that was actively attended by 154 countries, biodiversity is The variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic eco-systems and the ecological complexes of which the area part- this include diversity within species, between species and of ecosystem. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (UCN) in 1998, biodiversity is 5 1 : The variety and variability of spécies of their population, the variety of species of their life forms, the diversity of the complex association with species with their interaction and their ecological process which influences perform. Types of Biodiversity ___ Biodiversity has three types, namely: species diversity, ecosystem diversity, and genetic diversity, ____ Species diversity. Species diversity is a measurement of biodiversity ina particular ecological community. It characterizes the species richness or number of species thriving in an ecological community, the abundance (or number of individuals per species), and also the distribution or evenness of species, Species diversity i i; condition of ecosyet ity is a standard that can be utilized to evaluate the ems, In a healthy ecosystem, a divers d of eco n 0 ,' se and balance number of species exist and maintain the equilibrium of the ecosystem. Ecosystem diversit; i Bec y. Tho diff terrestrial or aquatic, natural ane strategic geographical location: erent types of ecosystems, such as or artificial, are sustained due to their ‘Son earth. Temperate regions are home to 140i forests the deciduous Where trees s, while the i ~ re adapted ing of the four J seasons, wh to the au2torial regions have, th to the changing o eahich are expos ‘© wet and dry Seasons, le tropical rain forests in thet hus; plants that thrive in the im their adaptive characteristics as compared with arctic region differ greatly those in the tropics, ‘Genetic diversity. During reproduction, the fertilized egg cell involves a series of cell divisions that produce individuals with a distinctive assemblage of genes. No individual members of any population (except identical twins, which develop ~rom a single egg). are precisely identical in their genetic makeup. (Source: https:/ /bit.ly/2MZlv25) Fig. 60. Mixed-colored corn kernels due to gonetic diversity Moreover, the larger a Population’s ic diversi i : * ia genetic diversity, the more likely it is to develop specific characteristics that permit it to adjust to new environmental pressures, such ag climate change or disease. In contrast, for those with a low degree, such Pp e ane ressures might drive a population to - extinction, The Interaction of the Three Types of Biological Diversity The three concentric circles show the interplay of the ecosystem, *: » species, and genetic diversity. The core, genetic diversity, involves, the ‘differences in the genetic makeup of the various species that survive in the different ecosystems found in the biosphere. Conversely, the ecosystem dictate the type of species that are fit to survive in them; thus their genetic makeup allows them to do so. (Source: httpa://bit.ly/ 2RJXEIC2) Fig. 61. Interaction of the three typos of biodiversity gs Distribution of Biodiversity Flora and fauna diversity depends on climate, altitude, oil, and Presence of. other species. 141 aFe levels, consequently modifications in land use and land cover that affect biodiversity can affect climate. The significant; mechanisms of biodiversity comprise plant functional diversity and the type and distribution ot ecosystems across globe. Altitude. Altitude affects the biodiversity in an inverse manner. Low altitudes are more diverse than higher altitudes. This happens because as we move up, the atmosphere becomes less dense and because of the shortage of oxygen, fewer species are able to sustain life at higher altitudes. 5 Soils. Soils are complex systems. Organisms living in soil and the mineral and nutrient components act. together to produce high diversity and complexity, feeding back to biodiversity richness through habitat and nutrient provision. Presence of other species. Organisms interact with other organisms in an ecosystem. These interactions such as predation, parasitism, commensalism, and other symbiotic relationships may have beneficial or harmful effects to the biodiversity of an area. Also, the introduction or reduction of new species in an ecosystem may also positively or negatively affect the other species by limiting or reducing their population, or contrariwise. Taxon mAnimaiia Archaea mBatera mChromisa m Fungi mPlantae mProtozoa. mViruses (Source: Catalogue of Life: 29th January 2019) Fig. 62. Current number of known living species on Earth Most of the world’s most biodiverse regions are concentrated in the Tropics, since this region receives the most amount of sunlight ina year, consequently, diverse plants are able to grow and survive well. This would also mean that more nutrients are available to support more types of organisms to live, 142== Biodiversity Hotspots Ce A region with a hj damage by anthropa 8 amount of bi order to qualify ay such activity is called a biodiversity hotspot. In region must con 2 According tai © Conservation International, “a the world’s total) as sae St 1,500 species of vascular plants (>0.5% of tlowhore.” ie means, it must have a high percentage is rare and it cannot beta i Se on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, of its original natural vest et hotspot must also have 30 percent or loss ‘a Vegetation. In other words, it has to be endangered. To date, a just 2.4 percent of Banihe oe: 36 areas qualify as hotspots. They embody of the world’s plant g 'S land surface, but they sustain more than half mammal, reptile an ee se, Cndemics and nearly 43 percent of bird, hotspots map produccqehibian species as endemics. The biodiversity in Figure 66 to gota been. by the Conservation International is shown around ‘the world. Const “i2W of the location of biodiversity hotspots hotspots around the degradation, causin, the advantage of all iodiversity that undergoes habitat Onservation International specifies 36 biodiversity world. All are Severely thr g their conservation criti life on earth, eatened by habitat loss and ical to protecting nature for (Source: hitps://bitly/2E5) Fig. 63. Biodiversity hotspot in the world Biodiversity and Balance of Nature As mentioned, biological diversity is a measurement of an ecosystem’s species richness and species evenness. If an ecosystem has poor species diversity, it may not function properly or efficiently. A diverse Species assemblage also contributes to ecosystem diversity, hence the balance of nature. The following concepts are believed to affect, and are also affected, by biodiversity. Trophic level. The removal of species from one trophic level can 143use the devastation of ecosystem as well as biodiversity. cau’ a complex ecosystem having numeroug ecosystem. In if phic Core rene or more species does not affect any serious problem tro) since an alternative is available. i ddition of species causes noticeable Keystone species.. Loss or a i 3 % modifications in ecosystem states, that is, the species make a unique contribution to the functioning of the ecosystem itself. The sea star as shown in the illustration, serves as the keystone species of the bay. SO ns ecutl ag caso Pisaster Coreen ‘ochraceous tose peg StS Cer Sets Pu Russ) Peete) ea’ crac} (Source: 2010 HowStitffWorks.com) Fig. 64. Keystone species concept Niche complementarity. Variation among species in their requirements for diverse resources will be a source of complementary interaction, hence, a species would acquire more resources. When two species thrive on the same island (called sympatric Populations), they have a tendency to display larger differences in morphology (in this case of the Galapagos Finches, the shape of beak) and resource consumption than when found on different islands (allopatric populations). This therefore lets the species to evade competition. Niche partitioning among five species} of coexisting warblers ee eee ul ZARS% Neteeioget Sebtgealet etiam (Source: htipe://bu ly yaerere i ’ ‘Sour 1//bitty J) Fig. 65. Niche partitioning among five species of coexisting warblers 144Ecological facilitation or mutualism: Plants may a} improvement of the physical a; Species interactions such as commensalis™m iso benefit from their neighbors throus: ind biotic environment. tfoli ae sonnet Species richness increases the linear stability of the oY ¥ while the biomass is also stabilized. Species-rich communities are thought to create more stable ecosystem services because of the compleme: 2 3 ni = ntal mics among Insurance hypothesis, Biodi ‘ Hi i a iver tem against environmental changes such ag liveth, jane ecosystem agi Each rectangle exemplifi UE u Dlifies individuals of either blue or Baek of individuals correlates to the produ Plant community comprising species and the total number ictivity of the ecosystem. ‘Year: Average Year2:Warmyear _~ Year3: Cold year (Source: httpe:/ /go.riature.com /2Deqivb) Fig. 66. How increasing diversity can stabilize ecosystem functioning Green species increase in number in warm years, while blue species proliferate in cold years, thus, a community comprising only blue or green species will vary in biomass when there is inter-annual climate differences. Conversely, in the community having both green and blue individuals, ~ the reduction in one species is recompensed for by a rise in the other species, hence generating a stable ecosystem productivity between years. loreover, typically, the varied community displays higher productivity any of the single-species community. This configuration can happen if blue or green species are. active at slightly dissimilar times, so that competition between the two species is diminished. This difference in Species activity leads to complimentary resource utilization and can increase * total productivity of the ecosystem. 145Benefits of Biodiversity The different components of biodiversity—genes, species, ang ecosystems - give society an extensive assortment of goods and services, These are categorized as to consum: > iptive, non-consumptive and ecological services to the society. . Consumptive value. It often refers to non-market that are consumed directly, with or with This includes food/drink, fuel, medicine, materials, worth of out passing throu; better crop varieties, Tesources, gh a market, and industrial Non-consumptive value. This pertains t resources which are not diminished by their use, user to have access to them, or make active u are recreation, education and research, and tradit ‘0 the worth of natural that do not require the se of them. Examples - tional values. Ecological services. Ecological functions are the major resources that support our health, social, cultural, and economic needs, The sustainability of communities is determined by our capacity to conserve or restore the ecological services of both urban and rural areas. Balance of nature Biological productivity Regulation of climate Degradation of waste Cleaning of air and water Cycling of nutrients Control of potential pest and disease causing species Detoxification of soil and sediments Stabilization of land against erosion a - Carbon:sequestration and global climate change Maintenance of soil fertility However, no matter how numerous these benefits are to humanity, there are countless threats to the diversity of genes, species, and ecosystems on earth. Biodiversity, through the establishment of eco-parks,may serve as natural recreational activities ;while in some religious countries, many . Plants and animals are considered sacred and holy and are worshipped and respected as part of tradition. rm me peop op Threats to Biodiversity Natural causes, These art i tL ake “ ral ¢: . threats that occur in nature, and a considered inevitable, Natural causes include the following: 1. Narrow Seographical 4 area. The narrower the area of a certain community, the lesser the number of species that: will be able to thrive in it. 2. Low population, The log, ¢ les the lower the biodiversity j, . er the number of individuals to procreat, nan area. , 3. Low breeding rate. The Slower the breeding rate of the 146individuals, the less diverse, 4. Natural disaster ‘ 8. Th i ae the destruction of habitats e occurrence of natural calamities cat of various species, thus diminishes biodiversity. Anthropogenic causes. since the principles of susta: ‘The following are perceived es. Human activities cause a decrease in species ‘inable development, are frequently overlooked. as the most common anthropogenic threats: 1. Alteration and destruction of ecosystems. A good example for this is the damage of the rainforest. In many tropical countries such as Southeast Asia, forested areas are converted to coconut farms where the famous palm oil is extracted. This endangers a wide array of species such as the orangutans and monitor lizards, commonly known as “bayawak”. Another instance is the reclamation of rivers or estuarine areas due to the construction of large dams and/or housing subdivisions which prevent. - fishes such as bangus, eel, or tilapia to move freely between rivers and the | sea. : 2. Hunting and exploitation of animals. A few years ago, animals that were thought to be harmful to livestock or even to humans, like the alligators, were hunted down. The trade in exotic species, collecting or fi catching animals and plants with apparently medicinal values are also threatening biodiversity. 3. Agricultural practices. The uncontrolled usage of pesticides and other chemicals is causing the massive death of bees and other insects crucial for pollination and, hence, for the provision of food. Also, agriculture needs land and, when it is not available, large areas are converted to croplands for food production. : (Source: https:/ /www.worldwildlife.org/habitats/wetlands) Fig. 67. In Viotnam and other areas of the Mekong region, several wetlands have been transformed into rice fields 4. Introduction of exotic species, Exotic species are those that are-not native in an area and are introduced, whether voluntarily or 147 FEe et ey i i for space and nutrients with the oluntarily. These eventually compete 5 ative species, as a result, local species are harmed. If, furthermore, these new species displace the natives, then they are considered invasivg species. acea candliculata is a small and golden-colored snail which is a nis eeeldee Apple Snail”; and it is known as the “Golden Kuhol” in the Philippines. In the study of Joshi, et al. (2008) the Golden Kuhol was introduced sometime 1982-1984 to augment sources of food protein for underprivileged Filipino farmers, but then, in 1986, it began to damage heavily rice farms in northwestern Luzon. Its rapid multiplication and wide distribution threaten rice production and food security in the country, Golden apple snails hag become a serious problem for farmers because it eats crops and plants in these days in the Philippines. (Source: https:/ /bit.ly/2V23TFL) Fig. 68. The Golden Kuhol on rice stalks. 5. Climate change. Climate change is responsible for the modification of habitats and the conditions in which the species live. It causes bleaching of corals, spreading out of epidemics, causes variations in the migration of species such as whales, increases sea level and others. 6. Tourism. When tourism is performed ina disrespectful manner with biodiversity or when it causes the carrying capacity of the ecosystem to exceed, nature may possibly be affected. The solution is sustainable “eco” tourism. 7. Ignorance. Ignorance is the worst enemy for conservation. The most immediate need therefore, is to raise awareness among peoples regarding the importance of preserving nature. More importantly, these th fooues ati reats are made concrete by the recent Teported by different intercontinental organizations Teme ai are working on biodiversity. One of these is the 4 © Bund: (WWE) - Endangered Species Conservation. Recent Issues on Biodiversity Here are recent issues that concern biodiversity, * Some 75 per‘cent of the ic diversi been lost in the past century, senetie diversity of crop Beate 148+ The fast los; . 8 of speci estimated by scientists nn” ate Seeing i 5 than the meee to be between 1.006 10,000 present dey 38 that would occur if tion tates (the rate of 3 00. fines greats if we humans were not arour aed extinctions round). + These. experts co; species becomes extinct mpute that. between 0.01%-0.1% of all each year. fey eee: sation a hg number of species is true, that is, that thereon 200 and 2,000 extinctions hapros ser your ‘On the eties mean Viner etme pce snes nba species cohabit with us here on our earth - then between 10,000 and . {00,000 species are going extinct yearly. * Wildlife populations hav e dropped, ly, 0 percent between 1970 and 2012 A ea eee yd 5 * Roughly one-third of the world’s “been destroyed or highly degraded. it ial sk Were et? Be About 24 percent of mammals and 12 percent of bird species are currently considered to be globally threatened. + It is speculated that more than 50 percent of the world’s wetlands have disappeared since 1900, despite their value to the human population. In some places the pace of wetlands destruction occurs at incredible speeds. In the Philippines, 80 percent of our coastal wetlands have been degraded, drained or destroyed in the last 30 years. Experts claim that about. 1.4 and 1.8 million species have already been scientifically acknowledged. The earth is a huge, complex world and authorities discover new species 2. This is proven by the World Resources through science almost all the tim itato (WR tional research organization that includes over Institute (WRI), an internal 7 n 3 50 countries. Its goal is to implement its big ideas to sustain the world’s natural resources the foundation of economic opportunity and human well-being, by moving its more than 450 experts:and other staff by working with leaders worldwide. Scientists were startled in 1980 by the discovery of a tremendous diversity of insects in tropical forests. In one study of just 19 trees in tle species discovered were previously Panam: the 1,200 be: i ey Bile a isi scientists have a better understanding of wn to science... Surprisingly, t how many stare thre are in the galaxy than how many species there are on Earth (World Resources Institute). species there is to begin the earth is losing. But ted by researches and it _. Thus, if these experts don't know how much With, then they don’t know accurately how much _ the numbers presented above are substantia’ 149cannot be argued that at present, there is, in reality, a very serious biodiversity crisis. The claim that based on their studies, unlike the mass extinction events of the earth’s geological history, the present extinction problem ig one for which a single species appears to be almost entirely responsible—the Homo sapiens. So, if humans have been causing the rapid loss in biodiversity, what can be done to retard this irreversible damage? Conservation of Biodiversity Humans can be smarter about how we utilize our oceans, freshwater and land resources, how energy, food, and other necessities are produced. : Scientists have the knowledge and competence to shift towards a better future for both people and nature to coexist. Experts are already discovering new methods to feed humanity's growing population, meet its energy demands and manage its global water supply. The need for governments to commit to cease the destruction, begin reversing the loss, and start. restoring nature to more sustainable levels is the key. = Now is the time to support these solutions to ensure that everyone gets a fair share without the destruction of nature: 1. Biodiversity inventories E 2. Conserving biodiversity in protected habitats a. In-situ conservation b. Ex situ conservation 8. Restoration of biodiversity _ (Source: Nps: /bit.1y/2GHQ0em) Fig. 69, Biodiversity Conservation Concept Map 150. Imparting environmental education islati . Enacting, strengthening and enforcing environmental legislation . Enacting, strengthening and enforcing environmental legislation 2 Reviewing the agriculture practice . Controlling urbanization . Conservation through biotechnology Carona . Population control The next decade sees a historic moment when world leaders will make key decisions as regards the environment, climate and sustainable development. These decisions will set the agenda for the world’s future. Collectively, people can help shape these global decisions and deliver a message that it's no longer acceptable to continuously ruin nature to its dark end—and that humans can take a different, brighter path. 151