Mittelstedt C Engineering Mechanics 2 Strength of Materials

Christian Mittelstedt
Engineering
Mechanics
2: Strength
of Materials
An introduction with many examples
Engineering Mechanics 2: Strength of
Materials
Engineering Mechanics 2:
Strength of Materials
An introduction with many examples
Technical University of Darmstadt
Darmstadt, Germany
ISBN 978-3-662-66589-3 ISBN 978-3-662-66590-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9
Springer Vieweg
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Preface
This book originated from my lecture notes for the course “Engineering Mechanics
2”, which I hold for students of mechanical engineering in the second semester,
but also for students of other disciplines at the Technical University of Darmstadt.
The book follows the classical division of engineering mechanics as it is taught
at universities in Germany and is dedicated to the determination of stresses and
deformations in elastic bodies.
Feedback of any kind is welcome anytime.
Darmstadt Christian Mittelstedt

Autumn 2022
v
Contents
1 Introduction to linear elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 State of stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Bar unter tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Stress vector and stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Equilibrium conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Deformation and strain state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Bar under tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Infinitesimal strain tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 The generalized Hooke’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.2 Three-dimensional material law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.3 Temperature influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Plane stress state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Stress transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Principal stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Mohr’s stress circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.1 Bar stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.2 Bar deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1.3 Statically indeterminate bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2 Bar systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.2.1 Statically determinate bar systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.2.2 Statically indeterminate bar systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
vii
viii Contents
4 Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Basic equations for an arbitrary reference frame . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3 First cross-sectional normalization: Center of gravity C . . . . . . . 88
4.3.1 Steiner’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3.2 Selected elementary cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.3.3 Composite cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.3.4 Stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4 Second cross-sectional normalization: Principal axes . . . . . . . . 115
5 Beam deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

5.1 Basic equations of beam bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.2 Statically determinate single-span beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.3 Statically indeterminate single-span beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.4 Multi-span beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.5 Standard bending cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.5.1 Simply supported beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.5.2 Cantilever beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.5.3 Statically indeterminate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.5.4 Multi-span beams and angled systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.6 Biaxial bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6 Shear stresses in beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.2 Thick-walled cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.3 Thin-walled cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.4 Shear center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.2 Solid bar with circular cylindrical cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.3 Thin-walled bar with circular cylindrical cross-section . . . . . . . 211
7.4 Bars with arbitrary thin-walled cylindrical cross-sections . . . . . . 213
7.5 Bars with open thin-walled cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.6 Determination of internal moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
8 Energy methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

8.1 Work and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8.1.2 Internal and external work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.1.3 Principle of work and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.2 Strain energy and complementary strain energy . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.2.1 The bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.2.2 The Euler–Bernoulli beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Contents ix
8.2.3 Bar under torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

8.2.4 Combined load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
8.3 Application of the principle of work and energy to the determination
of elastic deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.4 The principle of virtual forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.4.1 Formulation for the beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.4.2 The unit load theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.4.3 Use of integral tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.5 The force method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.5.1 Determination of deformations of statically determinate
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.5.2 Statically indeterminate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8.6 Reciprocity theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
8.6.1 Betti’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
8.6.2 Maxwell’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.7 Statically indeterminate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9 Buckling of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.2 Types of equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.3 Determination of critical loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.4 Buckling of bars: The four Euler cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
9.4.1 Introductory example: Euler case II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
9.4.2 Euler case I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
9.4.3 Euler case III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
9.4.4 Euler case IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.4.5 Summary of the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
9.5 Buckling length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.6 General form of the buckling differential equation . . . . . . . . . . 312
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Introduction to linear elasticity
1
The present chapter deals with the basics of linear elasticity theory and introduces
the corresponding state variables, i.e. stresses, strains and displacements. The gov-
erning equations are the equilibrium conditions, the kinematic relations and the
material law, here in the form of the generalized Hooke’s law. Students are enabled
to derive and formulate the basic equations of linear elasticity theory and to formu-
late and solve simple fundamental problems.
1.1 Introduction
In a solid (a so-called continuum) under load, a stress state will develop. Due to
the load, deformations occur in the solid, thus displacements of the individual body
points occur. Displacements are accompanied by strains, the so-called strain state
is formed.
For a three-dimensional body, the above quantities – displacements, strains,
stresses – are described by the following set of equations under a given load and
prescribed boundary conditions:
Kinematic equations: The so-called kinematic equations establish a relationship

between the displacements and the resulting strains.
Constitutive equations: The so-called constitutive equations establish a relation-
ship between the stresses and the strains. In the case of linear elasticity, the
constitutive equations are described by Hooke’s law.
Equilibrium conditions: Equilibrium must be ensured at every point of the solid
under consideration.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer 1
Nature 2023
C. Mittelstedt, Engineering Mechanics 2: Strength of Materials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9_1
2 1 Introduction to linear elasticity
1.2 State of stress
1.2.1 Bar unter tension
To motivate the concept of the stress state, as an introductory elementary example

we consider the straight linear elastic bar unter tension as shown in Fig. 1.1, top.
The bar has the length l and the cross-sectional area A and is loaded at its center of
gravity by the tensile force F .
The applied tensile force F causes forces inside the bar. To investigate this in
more detail, we perform a vertical cut at an arbitrary point x of the bar (Fig. 1.1,
middle). The forces acting inside the bar must be thought of as being uniformly
distributed, and these distributed forces are called stress. It is common to use the
symbol for the stress. Stresses are given in a corresponding unit of a force per
unit area, e.g. in the unit [N=m2 ]. It is also possible to use the unit Pascal, where
1 Pa D 1 mN2 .
The stresses occurring in the given section are assumed to be constantly dis-
tributed over the cross-sectional area and also oriented normal to the cross-section,
so that at this point we also speak of the so-called normal stresses . The normal
stresses can be summed up to the normal force N of the bar. Since the normal stress
is constant across the cross-section, the following relationship holds between the
normal force N D F and the normal stress :
N F
D D : (1.1)
A A
The sign of the normal stress depends on the sign of the normal force N . If, as
in this case, the bar is subjected to tension, the normal force N is positive, and
thus, according to (1.1), the normal stress will also be positive, i.e. it will be
a tensile stress. If the normal force N is negative, then is also negative and thus
a compressive stress.
We now consider the bar under tension of Fig. 1.1 again and make a cut at an
arbitrary location x under an inclination angle as shown in Fig. 1.2. The cross-
sectional area to be considered here is called AN and is calculated as AN D cosA . Such
Fig. 1.1 Bar under tension A

(top), normal stress for F F
a perpendicular cut at an
arbitrary location x (middle), x
l
replacement of the normal
stress by the normal force N
F F
(bottom).
σ σ
x
F N F
1.2 State of stress 3
Fig. 1.2 Bar under tension A

(top), cut at an arbitrary lo- F F
cation x under the angle ,
release of the normal stress x
l
and the shear stress (bot-
tom).
F F
A
x
a cut shows that not only a normal stress occurs, but also a so-called shear stress ,
which acts tangentially to the cross-sectional surface A. N Again, both stresses are
assumed to be constantly distributed over the cross-section A. N We form the sum of
the horizontal forces at the left bar segment and obtain:
AN cos C AN sin F D 0: (1.2)
Analogously, the sum of the vertical forces results in:
AN sin AN cos D 0: (1.3)
Inserting AN D A
cos
yields:
F
C tan D ;
A
tan D 0: (1.4)
These two equations can be solved for the two stresses and as follows:
1 F tan F
D 2
; D ; (1.5)
1 C tan A 1 C tan2 A
i.e. both stresses depend on the section angle . The shear stress vanishes for
the angle D 0, as already assumed in Fig. 1.1, and reaches its maximum value
F
max D 2A for D 4 . The normal stress reaches its maximum value max D FA at
D 0.
The above results, worked out for a very elementary example, already allow us
to draw some important conclusions, which we summarize in a general way below:
The stress state is generally described by the simultaneous occurrence of normal

stresses and shear stresses.
The stress state depends on the orientation of the considered cutting direction.
There are special stress states in which only normal stresses occur. There are
also conditions (not applicable to the above example of the bar under tension) in
which only shear stresses occur.
1.2.2 Stress vector and stress tensor
We now consider an arbitrary solid as shown in Fig. 1.3. Let the body be subjected
to arbitrary loads and to arbitrary boundary conditions. In order to describe the
state quantities occurring herein, a spatial Cartesian coordinate system x; y; is in-
troduced. We denote the associated displacements as u, v and w. They are generally
functions of all three spatial directions:
u D u.x; y; z/; v D v.x; y; z/; w D w.x; y; z/: (1.6)
Loads on a solid can occur in various forms. First of all, there are the so called
volume forces, which are distributed volumetrically in the body under consideration.
They are given in the unit of a force per unit volume, e.g. in the unit [N=m3 ]. Volume
forces can occur in all three spatial directions, their components are called fx , fy ,
fz , and they are summarized in the vector f :
0 1
fx
f D @fy A: (1.7)
fz
Loads can also occur in the form of surface loads, which are in the unit of a force per
unit area, e.g. in the unit [N=m2 ]. Surface loads can occur on the entire surface of
the solid, or only on a part of it. Let the surface loads be given with their components
tx , ty , tz , which are arranged in the vector
0 1
tx
t D @ty A: (1.8)
tz
Loads can also be in the form of line loads, which have a corresponding unit of
force per unit of length, e.g. [N/m]. In addition, point loads may also occur, which
are given in the unit [N].
∆F
n t n
t
z ,w
∆A
t
f
x,u y,v
Fig. 1.3 Three-dimensional solid under load (left), section through an arbitrary body point (mid-
dle), decomposition of the stress vector into normal and shear stress (right).
If we now look at a solid under load, forces are generated inside of the solid
which can be related to a cut surface. These are called stresses, as already explained
at the example of the bar under tension. Stresses in a solid are thus in the unit of
a force per unit area, e.g. in the unit [N=m2 ]. For further definition, we consider
an arbitrary section through the solid body under consideration and investigate an
infinitesimal sectional surface A (Fig. 1.3, middle). The spatial orientation of this
surface is denoted by the normal vector n:
0 1
nx
n D @ny A: (1.9)
nz
The force F is now released. The Stress vector is then defined as follows:
F
t D lim : (1.10)
A!0 A
The stress vector depends on the orientation of the section and the surface under
consideration. The stress vector t is therefore a function of the normal vector n, so
that t D t .n/.
The stress vector is now decomposed into a component parallel to the normal
vector and a component tangential to the cut surface. These components are called
normal stress and shear stress , cf. Fig. 1.3, right. We have:
p
D t n; D t t 2 : (1.11)
The stress state at a point of a solid is uniquely determined if the stress vector
exists in three mutually independent sections through the body point. The normal
vectors of these sections must be linearly independent. It is convenient to place
these sections so that they are oriented perpendicular to the three coordinate axes
x, y, z. In Fig. 1.4 an infinitesimally small cube is shown, which was cut out of the
considered solid in this way. Once the stress vectors of these sections are known,
they can be used to determine the stress vectors under any other directions.
Now let three intersecting surfaces be defined in such a way that their nor-
mal vectors are identical with the coordinate axes x, y, z. The three stress vec-
tors t x , t y , t z are then:
0 1 0 1 0 1
xx yx zx
t x D @ xy A; t y D @yy A; t z D @ zy A: (1.12)
xz yz zz
The indexing of the stresses is defined as follows. The first index indicates the di-
rection of the surface normal of the considered section, whereas the second index
indicates the direction of action of the considered stress component. Accordingly,
stresses with identical indices are normal stresses that are perpendicular to the sec-
tion under consideration. Stresses with two different indices, on the other hand, are
shear stresses, they are tangential to the considered section surface. Obviously, for
tz xy
xx
yy yx
zz
zy xz
zx
ty
yz
tx xz yz
t
f
y dz
yy
xx xy yx
x zy
zx
dy zz
dx
Fig. 1.4 Infinitesimal cube and associated stress components.
a complete description of the stress state in a body point, nine stress components
are required, namely the three normal stresses xx , yy and zz and the six shear
stresses xy , yx , xz , zx , yz and zy .
The sign conventions for stresses are analogous to those for forces and moments
in bars and beams: a stress is positive if it points in the positive coordinate direction
at a positive cutting surface. A cutting surface is positive if the outward normal
vector of the considered surface points in positive coordinate direction.
In Fig. 1.5 the infinitesimal cube is shown in a top view. By formulating the mo-
ment equilibrium around the center of gravity of the cube about all three coordinate
axes, it is straightforward to show that mutually associated shear stresses (i.e., shear
stresses with identical but interchanged indices) must be identical. We show this by
means of Fig. 1.5 for the two shear stresses xy and yx . The sum of the moments
about the z-axis gives:
dx dy
2xy dydz 2yx dxdz D 0: (1.13)
2 2
This yields:
xy D yx : (1.14)
Fig. 1.5 Moment equilibrium xx

at the infinitesimal section
element. xy
z y
yx C
yy yy dx
yx
xy
xx
x
dy
Analogously, one can form the moment sums around the other two coordinate axes
which yield:
xz D zx ; yz D zy : (1.15)
As a conclusion, it can be stated that mutually associated shear stresses always both
point towards or away from the common corner of a section element, as shown in
Figs. 1.4 and 1.5.
As a result of the above considerations, the number of stress components to be
determined is reduced from nine to six. These are the three normal stresses xx , yy ,
zz and the three shear stresses xy D yx , xz D zx , yz D zy .
It is common to summarize the stress components in a symmetric matrix as
follows: 2 3
xx xy xz
D 4 xy yy yz 5: (1.16)
xz yz zz
This is the so-called Cauchy1 stress tensor. It summarizes the stress vectors t x , t y ,
t z in columns. Due to the equality of associated shear stresses, the Cauchy stress
tensor is always symmetric.
1.2.3 Equilibrium conditions
In the following we want to clarify how the stress states of two infinitesimally dis-
tant body points are related to each other. For this purpose we consider the so-called
local equilibrium conditions. Let us again consider an infinitesimal sectional ele-
ment of the solid of Fig. 1.3 with the edge dimensions dx, dy, dz, and we apply
the respective stress components to the cutting edges (Fig. 1.6). For reasons of clar-
ity, the volume forces fx , fy , fz , which also have to be taken into account, are not
shown here. We now assume that the stress components at the positive and negative
cutting edges differ by an infinitesimal increment. We denote these increments as
dxx , dyy , dzz , and dxy , dxz and dyz , as shown in Fig. 1.6. For the example of
the normal stress xx this means that at the negative edge of the cut with respect to
the x-direction the normal stress xx .x/ occurs, while at the opposite positive edge
of the cut the stress xx .x C dx/ D xx C dxx would be applied. The infinitesi-
mal increments can be developed as Taylor series which we terminate after the first
term:
@xx @yy @zz
dxx D dx; dyy D dy; dzz D dz;
@x @y @z
@xy @yx @xz
dxy D dx; dyx D dy; dxz D dx;
@x @y @x
@zx @yz @zy
dzx D dz; dyz D dy; dzy D dz: (1.17)
@z @y @z
1
Augustin-Louis Cauchy, 1789–1857, French mathematician.
Fig. 1.6 Local equilibrium z

at the infinitesimal volume
element.
zx d zx zz d zz xy xx
yy yx
zy d zy
xz
yz d yz d yz
xz xz
d yy d yy
xx xx
d y
x xy d xy yx xy
zy zx
zz
We consider the force equilibrium in the x-direction and obtain by adding up all
forces resulting from the stress components:

@xx
xx C dx dydz xx dydz
@x

@yx
C yx C dy dxdz yx dxdz
@y

@zx
C zx C dz dxdy zx dxdy C fx dxdydz D 0: (1.18)
@z
Summarizing and observing ij D j i yields:
@xx @xy @xz

C C C fx D 0: (1.19)
@x @y @z
In the same way, we can proceed with respect to the force equilibria in y- and
z-directions, and we obtain the local equilibrium conditions as follows:
@xx @xy @xz

C C C fx D 0;
@x @y @z
@xy @yy @yz
C C C fy D 0;
@x @y @z
@xz @yz @zz
C C C fz D 0: (1.20)
@x @y @z
The equations (1.20) are three coupled partial differential equations for six unknown
stress components. Thus, any solid problem is intrinsically statically indeterminate,
and the three equilibrium conditions (1.20) are not sufficient to determine the six
stress components. We thus have to use further equations.
1.3 Deformation and strain state 9
1.3 Deformation and strain state
1.3.1 Bar under tension
We consider the linear elastic bar under tension of Fig. 1.1 with length l and con-
stant cross-sectional area A and investigate its deformation (Fig. 1.7), which, caused
by the tensile force F , consists of a length change l. As a measure of the defor-
mation of the bar, we use the so called normal strain " as the ratio of the length
change l to the initial length l. For the special case of a constant cross-sectional
area and a constant normal force N D F we obtain:
l
"D : (1.21)
l
The normal strain " has no unit. It is positive if the bar becomes longer (i.e. l > 0)
and negative if the bar becomes shorter (i.e. l < 0). We will assume in all further
explanations that the normal strain is small, so that jlj l and thus j"j 1 holds.
A more general definition of the normal strain of a bar can be obtained by con-
sidering the deformation behavior of an infinitesimal bar element (Fig. 1.8). For this
purpose, we consider a sectional element of length dx under the displacement u.x/
at its left end at an arbitrary location x. At x C dx, on the other hand, there is the
displacement u.x C dx/ D u C du, where the quantity du represents an infinites-
imal increase of the displacement u. The length of the infinitesimal bar element in
the deformed state is therefore dx C .u C du/ u D dx C du, the length change
is therefore du. Thus, the ratio between the length change and the initial length can
be expressed as:
du
"D : (1.22)
dx
Fig. 1.7 Bar (top), length A

change under tensile force
(bottom).
x
l
F F
x
l ∆l
Fig. 1.8 Infinitesimal bar

element (top), deformation x
(bottom). x dx
u u+du
x
dx+(u+du)-u
Thus, once the displacement u is known, the strain " can be obtained from it by
differentiating once with respect to x. The displacement u and the strain " are kine-
matic quantities, and Eq. (1.22) is a so-called kinematic equation.
1.3.2 Infinitesimal strain tensor
If a solid body is subjected to load, the body points experience displacements.

We want to divide these into the displacement u in the x-direction, the displace-
ment v in the y-direction and the displacement w in the z-direction. Hereby the
so called strains are called forth, which we divide into normal strains and shear
strains, respectively. This is illustrated at the example of a cube cut out of a solid
and subjected to different stress conditions (Fig. 1.9). The material under consid-
eration is isotropic. We first consider the case where the cube of Fig. 1.9 suffers
a normal stress xx (Fig. 1.9, left). Then it results that the cube suffers a posi-
tive strain "xx in the x-direction (Fig. 1.9, top left), its length in x-direction will
increase. At the same time a so-called transverse contraction will occur in the
y-direction, i.e. a negative strain "yy , the cube dimension in the y-direction will
Normal strain xx Shear strain yz
y z
xx
x x y
z
yz
Normal strain yy Shear strain xz
y z
xx
z x y x
xz
Normal strain zz Shear strain xy
z y
xx
x y x
z
xy
Fig. 1.9 Normal strains (left) and shear strains (right) on a cube cut out of a solid.
become smaller (Fig. 1.9, middle left). Likewise, a transverse contraction will oc-
cur in the z-direction, i.e., a negative strain "zz , associated with a decrease in the
cube dimension in the z-direction (Fig. 1.9, bottom left). The three spatial normal
strains "xx , "yy and "zz are thus accompanied by a change in the dimensions of the
cube, i.e. a volume change, but not by a change in its shape.
We now consider the case where the cube is subjected to the shear stress yz
(Fig. 1.9, top right). In this case, the right angles of the cube sides will change
in the yz-plane as indicated. We refer to this angular change as shear strain yz .
Analogously, in the three-dimensional case, the shear strain xz can occur in the
xz-plane (Fig. 1.9, center right) as well as the shear strain xy in the xy-plane
(Fig. 1.9, bottom right). Thus, for our purposes, a shear strain means that the cube
changes its shape, but not its volume.
To derive general expressions for normal strains and shear strains in the three-
dimensional case for the case of small deformations (so called geometric linearity),
we consider Fig. 1.10. Shown here is an infinitesimal cuboid with edge lengths dx,
dy, dz in top view, in the undeformed state (indicated by dashed lines) and also in
two deformed configurations.
We first investigate the normal strain "xx in the xy-plane and consider Fig. 1.10,
left. Let the cuboid be subjected to a deformation such that its edges are elongated
in the xy-plane, but its cuboid shape is preserved. The corners A, B, C , D then
undergo various displacements and transform into the points A0 , B 0 , C 0 , D 0 . Let u
and v be the displacements of point A in x- and in y-direction, i.e. uA D u, vA D v.
Point B will undergo the displacements uB and vB , but here for uB an infinitesimal
increment du has to be taken into account, so that the displacement uB of point B
amounts to uB D u C du. The increment du can be represented as a Taylor se-
ries with respect to the x-direction which we terminate after the first term, i.e., the
displacement uB of the point B in the x-direction becomes uB D u C @u @x dx. Its dis-
placement in the y-direction, however, is vB D v as for point A. Quite analogously
one can deduce the displacements of point C , and one obtains uC D u C @u @x dx
and vC D v C @v @y
dy, where here the infinitesimal increase for vC was developed
u+du=u+ ∂u
∂ y dy
y y
C
D C D
D C
v+dv =v+ ∂v
∂ y dy D C
dy
v+dv =v+ ∂v
dy B
v A B v A ∂ x dx
A dx B A dx B
x x
u u
u+du=u+ ∂∂ux dx
Fig. 1.10 Definition of the infinitesimal normal strains "xx and "yy (left) and the infinitesimal shear
strain xy (right).
in the y-direction. The displacements of the point D follow analogously: uD D u,

@v
vD D v C @y dy.
To obtain a statement about the normal strain "xx , the ratio of the length change
with respect to the x-direction to the initial length is formed:
A0 B 0 AB
"xx D : (1.23)
AB
Therein, the edge length in the deformed state A0 B 0 can be represented as:

@u @u
A0 B 0 D dx C u C dx u D dx C dx: (1.24)
@x @x
With AB D dx, it then follows from (1.23):
@u
dx C dx dx @u
"xx D @x D : (1.25)
dx @x
Quite analogously one can proceed for the strain "yy . We obtain:
A0 D 0 AD
"yy D : (1.26)
AD
With AD D dy and

@v @v
A0 D 0 D dy C v C dy v D dy C dy (1.27)
@y @y
it follows from (1.26):
@v
dy C dy dy
@y @v
"yy D D : (1.28)
dy @y
A very similar expression can be obtained for the normal strain "zz which, however,
is not elaborated on in more detail at this point. The result is:
@w
"zz D : (1.29)
@z
We now consider the situation of Fig. 1.10, right. Let the infinitesimal cuboid now
be subjected to a deformation such that the cuboid vertices A, B, C , D shift as
shown and the original shape of the rectangle formed by A, B, C , D changes into
a parallelogram with the vertices A0 , B 0 , C 0 , D 0 . Let the two angles describing the
deviations from the cuboid shape be called ˛ and ˇ. With the help of Fig. 1.10,
right, we want to work out a statement about the shear strain xy and consider first
the two angles ˛ and ˇ. From Fig. 1.10, right, we obtain:
@v @u
dx dy
@x @y
tan ˛ D ; tan ˇ D : (1.30)
@u @v
dx C dx dy C dy
@x @y
Because of the smallness of the deformations we assume that the second terms in
the denominator of the expressions (1.30) are negligible. Moreover, we can assume
small angles with tan ˛ ˛, tan ˇ ˇ, so that from (1.30):
@v @u
˛D ; ˇD : (1.31)
@x @y
The shear strain xy is then the sum of the two angles ˛ and ˇ:
@v @u
xy D C : (1.32)
@x @y
The two indices xy indicate that xy is the change of the angle in the xy-plane. The
indices x and y are interchangeable, so that xy D yx .
Analogous expressions can be derived for the two remaining shear strains yz
and xz , but this remains without representation here.
In summary, the following definitions are obtained for the spatial normal strains
"xx , "yy , "zz and the spatial shear strains xy , xz , yz :
@u @v @w
"xx D ; "yy D ; "zz D ;
@x @y @z
@u @v
xy D C ;
@y @x
@u @w
xz D C ;
@z @x
@v @w
yz D C : (1.33)
@z @y
They establish a relation between the displacements u, v, w on one side and the
normal strains "xx , "yy , "zz and shear strains xy , xz , yz on the other side. Hence
they are called kinematic equations. Once the displacements are known, the strains
can be determined from them by differentiation. The term strains serves as a generic
term for the normal strains and the shear strains.
It is convenient to summarize the normal strains and the shear strains in a sym-
metric matrix, the so-called infinitesimal strain tensor ", as follows:
2 3
1 1
"
6 xx
2 7
xy xz
6 2 7
61 1 7
6
" D 6 xy "yy yz 77: (1.34)
62 2 7
41 1 5
xz yz "zz
2 2
On its main diagonal the normal strains "xx , "yy , "zz are located. The remaining
entries represent the half shear strains.
1.4 The generalized Hooke’s law
1.4.1 Introduction
In all explanations of this book we will assume linear elastic material behavior.
Accordingly, there is a linear relationship between the stresses and the strains that
occur in a solid. In the three-dimensional case, this is described by the so called
generalized Hooke’s law2 , which we will consider below.
Many materials behave in a linear elastic manner in technically relevant load
ranges, as shown in Fig. 1.11, left. A typical stress-strain diagram is shown here,
as it would result, for example, in a tensile test for a steel specimen. Typically,
there will be a proportional relationship between the applied tensile stress and the
resulting normal strain " until the so-called proportionality limit P is reached. If
the stress is increased above this value, an overproportional increase of the normal
strain occurs. When the yield stress Y is reached, the strain continues to increase
at approximately constant stress. At this point, the material is said to be yielding.
Beyond the yield point, it is found that the tensile specimen can take further stresses
until at a certain point the specimen breaks.
In all further explanations we will restrict ourselves to linear elastic material
behavior. Accordingly, there is a linear relationship between the stress and the
normal strain ", as shown in Fig. 1.11, right. In the following, we will derive the
Fig. 1.11 Stress-strain dia-

gram for a tensile specimen
made of steel (left) and for an
ideal linear elastic material Y
(right).
P
2
Robert Hooke, 1635–1703, English mathematician and physicist.
1.4 The generalized Hooke’s law 15
Fig. 1.12 Sheet under tension x F Cross-sectional area A x

(left) and under shear (right).
v T
u
xy
l l
y y
b-v b
b
corresponding equations describing a linear elastic material behavior. Such equa-

tions are also called constitutive equations or material law.
For motivation, let us consider the situation of Fig. 1.12 where a linearly elastic
very thin sheet-like structure with dimensions b and l is given. Let the sheet be
supported at its lower end by a horizontal support in such a way that the strain
states considered below can occur unhindered. It is loaded by a tensile force F on
the one hand, and by a force T acting tangentially to the surface on the other hand.
We first consider the case of Fig. 1.12, left. The applied tensile force F produces
the normal stress xx D FA in the sheet, where A is the cross-sectional area. The
simplest case of Hooke’s law is in the one-dimensional form
xx D E"xx : (1.35)
Herein, "xx is the normal strain which will be positive in the present case. The
quantity E is the so-called Modulus of elasticity, which establishes a relationship
between the normal stress xx and the normal strain "xx of the sheet. The modulus
of elasticity has the unit of a stress, e.g. [N=m2 ]. From Fig. 1.12, left, the normal
strain "xx can be deduced as "xx D ul . Obviously, the modulus of elasticity represents
the slope of the straight line in a stress-strain diagram (Fig. 1.11, right).
In addition to the normal strain "xx in the x-direction, the sheet will also undergo
a so-called transverse contraction, i.e. a normal strain "yy in y-direction, which will
be negative (the sheet will shorten in this direction). The two normal strains "xx and
"yy are related to each other by the so called Poisson’s ratio :3
"yy D "xx : (1.36)
The Poisson’s ratio is unitless and represents a further elementary elasticity con-
stant. For example, for steel the Poisson’s ratio is D 0:3.
We now consider the situation of Fig. 1.12, right, i.e. the sheet under the force T
acting tangentially to the surface. The resulting shear stress xy can be calculated as
xy D TA if we assume that the shear stress is uniformly distributed over the cross-
sectional area A. Due to the applied load, the sheet suffers a horizontal deflection,
3
Siméon Denis Poisson, 1781–1840, French mathematician and physicist.
which assumes its maximum value at the upper edge with the value v. For simplic-
ity, we assume that the vertical edges of the sheet are twisted by an angle xy , but
remain straight even in the deformed state. This results in a shear strain xy corre-
sponding to the occurring angle between the unloaded vertical edge of the sheet and
the deformed edge, i.e. tan xy D vl . If we again assume small angles, then xy D vl
follows. There is a relation between the shear stress xy and the shear strain xy as
follows:
xy D Gxy : (1.37)
Herein, G is the so-called shear modulus. Like the modulus of elasticity, it is in the
unit of a stress, e.g. in the unit [N=m2 ].
Isotropic linear elastic material behavior is thus described by the three elastic
constants E, , G. They have to be determined experimentally. It can be shown that
the following relationship exists between these three material values:
E
GD : (1.38)
2.1 C /
If, for example, the two material constants E and are available from experiments,
e.g. from a tensile test, then the shear modulus G can be determined from (1.38).
1.4.2 Three-dimensional material law
With the equations (1.35), (1.36) and (1.37) the constitutive equations are available,
with which the material behavior of the sheet of Fig. 1.12 can be described. In this
section, we will now extend the considerations to a linear elastic isotropic homo-
geneous solid described by the material constants E, , G. For this we consider
a cuboid taken from a solid body as shown in Fig. 1.13 which is stressed by the
normal stress xx .
The stress xx causes the normal strain "xx D Exx . Moreover, the transverse
normal strain "yy D "xx D Exx in the y-direction and the transverse normal
strain "zz D "xx D Exx in the z-direction result. Analogously, in the pres-

ence of the normal stress yy , both the normal strain "yy D Eyy and the two trans-
yy
verse normal strains "xx D "yy D E and "zz D "yy D Eyy will occur.
Finally, it is necessary to consider the case when the normal stress zz acts. In
Fig. 1.13 Cuboid under

normal stress xx .
z
σxx
σxx
y
x
this case, the normal strain "zz D Ezz results. Moreover, the two transverse normal
strains "xx D "zz D Ezz and "yy D "xx D Ezz occur.
If all three stresses occur simultaneously, then the following expressions for the
spatial normal strains "xx , "yy and "zz are obtained by superposition:
1
"xx D xx yy C zz ;
E
1
"yy D yy .xx C zz / ;
E
1
"zz D zz xx C yy : (1.39)
E
For the spatial shear strains xy , xz , yz we have:
xy xz yz
xy D ; xz D ; yz D : (1.40)
G G G
1.4.3 Temperature influence
If the sheet of Fig. 1.12 is not stressed by forces or by the equivalent stresses, but if
there is a temperature change T , then corresponding thermal strains are induced.
In many cases it can be assumed that there is a linear relationship between the
temperature change T and the resulting thermal strain "T as follows:
"T D ˛T T: (1.41)
The material constant ˛T is called thermal expansion coefficient. It is to be deter-
mined experimentally and is given in the unit C1ı .
In the case where both a mechanical stress and a temperature change T act
together, the individual strain components can be superposed:

"D C ˛T T: (1.42)
E
Solved for the stress this relation reads:
D E." ˛T T /: (1.43)
For the three-dimensional case we obtain by extension of (1.39) and (1.40):
1
"xx D xx yy C zz C ˛T T;
E
1
"yy D yy .xx C zz / C ˛T T;
E
1
"zz D zz xx C yy C ˛T T;
E
xy xz yz
xy D ; xz D ; yz D : (1.44)
G G G
Thus, a change in temperature only causes normal strains in the case of isotropic
materials, but no shear strains.
Example 1.1
A linearly elastic isotropic cube (edge length a, modulus of elasticity E, Pois-

son’s ratio ) is placed in an ideally rigid enclosure (Fig. 1.14, top). The free
surface of the cube is loaded by the constant surface load p0 . The stress state in
the cube and the displacement u of the loaded surface in the x-direction are to
be determined. In the case where there is no mechanical load but a constant tem-
perature change T is applied, the displacement u is also to be determined. The
cube can slide frictionlessly on the walls of the enclosure, which are assumed to
be ideally rigid and smooth.
Under load, a three-dimensional stress state will form in the cube (Fig. 1.14,
bottom), where no shear stresses xy , xz , yz , but only the normal stresses xx ,
yy , zz occur. Similarly, no shear strains xy , xz , yz arise in the given situation.
Due to the rigid wall of the enclosure, both strains "yy and "zz become zero. The
normal stress xx corresponds to the negative of the applied load, i.e. xx is
a compressive stress: xx D p0 . From Hooke’s law (1.39) follows:
0 D yy .p0 C zz /;

0 D zz p0 C yy : (1.45)
From these two equations, the normal stresses yy and zz can be determined as:

yy D zz D p0 : (1.46)
1
Both stresses yy and zz are thus compressive stresses, which is an obvious
result due to the restrained transverse strain of the cube in y- and z-directions.
Fig. 1.14 Cube in enclosure. p0 p0
z y a y z a
x x
a a
σxx σxx
z y σyy y z σzz
x x
The normal strain "xx can be determined from the first equation in (1.39) as:

1 p0 2 2
"xx D xx yy C zz D 1 : (1.47)
E E 1
The displacement u of the loaded surface of the cube results from the definition
of the normal strain "xx D ua as

p0 a 2 2
u D "xx a D 1 : (1.48)
E 1
We now also consider the case where the mechanical load p0 is not present and
the cube is subjected to a constant temperature change. Also in this case, a spa-
tial stress state yy , zz will develop, but the normal stress xx will disappear
(the cube has a free, unloaded surface whose surface normal coincides with the
x-direction). From Hooke’s law (1.44) we obtain from the second and third equa-
tions with "yy D "zz D 0:
1
0D yy zz C ˛T T;
E
1
0D zz yy C ˛T T: (1.49)
E
From this, both stresses yy and zz can be determined as:
E˛T T
yy D zz D : (1.50)
1
Also under the present thermal load case, the two normal stresses yy and zz re-
sult as compressive stresses, which is an obvious result due to the given geometry
and the given thermal load case.
Once the stress state is present, then the normal strain "xx can be obtained
from the first equation in (1.44):
1 1C
"xx D xx yy C zz C ˛T T D ˛T T : (1.51)
E 1
u
With "xx D a the displacement u follows as:
1C
u D ˛T T a: (1.52)
1
J
Example 1.2
Two linear elastic isotropic cubes (Fig. 1.15, edge lengths a, moduli of elasticity
E1 D E, E2 D 2E, Poisson’s ratios 1 D 2 D , thermal expansion coefficients
˛T;1 D ˛T;2 D ˛T ) are placed in an ideally rigid enclosure as shown. The walls
of the enclosure are assumed to be ideally smooth so that the surfaces of the
cubes can slide against them without friction. In the case that a constant surface
load p0 acts on the surface of cube 1, the stresses and strains in both cubes are to
be determined. In the case where there is also a constant temperature change T
in the second cube, determine T so that the contact surface between cube 1 and
2 does not shift in the x-direction.
If only the mechanical load p0 is present, then the normal stress xx is xx;1 D
xx;2 D p0 in both cubes. Moreover, due to the given rigid boundary, the strains
"yy and "zz are zero in both cubes: "yy;1 D "yy;2 D 0, "zz;1 D "zz;2 D 0. From
Hooke’s law (1.39) we then have for cube 1:
1
"yy;1 D yy;1 .p0 C zz;1 / D 0;
E
1
"zz;1 D zz;1 p0 C yy;1 D 0: (1.53)
E
These two equations can be solved for the stresses yy;1 and zz;1 :

yy;1 D zz;1 D p0 : (1.54)
1
Analogously, the stresses yy;2 and zz;2 are obtained in cube 2:

yy;2 D zz;2 D p0 : (1.55)
1
Thus, the normal strains "xx;1 and "xx;2 can be determined from the first equation
in (1.39). For "xx;1 this results in:

1 p0 2 2
"xx;1 D xx;1 yy;1 C zz;1 D 1 : (1.56)
E E 1
Fig. 1.15 Two cubes in en- p0 p0

closure.
1 1
a a
z y
y z
x a x a
2 2
a a
Analogously, we obtain for "xx;2 :

p0 2 2
"xx;2 D 1 : (1.57)
2E 1
The displacement of the contact surface between the two cubes is given as:

p0 a 2 2
u D "xx;2 a D 1 : (1.58)
2E 1
We now additionally consider the case where there is a constant temperature

increase T in cube 2. In this case the normal stress xx;2 vanishes, and also the
two normal strains "yy;2 and "zz;2 are zero. From Hooke’s law (1.44) we obtain
the following two relations:
1
"yy D yy;2 zz;2 C ˛T T D 0;
2E
1
"zz D zz;2 yy;2 C ˛T T D 0: (1.59)
2E
From this, the two stresses yy;2 and zz;2 can be determined as:
2E˛T T
yy;2 D zz;2 D : (1.60)
1
Thus, from (1.44), the normal strain "xx;2 can also be calculated:
1C
"xx;2 D ˛T T: (1.61)
1
The displacement u of the contact surface of the two cubes due to the thermal
load then follows as:
1C
u D "xx;2 a D ˛T T a: (1.62)
1
To determine the necessary temperature change, the sum of the two displace-
ments (1.58) and (1.62) is set to zero:

p0 a 2 2 1C
1 C ˛T T a D 0: (1.63)
2E 1 1
This yields:
p0 1 2 2
T D 1 : (1.64)
2E˛T 1 C 1
J
Example 1.3
Let an isotropic cube be positioned in an enclosure as shown in Fig. 1.16. The

cube is prevented from expanding in the y-direction, while it can expand un-
hindered in the x-direction. The cube (edge length a, modulus of elasticity E,
Poisson’s ratio , thermal expansion coefficient ˛T ) is stressed by a constant
surface load in the z-direction and subjected to a temperature change T . How
large must the temperature change T be so that the upper surface of the cube
does not move in the z-direction? Let the walls of the enclosure be ideally rigid
and smooth, so that the surfaces of the cube can slide along them without friction.
For the given situation, it can be immediately concluded that the normal
stress zz corresponds to the negative applied load p0 : zz D p0 . Furthermore,
xx D 0 since the cube is not prevented from expanding in the x-direction.
Therefore, the normal stress yy remains to be determined. Due to the kind
of confinement the normal strain "yy becomes zero, so that we can conclude
from (1.44):
1
0D yy C p0 C ˛T T: (1.65)
E
From this, the normal stress yy can be obtained as:
yy D p0 E˛T T: (1.66)
From the third equation in (1.44) we can thus determine the normal strain "zz :
1
"zz D Œp0 .p0 E˛T T / C ˛T T
E
p0
D 1 2 C .1 C /˛T T: (1.67)
E
We then obtain the displacement u of the surface of the cube loaded by p0 as:
p0 a
u D "zz a D 1 2 C .1 C /˛T T a: (1.68)
E
Setting this expression to zero results in T as follows:
p0
T D .1 /: (1.69)
E˛T
J
Fig. 1.16 Cube in enclosure. p0 p0
z z
y a x a
x y
a a
Plane stress state
2
The plane stress state is a very important and practically relevant simplification in
the case of thin-walled plane structures loaded in their plane, the so-called disks.
First, all the necessary basic equations describing the plane stress state are sum-
marized. After that, the topic of stress transformation is discussed. It turns out that
extremal normal stresses, the so-called principal stresses, occur under certain ori-
entations of the coordinate system. Similarly, maximum shear stresses occur under
certain directions. A very useful tool for the graphical interpretation of a plane stress
state is the so-called Mohr’s stress circle. Students are enabled to formulate and
solve simple problems in the plane stress state and to determine stress states un-
der different orientations of the employed Cartesian coordinate system. In addition,
students will learn how to analyze plane stress states using Mohr’s stress circle.
2.1 Introduction
The previous considerations of the stress state referred to spatial, three-dimensional

situations (Chap. 1). In many technical applications, a simplification is possible
to the extent that all considerations can be reduced to a two-dimensional struc-
ture. This not only allows a considerable reduction of the state quantities to be
determined (i.e. displacements, strains and stresses), but also facilitates the anal-
ysis immensely, which often makes possible solutions that would not be possible
when considering a full three-dimensional problem. One such simplifying situation
is the so-called plane stress state, which is an adequate approximation for so-called
disks. We use the term disk to refer to a thin plane structure whose thickness t is
significantly smaller than its characteristic dimension l in the plane and which is
loaded exclusively in its plane (Fig. 2.1, left). For such thin planar structures we
can assume in good approximation that those stresses which have the index z, i.e.
the stresses zz , xz and yz not only disappear at the disk surfaces at z D 2t and
z D 2t , but become zero over the entire thickness t:
zz D xz D yz D 0: (2.1)

Nature 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9_2
24 2 Plane stress state
yy
y y
l xx xx
x
x
t
xy
yy
Fig. 2.1 Disk (left), stresses in a disk (right).
Thus, only the plane stress components xx , yy and xy remain in the plane stress
state, which are also independent of the thickness coordinate z (Fig. 2.1, right):
xx D xx .x; y/; yy D yy .x; y/; xy D xy .x; y/: (2.2)
For the generalized Hooke’s law (1.39) and (1.40) the following remains in the
plane stress state:
1
"xx D xx yy ;
E
1
"yy D yy xx ;
E

"zz D xx C yy ;
E
2.1 C /
xy D xy ;
E
xz D yz D 0: (2.3)
In addition to the two plane normal strains "xx and "yy , the normal strain "zz in the
thickness direction also occurs in a disk. The two shear strains xz and yz van-
ish. The nonvanishing strains are exclusively functions of the inplane coordinates x
and y.
Formulating the constitutive law (2.3) according to the stress components, we
obtain:
E
xx D 2
"xx C "yy ;
1
E
yy D 2
"yy C "xx ;
1
xy D Gxy : (2.4)
The kinematic equations (1.33) can be written for the plane stress state as:
@u @v @u @v
"xx D ; "yy D ; xy D C : (2.5)
@x @y @y @x
2.1 Introduction 25
For the equilibrium conditions (1.20) the following remains:
@xx @xy
C C fx D 0;
@x @y
@xy @yy
C C fy D 0: (2.6)
@x @y
Obviously, the third equation in (1.20) is automatically satisfied.

A problem in the plane stress state is described by equations (2.3) and (2.4),
(2.5), (2.6) in conjunction with given boundary conditions.
Example 2.1
Consider the two disks of Fig. 2.2, which are in plane stress state. Disk 1
(width a, height h1 ) is a triangular disk loaded by the surface load p0 and rests
frictionless on disk 2. The rectangular disk 2 has the height h2 and the width a.
Both disks are isotropic (modulus of elasticity E, Poisson’s ratio ) and have the
thickness t in the z-direction. The stress state in both disks is to be determined.
For this purpose, it is assumed that both disks can slide without friction on the
walls, which are assumed to be rigid and ideally smooth. Which strain state re-
sults in disk 2? What is the maximum permissible surface load p0 if the change
in length of disk 2 in the x-direction must not exceed a limit value a?
We first cut disk 1 free and consider the force equilibrium in the x-direction
and in the y-direction (see Fig. 2.2, right). With l D sinh1˛ the sum of forces in the
x-direction yields:
h1
xx;1 th1 C p0 t sin ˛ D 0: (2.7)
sin ˛
From this, the normal stress xx;1 in disk 1 is determined independently of the
angle ˛:
xx;1 D p0 : (2.8)
Fig. 2.2 Triangular disk

under surface load p0 and p0
l p0
underlying rectangular disk l
(left), free body image for h1 xx
1 h1
disk 1 (right). z 1
x
y h2
yy
2 a
a
Analogously, the force equilibrium in the y-direction results in:
h
yy;1 ta C p0 t cos ˛ D 0: (2.9)
sin ˛
This yields:
yy;1 D p0 : (2.10)
In disk 2, the normal stress xx;2 disappears. Moreover, the normal stress yy;2
of disk 2 is equal to the normal stress yy;1 in disk 1:
xx;2 D 0; yy;2 D p0 : (2.11)
The strain state of disk 2 with given stresses xx;2 D 0 and yy;2 D p0 can be
determined as:
1 p0
"xx;2 D xx;2 yy;2 D ;
E E
1 p0
"yy;2 D yy;2 xx;2 D : (2.12)
E E
The surface load pN0 that must not be exceeded for the normal strain "xx;2 not to
exceed a critical value a
a
is obtained from the following inequality:
pN0 a
: (2.13)
E a
We solve for pN0 and obtain:
Ea
pN0 : (2.14)
a
J
Example 2.2
The two isotropic disks shown in Fig. 2.3 (thickness t, width a, height h) are
placed in a rigid enclosure of total width b (b > a). There is a gap of width b a
at the sides of both disks where we consider this gap to be small. Both disks
are loaded by the surface load p0 as shown. For which surface load p0 D pN0 do
the two disks exactly fill the given enclosure? Determine the stress state for the
case p0 > pN0 . For disk 1 the elasticity values E1 and 1 are given, disk 2 has the
values E2 and 2 .
We first determine the normal strain "xx according to
1
"xx D xx yy (2.15)
E
in each disk. Since there is a gap on both sides, the two stresses xx;1 and xx;2
are zero. On the other hand, the stresses yy;1 and yy;2 correspond to the negative
2.1 Introduction 27
Fig. 2.3 Two disks in an p0

enclosure.
z
x
y
1 2 h
a a
b b
applied load p0 . Then it follows from (2.15):
1 p0 1
"xx;1 D xx;1 1 yy;1 D ;
E1 E1
1 p0 2
"xx;2 D xx;2 2 yy;2 D : (2.16)
E2 E2
The two displacements u1 and u2 of the disk edges in x-direction are now re-
quired to sum up to twice the gap width:
u1 C u2 D 2.b a/: (2.17)

u1 u2
With "xx;1 D a
and "xx;2 D a
it follows:
a"xx;1 C a"xx;1 a D 2.b a/: (2.18)
This can be solved for the surface load pN0 , and we obtain:
!
b
2 1 E1 E2
a
pN0 D : (2.19)
E2 1 C E1 2
We now consider the stress state for the case where p0 > pN0 holds. To de-
termine the strains of the disks in the x-direction, we must assume that the
normal stresses xx;1 and xx;2 are not zero and are also identical. Therefore
xx;1 D xx;2 D xx is valid, and with yy;1 D yy;2 D p0 we obtain for the
normal strains "xx;1 and "xx;2 :
1
"xx;1 D .xx C 1 p0 /;
E1
1
"xx;2 D .xx C 2 p0 /: (2.20)
E2
The condition (2.18) is also valid for the case p0 > pN0 . Substituting (2.20) and
solving for xx gives:
!
b
2 1 E1 E2 p0 .1 E2 C 2 E1 /
a
xx D : (2.21)
E1 C E2
J
2.2 Stress transformation
In the following, we will address the question of how the stress state changes when
we perform a coordinate transformation as shown in Fig. 2.4. The new coordinate
axes rotated by the angle are called , , they form an orthogonal coordinate
system with the fixed z-axis. An application is shown in Fig. 2.4 in the form of
a fibrous material where the fiber direction does not coincide with the reference
axes x, y. The stress states with respect to the original axes x, y and with respect
to the axes , rotated by are shown in Fig. 2.5.
To determine the necessary transformation equations, we consider an infinitesi-
mally small element taken from a disk (Fig. 2.6). We have arranged the element in
such a way that there are two cut surfaces parallel to the axes x and y. Furthermore,
the cut is made in such a way that a triangular disk is obtained and the remaining
cut edge is parallel to the -axis. Let the cut surface that is traversed by the -axis
Fig. 2.4 Axis transformation. z
x y-plane
y
x
yy
y
xx xx
x
xy
yy
Fig. 2.5 Stress transformation: initial state (left), rotation by the angle (right).
2.2 Stress transformation 29
Fig. 2.6 Infinitesimally small y

disk element.
xx dAcos dA=d h
d
dy
x dx
xy dAsin
yy
be called dA. It can be calculated as dA D d t, where t is the thickness of the disk.

The other two sectional surfaces oriented parallel to x and y with lengths dx and
dy then follow as dA sin and dA cos , respectively. Equilibrium of forces in the
direction of the -axis then gives:
dA xx dA cos cos yy dA sin sin

xy dA cos sin xy dA sin cos D 0; (2.22)
where here the equivalence xy D yx was used. After a short transformation we
obtain the normal stress in the coordinate system rotated by the angle as:
D xx cos2 C yy sin2 C 2xy sin cos : (2.23)
In quite the same way, the force equilibrium can be set up in the direction of the
-axis, and we obtain the following expression for the shear stress :

D xx sin cos C yy sin cos C xy cos2 sin2 : (2.24)
On another section, which is not shown here and where the -axis passes through
the section surface dA, the following expression for the normal stress can be
obtained:
D xx sin2 C yy cos2 2xy sin cos : (2.25)
It is possible to rearrange the equations (2.23), (2.24) and (2.25) by means of the
relations
1 1
cos2 D .1 C cos 2/; sin2 D .1 cos 2/;
2 2
2 sin cos D sin 2; cos2 sin2 D cos 2 (2.26)
as follows:
1 1
D xx C yy C xx yy cos 2 C xy sin 2;
2 2
1 1
D xx C yy xx yy cos 2 xy sin 2;
2 2
1
D xx yy sin 2 C xy cos 2: (2.27)
2
These are the transformation equations for the stresses in a disk when the coordinate
system is transferred from the reference frame x, y to the reference frame , .
Hence, the stresses , and in any reference frame , can be determined
from given stresses xx , yy and xy in the reference frame x, y.
It can be shown that in the plane state of stress there are so called invariants,
i.e., quantities which are invariant to a transformation of the coordinate system as
shown above. They are:
2
I1 D xx C yy ; I2 D xx yy xy : (2.28)
2.3 Principal stresses
In the plane stress state, there are certain coordinate directions under which the
stresses assume extreme values. We will first address the question of the angle
at which extremal normal stresses, the so-called principal stresses, occur. For this
purpose we solve the following two extreme value problems:
d d
D 0; D 0: (2.29)
d d
The evaluation of both equations leads to the same result, and an equation for the
angle p under which the normal stresses become extremal is obtained as:
2xy
tan 2p D : (2.30)
xx yy
The direction marked by the angle p is called principal direction. The corre-
sponding axes and are denoted as principal axes. Since the tan-function is
a periodic function with period , two angles p and p C 2 can always be de-
termined from (2.30) under which the normal stresses become extremal. These two
directions are perpendicular to each other and, as we will show, are absolutely equal.
Substituting the result (2.30) into the transformation equations (2.27) and using
the relations
1 xx yy
cos 2p D p D q 2 ;
1 C tan2 2p 2
xx yy C 4xy
tan 2p 2xy
sin 2p D p D q 2 (2.31)
1 C tan2 2p 2
xx yy C 4xy
results in the following equations for calculating the extremal normal stresses,
which we will refer to as 1 and 2 :
r
xx C yy xx yy 2 2 :
1;2 D ˙ C xy (2.32)
2 2
2.3 Principal stresses 31
yy
2 2
1 1
y
xx xx
x
xy
1 1
2 2 p+ 2
p
yy
Fig. 2.7 On the equality of the two principal directions p and p C 2 .
These are the so-called principal stresses 1 and 2 , where 1 represents the maxi-
mum value and 2 the minimum value, i.e. 1 > 2 .
If p or if p C 2 according to (2.30) is inserted into the third transformation
equation in (2.27), then it turns out that under p or of p C 2 the shear stress
disappears. Thus, in sections under which the normal stresses become extremal, the
shear stress disappears.
The two principal directions p and p C 2 are equal as illustrated in Fig. 2.7.
This figure shows that the principal stresses occurring in the two principal directions
are identical, regardless of whether the principal direction is considered under p
or under p C 2 . Only the axes , exchange their positions, which, however, is
irrelevant for the resulting stress state.
The question now also arises under which direction the extremal shear stresses
will occur. For this purpose, the following extremal value problem is considered:
d
D 0: (2.33)
d
After elementary transformations this leads to the following equation for the deter-
mination of the angle p0 :
xx yy
tan 2p0 D : (2.34)
2xy
Again, when determining the principal direction for the extremal shear stresses,
there are again two completely equal angles, namely the angle p0 and the angle
p0 C 2 . Comparing (2.34) with (2.30), we find that the following relation exists:
1
tan 2p0 D : (2.35)
tan 2p
From this we can conclude that the two directions 2p0 and 2p are oriented perpen-
dicular to each other. Consequently, the direction p0 of the extremal shear stresses
yy M
2
max
1
y
M
xx xx
x M
xy
1
2 p
p
yy M
4
p
Fig. 2.8 Stress states: given initial state (left), principal stress state (center), principal shear stress
state (right).
is rotated by 45ı with respect to the direction p of the extremal normal stresses.
We denote the extremal shear stress as principal shear stress max . It is obtained by
substituting p0 into the transformation equations (2.27) as:
r
xx yy 2
2 :
max D ˙ C xy (2.36)
2
The maximum shear stress max can also be expressed by the two principal stresses
1 and 2 as follows:
1
max D ˙ .1 2 /: (2.37)
2
However, when determining the principal shear stresses, it should be noted that
under the angle p0 the two normal stresses do not vanish. Rather, the normal stresses
in this case are identical to the value M as follows:
1
M D xx C yy : (2.38)
2
Taking into account the invariance (2.28) of the sum of the two normal stresses,
which is also valid for the sum of the two principal stresses 1 and 2 , the value M
can also be represented as:
1
M D .1 C 2 /: (2.39)
2
Fig. 2.8 shows an overview of the discussed stress states.
2.4 Mohr’s stress circle 33
2.4 Mohr’s stress circle
The transformation relations and stress states discussed so far can be treated
graphoanalytically in a particularly illustrative way with the help of the so-called
Mohr’s stress circle1 which is a graphical representation of the transformation
equations (2.27). The respective circle equation is obtained by squaring the first and
third equations in the transformation equations (2.27) and adding them together so
that the angle is eliminated. This results in:
1 2 yy 2
xx
xx C yy C 2 D 2
C xy : (2.40)
2 2
Let us assume that the stresses xx , yy and xy are given, so that the right side
of the equation (2.40) represents a constant quantity. Let this be abbreviated by r 2 .
Thus:
1 2
xx C yy C 2 D r 2; (2.41)
2
wherein
xx yy 2
r2 D 2
C xy : (2.42)
2
With the definition (2.38) we get:
2
M C 2 D r 2 : (2.43)
The same result is obtained by using the second and third equations in the transfor-
mation equations (2.27). For this reason, we can omit the indices and for the
moment and obtain:
. M /2 C 2 D r 2 : (2.44)
This expression is a circle equation in the -plane. The circle described by it is the
so-called Mohr’s stress circle, it has the radius r and the center point .M ; 0/.
Mohr’s stress circle can be drawn if the stresses in any initial state are given with
the values xx , yy and xy . One first introduces a normal stress axis and a shear
stress axis and marks the two given normal stresses xx and yy on the -axis. The
shear stress xy is then plotted over the two points thus determined, with the correct
sign over xx and with the opposite sign over yy . Thus the two points .xx =xy /
and .yy = xy / are obtained, which can then be connected with a straight line
of length 2r (circle diameter). This straight line intersects the -axis in the point
.M =0/, this point is therefore the center of Mohr’s stress circle. With the midpoint
present and the two points .xx =xy / and .yy = xy / determined, Mohr’s stress
circle can be drawn, as shown in Fig. 2.9.
If a stress state, distinguished by the stresses xx , yy , xy , is given, then the
stress state in any direction can be determined with the help of Mohr’s stress cir-
cle. Quite obviously, both the principal normal stresses 1 and 2 and the principal
1
Christian Otto Mohr, 1835–1918, German civil engineer.
Fig. 2.9 Mohr’s stress circle yy

and associated stress state.
y
xx xx
x
xy
xy ( xx / xy ( yy
yy
M xx
r
xy
( yy / xy (
1( +
M= 2 xx yy(
yy
y
xx xx
x
xy
2
xy ( xx / xy ( yy
r 1
2 yy 2 p ( 1/0 (
( 2 /0 ( 2 p M xx 1
1
r
p 2
xy
( yy / xy (
Fig. 2.10 Determination of 1 and 2 using Mohr’s stress circle.
shear stress max can be read directly from Mohr’s circle, see Figs. 2.10 and 2.11.
It should be noted that, due to the underlying equations, the double angle 2 must
always be applied, and in the case of a positive angle, always clockwise. Likewise,
any other arbitrary stress state of a disk at the angle can be read from Mohr’s
stress circle (Fig. 2.12).
With the help of Mohr’s stress circle, some special cases can be interpreted par-
ticularly clearly, which we will discuss briefly below. The first special case is the
disk under uniaxial tension xx D 0 , the two stresses yy and xy are zero. The cor-
Fig. 2.11 Determination yy

of max using Mohr’s stress
circle.
y
xx xx
x
( M / max ( xy
xy yy
( xx / xy (
r
2 p
yy M
xx
2 p
r
xy
( yy / xy (
( M/ max (
M
M
max
p
M
M
Fig. 2.12 Determination of yy

the stress state under an ar-
bitrary angle using Mohr’s
stress circle. y
xx xx
x
( / ( xy
xy ( yy
xx / xy (
r
2
yy M
2 xx
r
xy ( yy / xy (
( / (
( 2/ 2 (
0 0
2 p 0 xx = 0
M=
2 y
(0/0 (
( 0/0 ( x
2 p
( 2 /- 2 (
0 0
= 20 = 20
0
p = max =
2
Fig. 2.13 Mohr’s stress circle for a disk under uniaxial tension xx D 0 .
responding Mohr’s stress circle is shown in Fig. 2.13. It is tangent to the shear stress
axis at its left side, and obviously the initial stress state with xx D 0 , yy D xy D 0
is already the principal stress state with 1 D 0 and 2 D 0, and the principal axis
angle p is p D 0ı . The center point of the circle is at .M =0/ D . 20 =0/. The
angle p0 is therefore p0 D 45ı , and the corresponding maximum shear stress max is
max D 20 . Under the angle p0 the two normal stresses also take the value 20 .
Another important special case is the pure shear stress state, as shown in
Fig. 2.14. Let the shear stress xy be given the value xy D 0 , and let the two
normal stresses xx and yy be zero. The center of Mohr’s stress circle in this case
is exactly at the origin of the -reference frame. Obviously, this stress state is
the principal shear stress state, the angle p0 is p0 D 0ı . The given shear stress 0
represents the maximum shear stress max . It follows that the angle p has the value
45ı , and the principal stress state resulting under this angle is shown in Fig. 2.14 as
well. The two principal normal stresses occurring under p take the values 1 D 0
and 2 D 0 , and the shear stress vanishes by definition for this condition. A pure
shear stress state is thus equivalent to a pure normal stress state that occurs rotated
with respect to the reference frame by 45ı and has both a tensile normal stress
1 D 0 and a compressive normal stress 2 D 0 , both of which have identical
magnitudes.
The last special case we want to discuss at this point is the so-called hydrostatic
stress state. It is characterized by the two normal stresses xx and yy , both with the
value 0 . A shear stress is not present in this case. The corresponding Mohr’s stress
circle is shown in Fig. 2.15. Obviously, Mohr’s stress circle reduces in this case to
a point on the -axis, which is located at the ordinate M D 0 . A transformation of
y
xy = 0 x
xy = 0
( 0/ 0 (
=- 0 = 0
(- 0 /0( 2 p
M =0
2 ( 0 /0(
p
(0/- 0 (
Fig. 2.14 Mohr’s stress circle for a disk under pure shear xy D 0 .
Fig. 2.15 Mohr’s stress circle yy= 0

for the hydrostatic stress state
xx D yy D 0 .
y
xx = 0 xx
x
yy
M= 0
= 0 = 0
the stress state by any angle then yields the same stress state again. Each angle
is a principal axis angle, and the two given normal stresses xx and yy represent
the principal stresses 1 and 2 with the value 0 in any axis system.
Example 2.3
Consider the stress state xx D 200 aF2 , yy D 600 aF2 , xy D 300 aF2 , where F is
in the unit of a force (e.g. N) and a is in the unit of a length (e.g. m). Find the
principal stresses 1 and 2 and the corresponding principal angle p , and deter-
mine the principal shear stress max and the corresponding angle p0 . Determine
the results both mathematically and graphoanalytically on Mohr’s stress circle.
We first determine the principal axis angle p as follows:
2xy 600 3
tan 2p D D D : (2.45)
xx yy 200 600 4
From this follows 2p D 36:87ı and p D 18:44ı. The principal stresses 1
and 2 can be determined as follows:
r
xx C yy xx yy 2 2
1;2 D ˙ C xy
2 2
s

200 C 600 200 600 2
D ˙ C 3002 D 200 ˙ 500: (2.46)
2 2
This yields:
F F
1 D 7002
; 2 D 300 2 : (2.47)
a a
We now also determine the maximum shear stress xy and the corresponding
angle p0 . For the angle p0 follows:
xx yy 200 600 4

tan 2p0 D D D : (2.48)
2xy 600 3
F
a2
( M / max ( =(200/500)
500
400
( xx/ xy ( =(-200/300)
300
200
( 2/0(=(-300/0) ( M /0( =(200/0) ( 1/0 (=(700/0)
100
-200 -100 100 200 300 400 500 600 F
2 p =-36.87° a2
-100
-200
-300 2 p =53.13° ( yy/- xy ( =(600/-300)

-400
-500
( M /- max ( =(200/-500)
Fig. 2.16 Mohr’s stress circle for the given stress state.
From this follows 2p0 D 53:13ı as well as the angle p0 as p0 D 26:57ı . The
principal shear stress max is given as:
r
xx yy 2
2
max D ˙ C xy
2
s
2
200 600 F
D˙ C 3002 D ˙500 : (2.49)
2 a2
The corresponding stress circle is shown in Fig. 2.16. The value M is given by
M D 12 .xx C yy / D 200 aF2 . J
Example 2.4
Consider a disk in a plane stress state (Fig. 2.17) with the stress components
F F F
xx D 1 ; yy D 7 ; xy D 3 : (2.50)
a2 a2 a2
The stresses under an angle of D 30ı are to be determined. In addition, deter-

mine the principal stresses 1 , 2 and the principal shear stress max .
We first determine the stresses under an angle of D 30ı . For this we use
the transformation equations (2.27) and obtain:
1 1
D xx C yy C xx yy cos 2 C xy sin 2
2 2 p
1 1 ı ı 3
D .1 7/ C .1 C 7/ cos 2 30 3 sin 2 30 D 1 3
2 2 2
F
D 3:60 2 ;
a
1 1
D xx C yy xx yy cos 2 xy sin 2
2 2 p
1 1 ı ı 3
D .1 7/ .1 C 7/ cos 2 30 C 3 sin 2 30 D 5 C 3
2 2 2
F
D 2:40 2 ;
a
1
D xx yy sin 2 C xy cos 2
2
1 p 3
D .1 C 7/ sin 2 30ı 3 cos 2 30ı D 2 3
2 2
F
D 4:96 2 : (2.51)
a
Fig. 2.17 Given stress state. F

yy =-7a2
y
F
xx
x xx=1a2
F
xy =-3a2
yy
F
a2
( /- (=(-2.4/4.96)
5
4
( yy /- xy ( =(-7/3)
3
1
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 F
a2
( M /0( =(-3/0) -1
-2
2 =60°
-3 ( xx / xy ( =(1/-3) F
yy =-7a2
-4
-5
( / (=(-3.60/-4.96) y
F
xx
x xx=1a2
F
=-2.40 aF2 xy =-3a2
=-3.60 aF2 yy
=-4.96 aF2
30°
Fig. 2.18 Mohr’s stress circle, determination of stresses under an angle of D 30ı .
The corresponding stress circle is shown in Fig. 2.18.

The principal stress angle p follows from:
2xy 2 .3/ 3
tan 2p D D D : (2.52)
xx yy 1 .7/ 4
F
a2
5
4
( yy /- xy ( =(-7/3)
3
F
2 =-8a2
2
( 1/ 0(=(2/0)
1
2 p =-36.87° 1
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 F
a2 F
( 1 =2a2
M /0( =(-3/0) -1
( 2/ 0(=(-8/0)
-2
2
-18.43°
-3 ( xx / xy ( =(1/-3) F
yy =-7a2
-4
-5
y
F
xx
x xx=1a2
F
xy =-3a2
yy
Fig. 2.19 Mohr’s stress circle, determination of the principal stresses 1 and 2 .
This gives 2p D 36:87ı and p D 18:43ı . The stress components under this
angle result in:
1 1
D xx C yy C xx yy cos 2p C xy sin 2p
2 2
1 1 F
D .1 7/ C .1 C 7/ cos.36:87ı / 3 sin.36:87ı / D 2 2 D 1 ;
2 2 a
1 1
D xx C yy xx yy cos 2p xy sin 2p
2 2
1 1
D .1 7/ .1 C 7/ cos.36:87ı / C 3 sin.36:87ı / D 8F a2 D 2 ;
2 2
1
D xx yy sin 2p C xy cos 2p D 0: (2.53)
2
The corresponding stress circle is shown in Fig. 2.19.

Finally, the principal shear stress must be determined. The corresponding
angle p0 follows as p0 D p C 45ı D 18:43ı C 45ı D 26:57ı. Then from the
F
a2
( M /- max ( =(-3/5)
5
4
( yy /- xy ( =(-7/3)
3
2 p =53.14°
2
1
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 F
a2
( M /0( =(-3/0) -1
-2
-3 ( xx / xy ( =(1/-3) F
yy =-7a2
-4
-5
y
( M / max ( =(-3/-5) F
xx
x xx=1a2
F
xy =-3a2
=-3aF2
yy
=-3aF2
F
max =-5a2
26.57°
Fig. 2.20 Mohr’s stress circle, determination of the principal shear stress max .
transformation equations (2.27) we obtain:

1 1
D xx C yy C xx yy cos 2p0 C xy sin 2p0
2 2
1 1 F
D .1 7/ C .1 C 7/ cos 53:14ı 3 sin 53:14ı D 3 2 ;
2 2 a
1 1
D xx C yy xx yy cos 2p0 xy sin 2p0
2 2
1 1 F
D .1 7/ .1 C 7/ cos 53:14ı C 3 sin 53:14ı D 3 2 ;
2 2 a
1
D xx yy sin 2p0 C xy cos 2p0
2
1 F
D .1 C 7/ sin 53:14ı 3 cos 53:14ı D 5 2 : (2.54)
2 a
The corresponding stress circle is shown in Fig. 2.20. J
Example 2.5
The following data are known from a plane stress state:
F F F F
xx D 6 ; xy D 2 ; max D 5:39 ; M D 1 : (2.55)
a2 a2 a2 a2
The following quantities are to be determined:
The normal stress yy ,

the principal shear stress angle p0 by using the first transformation equation
in (2.27),
the principal stress angle p by using the third transformation equation
in (2.27),
the principal stresses 1 and 2 .
Draw the corresponding stress circle. At what angle 0 does the normal stress
become D 0 with > 0? In this case, how large are and ?
We determine the normal stress yy from the equation for M D 12 .xx C yy /,
i.e.
F
yy D 2M xx D 2 1 6 D 4 2 : (2.56)
a
The principal shear stress angle p0 is determined from the first transformation
equation in (2.27):
1 1
D xx C yy C xx yy cos 2p0 C xy sin 2p0 : (2.57)
2 2
Since this is the principal shear stress angle p0 , the normal stress is present
with the value M D 1 aF2 :
1 1
1D .6 4/ C .6 C 4/ cos 2p0 C 2 sin 2p0 : (2.58)
2 2
This leads to the following equation for the determination of the angle p0 :
5
tan 2p0 D : (2.59)
2
This results in p0 as follows:
p0 D 34:10ı : (2.60)
We determine the principal stress angle p from the third transformation equation
in (2.27):
1
D xx yy sin 2p C xy cos 2p : (2.61)
2
F
a2
6
( / (=(2/5.3)
5
2 ( xx/ xy ( =(6/2)
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 F
a2
-1 ( M /0( =(1/0)
-2
( yy/- xy ( =(-4/-2) 2 0=-57.50°
-3
-4
-5
( /- (=(0/-5.3)
-6
Fig. 2.21 Mohr’s stress circle, determination of the angle 0 .
In the principal axis system, the shear stress takes the value zero, and
from (2.61) follows:
2
tan 2p D ; (2.62)
5
from which the angle p follows as p D 10:90ı.
The principal stresses 1 and 2 can be determined as follows:
r
xx C yy xx yy 2 2 :
1;2 D ˙ C xy (2.63)
2 2
We obtain:
F F
1 D 6:39
2
; 2 D 4:39 2 : (2.64)
a a
The angle 0 under which the normal stress vanishes and > 0 holds is
determined at Mohr’s stress circle (see Fig. 2.21). We obtain:
20 D 57:50ı : (2.65)
The two stresses and follow as:
F F
D2 ; D 5:3 : (2.66)
a2 a2
J
Bars
3
Bars are one-dimensional straight structural elements capable of transmitting ten-

sile and compressive forces. For bars, this chapter introduces the concepts of stress,
strain, and displacement and all necessary basic equations, and discusses both stat-
ically determinate and statically indeterminate bars and bar systems. Students are
enabled to formulate bar problems and solve such problems using the introduced
equations that describe the behavior of bars and bar systems.
3.1 Bars
3.1.1 Bar stresses
The bar is one of the simplest construction elements. In this chapter we consider
exclusively straight bars described by their longitudinal axis. The stress state that
arises is particularly simple in the case of the bar. We assume that only normal
forces are induced in the member due to the applied loads. The normal forces in
turn lead to the normal stress xx (see also Fig. 1.1). The normal stress results from
the normal force N divided by the cross-sectional area A:
N
xx D : (3.1)
A
If the normal force N is a tensile force, the normal stress xx is also a positive
stress (tensile stress). If, on the other hand, the normal force N is a compressive
force, then the normal stress xx will be a compressive stress with a corresponding
negative sign.
If the cross-section A of a bar varies with the bar axis x (i.e. if A D A.x/), then
the normal stress xx must be treated as varying over x: xx D xx .x/. In addition,
the normal force N can be a function of x, depending on the applied load, i.e. in
Nature 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9_3
46 3 Bars
general N D N.x/. Thus, for the normal stress xx .x/ follows:
N.x/
xx .x/ D : (3.2)
A.x/
The prerequisite for this is that the cross-section is only slightly variable over x. It
is assumed that the normal stress xx is still uniformly distributed over the cross-
section.
Example 3.1
Let a conical bar with circular cross-section of length l under compressive

force F0 (Fig. 3.1) be given, which has the radius R1 at location x D 0. At the
point x D l the radius R2 is given. We are looking for the normal stress xx
acting in the bar when R1 D 3R0 and R2 D R0 . How large must the radius R2
be for R1 D 3R0 so that the stress at the point x D l is twice the stress at the
point x D 0?
We first consider the case R1 D 3R0 and R2 D R0 and determine the normal
F0
stress xx .x/ D A.x/ . The cross-sectional area A.x/ is calculated as:
A.x/ D R2 .x/: (3.3)
Here R.x/ describes the radius of the circular cross section, depending on the
position on the bar axis x. To find R.x/, we make a linear approach of the form:
R.x/ D ax C b: (3.4)
The following conditions apply:
R.x D 0/ D a 0 C b D R1 ; R.x D l/ D a l C b D R2 : (3.5)

R2 R1
From this, the two constants can be determined as b D R1 and a D l , and
we obtain: x
R.x/ D .R2 R1 / C R1 : (3.6)
l
Fig. 3.1 Conical bar under F0

compressive force F0 .
R2
l
x
F0
R1
3.1 Bars 47
The cross-sectional area A.x/ then follows for the case R1 D 3R0 and R2 D R0 :
x 2
A.x/ D R0 3 2 : (3.7)
l
The normal stress xx .x/ is then given as:
F0
xx .x/ D !2 : (3.8)
x
R0 32
l
We now turn to the question of how large the radius R2 must be for R1 D 3R0
so that the stress at the point x D l is twice the stress at the point x D 0. The
stress xx at the point x D 0 is:
F0
xx .x D 0/ D : (3.9)
9R02
At the point x D l we obtain:
F0
xx .x D l/ D : (3.10)
R22
We now require xx .x D l/ D 2xx .x D 0/, i.e.:
F0 2F0
2
D : (3.11)
R2 9R02
Solving for R2 yields:

3
R2 D p R0 : (3.12)
2
J
Example 3.2
Consider a flat bar of length l, where the width 2b.x/ is a parabolic function of
x with the initial value b2 and the end value b1 (Fig. 3.2). Let the bar be loaded
by a tensile force F0 , and let the thickness of the bar be constant with the value t.
We are looking for the normal stress xx .x/ acting in the bar. How large must b2
be so that the stress xx .x D 0/ does not exceed an allowable value 0 ? What is
the normal stress xx at the point x D 2l ?
Let b.x/ be described by a parabolic function:
x 2
b.x/ D .b1 b2 / C b2 : (3.13)
l
48 3 Bars
Fig. 3.2 Flat bar with

parabolic boundary under
l
compressive force F0 .
F0 F0
x
b2
b1
The normal stress xx .x/ in the bar is then given as:
F0 F0
xx .x/ D D 2 !2 3: (3.14)
2b.x/t x
2t 4.b1 b2 / C b2 5
l
The value b2 is now to be determined in such a way that the stress xx at the
point x D 0 does not exceed a permissible value 0 . Thus, we require:
F0
xx .x D 0/ D 0 : (3.15)
2b2 t
Solving for b2 yields:
F0
b2 : (3.16)
20 t
The stress at the point x D 2l is:

l 2F0
xx x D D : (3.17)
2 t.b1 C 3b2 /
J
Technically relevant are also bars under distributed loads parallel to the bar axis. An
example of such a distributed load is the dead weight of a bar. We consider the free
body image of Fig. 3.3, in which we investigate an infinitesimal section element of
length dx of a bar. With dG D Adx (where D g is the specific gravity with
D density, g D acceleration due to gravity, and A is the cross-sectional area of
the bar) the sum of the forces in the x-direction yields:
N C dN N dG D 0; (3.18)
or
dN D Adx: (3.19)
Fig. 3.3 Free body image

for determining the normal N+dN
force N of a bar under dead
weight.
dx dG
N
3.1 Bars 49
Fig. 3.4 Bar under its dead

weight.
A, A,
l g l
x x
This yields:
dN
D A; (3.20)
dx
or after integration:
N D Ax C C1 : (3.21)
Under the dead weight, the normal force is therefore distributed linearly over x. The
integration constant C1 is adapted to given boundary conditions.
As an example, consider the bar of Fig. 3.4, left, clamped at its lower end which
is subjected to its dead weight (specific gravity , cross-sectional area A). The con-
stant C1 is determined from the condition that the normal force N.x/ is zero at
the upper end of the bar: N.x D l/ D 0. From this, the constant C1 follows as
C1 D Al, and we obtain for the normal force N.x/:
N.x/ D Ax Al D A.x l/: (3.22)
Since x l holds, N is a compressive force for all x. Accordingly, we obtain for

the bar stress xx .x/:
N.x/
xx .x/ D D .x l/: (3.23)
A
If we consider the situation where the bar is clamped at its upper end and subjected
to its own weight (Fig. 3.4, right), then the integration constant C1 results from the
requirement N.x D 0/ D 0 to C1 D 0 such that:
N D Ax: (3.24)
In this case, the normal force is present with a positive sign for each x, i.e. as
a tensile force.
We now consider the general case that the bar under consideration is under an
arbitrarily distributed axis-parallel line load n.x/. Using the free body image of
Fig. 3.5 gives the sum of the forces in the axial direction:
N C dN C ndx N D 0: (3.25)
50 3 Bars
Fig. 3.5 Free body image

for determining the normal N+dN
force N of a bar under an
axis-parallel line load n.x/.
dx n(x)
This can be rearranged as:

dN
D n: (3.26)
dx
Accordingly, the applied axis-parallel load n.x/ is the first derivative of the nor-
mal force N.x/ with respect to the longitudinal coordinate x, whereby the negative
sign must be observed. If the load n.x/ is present, the normal force N.x/ can be
determined from this by integration:
Z
N.x/ D n.x/dx C C1 : (3.27)
Therein, C1 is an integration constant which is adjusted to given boundary condi-

tions.
3.1.2 Bar deformations
We will assume linear elastic material behavior in all elaborations of this and all
following chapters of this book. Hooke’s law, which describes linear elastic material
behavior for a one-dimensional problem, has already been introduced in Chap. 1
with (1.35):
xx D E"xx : (3.28)
We assume Hooke’s law to be valid also for the bar structures considered here. With
xx D NA follows:
du N
"xx D D u0 D : (3.29)
dx EA
This equation connects the bar displacement u with the normal force N and thus
represents the constitutive law for the bar.
In Chap. 1 we have already determined the definition of the normal strain "xx ,
which is the ratio of length change l and initial length l:
l
"xx D : (3.30)
l
A general definition has already been derived with (1.22):
du
"xx D : (3.31)
dx
3.1 Bars 51
Fig. 3.6 Bar with constant EA

extensional stiffness EA F F
x
under force F .
l
Thus, once the axis-parallel displacement u of the bar is available, the normal
strain "xx can be determined from it by derivation.
We first consider a homogeneous bar with constant elastic modulus E and con-
stant cross-sectional area A, which is loaded by the force F (see Fig. 3.6). We will
refer to the product EA as extensional stiffness in all further elaborations. The nor-
mal strain "xx is then given as:
l F
D D : (3.32)
l E EA
This expression can be solved for the length change of the bar:
Fl
l D : (3.33)
EA
The length change of a homogeneous bar thus depends on the applied force F , the
length l and the extensional stiffness EA.
If a bar with constant normal force N is treated where the cross section is a func-
tion of the longitudinal direction x, i.e. if A D A.x/ holds, then the bar stress follows
from:
N
xx .x/ D : (3.34)
A.x/
If we assume that A.x/ is a continuous, integrable function, then the length
change l of the bar is the integral over the normal strain "xx over the bar length:
Zx Zx
1
l D "xx dx D xx dx: (3.35)
E
0 0
If we consider a bar where the applied load leads to sectionwise different but con-
stant normal forces Ni (where the index i denotes the section i of the bar) and
thus also stresses xx;i D NAi , then the normal strain "xx;i in section i results in

"xx;i D xx;i
E . The length change li of section i then follows as:
Ni li
li D : (3.36)
EA
The total change of the bar length l is then the sum of all li :
n
X
l D li ; (3.37)
i D1
when there are n sections in total.

52 3 Bars
Example 3.3
Consider the bar shown in Fig. 3.7, which has the partial lengths l1 and l2 and
is loaded by two single forces as shown. The normal force N1 in section 1 is
N1 D 2F0 , while the normal force N2 in section 2 is N2 D 3F0 . The total change
in length l results from the partial length changes l1 and l2 as follows:
N1 l1 N2 l2
l D l1 C l2 D C
EA EA
2F0 l1 3F0 l2 F0
D C D .2l1 C 3l2 /: (3.38)
EA EA EA
J
If the considered bar is not only stressed by mechanical loads, but thermal loads
are also present, then the bar elongation can be determined as follows (see also
Chap. 1, (1.41)):
"T D ˛T T: (3.39)
Here ˛T is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the bar material, and T is
the temperature change to which the bar is subjected. If the temperature change is
a function of the location, that is, if T D T .x/ holds, then it follows:
"T .x/ D ˛T T .x/: (3.40)
If both a mechanical stress and a temperature change T are present simultane-

ously, then the individual normal strain components can be superposed to the total
normal strain (cf. (1.42)):
xx
"xx D C ˛T T; (3.41)
E
or
N
"xx D u0 D C ˛T T: (3.42)
EA
Fig. 3.7 Bar under two single

forces.
l2 EA
F0
l1
2F0
3.1 Bars 53
One can solve the constitutive expression (3.41) for the stress xx as follows:
xx D E."xx ˛T T /: (3.43)
The length change l of the bar is given as:
Zl
N
l D C ˛T T dx: (3.44)
EA
0
The special case of the bar with constant extensional stiffness EA and constant
temperature change T results from this as:
Nl
l D C ˛T T l: (3.45)
EA
If there is exclusively a temperature load, then we obtain:
l D ˛T T l: (3.46)
We now bring the constitutive equation (3.42) and the equilibrium (3.26) into
the following form by substituting into each other. Solving (3.42) for the normal
force N and substituting into (3.26) yields:
0
EAu0 D n C .EA˛T T /0 : (3.47)
For the special case of a constant temperature change T it follows:

0
EAu0 D n: (3.48)
From this, the bar displacement u.x/ is obtained by twofold integration:

0
EAu0 D n;
Z
EAu0 D N D ndx C C1 ;
“
EAu D ndxdx C C1 x C C2 : (3.49)
The integration constants appearing here are to be determined from given bound-
ary conditions. Fig. 3.8 shows typical cases of boundary conditions for bars. One
boundary condition can always be given at each end of the bar, either for u or for N .
54 3 Bars
Fig. 3.8 Typical boundary N N

conditions for bars. x x
u=0 EAu =0
z z
N N
x x
u=0 u=0
z z
Example 3.4
Consider the bar shown in Fig. 3.9. The bar has the length l and the constant
extensional stiffness EA. The constant line load n and a single force F at the free
end of the member are given as loads. The integration rule (3.49) is as follows
for this example:
.EAu0 /0 D n;
Z
EAu0 D N D ndx C C1 D nx C C1 ;
“
1
EAu D ndxdx C C1 x C C2 D nx 2 C C1 x C C2 : (3.50)
2
For the given situation, the boundary conditions at the two bar ends are:
u.x D 0/ D 0; N.x D l/ D F: (3.51)
From this, the integration constants C1 and C2 follow as:
C1 D F C nl; C2 D 0: (3.52)
Fig. 3.9 Determination of

EA F
the bar normal force N and
the bar displacement u of x
a clamped straight bar under
n
line load and single force. l
F+nl
(+)
N(x) F
(+) F+ 12 nl
EA u(x)
l
3.1 Bars 55
The normal force distribution N.x/ and the bar displacement u.x/ follow from
this as (see Fig. 3.9):
N.x/ D F C n.l x/;

1 1
u.x/ D nx 2 C .F C nl/x : (3.53)
EA 2
For this example, a linear distribution of the bar normal force N results. The
displacement u, on the other hand, is distributed parabolically over the bar
length. J
For bars where the state variables N and u are not continuous and thus the integra-
tion rule (3.49) cannot be carried out over the entire length of the bar, boundary
conditions as well as the so-called transition conditions have to be formulated.
A simple example is shown in Fig. 3.10. Consider a straight bar with constant
extensional stiffness EA and the partial lengths l1 and l2 . At the point x D l1 a sin-
gle axial force F is applied. We divide the bar into two segments 0 x l1 and
l1 x l1 C l2 . In segment 0 x l1 the integration rule is:
EAu001 D 0;
EAu01 D N1 D C1 ;
EAu1 D C1 x C C2 : (3.54)
For the segment l1 x l1 C l2 we have:
EAu002 D 0;
EAu02 D N2 D D1 ;
EAu2 D D1 x C D2 : (3.55)
Fig. 3.10 Clamped bar under F EA

single force F . x
ll l2
z
Fl 2
ll+ l2
(+)
N(x)
(-)
- Fl 1
Fl1l2 ll+ l2
EA(l l + l 2(
(+)
u(x)
56 3 Bars
Fig. 3.11 Exemplary transi- n i+1 n i+1

Ni ni Ni+1 Ni ni Ni+1
tion conditions for bars.
ui = ui+1 ui = ui+1
EAi u i =EAi+1ui+1 EAi u i =EAi+1ui+1
Ni ni n i+1 Ni+1 Ni ni n i+1 Ni+1

F
ui = ui+1 ui = ui+1
EAi u i =EAi+1ui+1 EAi u i =EAi+1ui+1+F
The boundary and transition conditions for the given bar situation are:
u1 .x D 0/ D 0;
u1 .x D l1 / D u2 .x D l1 /;
EAu01 .x D l1 / D EAu02 .x D l1 / C F;
u2 .x D l1 C l2 / D 0: (3.56)
The integration constants are obtained from this as:

F l2 l2
C1 D ; C2 D 0; D1 D F 1 ; D 2 D F l1 : (3.57)
l1 C l2 l1 C l2
The distributions of N.x/ and u.x/ are also shown in Fig. 3.10.
In Fig. 3.11 typical transition conditions between two bar segments i and i C 1
are shown.
Example 3.5
We reconsider the situation from Example 3.3 and introduce two local reference
axes x1 and x2 as shown in Fig. 3.12. The normal force distribution N as well as
the displacement u are to be determined.
We solve this problem by integration, dividing the bar into two segments. In
segment 1 we obtain with n1 D 0:
EAu01 D 0;
EAu01 D N1 D C1 ;
EAu1 D C1 x1 C C2 : (3.58)
For segment 2 we have:
EAu02 D 0;
EAu02 D N2 D D1 ;
EAu2 D D1 x2 C D2 : (3.59)
3.1 Bars 57
Fig. 3.12 Bar under two

single forces.
l2 EA x2
F0
l1
x1
2F0
The following boundary conditions apply to the given situation. At the free end
of the bar at x1 D 0 the normal force N1 corresponds to the applied force 2F0 :
N1 .x1 D 0/ D 2F0 : (3.60)
From this the integration constant C1 follows as:
C1 D 2F0 : (3.61)
Furthermore, at the clamped end of the bar at x2 D l2 the bar displacement u2

must vanish:
u2 .x2 D l2 / D 0: (3.62)
This results in the constant D2 as:
D2 D 3F0 l2 : (3.63)
At the transition point x1 D l1 or x2 D 0 between the two segments 1 and 2 the

following transition conditions have to be considered. On the one hand, the two
displacements u1 and u2 must match at this location:
u1 .x1 D l1 / D u2 .x2 D 0/: (3.64)
From this follows the integration constant C2 as:
C2 D F0 .2l1 C 3l2 /: (3.65)
On the other hand, the equilibrium of forces in the axial direction must be ful-
filled at the transition point, i.e.:
N1 .x1 D l1 / D N2 .x2 D 0/ F0 : (3.66)

58 3 Bars
From this the still missing constant D1 results as:
D1 D 3F0 : (3.67)
With the integration constants C1 , C2 , D1 and D2 determined in this way, the

normal forces N1 and N2 and the displacements u1 and u2 can be represented as:
N1 D 2F0 ;
N2 D 3F0 ;
F0
u1 D .2x1 2l1 3l2 /;
EA
3F0 l2 x2
u2 D 1 : (3.68)
EA l2
The bar displacement u1 .x1 D 0/ follows as:
F0
u1 D .2l1 C 3l2 /: (3.69)
EA
The negative sign indicates that this displacement is opposite to the direction of
the x1 -axis. This result thus agrees with (3.38). J
Example 3.6
Consider a bar consisting of two segments with constant cross-section A, which

is supported at the lower end and held against lateral deflection at the upper
end by a horizontal bar (EA ! 1) (Fig. 3.13). The bar is loaded by the single
force F0 and the two constant line loads n1 and n2 parallel to the bar axis. The up-
per section of the bar has the elastic modulus E1 , the lower section has the elastic
modulus E2 . We are looking for the distribution of the displacements u.x1 / and
u.x2 / as well as the distributions of the normal forces N1 .x1 / and N2 .x2 /. What
Fig. 3.13 Bar subjected to F0

single force and normal line EA ∞
load.
x1
l n1 E1,A
n2 x2
l E2,A
3.1 Bars 59
is the magnitude of the normal force at the base of the column? What is the
displacement of the upper point of the bar?
The boundary and transition conditions for the given situation are:
N1 .x1 D 0/ D F0 ; N1 .x1 D l/ D N2 .x2 D 0/;

u1 .x1 D l/ D u2 .x2 D 0/; u2 .x2 D l/ D 0: (3.70)
This problem is solved by integration:
E1 Au001 D n1 ;
E1 Au01 D N1 D n1 x1 C C1 ;
1
E1 Au1 D n1 x12 C C1 x1 C C2 ; (3.71)
2
and
E2 Au002 D n2 ;
E2 Au02 D N2 D n2 x2 C D1 ;
1
E2 Au2 D n2 x22 C D1 x2 C D2 : (3.72)
2
The integration constants C1 , C2 , D1 and D2 are determined from the boundary
and transition conditions. From the condition N1 .x1 D 0/ D F0 follows:
n1 01 C C1 D F0 ; (3.73)
which can be solved as:

C1 D F0 : (3.74)
The transition condition N1 .x1 D l/ D N2 .x2 D 0/ leads to the expression
n1 l F0 D D1 : (3.75)
From this, the constant D1 can be determined as:
D1 D n1 l F0 : (3.76)
From the requirement u2 .x2 D l/ follows:

1 1
n2 l 2 n1 l 2 F0 l C D2 D 0: (3.77)
E2 A 2
This can be solved for D2 :

1
D2 D l F0 C l n1 C n2 : (3.78)
2
60 3 Bars
Finally, the transition condition u1 .x1 D l/ D u2 .x2 D 0/ is considered. It follows:

1 1 l 1
n1 l 2 F0 l C C2 D F0 C l n1 C n2 : (3.79)
E1 A 2 E2 A 2
From this, the integration constant C2 follows as:

E1 1 1
C2 D l F0 C l n1 C n2 C n1 l 2 C F0 l: (3.80)
E2 2 2
Thus the displacements u1 .x1 / and u2 .x2 / can be given as follows:

1 1 2 E1 1 1
u1 .x1 / D n1 x1 F0 x1 C l F0 C l n1 C n2 C n1 l 2 C F0 l ;
E1 A 2 E2 2 2

1 1 1
u2 .x2 / D n2 x22 .n1 l C F0 /x2 C l F0 C l n1 C n2 : (3.81)
E2 A 2 2
The normal forces N1 .x1 / and N2 .x2 / follow as:
N1 .x1 / D n1 x1 F0 ;
N2 .x2 / D n2 x2 n1 l F0 : (3.82)
The normal force at the lower support is given as:
N2 .x2 D l/ D Œ.n1 C n2 /l C F0 : (3.83)
The displacement at the upper end of the bar follows as:

1 E1 1 1
u1 .x1 D 0/ D l F0 C l n1 C n2 C n1 l 2 C F0 l : (3.84)
E1 A E2 2 2
J
Example 3.7
Consider the column shown in Fig. 3.14 under its dead weight and single
force F0 . The beam is divided into the segment 0 x l1 with properties , A,
E1 and the segment l1 x l1 C l2 with , A, E2 , where l1 D 2l2 and E2 D 2E1 .
We are looking for the distributions of the normal force and the axial displace-
ment in the two segments. How large must F0 be so that the displacement at
the point x D l1 becomes zero? Under the previously calculated force, at what
temperature change does the displacement at the location x D l1 C l2 become
zero? To answer the last question, we assume a constant temperature expansion
coefficient ˛T over the length of the bar.
3.1 Bars 61
Fig. 3.14 Bar consisting F0

of two segments loaded by
a single force and its dead g
weight.
l2 E2,A,
E1,A,
l1
x
The distribution of the normal force N.x/ is continuous over the two seg-
ments 1 and 2:
N D Ax C C1 : (3.85)
The integration constant C1 follows from the boundary condition N.x D l1 C
l2 / D F0 as:
C1 D .3Al2 C F0 /: (3.86)
The normal force distribution results from this:
N.x/ D A.x 3l2 / F0 : (3.87)

N.x/
From this, the bar stress .x/ D A can be determined as:
F0
.x/ D .x 3l2 / : (3.88)
A
If the bar stress .x/ is given, then the bar normal strain can be determined from
Hooke’s law:
.x/
".x/ D : (3.89)
E
Since there are different values for E in the two bar segments, the consideration
of the bar strains must be done separately for each segment:
1 F0
"xx;1 .x/ D .x 3l2 / ;
E1 A
1 F0
"xx;2 .x/ D .x 3l2 / : (3.90)
2E1 A
With the bar strain thus given, from the kinematic relation "xx D du
dx
the bar
displacement u can be determined by integration:
Z
u.x/ D "xx dx C C: (3.91)
62 3 Bars
Thus, in the two bar segments we have:

1 1 2 F0
u1 .x/ D x 3l2 x x C C2 ;
E1 2 A

1 1 2 F0
u2 .x/ D x 3l2 x x C C3 : (3.92)
2E1 2 A
The integration constants C2 and C3 can be derived from the conditions
u1 .x D 0/ D 0; u1 .x D l1 / D u2 .x D l1 /: (3.93)
We obtain:
1 F0
C2 D 0; C3 D 4l22 2 l2 : (3.94)
2E1 A
The displacements are thus:

1 1 2 F0
u1 .x/ D x 3l2 x x ;
E1 2 A

1 1 2 F0
u2 .x/ D x 3l2 x 4l22 .x C 2l2 / : (3.95)
2E1 2 A
To determine the force F0 , the displacement is set to zero at the point x D l1 and
solved for the force F0 . It follows:
F0 D 2Al2 : (3.96)
Thus, the following state variables occur in the bar:
N.x/ D A.x l2 /;

"xx;1 .x/ D .x l2 /;
E1

"xx;2 .x/ D .x l2 /;
2E1

1 2
u1 .x/ D x l2 x ;
E1 2

1 2
u2 .x/ D x l2 x : (3.97)
2E1 2
To determine the temperature change T at which the displacement of the upper

point of the bar becomes zero, the thermal displacement uT is calculated first. It
results in:
uT .x/ D ˛T T x: (3.98)
3.1 Bars 63
We require:
u2 .x D 3l2 / C uT .x D 3l2 / D 0: (3.99)
The resulting expression can be solved for the temperature change T , and we
obtain:
1 l2
T D : (3.100)
4 ˛T E1
J
3.1.3 Statically indeterminate bars
The bar situation of Fig. 3.10 is statically indeterminate. At this point, we take
a look at two more possibilities of analysis. Basically, in a statically indeterminate
calculation, the bar deformations are to be used in the calculation in addition to
the equilibrium conditions. For this purpose, we consider the free body image of
Fig. 3.15, bottom. The equilibrium of forces in x-direction results in:
AH BH D F: (3.101)
This is one equation for the two unknowns AH and BH .

Another equation is obtained by considering the displacements of the two bar
segments. The left bar segment with length l1 is under constant normal force
N1 D AH , so the length change l1 of this segment is given by:
N1 l1 AH l1
l1 D D : (3.102)
EA EA
Similarly, for the length change l2 of the right bar segment we obtain:
N2 l2 BH l2
l2 D D : (3.103)
EA EA
To achieve geometrical compatibility of the deformation state, it is required that the
total length change l of the bar becomes zero:
l D l1 C l2 D 0: (3.104)
Fig. 3.15 Bar clamped F EA

on both sides under single
x
force F (top), free body im-
age (bottom). ll l2
z
AH F BH
64 3 Bars
This leads to the following equation after substituting (3.102) and (3.103):
AH l1 C BH l2 D 0: (3.105)
With (3.101) and (3.105) two equations for the determination of the support forces
AH and BH are available. Solving for AH and BH gives:
F l2 F l1
AH D ; BH D : (3.106)
l1 C l2 l1 C l2
With the support reactions available, the normal forces of the bar and thus all other
state variables can be determined.
Another possibility of analysis is to first make the statically indeterminate mem-
ber statically determinate and to determine the removed support reaction from the
deformation state of the bar. This procedure is known as the so-called force method.
For this purpose, we consider again the situation of Fig. 3.10 and make the bar stat-
ically determinate by removing the right restraint. The resulting situation is shown
in Fig. 3.16, middle. The resulting statically determinate bar is now acted upon by
the force F . This is the so-called 0-system. Due to the applied force F , the dis-
placement u0 results at the force application point, whereas the right bar segment
with length l2 does not change in its length. Thus:
F l1
u0 D : (3.107)
EA
The support reaction which in reality is present is now applied to the free right end
of the bar (Fig. 3.16, bottom), where we use the designation X to make it clear that
this is a statically indeterminate quantity that needs to be determined. This results
in the displacement u1 at the free bar end, which can be determined as follows:
Xl1 Xl2
u1 D : (3.108)
EA EA
The negative sign indicates that this displacement runs against the direction of the
x-axis.
Fig. 3.16 Bar clamped F EA

on both sides under single x
force F (top), 0-system (mid-
dle) and 1-system (bottom). ll l2
z
0-system
F
u0
u0
1-system
X
u1
3.2 Bar systems 65
The total displacement u results from the superposition of the two displacements
u0 and u1 :
F l1 Xl1 Xl2
u D u0 C u1 D : (3.109)
EA EA EA
However, since in reality there is a restraint at the right end of the bar, the displace-
ment u must become zero:
F l1 Xl1 Xl2
D 0: (3.110)
EA EA EA
This expression can be solved for X, and we obtain:
F l1
XD : (3.111)
l1 C l2
The statically indeterminate quantity X is identical to the support reaction BH , so

that:
F l1
BH D : (3.112)
l1 C l2
Thus, the result (3.106) is confirmed, where the different signs can be attributed to
the different directions of action of the considered forces.
3.2 Bar systems
3.2.1 Statically determinate bar systems
In this section, we want to study the deformations of statically determinate bar sys-
tems and, for introduction, consider the system shown in Fig. 3.17, left. Given are
the two bars 1 and 2 of equal extensional stiffness EA. The vertically acting single
force F acts at the point of intersection where an ideal hinge is assumed. The nodal
displacements u and w are to be determined as shown in Fig. 3.17, right.
F
EA
1 45° w
2l
l
u
EA 2
Fig. 3.17 Truss under single force F (left), deformed system (right).
66 3 Bars
Since this is a statically determinate system, the bar forces N1 and N2 can be
determined from the equilibrium conditions. They follow as:
p
N1 D F; N2 D 2F: (3.113)
From this, we can then determine the length changes l1 and l2 of the bars. They
are:
N1 l1 Fl
l1 D D ;
EA EA
N2 l2 2F l
l2 D D ; (3.114)
EA EA
where we find that both bars become shorter. We can now use the length changes
of the bars determined in this way to determine the node displacements we are
looking for. The resulting deformation state is shown in Fig. 3.17, right. The cal-
culation of the two nodal displacements u and w can then be performed as follows
(see Fig. 3.18). The two bars will move on a circular path around their support
points when loaded (Fig. 3.18, left), where we have to consider here the changes in
length l1 and l2 of the bars due to the bar forces N1 and N2 . Accordingly, the
circular path forpbar 1 has the radius l C l1 , whereas for bar 2 the radius of the
circular path is 2l C l2 . The point where the two circular arcs intersect is the
hinge position in the deformed state. Since we assume that the deformations remain
small, we can replace the circular arcs by their tangents, as shown in Fig. 3.18, mid-
dle. From elementary trigonometric considerations we can then determine the two
displacements u and w we are looking for (Fig. 3.18, right). We have:
Fl
u D jl1 j D ;
EA
2 Fl p
w D jl1 j C p jl2 j D 1C2 2 : (3.115)
2 EA
∆l1 ∆l1 ∆l1

∆l2 ∆l2 1 ∆l ∆l2
45°
2 2
w w ∆l
w ∆l1+ 22
∆l2
u
2
u
u
Fig. 3.18 Determination of the node displacements u and w.

3.2 Bar systems 67
Example 3.8
Consider the truss of Fig. 3.19, which consists of two bars with extensional stiff-
ness EA at an angle of inclination ˛ to the horizontal and is loaded at its nodal
point by a horizontal force F . The displacement u is to be determined.
We first determine the two bar forces N1 and N2 , which are identical for the
given example:
F
N1 D N2 D N D : (3.116)
2 cos ˛
l
From this, the length changes of the bars with the length l1 D l2 D cos ˛ can be
determined as:
Fl
l1 D l2 D l D : (3.117)
2EA cos2 ˛
From the displacement plan of Fig. 3.19, right, we thus determine:
jlj Fl
uD D : (3.118)
cos ˛ 2EA cos3 ˛
J
Example 3.9
Consider the truss of Fig. 3.20, which consists of two bars of extensional stiff-
ness EA and is loaded at its nodal point by the vertical force F . The two nodal
displacements u and w are to be determined.
We first determine the two bar forces N1 and N2 from nodal equilibrium and
obtain:
F F
N1 D ; N2 D : (3.119)
tan ˛ sin ˛
Thus, the length changes l1 and l2 of the bars with the lengths l1 D l and
l2 D cosl ˛ can be given as:
N1 l1 Fl Fl
l1 D D ; l2 D : (3.120)
EA EA tan ˛ EA sin ˛ cos ˛
From the displacement plan of Fig. 3.20, right, we can determine the displace-
ments u and w as:
Fl
u D l1 D ;
EA tan ˛

jl2 j u Fl 1 1
wD C D C : (3.121)
sin ˛ tan ˛ EA sin2 ˛ cos ˛ tan2 ˛
J
68 3 Bars
Fig. 3.19 Truss (left),

deformed system and dis- α
placement plan (right).
EA 2
F
u
EA 1
∆l1
∆l2
u
l
Fig. 3.20 Truss (left), F

deformed system and dis- 1
placement plan (right) EA α w
EA
u
2 ∆l1
∆l2
∆l2
sinα
w
l u α
tanα
3.2.2 Statically indeterminate bar systems
If a statically indeterminate system is given, then we must consider the material law
and the kinematics of the given system in addition to the equilibrium conditions. To
illustrate this, we consider again the truss from Example 3.8, which now includes
an additional horizontal bar of length l2 (Fig. 3.21). The two bars under the angle ˛
have the extensional stiffness EA1 , the horizontal bar has the extensional stiffness
EA2 . We want to determine the nodal displacement u and the bar forces of the
system.
We first consider the nodal section of Fig. 3.21, top right, where we can already
assume that the bar forces of the two diagonal bars are identical due to the symmetry
of the system. The sum of the horizontal forces gives:
2N1 cos ˛ C N2 C F D 0: (3.122)
The length changes l1 and l2 of the bars can be given as:
N1 l1 N1 l
l1 D D ;
EA1 EA1 cos ˛
N2 l2
l2 D : (3.123)
EA2
3.2 Bar systems 69
Fig. 3.21 Truss (left), nodal

section and displacement α N1
plan (right) α
N2 α F
EA1
N1
EA2
F
∆ l1
EA1 ∆ l2
∆ l1
u
l2
From the displacement plan of Fig. 3.21, bottom right, we can conclude:
l1 D u cos ˛; l2 D u: (3.124)
Substituting (3.124) into (3.123), the resulting expressions can be solved for the bar
forces N1 and N2 as follows:
EA1 u cos2 ˛ EA2 u

N1 D ; N2 D : (3.125)
l l2
Substituting the bar forces into the equilibrium condition (3.122), we obtain the
displacement u as:
F
uD : (3.126)
2EA1 cos3 ˛ EA2
C
l l2
With the now known nodal displacement u the bar forces N1 and N2 can be deter-
mined from (3.125):
F cos2 ˛
N1 D ;
3
EA2 l
2 cos ˛ C
EA1 l2
EA2 l
F
EA1 l2
N2 D : (3.127)
EA2 l
2 cos3 ˛ C
EA1 l2
70 3 Bars
Example 3.10
Consider a rigid bar of length 2a supported by two linear elastic bars (stiffness
EA) and loaded by a single force F as shown in Fig. 3.22. The bar forces N1
and N2 , the length changes l1 and l2 of the two elastic bars, the deflection w
of the force application point and the support reactions at the left support are to
be determined.
Using the free body image of Fig. 3.22, middle, we first form the equilibrium
conditions. The two force sums in horizontal and vertical direction as well as the
moment sum around the left support result in:
1
AH C p N2 D 0;
2
1
AV C N1 C p N2 F D 0;
2
p
N1 C 2N2 2F D 0: (3.128)
Obviously, these three equations are not sufficient to determine the four forces
AH , AV , N1 , N2 occurring here. We must therefore include the deformations of
the system in the calculations.
The length changes l1 and l2 of the two elastic bars can be formulated as:
p
N1 l1 N1 l N2 l2 2N2 l
l1 D D ; l2 D D : (3.129)
EA EA EA EA
Fig. 3.22 Considered sys- rigid

tem (top), free body image
(middle), displacement plan F
(bottom). EA
1 EA l
2
l l
AH
AV N1 F
N2
∆l1 ∆ l2
w
3.2 Bar systems 71
Using the displacement plan of Fig. 3.22, bottom, we can derive the following
relationship:
1 l2
cos 45ı D p D ; (3.130)
2 w
from which: p
wD 2l2 : (3.131)
Moreover, we have the following relation between l1 and the deflection w:
w
l1 D : (3.132)
2
Combining the two expressions (3.131) and (3.132), it follows that there is the
following relationship between the length changes l1 and l2 :
1
l1 D p l2 : (3.133)
2
With (3.128), (3.129) and (3.133) there are six equations for the unknown quan-
tities AH , AV , N1 , N2 , l1 , l2 . These can be solved as follows. First, we put
the expressions (3.129) for the length changes l1 and l2 into the kinematic
relation (3.133), which leads to
N1 D N2 : (3.134)
Thus, the equilibrium conditions (3.128) can be solved for the unknown forces
as follows:
p
2 p 2
AH D p F; AV D 1 2 F; N1 D N2 D p F: (3.135)
1C 2 1C 2
With the bar forces thus determined, the length changes l1 and l2 as well as
the deflection w can finally be determined:
p
2F l 2 2F l 4F l
l1 D p ; l2 D p ; wD p : (3.136)
1 C 2 EA 1 C 2 EA 1 C 2 EA
J
Beams
4
A beam is a straight one-dimensional structural element subjected to bending. The

constitutive law for the beam under normal force and bending is first derived for an
arbitrary coordinate system, where different recurring area integrals are also intro-
duced. Special attention is paid to the so-called moments of inertia and the so-called
deviation moment. The two cross-sectional normalizations, i.e. the reference of the
considerations to the center of gravity of the considered cross-section and the trans-
fer to the so-called principal axis system, simplify the considerations enormously.
Finally, the bending stresses occurring in beams are to be determined. Students are
enabled to apply the basic equations for beam structures and to determine normal
stresses in arbitrary cross-sections.
4.1 Introduction
This chapter is dedicated to the treatment of straight beams under normal force and
bending. The loading of the beam structures that we will discuss in this chapter
cause bending moments and transverse shear forces where we want to consider
normal forces in this chapter as well. Torsional action is excluded at this point, this
topic will be discussed in Chap. 7. The load may occur in the form of the two line
loads qy and qz (shown in Fig. 4.1 as constant along the longitudinal axis x), which
can be arbitrary functions of x. Similarly, there can be any number of single forces
Fy and Fz at arbitrary locations on the beam. Single bending moments are also
allowed as loads, but are not shown in Fig. 4.1.
The load of the beam produces internal internal forces and moments, which we
can interpret as resultants of the internal beam stresses. In the beam structures con-
sidered here, the normal force N , the two bending moments My and Mz , and the
two transverse shear forces Vy and Vz are present as internal internal forces and
moments (Fig. 4.2). The corresponding displacements and rotations are the three
displacements u, v and w in x-, y- and z-directions and the two rotations 'y and 'z ,
the so-called bending angles. The displacments and rotations are shown in Fig. 4.1,
Nature 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9_4
74 4 Beams
Fz
qz
Fy
y y
Vy qy
N v u
z My Vz z φy
w
x x
Mz
φz
Fig. 4.1 Loads, forces and moments of the beam (left), displacements (right).
Fz
qz
Fy
y y
Vy qy
xx
N
z My Vz z
x
Mz N
x
Fz Fz
qz qz
y y
xx
z My z
x Vz
x
Fy Fy
y qy y qy
Vy
z x xx z
x
Mz
Fig. 4.2 Internal forces and moments of the beam and the associated stress components.
4.2 Basic equations for an arbitrary reference frame 75
right. A rotation of the cross-section about the x-axis, as it occurs in torsion, is

excluded here.
Fig. 4.2 shows to what extent the forces and moments N , My , Mz , Vy and Vz
are related to the stress components occurring in the beam. The stresses in the beam
are the normal stress xx and the shear stress . The loads qz and Fz cause the
bending moment My and the transverse shear force Vz , whereas qy and Fy are
responsible for the occurrence of the bending moment Mz and the transverse shear
force Vy . Furthermore, a normal force N may also be present. From Fig. 4.2 it
can be seen that the normal force N gives rise to the normal stress xx which,
under certain conditions yet to be discussed, is constantly distributed over the cross-
section. We will show in this chapter that the bending moment My also causes the
normal stress xx , which is then linearly distributed over the cross-section as shown
in Fig. 4.2, center left. The transverse shear force Vz is the cause of the shear stress
as shown in Fig. 4.2, center right. The determination of shear stresses due to shear
forces is the subject of Chap. 6 and will not be discussed in the present chapter. It
can be shown that, for the specific case discussed here, the shear stress is linear in
the flanges of the I-section and has a parabolic distribution in the web of the cross-
section. The direction of action of the shear stress is indicated by arrows, as shown
in Fig. 4.2, center right. Because of the circumferential action of , indexing of this
stress component is often omitted. Like My , the bending moment Mz evokes the
normal stress xx , which also varies linearly across the cross-section, as shown in
Fig. 4.2, bottom left. The transverse shear force Vy , on the other hand, causes the
shear stress (Fig. 4.2, bottom right).
In practice, the main task of engineers is to determine the stresses in beam struc-
tures and to design components in such a way that the existing stresses do not exceed
certain limits. Likewise, in many cases, the deformations of such structures have
to be considered and verified accordingly. In this chapter, we will consider beam
structures and the determination of the normal stress xx . The determination of
shear stresses due to transverse shear forcess and torsion will be considered in the
Chaps. 6 and 7. The analysis of deformations of beams is dealt with in Chap. 5.
4.2 Basic equations for an arbitrary reference frame
The beam theory we will discuss in this chapter goes back to Leonhard Euler and
Jakob Bernoulli1 and is appropriately referred to as Euler–Bernoulli beam theory.
This elementarily important theory, widely used in engineering practice, is based
on the following assumptions:
We assume that the hypothesis of flat cross-sections as well as the normal hypoth-
esis are valid. Cross-sections do not warp when the beam deflects and are orthog-
onal to the longitudinal axis of the beam even in the deformed state (Fig. 4.3).
1
Leonhard Euler, 1707–1783, and Jakob Bernoulli, 1654–1705, both Swiss mathematicians and
physicists.
76 4 Beams
Fig. 4.3 Hypothesis of flat q

cross-sections and normal
hypothesis.
Center line
As a consequence, shear strains in the beam are explicitly excluded. However,

we will see later that this assumption leads to contradictions, but we use it as
a suitable basis for all further considerations.
We assume linear-elastic material behavior, Hooke’s law is valid.
The cross-sectional dimensions are significantly smaller than the length of the
beam. An idealization within the framework of a beam theory is thus justified.
The cross-sectional shape is completely preserved during the deformation of the
beam under load.
We assume geometric linearity, i.e. the deformations are assumed to be small.
Only straight beam structures are considered.
Hooke’s law for the beam situation considered here is as follows:
xx D E"xx ; D G: (4.1)
We will start the explanations with Fig. 4.4, where we use NxN for the normal
force N . At an arbitrary point of the cross-section, which does not necessarily have
y
y x x
v
My Nx φy P u
Center of gravity C z vP(x,y,z) z
uP(x,y,z)
Mz wP(x,y,z) w
φz
Fig. 4.4 Forces and displacements in an arbitrary reference system x;

N y;
N zN and displacements uN P ,
vNP and wN P of the point P.
Fig. 4.5 Kinematics of the h

Euler–Bernoulli beam theory.
x
zP
P
u
z Undeformed uP
w -φy
wP zP
∆u
Deformed P
h -φy dw
dx
∆u
to be the center of gravity C, a Cartesian coordinate system is introduced, where we

denote the axes as x, N y,
N zN . The overline indicates that this is a reference frame at
an arbitrary point of the cross-section. In the following we want to determine the
deflection wN P as well as the longitudinal displacement uN P of an arbitrary point P,
which is located at an arbitrary position of the cross-section. The displacement vNP
in the direction of the reference axis y, N which generally also occurs, is taken into
account at a later point. The resulting displacements are u, N vN and zN as well as the two
bending angles 'yN and 'zN . We now consider the kinematics of the Euler–Bernoulli
beam shown in Fig. 4.5 by means of a sectional element of the beam in the unde-
formed and in the deformed state. Let the height of the cross-section be h.
Due to the bending moment and normal force, the section element will undergo
both a deflection wN and a longitudinal displacement u. N Due to the deformation,
the inclination ddwxNN D wN 0 is also called forth. The displacements concerning point P
are denoted as wN P and uN P . Due to the rotation 'yN the coordinate origin will suf-
fer a longitudinal displacement uN which is different from the displacement uN P of
point P. Let the difference of these two displacement values be called u. N The dif-
ference uN can be obtained from the triangle shown in Fig. 4.5, right:
uN
sin.'yN / D : (4.2)
zNP
Since in the context of the present beam theory we assume small deformations and
thus also small rotations 'yN and 'zN , sin.'yN / ' 'yN can be assumed so that:
uN D NzP 'yN : (4.3)
Based on the hypothesis that no cross-sectional distortions occur and the normal
hypothesis is valid, the slope ddwxNN D wN 0 of the beam deflection wN can be equated with
the bending angle 'yN :
uN D zNP wN 0 : (4.4)
78 4 Beams
The longitudinal displacement uN P of the point P is thus:
uN P D uN uN D uN zNP wN 0 : (4.5)
This relation is valid exclusively for the case of the so-called uniaxial bending, i.e.
for the case that only the deformations uN and wN occur in the xN z-plane.
N
If the given load leads to deformations uN and wN as well as the displacement v, N
then we speak of biaxial bending. In this case, (4.5) is extended by the displacement
vN as follows:
uN P D uN zNP wN 0 yNP vN 0 : (4.6)
Here yNP is the distance of the point P from the origin of the reference frame with
respect to the y-direction.
N Since we assume that the cross-sectional dimensions do
not change due to the beam deformation, we can equate the deflection wN of the
coordinate origin and the deflection wN P of the point P:
wN P D w:
N (4.7)
This is also true for the displacements in the y-direction:

N
vNP D v:
N (4.8)
The equations (4.6), (4.7) and (4.8) describe the displacement field of the Euler–
Bernoulli beam. From this, the strain field of the beam can be determined. Since
we assume a slender beam where the length is significantly larger than its cross-
sectional dimensions and we have also excluded any shear strains from the outset,
the only remaining strain component is the normal strain "xN xP
N . It is calculated from
the kinematic equation (1.33) as:
duN P
N D
"xN xP D uN P0 D uN 0 zNP wN 00 yNP vN 00 : (4.9)
dxN
Since the relations derived so far have validity for arbitrary points of the cross-
section, we will omit the index P in the following.
From Hooke’s law (4.1), the normal stress xN xN of the beam is obtained as follows:

xN xN D E"xN xN D E uN 0 zN wN 00 yN vN 00 : (4.10)
The normal stress xN xN leads to the following normal force and bending moments of
the beam:
Z Z Z
NxN D xN xN dA; MyN D xN xN zdA; N MzN D xN xN ydA:
N (4.11)
A A A
Inserting (4.10) yields:

Z

NxN D E uN 0 zN wN 00 yN vN 00 dA
A
Z Z Z
D E uN 0 dA E wN 00 zN dA E vN 00 ydA;
N
A A A
Z

MyN D E uN 0 zN wN 00 yN vN 00 zdA
N
A
Z Z Z
D E uN 0 zN dA E wN 00 zN 2 dA E vN 00 yN zN dA;
A A A
Z

MzN D E uN 0 zN wN 00 yN vN 00 ydA
N
A
Z Z Z
D E uN 0 ydA
N C E wN 00 yN zdA
N C E vN 00 yN 2 dA: (4.12)
A A A
A series of recurring area integrals that are typical for beam structures occurs at
this point. The cross-sectional area A of the beam in units of a length to the second
power is defined as follows: Z
AD dA: (4.13)
A
Furthermore, in (4.12) first-order area integrals occur, namely the so-called static
moments SyN and SzN : Z Z
SzN D ydA;N SyN D zN dA: (4.14)
A A
The static moments are in the unit of a length to the third power.
Finally, the second-order area integrals occurring in (4.12) are the so called mo-
ments of inertia IyN yN , IzN zN as well as the so-called deviation moment IyN zN :
Z Z Z
IyN yN D zN 2 dA; IzN zN D yN 2 dA; IyN zN D yN zN dA: (4.15)
A A A
The two moments of inertia IyN yN and IzN zN always take values greater than zero. The
deviation moment IyN zN , on the other hand, can have both positive and negative values
or even become zero in special cases as we will discuss later. Both the moments of
inertia and the deviation moment have the unit of a length to the fourth power.
80 4 Beams
A further parameter which can be derived from this is the so-called polar moment
of inertia Ip , which results from the sum of the two moments of inertia IyN yN and IzN zN :
Z Z
2
2
Ip D r dA D yN C zN 2 dA D IyN yN C IzN zN : (4.16)
A A
With (4.13), (4.14) and (4.15) the equation system (4.12) can be represented as
follows:
NxN D EAuN 0 ESyN wN 00 ESzN vN 00 ;
MyN D ESyN uN 0 EIyN yN wN 00 EIyN zN vN 00 ;
MzN D ESzN uN 0 C EIyN zN wN 00 C EIzN zN vN 00 : (4.17)
This can be represented in a vector-matrix-notation as follows:
0 1 2 30 0 1
NxN A SyN SzN uN
@ MyN A D E 4SyN IyN yN IyN zN 5@wN 00 A: (4.18)
MzN SzN IyN zN IzN zN vN 00
It follows that given the choice of an arbitrary coordinate system x,

N y,
N z,
N the normal
force NxN and the bending moments MyN , MzN are coupled with all displacements u, N
v,
N w. N The set of equations (4.17) or (4.18) is also called the constitutive law of
the beam formulated here for the arbitrarily chosen reference system x, N y,
N zN . The
products EIyN yN and EIzN zN are called bending stiffnesses.
Example 4.1
We demonstrate the determination of the are integrals occurring in (4.12) at the

example of a rectangular cross-section (height h, width b) as shown in Fig. 4.6.
We first consider the area integral (4.13), i.e. the cross-sectional area A. For
such an elementary simple rectangular cross-section, the area can be determined
immediately as A D bh. However, we want to formally evaluate the area inte-
gral (4.13) in order to learn how to deal with such integral expressions. We use
the infinitesimal area element dA for the calculation as shown in Fig. 4.6, bottom
right, i.e. dA D dydN
N z . Then it follows from (4.13):
Z Zh Zb
AD dA D dydN N b0 zN jh0 D bh:
N z D yj (4.19)
A 0 0
Next, we determine the static moments SyN and SzN . To calculate SzN we use the
infinitesimal area element of Fig. 4.6, bottom center, i.e. we set dA D hdyN and
integrate from yN D 0 to yN D b:
Z Zb ˇb
hyN 2 ˇˇ hb 2
SzN D ydA
N D hyd
N yN D ˇ D : (4.20)
2 0 2
A 0
z
y y y
dA
z
z dA y dA y
dy dz
dz dy
z z z
Fig. 4.6 Rectangular cross-section (top), different types of infinitesimal area elements dA (bot-
tom).
Analogously we can proceed for the determination of SyN and obtain with the
infinitesimal area element dA D bdNz :
Z Zh ˇh
b zN 2 ˇˇ bh2
SyN D zdA
N D b zN dNz D ˇ D : (4.21)
2 0 2
A 0
Finally, we determine the moments of inertia IyN yN and IyN zN as well as the devia-
tion moment IyN zN . For the moment of inertia IyN yN it follows from (4.15) with the
infinitesimal element dA D bdNz (Fig. 4.6, bottom left):
Z Zh ˇh
2 2 b zN 3 ˇˇ bh3
IyN yN D zN dA D b zN dNz D D : (4.22)
3 ˇ0 3
A 0
Analogously, for IzN zN we obtain using dA D hdyN
Z Zb ˇb
2 hyN 3 ˇˇ hb 3
IzN zN D yN dA D hyN 2 dyN D ˇ D : (4.23)
3 0 3
A 0
82 4 Beams
Finally, we determine the deviation moment IyN zN using the infinitesimal area ele-
ment dA of Fig. 4.6, bottom right, i.e. dA D dydN
N z . Then:
Z Zh Zb ˇb ˇh
yN 2 ˇˇ zN 2 ˇˇ b 2 h2
IyN zN D yN zdA
N D yN zN dydN
N zD D : (4.24)
2 ˇ0 2 ˇ0 4
A 0 0
The constitutive law (4.18) can then be represented for the current example as:
2 3
bh2 hb 2
0 1 6 bh 2 2 7 0 1
NxN 6 7 uN 0
6 2 bh3 b 2 h2 7
@ MyN A D E 6 bh 7@wN 00 A: (4.25)
6 7
MzN 6 2 3 4 7 vN 00
4 hb 2 b 2 h2 hb 35
2 4 3
J
In many technically relevant cases, cross-sections of beams are composed of a num-

ber of segments whose area integrals are easy to determine. If such a case exists,
then the area integrals of (4.13), (4.14) and (4.15) can be determined as the sum
of the partial integrals over the segments of the cross-section. If a cross-section is
given with n segments, we obtain:
Z n Z
X n
X
AD dA D dAi D Ai ;
A i D1 A i D1
i
Z n Z
X n
X
SzN D ydA
N D ydA
N iD Sz;i
N ;
A i D1 A i D1
i
Z n Z
X n
X
SyN D zdA
N D zN dAi D Sy;i
N ;
A i D1 A i D1
i
Z n Z
X n
X
IyN yN D zN 2 dA D zN 2 dAi D IyN y;i
N ;
A i D1 A i D1
i
Z n Z
X n
X
IzN zN D yN 2 dA D yN 2 dAi D IzN zN ;i ;
A i D1 A i D1
i
Z n Z
X n
X
IyN zN D yN zN dA D yN zN dAi D IyN z;i
N : (4.26)
A i D1 A i D1
i
Example 4.2
Consider the thin-walled I-section of Fig. 4.7, which has the constant wall thick-
ness t, the web height h and the flange width 2b. The area integrals (4.26) are
to be evaluated, where the cross-section is to be divided into n D 3 segments.
The wall thickness of the cross-section is halved at each point by the so called
skeleton line.
We start our considerations by determining the cross-sectional area. For the
partial areas we obtain:
A1 D 2bt; A2 D .h t/t; A3 D 2bt: (4.27)
The total area then follows as:
A D A1 C A2 C A3 D 4bt C ht t 2 : (4.28)
If we assume a very thin-walled cross-section with t b; h, then the last term

of order t 2 is negligible, and the following expression remains:
A D t.4b C h/: (4.29)
Furthermore, we consider the static moment SzN . We have:

3 Z
X 3
X
SzN D ydA
N iD Sz;i
N : (4.30)
i D1 A i D1
i
With the area elements dA1 D tdyN (upper flange), dA2 D hdyN (web), dA3 D tdyN
(lower flange) the following static moments Sz;i
N of the partial areas result:
Z2b ˇ2b
t yN 2 ˇˇ
N D
Sz;1 t yd
N yN D D 2b 2 t;
2 ˇ0
0
bC 2t ˇbC t
Z
hyN 2 ˇˇ 2
N D
Sz;2 hyd
N yN D D bht;
2 ˇb t
2
b 2t
2
N D Sz;1
Sz;3 N D 2b t: (4.31)
Fig. 4.7 Thin-walled t

I-section.
1
y
t
h 2
t z
3
b b
84 4 Beams
The static moment SzN of the cross-section then follows as:
3
X
SzN D Sz;i
N D bt.4b C h/: (4.32)
i D1
We can proceed quite analogously for the static moment SyN and obtain:

h
SyN D th C 2b : (4.33)
2
When determining the static moments, it turns out that the calculation can be
simplified quite considerably. From the integration rule (4.26) it follows that in
the case of a cross-section consisting of n segments, it is sufficient to form the
sum over the partial areas Ai , multiplied by the locations yNi or zNi of their center
of gravity:
Xn Xn
SzN D Ai yNi ; SyN D Ai zN i : (4.34)
i D1 i D1
This is shown for the static moment SzN . With
A1 D 2tb; A2 D t.h t/; A3 D 2tb;

yN1 D b; yN2 D b; yN3 D b (4.35)
we obtain:
3
X
SzN D Ai yNi D 2tb 2 C t.h t/b C 2tb 2 D 4tb 2 C thb t 2 b: (4.36)
i D1
Assuming a very thin-walled cross-section for which t b; h holds, the last

term in (4.36) can be neglected, and we have:
SzN D bt.4b C h/: (4.37)
Apparently, this result is identical to (4.32).

We now determine the moment of inertia IyN yN . For this purpose the infinites-
imal area elements dA1 D 2bdNz , dA2 D tdNz , dA3 D 2bdNz are used. We obtain
for the partial moments of inertia:

t
Z Z2 ˇt
2 2 2b zN 3 ˇˇ 2 bt 3
IyN y;1
N D zN dA1 D 2b zN dNz D ˇ D ;
3 t 6
2
A1 2t
Z Zh ˇh
2 2 t zN 3 ˇˇ th3
N D
IyN y;2 zN dA2 D t zN dNz D D ;
3 ˇ0 3
A2 0
hC 2t ˇhC t
Z Z
2b zN 3 ˇˇ 2 2bt t2
N D
IyN y;3 zN 2 dA3 D 2b zN 2 dNz D D 3h2
C : (4.38)
3 ˇh t 3 4
2
A3 h 2t
The moment of inertia then follows from the sum of the partial moments of
inertia as follows:

bt 3 th3 2bt 2 t2
IyN yN D C C 3h C : (4.39)
6 3 3 4
If we assume a very thin-walled cross-section with t b; h, then in (4.39) terms

of order t 3 are negligible, and the following remains:

h
IyN yN D th2 C 2b : (4.40)
3
Furthermore, we determine the moment of inertia IzN zN according to (4.26) and

first determine the partial moments of inertia IzN z;1
N , IzN z;2
N , IzN z;3
N . With the area
elements dA1 D tdy, N dA2 D hdy,
N dA3 D tdyN we have:
Z Z2b ˇ2b
2 2 t yN 3 ˇˇ 8tb 3
N D
IzN z;1 yN dA1 D t yN dyN D D ;
3 ˇ0 3
A1 0
bC 2t ˇbC t
Z Z
2 2 hyN 3 ˇˇ 2 ht 2 t2
N D
IzN z;2 yN dA2 D hyN dyN D D 3b C ;
3 ˇb t 3 4
2
A2 b 2t
Z
8tb 3
N D
IzN z;3 yN 2 dA3 D IzN z;1
N D : (4.41)
3
A3
86 4 Beams
Thus, the moment of inertia can be determined from the sum of the partial mo-
ments of inertia:
16 3 ht 2 t2
IyN yN D tb C 3b C : (4.42)
3 3 4
If we again neglect terms of order t 3 under the assumption of a thin-walled cross-
section, we obtain:
2 16
IyN yN D tb bCh : (4.43)
3
Finally, the deviation moment IyN zN must be determined. For the partial moments
we have:
t
Z Z 2 Z2b ˇ2b ˇ t
yN 2 ˇˇ zN 2 ˇˇ 2
N D
IyN z;1 yN zN dA1 D yN zd
N ydN
N zD D 0;
2 ˇ0 2 ˇ t
2
A1 2t 0
t
Z Zh bC
Z 2 ˇbC t ˇh
yN 2 ˇˇ 2 zN 2 ˇˇ bh2 t
N D
IyN z;2 yN zN dA2 D yN zN dydN
N zD D ;
2 ˇb t 2 ˇ0 2
2
A2 0 b t
2
hC 2t 2b ˇ2b ˇhC t
Z Z Z
yN 2 ˇˇ zN 2 ˇˇ 2
N D
IyN z;3 yN zN dA3 D yN zd
N ydN
N zD D 2b 2 ht: (4.44)
2 ˇ0 2 ˇh t
2
A3 h 2t 0
Thus the deviation moment results as:

h
IyN zN D tbh C 2b : (4.45)
2
The constitutive law (4.18) then takes the following form:

2 ! 3
h
6 t.4b C h/ th
bt.4b C h/ 7 C 2b
0 1 6 72
NxN
6 ! ! ! 70 uN 0 1
6 h h h 7
@ MyN A D E 6
6th C 2b th2 C 2b tbh
7
C 2b 7@wN 00 A:
6 2 3 2 7
MzN 6 ! !7 vN 00
6 h 16 7
4 5
bt.4b C h/ tbh C 2b tb 2 bCh
2 3
(4.46)
J
Example 4.3
Consider the Z-section shown in Fig. 4.8 with constant wall thickness t. We want
to determine the area integrals according to (4.26).
In the following, only the results are presented without going into details con-
cerning the analysis itself:
A D t.2b C h/;

h
SyN D th Cb ;
2
SzN D tb.2b C h/;

h
IyN yN D th2 Cb ;
3

8b
IzN zN D tb 2 Ch ;
3

h 3b
IyN zN D tbh C : (4.47)
2 2
The constitutive law (4.18) is then as follows for this cross-sectional form:
2 ! 3
h
6 t.2b C h/ th Cb
tb.2b C h/ 7
0 1 6 2 7
6 ! ! !70 0 1
NxN 6 h h h 3b 7 uN
@ MyN A D E 6
6th Cb th2 Cb tbh C
7@ 00 A
7 wN : (4.48)
6 2 3 2 2 7 vN 00
MzN 6 ! !7
6 h 3b 8b 7
4 5
tb.2b C h/ tbh C tb 2 Ch
2 2 3
J
Fig. 4.8 Thin-walled t

Z-section. y
h t
t z
b b
88 4 Beams
4.3 First cross-sectional normalization: Center of gravity C
4.3.1 Steiner’s theorem
With equations (4.17) and (4.18), the constitutive law for the Euler–Bernoulli beam
is given for an arbitrary choice of the reference frame. However, it turns out that
here every force and moment quantity is coupled with every displacement quantity.
This can be simplified quite substantially if the reference frame is shifted to a par-
ticular point where the two static moments Sz and Sy vanish. We will show below
that this is the center of gravity C of the cross-section. The reference of the consid-
erations to the center of gravity C of the cross-section is called first cross-sectional
normalization.
The shift of the reference frame is shown in Fig. 4.9. The center of gravity C is at
the position .yN D yNC ; zN D zN C /. The reference system referred to the center of gravity
C is designated as x, y, z. In the same way, let the related normal force, bending
moments and displacements be denoted as N , My , Mz and u, v, w, whereas in the
following we want to omit the indexing of the normal force N . The centroid axes
x, y, z are related to the reference axes x, N y,
N zN as follows:
x D x;
N y D yN yNC ; z D zN zNC : (4.49)
The reference of the axis system to the center of gravity C thus corresponds to a pure
translation of the reference system in the yN zN -plane.
A prerequisite for the center of gravity coordinate system is that the two static
moments Sz and Sy vanish:
Z Z Z
Sz D ydA D ydA N yNC dA D 0;
A A A
Z Z Z
Sy D zdA D zN dA zN C dA D 0: (4.50)
A A A
yC
zC
C y
My C
y x v x
Nx y u
x v
x
y z z
N u
My
z Mz z
w
Mz
w
Fig. 4.9 First cross-sectional normalization: Reference to the center of gravity C with the center
of gravity coordinate system x, y, z and the associated force and displacement quantities.
4.3 First cross-sectional normalization: Center of gravity C 89
We can immediately solve this requirement for the centroid coordinates yNC , zN C :
Z Z
ydA
N zN dA
A SzN A SyN
yNC D Z D ; zN C D Z D : (4.51)
A A
dA dA
A A
Furthermore, the moments of inertia Iyy , Izz and the deviation moment Iyz are
determined. For Iyy we obtain:
Z Z
Iyy D z dA D .Nz zNC /2 dA
2
A A
Z Z Z
2
D zN dA 2NzC zN dA C zNC2 dA D IyN yN 2NzC SyN C zNC2 A: (4.52)
A A A
Using SyN D zN C A yields:

Iyy D IyN yN zN C2 A: (4.53)
Similar expressions are obtained for Izz and Iyz , and we obtain Steiner’s theorem2
as follows:
Iyy D IyN yN zN C2 A;
Izz D IzN zN yNC2 A;
Iyz D IyN zN yNC zNC A: (4.54)
Steiner’s theorem, often also addressed as the so-called parallel-axis theorem, de-
scribes the change of the moments of inertia and of the deviation moment when any
Cartesian reference system is shifted to the center of gravity C of a cross-section.
We will show later that the sign of those parts in (4.54) which contain the cross-
sectional area A is reversed if the reference system is moved from the center of
gravity to any other point of the cross-section. From Steiner’s theorem it also fol-
lows immediately that the moments of inertia and the deviation moment related to
the center of gravity take the smallest possible values.
Example 4.4
We again consider the cross-section of Fig. 4.6 and determine the area integrals
with respect to the centroid coordinate system x, y, z (see Fig. 4.10). The cen-
troid coordinates yNC , zNC follow as:
SzN hb 2 b SyN bh2 h

yNC D D D ; zNC D D D : (4.55)
A 2hb 2 A 2bh 2
2
Jakob Steiner (1796–1863), Swiss mathematician.
90 4 Beams
Fig. 4.10 Rectangular b

cross-section with centroid
coordinate system x, y, z.
y
y C h
z z
The moments of inertia Iyy and Izz and the deviation moment Iyz result from
Steiner’s theorem (4.54) as follows:
bh3 h2 bh3
Iyy D IyN yN zN C2 A D bh D ;
3 4 12
hb 3 b 2 hb 3
Izz D IzN zN yNC2 A D bh D ;
3 4 12
b 2 h2 b h
Iyz D IyN zN yNC zN C A D bh D 0: (4.56)
4 22
Obviously, for the considered rectangular cross-section, besides the two static
moments Sz and Sy , the deviation moment Iyz also disappears. This is due to
the fact that this is a doubly symmetric cross-section where the reference axes
coincide with the symmetry axes. We will come back to this issue at a later point
of this chapter. J
Example 4.5
We consider the I-cross-section of Fig. 4.7. The center of gravity C is located at

the following coordinates yNC and zN C :
SzN bt.4b C h/
yNC D D D b;
A t.4b C h/

SyN th h2 C 2b h
zN C D D D : (4.57)
A t.4b C h/ 2
The moments of inertia and the deviation moment can then be determined using
Steiner’s theorem as follows:
1 3
Iyy D IyN yN zN C2 A D th C tbh2 ;
12
4
Izz D IzN zN yNC2 A D tb 3 ;
3
Iyz D IyN zN yNC zNC A D 0: (4.58)
For the given double-symmetric I-cross-section, the deviation moment Iyz
vanishes. J
Example 4.6
For the Z-section of Fig. 4.8, the following centroid coordinates yNC and zNC result:
SzN tb.2b C h/
yNC D D D b;
A t.2b C h/
h
SyN th 2 C b h
zN C D D D : (4.59)
A t.2b C h/ 2
The moments of inertia IyO yO and IzO zO as well as the deviation moment IyO zO result
from Steiner’s theorem as:
1 3 1
Iyy D IyN yN zN C2 A D th C tbh2 ;
12 2
2 2 3
Izz D IzN zN yNC A D tb ;
3
1
Iyz D IyN zN yNC zN C A D tb 2 h: (4.60)
2
For this cross-section, the deviation moment Iyz does not disappear. We will
come back to this issue at a later point. J
4.3.2 Selected elementary cases
In many technical applications, cross-sections consist of elementary simple seg-

ments for which the moments of inertia and the deviation moment can be deter-
mined easily and from which the entire cross-section can then be composed. In this
section we will consider such elementary cases and provide some examples, always
referring to the center of gravity C of the cross-section.
As a first example, consider again the rectangular cross-section of width b and
height h (Fig. 4.11). The two moments of inertia Iyy and Izz and the moment of
deviation Iyz with respect to the center of gravity of the cross-section are to be
determined.
The moment of inertia Iyy
Z
Iyy D z 2 dA (4.61)
A
can be determined with the area element dA D bdz (Fig. 4.11, middle) as:
h
Z2 ˇh
2 bz 3 ˇˇ 2 bh3
Iyy D z bdz D D : (4.62)
3 ˇ h 12
2
h2
92 4 Beams
C y C C
h y y
z z
dA y
dA
z z z
Fig. 4.11 Determination of the moments of inertia and of the deviation moment of a rectangular
cross-section.
Similarly, the moment of inertia Izz is obtained as:
hb 3
Izz D : (4.63)
12
For the determination of the deviation moment
Z
Iyz D yzdA (4.64)
A
the area element dA D dydz (Fig. 4.11, right) is used. We obtain:
h b
ZC 2 ZC 2
Iyz D yzdydz D 0: (4.65)
h2 b2
These results apparently agree with the results (4.56) that we have previously ob-
tained using Steiner’s theorem.
Example 4.7
Consider the box cross-section of Fig. 4.12 with height h, width b and con-
stant wall thickness t. We introduce the two auxiliary quantities bN D b 2t and
hN D h 2t . This box section can be treated by subtracting from the moments of
inertia of the solid section of height h and width b the moments of inertia of the
inscribed section of width bN and height h.N We obtain:
bh3 bN hN 3 1 3 N N3
Iyy D D bh b h : (4.66)
12 12 12
Fig. 4.12 Determination of b

the moments of inertia for
a box cross-section. t
t
h y C
t
t
z
For the moment of inertia Izz the result is analogous:
hb 3 hN bN 3 1 3 N N 3
Izz D D hb hb : (4.67)
12 12 12
The deviation moment Iyz vanishes for this cross-section. J
Example 4.8
Consider the circular cross-section (radius R) of Fig. 4.13. The two moments of
inertia Iyy and Izz as well as the deviation moment Iyz are to be determined.
In addition, these area integrals are to be determined for a circular ring cross-
section.
We first determine the polar moment of inertia Ip :
Z
Ip D r 2 dA: (4.68)
A
We can interpret the area element dA as a circular ring of thickness dr, where
dA D 2 rdr. Thus:
ZR
R4
Ip D 2 r 3 dr D : (4.69)
2
0
t
R C rC Ri C C t
y y y Rm y
dr Rm
dA Ra
z z z z
Fig. 4.13 Determination of the moments of inertia for different kinds of circular cross-sections.
94 4 Beams
The polar moment of inertia is the sum of Iyy and Izz . Since the circular cross-
section is also double symmetric (therefore Iyy D Izz ), it follows:
R4
Iyy D Izz D : (4.70)
4
The deviation moment Iyz is zero for this cross-section.
Now consider a circular ring cross-section with the wall thickness t, the in-
ner radius Ri and the outer radius Ra . We obtain the required area integrals by
subtraction:
Ra4 Ri4 4
Iyy D Izz D D Ra Ri4 : (4.71)
4 4 4
Furthermore, let the mean radius Rm be defined as an auxiliary quantity:
1
Rm D .Ra C Ri /: (4.72)
2
2
Furthermore, the relation Ra4 Ri4 D 4tRm 3
.1 C 4Rt 2 / is valid. If we consider
m
a very thin-walled circular ring cross-section with t Rm , then we can write in
good approximation:
3
Iyy D Izz D tRm : (4.73)
J
Example 4.9
Consider the elliptical cross-section of Fig. 4.14 with the two radii a and b as
shown. The two moments of inertia Iyy and Izz and the deviation moment Iyz
are to be determined. The boundary of the cross-section is given by the elliptic
equation
y 2 z 2
C D 1: (4.74)
a b
We first determine the moment of inertia Iyy using the area element dA as shown
in Fig. 4.14. From the ellipse equation (4.74), the half-width y.z/ of the area
element dA can be derived as:
r z 2
y.z/ D a 1 : (4.75)
b
Fig. 4.14 Elliptical cross-

section. b
C a
y
z
dA
y(z)
z
For dA we then have:

r z 2
dA D 2y.z/dz D 2a 1 dz: (4.76)
b
The moment of inertia Iyy can then be determined as:
Z ZCb r z 2
Iyy D z dA D 2a z 2 1
2
dz: (4.77)
b
A b
With the substition

'
z D b sin (4.78)
2
the expression (4.77) transfers into:
ZC
3 ' '
Iyy D ab sin2 cos2 d': (4.79)
2 2

The integral occurring here takes the value 4
after partial integration, so that:
ab 3
Iyy D : (4.80)
4
The moment of inertia Izz can be deduced from this by swapping a and b:
ba3
Izz D : (4.81)
4
Since the cross-section is doubly symmetrical, the deviation moment Iyz disap-
pears:
Iyz D 0: (4.82)
J
Example 4.10
Consider the triangular cross-section of Fig. 4.15. The triangle given here has
the dimensions b and h, and the moments of inertia Iyy and Izz as well as the
deviation moment Iyz are to be determined.
We start the considerations with the moment of inertia Iyy and use the area
element dA D bA .z/dz shown in Fig. 4.15. We can express the width bA .z/ as:
b
bA .z/ D y.z/ C ; (4.83)
3
96 4 Beams
Fig. 4.15 Triangular cross-

section. b
b
3
h
C yA 3
y
z h
dA
bA(z)
z
where y.z/ is the coordinate y depending on z and can be determined as:

bz b
y.z/ D C : (4.84)
h 3
Thus:
2h
C3
Z Z
2 2 b
Iyy D z dA D z y.z/ C dz
3
A h3
2h
C3
Z
bz 2b bh3
D z2 C dz D : (4.85)
h 3 36
h3
The moment of inertia Izz can then be obtained by swapping b and h:
hb 3
Izz D : (4.86)
36
For the determination of the deviation moment Iyz the area element of Fig. 4.15
is used. The position of the center of gravity yA .z/ can be given as a function
of z:
bz
yA .z/ D : (4.87)
2h
Thus, the deviation moment Iyz can be determined as:
2h
C3
Z Z
bz 2 b
Iyz D yzdA D y.z/ C
2h 3
A h3
2h
C3
Z
bz 2 bz 2b b 2 h2
D C D : (4.88)
2h h 3 72
h3
J
Example 4.11
For the semi-circular cross-section shown in Fig. 4.16, the moment of inertia Iyy
is to be determined.
With the distance z D Rm cos ' and the infinitesimal area element dA D
tRm d' we obtain the moment of inertia Iyy by integration:
Z Z Z 3
2 2 3 Rm t
Iyy D z dA D .Rm cos '/ tRm d' D Rm t cos2 'd' D : (4.89)
2
A 0 0
J
4.3.3 Composite cross-sections
Steiner’s theorem is particularly useful for cross-sections whose center of gravity

has already been determined and which are composed of elementary areas whose
center of gravity positions and moments of inertia are known. We already know
from (4.26) that the area integrals of cross-sections consisting of several segments
result from the sum of the individual partial integrals. Accordingly, this is also true
for the moments of inertia and for the deviation moment also with respect to the
centroidal coordinate system y; z, i.e.:
Z n Z
X n
X
2
Iyy D z dA D z 2 dAi D Iyy;i ;
A i D1 A i D1
i
Z n Z
X n
X
Izz D y 2 dA D y 2 dAi D Izz;i ;
A i D1 A i D1
i
Z n Z
X n
X
Iyz D yzdA D yzdAi D Iyz;i : (4.90)
A i D1 A i D1
i
Here the partial moments of inertia Iyy;i , Izz;i , Iyz;i are related to the center of
gravity axis system y, z. In the following we want to work out how these partial
Fig. 4.16 Thin-walled semi- dA=tRmd

circular cross-section.
Rm cos Rm
y
z
98 4 Beams
moments of inertia can be determined as expediently as possible. For this purpose,

we consider the axis translation of Fig. 4.9 again and now shift the centroid coor-
dinate system y, z by yNC and zN C from the centroid C to any arbitrary other point.
From the relation
yN D y C yNC ; zN D z C zN C (4.91)
the following alternative representation of Steiner’s theorem results:
IyN yN D Iyy C zN C2 A;
IzN zN D Izz C yNC2 A;

IyN zN D Iyz C yNC zN C A; (4.92)
which describes the change of the second order area integrals with respect to the
center of gravity in the course of an axis translation. Accordingly, the area integrals
Iyy , Izz , Iyz of a cross-section change by zN C2 A, yNC2 A, yNC zN C A, respectively, when the
reference frame is translated from the center of gravity, and pass into the expressions
IyN yN , IzN zN , IyN zN . From (4.92) one learns again that the area integrals Iyy , Izz , Iyz are
minimal with respect to the center of gravity C.
The representation (4.92) of Steiner’s theorem has therefore a very essential
meaning, since it is based on the area integrals with respect to the center of gravity
C of the cross-section. In many practical applications, the first step is to determine
the center of gravity C of the cross-section under consideration, and the next step is
to calculate the area integrals from there or, in the case of segmented cross-sections
(see Fig. 4.17 for such a cross-section, where we assume that the cross-section is
thin-walled and that all dimensions are related to the skeleton line) by summing up
the contributions of the individual cross-section segments.
For a cross-section composed of n elementary segments, the cross-sectional
area A is the sum of the partial areas Ai :
Z Xn
A D dA D Ai : (4.93)
A i D1
Fig. 4.17 Segmented cross- y

section. zC
y C zC,i
zC,i
Ci
yi
Ai
zi z z
yC,i yC
yC,i
For the static moments with respect to the arbitrarily chosen reference frame y,
N zN
one obtains:
Z n
X Z n
X
SyN D zN dA D Ai zNC;i ; SzN D ydA
N D Ai yNC;i : (4.94)
A i D1 A i D1
Herein, yNC;i and zN C;i are the centroid coordinates of segment i. The coordinates of
the center of gravity are then given as:
Z n
Z n
X X
ydA
N Ai yNC;i zN dA Ai zN C;i
A i D1 A i D1
yNC D Z D n ; zNC D Z D n : (4.95)
X X
dA Ai dA Ai
A i D1 A i D1
The moments of inertia Iyy , Izz and the deviation moment Iyz , related to the center
of gravity C, result as the sum of all moments of inertia IyN y;i
N , IzN z;i
N , IyN z;i
N and those
portions which include the area Ai and the coordinates yC;i , zC;i :
n
X n
X
2
Iyy D IyN y;i
N C zC;i Ai ;
i D1 i D1
n
X n
X
2
Izz D IzN z;i
N C yC;i Ai ;
i D1 i D1
n
X n
X
Iyz D IyN z;i
N C yC;i zC;i Ai : (4.96)
i D1 i D1
The quantities IyN y;i

N , IzN z;i
N , IyN z;i
N are the moments of inertia and the deviation moment
of segment i with respect to its local center of gravity axes yNi , zN i . The quantities
yC;i and zC;i are the distances of the center of gravity Ci of segment i from the
center of gravity C of the cross-section.
Example 4.12
Consider the I-cross-section of Fig. 4.18, left. The moments of inertia Iyy and
Izz as well as the deviation moment Iyz are to be determined with the help of
Steiner’s theorem concerning the center of gravity C of the cross-section.
The cross-section is divided into segments 1 (top flange), 2 (web), and 3 (bot-
tom flange), and local reference frames yN1 , zN 1 , yN2 , zN2 , and yN3 , zN3 are assigned
whose origins are located at the centroids of each segment (Fig. 4.18, right). We
assume a very thin-walled cross-section in all further considerations, and we are
100 4 Beams
Fig. 4.18 Application of t

Steiner’s theorem to an I- y1
cross-section. t zC,1
z1
h y C y2
t z2 zC,3
y3
b b z3
guided by the skeleton line in determining all geometric relationships. The cen-
troids of the segments are located at yC;1 D 0, zC;1 D h2 , yC;2 D 0, zC;2 D 0,
yC;3 D 0, zC;3 D h2 . The moments of inertia and the deviation moments of the
individual segments can be given as follows:
2bt 3 th3
IyN y;1
N D IyN y;3
N D ' 0; N D
IyN y;2 ;
12 12
t.2b/3 2tb 3 ht 3
N D IzN z;3
IzN z;1 N D D ; N D
IzN z;2 ' 0;
12 3 12
N D IyN z;2
IyN z;1 N D IyN z;3
N D 0: (4.97)
The cross-sectional areas Ai are as follows when oriented along the skeleton
line:
A1 D A3 D 2tb; A2 D th: (4.98)
Steiner’s theorem (4.96) then gives:
2
th3 h 2 h th3
Iyy D C 2tb C 2tb D C tbh2 ;
12 2 2 12
2tb 3 2tb 3 4tb 3
Izz D C D ;
3 3 3
Iyz D 0: (4.99)
Apparently, these results correspond to the values previously determined in Ex-

ample 4.5. J
Example 4.13
Consider the Z-cross-section of Fig. 4.19, left. The moments of inertia Iyy and
Izz as well as the deviation moment Iyz with respect to the center of gravity C
of the cross-section are to be determined with the help of Steiner’s theorem. We
Fig. 4.19 Application of yC,1

Steiner’s theorem to a Z-
cross-section. t
y1
t
zC,1
z1
h y C y2
t z2 zC,3
y3
b b z3
z yC,3
assume that the cross-section is thin-walled and that we can relate all consider-
ations to the skeleton line which bisects the wall thickness at each point of the
cross-section.
The cross-section is divided into three segments as shown in Fig. 4.19, right.
The centroid coordinates of the individual segments are yC;1 D b2 , zC;1 D h2 ,
yC;2 D 0, zC;2 D 0 and yC;3 D b2 , zC;3 D h2 , with respect to the centroid C of
the cross-section. The moments of inertia and the deviation moments of the seg-
ments are:
bt 3 th3
IyN y;1
N D IyN y;3
N D ' 0; N D
IyN y;2 ;
12 12
tb 3 ht 3
IzN zN ;1 D IzN z;3
N D ; N D
IzN z;2 ' 0;
12 12
IyN zN ;1 D IyN z;2
N D IyN z;3
N D 0: (4.100)
The areas Ai of the segments are:
A1 D A3 D tb; A2 D th: (4.101)
Thus, from Steiner’s theorem we obtain:

2
th3 h 2 h th3 tbh2
Iyy D C tb C tb D C ;
12 2 2 12 2
2
tb 3 tb 3 b 2 b 2tb 3
Izz D C C tb C tb D ;
12 12 2 2 3

b h bh tb 2 h
Iyz D tb C tb D : (4.102)
2 2 22 2
These results agree with the values already determined. J

102 4 Beams
Example 4.14
Consider the cross-section of Fig. 4.20, left. The two moments of inertia Iyy and
Izz as well as the deviation moment Iyz with respect to the center of gravity of
the cross-section are to be determined. The reference system y, N zN is to be used.
To determine the center of gravity C, the cross-section is divided into four
sub-areas as shown in Fig. 4.20, right. Due to the symmetry of the cross-section
with respect to the zN -axis, the centroid coordinate yNC is yNC D 0. The centroid
positions zN C;i of the partial areas A1 D 9t 2 , A2 D 9t 2 , A3 D 8t 2 , A4 D 10t 2
result as:
zN C;1 D 4:5t; zN C;2 D 4:5t; zN C;3 D 9:5t; zN C;4 D 12:5t: (4.103)
The position zNC of the center of gravity can then be determined as:
P4
i D1 Ai zNC;i
zNC D P4
i D1 Ai
9t 4:5t C 9t 2 4:5t C 8t 2 9:5t C 10t 2 12:5t
2
D
9t 2 C 9t 2 C 8t 2 C 10t 2
47
D t: (4.104)
6
With the centroid coordinates yNC , zN C thus determined, the centroid positions of
the partial areas can be specified with respect to the centroid C as (Fig. 4.21):
yC;1 D 3:5t; yC;2 D 3:5t; yC;3 D 0; yC;4 D 0;

10 10 5 14
zC;1 D t; zC;2 D t; zC;3 D t; zC;4 D t: (4.105)
3 3 3 3
y y
zC,1= zC,2
t t 10t C1 C2 zC,3
zC,4
z t z C3
C4
5t
3t 2t 3t
Fig. 4.20 Considered cross-section.

Fig. 4.21 Center of gravity yC,1 yC,2

position as well as centers of
gravity of the partial areas.
C1 C2 y1 y2
zC,1= zC,2
y C z1 z2
C3 zC,3
zC,4 y3
C4 z3
y4
z4
We first determine the moment of inertia Iyy . The moments of inertia IyN yN of the
partial areas, related to the local axes y,
N zN , are obtained as follows:
t .9t/3 243 4
IyN y;1
N D D t ;
12 4
243 4
N D
IyN y;2 t ;
4
8t t 3 2
IyN y;3
N D D t 4;
12 3
2t.5t/3 125 4
IyN y;4
N D D t : (4.106)
12 6
Steiner’s theorem
4
X 4
X
2
Iyy D IyN y;i
N C zC;i Ai (4.107)
i D1 i D1
then yields the following moment of inertia Iyy of the cross-section with respect
to the center of gravity C:
243 4 243 4 2 4 125 4

Iyy D t C t C t C t
4 4 3 6
2 2 2
10 2 10 2 5 2 14 2
C t 9t C t 9t C t 8t C t 10t 2
3 3 3 3
D 583t 4 :
(4.108)
To determine the moment of inertia Izz , the moments of inertia IzN zN of the partial
areas are required in relation to their respective centers of gravity. They can be
104 4 Beams
determined as:
9t t 3 3
N D
IzN z;1 D t 4;
12 4
3 4
N D
IzN z;2 t ;
4
t.8t/3 128 4
IzN z;3
N D D t ;
12 3
5t.2t/3 10 4
IzN z;4
N D D t : (4.109)
12 3
The moment of inertia Izz can then be determined as follows:
3 4 3 4 128 4 10 4
Izz D t C t C t C t
4 4 3 3
C .3:5t/ 9t C .3:5t/2 9t 2 C 0 8t 2 C 0 10t 2
2 2
D 268t 4 : (4.110)
The deviation moment in this example is zero due to the symmetry of the cross-
section with respect to the z-axis:
Iyz D 0: (4.111)
J
4.3.4 Stress analysis
In order to determine the normal stress xx in the cross-section, the normal force
and bending moments are first related to the center of gravity C. On the basis of
Fig. 4.9, the following relationships can be determined:
N D NxN ; My D MyN NxN zNC ; Mz D MzN C NxN yNC : (4.112)
The constitutive law (4.17) then takes the following form:
N D EAu0 ;
My D EIyy w 00 EIyz v 00 ;
Mz D EIyz w 00 EIzz v 00 : (4.113)
In vector-matrix notation we obtain:

0 1 2 30 0 1
N A 0 0 u
@ My A D E 4 0 Iyy Iyz 5@w 00 A: (4.114)
Mz 0 Iyz Izz v 00
This can be solved for the displacement derivatives as follows:

N
u0 D ;
EA
1 Iyz My C Iyy Mz
v 00 D 2
;
E Iyy Izz Iyz
1 Izz My C Iyz Mz
w 00 D 2
: (4.115)
E Iyy Izz Iyz
The first cross-sectional normalization thus obviously leads to a decoupling of bar
action and bending action. Therefore, in practical applications, one will always try
to relate the considerations to the center of gravity C of the cross-section under
consideration. However, even with reference to the center of gravity C, the two
bending actions, expressed by the two displacements v and w as well as the two
bending moments My and Mz , are still coupled due to the generally non-vanishing
deviation moment Iyz .
Substitution of (4.115) into Hooke’s law

xx D E u0 zw 00 yv 00 (4.116)
yields the following expression for the normal stress xx , which can be used to
calculate the normal stress for given normal force N and bending moments My ,
Mz at each point y and z of the cross-section:
N Izz My C Iyz Mz Iyz My C Iyy Mz
xx D C 2
z 2
y: (4.117)
A Iyy Izz Iyz Iyy Izz Iyz
For the special case of a vanishing deviation moment Iyz , the expression (4.117) for
the normal stress xx simplifies considerably, and we obtain:
N My Mz
xx D C z y: (4.118)
A Iyy Izz
Obviously, the fraction of xx due to the normal force N is constant over the whole
cross-section, as also discussed for the bar in Chap. 3. However, due to the bending
moment My , the fraction of xx is linear over the coordinate z. In quite the same
way, due to the bending moment Mz , we obtain a linear distribution of the normal
stress xx over the coordinate y (Fig. 4.2). The superposition principle applies at
this point, so we can additively compose the normal stress xx from these expres-
sions. This is shown in Fig. 4.22 for a rectangular cross-section.
A very important parameter in the calculation of the normal stress xx is the
so-called neutral axis. Equations (4.117) and (4.118), respectively, represent plane
equations describing the surface of the stress distribution xx by means of the two
coordinates y and z. Setting (4.117) or (4.118) to zero, one can express one of the
two coordinates y or z by the other. The resultant expression describes a straight
line which mathematically describes at which points the normal stress xx shows
zero values.
106 4 Beams
y C
x
z
σ xx N
A
My
σ xx z
Iyy
My
Mz
σ xx y
Izz
Mz
My Mz
σ xx N z y
A Iyy Izz
Neutral axis
Fig. 4.22 Normal stress due to normal force and bending moments.
Example 4.15
Let us consider the cross-section from Example 4.12, where we want to investi-
gate here the special case h D 2b (Fig. 4.23). The normal stress distribution xx
over the cross-section for the two load cases N D 0, My D M0 , Mz D 0 and
N D 0, My D M0 , Mz D M0 is to be determined. For the first load case, it
Fig. 4.23 Considered I- t

cross-section.
t
h= 2b y C
t
b b
should also be determined how large the normal force N must be so that no
compressive normal stresses xx occur in the cross-section.
To solve the problem, we first determine the moments of inertia Iyy and Izz
(the deviation moment Iyz is zero for the considered cross-section). For the spe-
cial case h D 2b we obtain from Example 4.12:
th3 14 3 4 3
Iyy D C tbh2 D tb ; Izz D tb ; Iyz D 0: (4.119)
12 3 3
Since the deviation moment becomes zero in this case, the expression (4.118)
can be used to determine the normal stress distribution.
For load case 1 with N D 0, My D M0 , Mz D 0, (4.118) leads to the following
expression:
My 3M0
xx D zD z: (4.120)
Iyy 14tb 3
Apparently, the normal stress xx is linear over z and constant over y. The
maximum values of the stresses occur at the upper and lower edges of the cross-
section: !
t
3M0 b C
t 2
xx z D b D 3
;
2 14tb
!
t
3M0 b C
t 2
xx z D b C D 3
: (4.121)
2 14tb
At the top of the cross-section at b 2t , xx is present as compressive stress,

whereas at the bottom at b C 2t , xx is present as tensile stress (Fig. 4.24, left).
The neutral axis follows from the requirement xx D 0, which leads to z D 0.
Accordingly, the neutral axis is identical to the y-axis (Fig. 4.24, left).
108 4 Beams
y y
σxx σxx
z My = M0 z My = M0
Neutral axis
x x
Fig. 4.24 Stress distribution at the I-cross-section for N D 0, My D M0 , Mz D 0 (left), stress

distribution assuming a thin-walled cross-section with t b (right).
If we assume a very thin-walled cross-section, i.e., t b, then the consid-

erations can be related to the skeleton line of the cross-section, and the stress
values (4.121) are obtainedas (Fig. 4.24, right):
3M0 3M0
xx .z D b/ D ; xx .z D b/ D : (4.122)
14tb 2 14tb 2
For load case 2 with N D 0, My D M0 , Mz D M0 , the stress calculation (4.118)

yields:
My Mz 3M0 z y
xx D z yD : (4.123)
Iyy Izz 2tb 3 7 2
We evaluate this expression at the four corner points of the profile:

t 3M0
xx y D b; z D b D .9b C t/;
2 28tb 3

t 3M0
xx y D b; z D b D .5b t/;
2 28tb 3

t 3M0
xx y D b; z D b C D .9b C t/;
2 28tb 3

t 3M0
xx y D b; z D b C D .5b t/: (4.124)
2 28tb 3
The neutral axis follows from the requirement xx D 0 as
7
zD y: (4.125)
2
A graphical representation can be found in Fig. 4.25, left. Assuming again at this
point that the cross-section is thin-walled with t b, the fractions due to the
y y
σxx σxx
z My = M0 z My = M0
Mz = M0 x Mz = M0 x
Neutral axis
Fig. 4.25 Stress distribution at the I-cross-section for N D 0, My D M0 , Mz D M0 (left), stress

distribution assuming a thin-walled cross-section with t b (right).
wall thickness t in (4.124) can be neglected, and it follows:
27M0
xx .y D b; z D b/ D ;
28tb 2
15M0
28tb 2
27M0
28tb 2
15M0
xx .y D b; z D b/ D : (4.126)
28tb 2
This is shown in Fig. 4.25, right.
An alternative, two-dimensional representation of the stress distribution is
shown in Fig. 4.26, where we assume a thin-walled cross-section and refer to
the skeleton line.
We now consider again the case My D M0 , Mz D 0 and determine the normal
force N D N0 for which no compressive stress occurs in the cross-section. We
start from the stress formulation
N My
xx D C z; (4.127)
A Iyy
which can be expressed as follows:
N0 3M0
xx D C z: (4.128)
t.4b C h t/ 14tb 3
The highest compressive stress in the cross-section occurs at the top edge at
z D b 2t , so we require:

t N0 3M0 t
xx z D b D b C D 0: (4.129)
2 t.4b C h t/ 14tb 3 2
110 4 Beams
Fig. 4.26 Two-dimensional

representation of the stress
distribution of the I-cross- σxx
section for N D 0, My D M0 ,
Mz D M 0 .
My M0
y 2
Neutral axis
Mz M0
This can be solved for the normal force N0 as follows:

3M0 t
N0 D b C .4b C h t/: (4.130)
14b 3 2
The maximum tensile stress then occurs at the lower edge of the cross-section
and amounts to:

t 3M0 t
xx z D b C D bC : (4.131)
2 7tb 3 2
The resulting stress distribution is shown in Fig. 4.27. J
Neutral axis
N = N0
σ xx
z My = M0
Fig. 4.27 Stress distribution on the I-cross-section for N D N0 , My D M0 , Mz D 0.

Example 4.16
Consider the cantilever beam of Fig. 4.28, left, under the two forces F and P and
under the boundary moment M D F l. For the case P D 0, the normal stress dis-
tribution is to be determined at the point of highest bending moment. In addition,
it is to be clarified how large the compressive force P acting at the center of grav-
ity must be so that tensile stresses do not occur at any point in the cross-section.
The cross-section is a circular cross-section with radius R2 , which contains a cir-
cular hole with radius R1 . We assume that R2 D 2R1 .
The highest bending moment occurs in the range 2l x l with the value
My D F l. We first determine the center of gravity of the cross-section and
consider the circular hole with radius R1 as the partial area A1 , where we as-
sume the area A1 with a negative sign, i.e. A1 D R12 . The partial area A2 is
A2 D R22 D 4R12 . The ordinates of the centroids of the partial areas, related to
the coordinate system y, N zN are:
R1
yNC;1 D 0; yNC;2 D 0; zN C;1 D
; zN C;2 D 0: (4.132)
2
The centroidal coordinate yNC is found to be zero due to the symmetry of the
cross-section with respect to the zN -axis. The coordinate zNC follows as:
A1 zNC;1 C A2 zN C;2 R1
zN C D D : (4.133)
A1 C A2 6
Thus the centers of gravity of the partial areas, related to the center of gravity
coordinate system y; z, result as:
2 1
zC;1 D R1 ; zC;2 D R1 : (4.134)
3 6
In order to determine the stress distribution xx , the moment of inertia Iyy of the
cross-section is required. It is calculated from Steiner’s theorem (4.96) as:
2 2
Iyy D IyN y;1
N C IyN y;2
N C zC;1 A1 C zC;2 A2
2 2
R4 2 1
D 1 C 4R14 R1 R12 C R1 4R12
4 3 6
41
D R4 : (4.135)
12 1
F M0 = Fl R2 R2
x P y R1 R1
2
l l
2 2
z
z
Fig. 4.28 Cantilever beam under load (left), cross-section (right).

112 4 Beams
22 Fl
41 R13
11 xx
R2 6 R1
y Neutral axis
R1 R1 13
6 6 R1
26 Fl
z 41 R13
Fig. 4.29 Stress distribution under bending moment M and force F .
The stress distribution over the cross-section can be determined as:

My
xx D z: (4.136)
Iyy
The ordinates at the upper and lower edge of the cross-section follow as:

11 22 F l
xx z D R1 D ;
6 41 R13

13 26 F l
xx z D R1 D : (4.137)
6 41 R13
The stress distribution is shown in Fig. 4.29.
We determine the compressive normal force P necessary to prevent tensile
stresses from developing in the entire cross-section from the requirement that
the boundary stress becomes zero at the point z D 13 R:
6 1

13
xx z D R1 D 0: (4.138)
6
From the stress formulation
N My
xx D C z (4.139)
A Iyy
after inserting N D P , My D F l, Iyy D 4112

R14 and z D 13
R,
6 1
the following
expression for the compressive force P follows:
78 F l
P D : (4.140)
41 R1
The normal stress xx thus arising at the upper end at z D 11
6 1
R is calculated as:

11 48 F l
xx z D R1 D : (4.141)
6 41 R13
The resulting stress distribution is shown in Fig. 4.30. J
48 Fl
41 R13
11 xx
R2 6 R1
y
R1 R1 13
6 6 R1
Neutral axis
Fig. 4.30 Stress distribution under bending moment M , force F and compressive normal force P .
Example 4.17
Consider the cross-section of Fig. 4.31, left. The load is given in the form
of a bending moment M0 D 50;000F t oriented under 60ı to the horizontal,
where t is the wall thickness of the cross-section. The distribution of the normal
stress xx over the cross-section is to be determined.
To determine the center of gravity, the reference system y, N zN as shown in
Fig. 4.31, right, is employed, and the cross-section is divided into three partial
areas. The partial areas amount to A1 D 5t 2 , A2 D 6t 2 , A3 D 5t 2 , their center
of gravity coordinates are yNC;1 D 3:5t, yNC;2 D 0, yNC;3 D 3:5t, zNC;1 D 2:5t,
zNC;2 D 0:5t, zN C;3 D 2:5t. The centroid coordinates of the total cross-section are
then obtained as yNC D 0 due to the symmetry of the cross-section and
5t 2 2:5t C 6t 2 0:5t C 5t 2 2:5t
zNC D D 1:75t: (4.142)
5t 2 C 6t 2 C 5t 2
Thus, the center of gravity positions of the partial areas with respect to the center
of gravity C can be given as:
yC;1 D 3:5t; yC;2 D 0; yC;3 D 3:5t;
zC;1 D 0:75t; zC;2 D 1:25t; zC;3 D 0:75t: (4.143)
M0
yC,1 yC,3
t zC,2
y C2
60° zC,1= zC,3
y C C1 C3
5t
z
z
t t
8t
Fig. 4.31 Considered cross-section and load case.

114 4 Beams
The moments of inertia of the partial areas are as follows:
1t .5t/3
IyN y;1
N D D 10:42t 4 ;
12
6t .1t/3
IyN y;2
N D D 0:5t 4 ;
12
4
N D 10:42t ;
IyN y;3
5t .1t/3
N D
IzN z;1 D 0:42t 4 ;
12
1t .6t/3
IzN z;2
N D D 18t 4 ;
12
4
N D 0:42t ;
IzN z;3
IyN z;1
N D IyN z;2
N D IyN zN ;3 D 0: (4.144)
The two moments of inertia Iyy and Izz of the cross-section with respect to the
center of gravity C can then be determined using Steiner’s theorem as follows:
2 2 2
Iyy D IyN y;1
N C IyN y;2
N C IyN y;3
N C zC;1 A1 C zC;2 A2 C zC;3 A3
D 10:42t 4 C 0:5t 4 C 10:42t 4 C .0:75t/2 5t 2 C .1:25t/2 6t 2

C .0:75t/2 5t 2
D 36:34t 4 ;
2 2 2
Izz D IzN z;1
N C IzN zN ;2 C IzN z;3
N C yC;1 A1 C yC;2 A2 C yC;3 A3
D 0:42t 4 C 18t 4 C 0:42t 4 C .3:5t/2 5t 2 C 02 6t 2 C .3:5t/2 5t 2

D 141:34t 4 : (4.145)
The applied bending moment M0 is now decomposed into its two components
My and Mz :
My D M0 cos 60ı D 25;000F t;
Mz D M0 sin 60ı D 43;301:27F t: (4.146)
The stress distribution xx is then obtained as:
My Mz Fz Fy
xx D z y D 687:95 3 C 306:36 3 : (4.147)
Iyy Izz t t
The equation of the neutral axis can be determined from the requirement
xx D 0 as:
z D 0:45y: (4.148)
4.4 Second cross-sectional normalization: Principal axes 115
Fig. 4.32 Neutral axis and B

stress distribution. -2429.35 F2
t
y
C
z Neutral axis
A
3461.28 F2
t
It is shown in Fig. 4.32. The two points farthest from the neutral axis are points
A and B, as shown in Fig. 4.32. Their coordinates are:
yA D 4t; yB D 4t; zA D 3:25t; zB D 1:75t: (4.149)
The stresses at these two points are:
F F
xx;A D 3461:28 ; xx;B D 2429:35 : (4.150)
t2 t2
J
4.4 Second cross-sectional normalization: Principal axes
With the help of the first cross-sectional normalization, a decoupling of the bar ac-
tion from the bending action is achieved. However, after performing the first cross-
sectional normalization, the deviation moment Iyz generally still occurs, so that the
two bending effects, characterized by the two bending moments My and My as well
as the deflections w and v, are coupled with each other. A very significant simpli-
fication is achieved by determining a particular coordinate system yp , zp , which is
obtained from the reference system y; z by rotation about the x-axis by an angle '0
yet to be determined, and in which the deviation moment vanishes. We will also
show that the two momenta of inertia attain extremal values in this special reference
frame, which we will refer to as the so-called principal axes. The disappearance of
the deviation moment in the principal axis system then decouples the two bending
effects from each other, as can be easily seen from (4.113). The coordinate rotation
by the angle '0 is called the second cross-sectional normalization.
The rotation of the reference axes y; z around the x-axis by an arbitrary angle '
is shown in Fig. 4.33. Let the rotated axes be denoted as , . The transformation
116 4 Beams
Fig. 4.33 Rotation of the

coordinate system x, y, z by
the angle ' into the reference
system x, , .
y
x
My
N
M
z
M
Mz
Fig. 4.34 Relation between y

y, z and ,
zP P
P
P yP
of the coordinates is derived using Fig. 4.34 by considering a point P with coordi-
nates yP , zP and P , P , respectively. It follows:
D y cos ' C z sin '; D y sin ' C z cos ': (4.151)
The x-axis remains unchanged under this pure rotation of the reference frame.
We now determine the deviation moment I in the rotated coordinate system as
follows:
Z Z
I D dA D .y cos ' C z sin '/.y sin ' C z cos '/dA
A A
Z Z Z
2 2 2
D sin ' cos ' y dA C cos ' yzdA sin ' yzdA
A A A
Z
2
C sin ' cos ' z dA
A

D Izz sin ' cos ' C Iyz cos2 ' sin2 ' C Iyy sin ' cos '

D Iyz cos2 ' sin2 ' C Iyy Izz sin ' cos ': (4.152)
Using cos2 ' D 12 .1 C cos 2'/, sin2 ' D 12 .1 cos 2'/ and 2 sin ' cos ' D sin 2',
we obtain:
1
I D Iyy Izz sin 2' C Iyz cos 2': (4.153)
2
To determine the principal axis angle '0 we set the expression (4.153) for the devi-
ation moment I to zero and obtain:
2Iyz
tan 2'0 D : (4.154)
Izz Iyy
Thus, an equation for the principal axis angle '0 under which the deviation mo-
ment I vanishes and the two moments of inertia I and I become extremal
is found. Since the tan-function in (4.154) is periodic, in addition to the angle '0 ,
one can determine another angle '0 C 2 under which the deviation moment Iyz
becomes zero and the moments of inertia become extremal. At this point, one also
speaks of the so called principal moments of inertia. Since the two principal axis
systems are oriented orthogonally to each other, no further insight results from con-
sidering ' D '0 C 2 , but only the values of I and I are interchanged. We denote
the reference axes under the principal axis angle '0 as yp , zp .
Analogous expressions to (4.153) can also be found for the transformation of
the moments of inertia, and the following expressions for arbitrary angles ' are
obtained:
1 1
I D Iyy C Izz C Iyy Izz cos 2' Iyz sin 2';
2 2
1 1
I D Iyy C Izz Iyy Izz cos 2' C Iyz sin 2';
2 2
1
I D Iyy Izz sin 2' C Iyz cos 2': (4.155)
2
We determine the values for the principal moments of inertia by means of the ex-
pressions
1 Izz Iyy
cos 2'0 D p D q 2 ;
2
1 C tan 2'0 2
Izz Iyy C 4Iyz
tan 2'0 2Iyz

sin 2'0 D p D q 2 ; (4.156)
2
1 C tan 2'0 2
Izz Iyy C 4Iyz
and it follows from (4.155) for the two principal moments of inertia with (4.154):
s
2
Iyy C Izz Izz Iyy 2 :
I1;2 D ˙ C Iyz (4.157)
2 2
Herein, I1 is the maximum moment of inertia, and I2 denotes the minimum value.
118 4 Beams
Fig. 4.35 Inertia circle. Iyz
(Izz , Iyz (
I yz
I2 2 0
Iyy I1
I ,I
(I2,0( Izz 2 0 (I1,0 yy zz
(
I yz (Iyy , Iyz (
Analogous to Mohr’s stress circle (Chap. 2), one can also create an analogous
circle for the moments of inertia, which can be derived from Mohr’s stress circle
by replacing the normal stresses xx and yy by the moments of inertia Iyy and Izz
and the shear stress xy by the deviation moment Iyz . The inertia circle is shown in
Fig. 4.35.
It should be noted here that equation (4.154) for the principal axis angle '0 can
also be obtained from the requirement that the two moments of inertia I and I
have extreme values:
dIyy dIzz
D 0; D 0: (4.158)
d' d'
For the treatment of cross-sections, some general rules can be established, which
are also shown in Fig. 4.36:
If there is one axis of symmetry for a cross-section, then one of the two principal
axes yp , zp coincides with this axis of symmetry. The principal axis angle '0 is
zero if there is at least one axis of symmetry and one of the two reference axes is
parallel to this axis of symmetry. However, in general the center of gravity C has
to be determined. Cross-sections to which this applies are shown in Fig. 4.36,
top row.
If a cross-section has two axes of symmetry, then these represent the two prin-
cipal axes. The deviation moment Iyz vanishes in this case, so that the principal
axis angle '0 also becomes zero. Thus, if such a cross-section is present, then
the second cross-sectional normalization can be omitted. Also, the first cross-
sectional normalization is not necessary since the center of gravity C of the
cross-section is always located at the intersection of the two axes of symmetry.
Examples of such cross-sections are shown in Fig. 4.36, middle row.
If the cross-section has no symmetry properties, both the first and the second
cross-sectional normalization must be performed. In Fig. 4.36, bottom row, two
examples are shown.
Symmetry axis Symmetry axis
t1 t1 t1
t2 y C
C Symmetry axis
y C y
t2 t2
t3 t1
z z
z
Symmetry axis Symmetry axis Symmetry axis
t1 t1
t2
C C C t
y Symmetry axis
y Symmetry axis
y Symetry axis
t2 t2
t1 t1
z t1 z yp z t1
t2
t2 φ0 C
y
y φ0 C
φ0
yp
t3
φ0
zp
z
z zp
Fig. 4.36 Selected cross-sections.
It can be shown that the sum of the two moments of inertia Iyy and Izz or of I and
I has always the same value, independent of the choice of the reference frame,
i.e. it represents an invariant:
Iyy C Izz D I C I D Ip : (4.159)
Here, Ip is the polar moment of inertia, i.e. the sum of the two moments of inertia.
It can also be shown that the expression Œ 21 .Iyy Izz / 2 C Ixy
2
is another invariant.
In addition, the bending moments My and Mz have to be related to the reference
system , . This is done analogously to the transformation (4.151):
M D My cos ' C Mz sin '; M D My sin ' C Mz cos ': (4.160)
If the principal axis system x, D yp , D zp under the angle '0 is given, then the
deviation moment I vanishes. The constitutive equations are then:
N D EAu0 ; M D EI w 00 ; M D EI v 00 : (4.161)

120 4 Beams
Herein, for simplicity, we have used the terms u, v, w for the displacements in x-,
-, and -direction. In vector-matrix-notation, these equations read:
0 1 2 30 0 1
N A 0 0 u
@ M A D E4 0 I 0 5@w 00 A: (4.162)
M 0 0 I v 00
One can invert these relations as follows:
N M M
u0 D ; w 00 D ; v 00 D : (4.163)
EA EI EI
The constitutive equations are significantly simplified when the considerations are
related to the principal axis system. In addition to the already existing decoupling
of bar action and bending action, the two bending actions are now also decoupled
from each other.
Using Hooke’s law
xx D E u0 w 00 v 00 ; (4.164)
then (4.163) can be used to derive the following expression for the normal
stress xx :
N M M
xx D C : (4.165)
A I I
There is a considerable simplification compared to the expression (4.117), which
was based on the consideration of the center of gravity axes, which are not the
principal axes. Again, an expression for the neutral axis can be obtained by set-
ting (4.165) to zero.
If a beam situation is given where there is exclusively bending about one of the
two principal axes y or z, then the maximum normal stresses xx;max necessary for
a stress justification are obtained as:
My
j jxx;max D ; (4.166)
Wy
or
Mz
j jxx;max D : (4.167)
Wz
The quantities Wy and Wz are the so called resistance moments or section moduli of
the considered cross-section. They are obtained as follows:
Iyy Izz
Wy D ; Wz D : (4.168)
jzjmax jyjmax
Here zmax and ymax are the coordinates of the point of the cross-section farthest from
the center of gravity axis C.
Fig. 4.37 Thin-Walled rect- t

angular cross-section.
y h
Example 4.18
Consider the thin-walled rectangular cross-section (height h, thickness t, t h)

as given in Fig. 4.37. Determine the moments of inertia I , I and the deviation
moment I for a coordinate system rotated by the angle '.
For the moments of inertia Iyy , Izz and the deviation moment Iyz we have:
th3 ht 3
Iyy D ; Izz D ' 0; Iyz D 0: (4.169)
12 12
With the help of the transformation equations (4.155) the moments of inertia and
the deviation moment result in:
1 1 th3
I D Iyy C Izz C Iyy Izz cos 2' Iyz sin 2' D .1 C cos 2'/;
2 2 24
1 1 th3
I D Iyy C Izz Iyy Izz cos 2' C Iyz sin 2' D .1 cos 2'/;
2 2 24
1 th3
I D Iyy Izz sin 2' C Iyz cos 2' D sin 2': (4.170)
2 24
J
Example 4.19
Consider the Z-cross-section of Fig. 4.38, left. The cross-section has the flange
width b and the web height h D 2b. The center of gravity coordinate system y, z
is given, the load consists of the two bending moments My D M0 and Mz D M0 .
The cross-section has a constant wall thickness t. We want to determine the stress
distribution xx . The cross-section can be treated as very thin-walled (t b), so
that all considerations can be related to the skeleton line.
We first determine the moments of inertia Iyy , Izz and the deviation mo-
ment Iyz with respect to the center of gravity coordinate system y, z. For this pur-
pose, the cross-section is divided into three segments (Fig. 4.38, right), namely
the upper flange (segment 1, A1 D tb), the web (segment 2, A2 D 2tb) and the
lower flange (segment 3, A3 D tb). The moments of inertia of the segments with
122 4 Beams
Fig. 4.38 Z-cross-section. t

y1
M0 t b z1
2b y C y2
t b
z2
y3
b zb
z3
M0
b b
respect to their local axes are as follows:
bt 3 t.2b/3 2 bt 3
IyN y;1
N D N D
' 0; IyN y;2 D tb 3 ; IyN y;3
N D ' 0;
12 12 3 12
tb 3 2bt 3 tb 3
IzN z;1
N D ; N D
IzN z;2 ' 0; N D
IzN z;3 ;
12 12 12
N D IyN z;2
IyN z;1 N D IyN z;3
N D 0: (4.171)
Steiner’s theorem then yields:
3
X 3
X
2
Iyy D IyN y;i
N C zC;i Ai
i D1 i D1
2 8
D tb 3 C .b/2 tb C b 2 tb D tb 3 ;
3 3
3
X 3
X
2
Izz D IzN zN ;i C yC;i Ai
i D1 i D1
2
tb b 3
b 2 2
D2 C tb C tb D tb 3 ;
12 2 2 3
3
X 3
X
Iyz D IyN zN ;i C yC;i zC;i Ai
i D1 i D1

b b
D .b/tb C btb D tb 3 : (4.172)
2 2
The principal axis angle '0 follows from (4.154):
2Iyz
tan 2'0 D D 1: (4.173)
Izz Iyy
We obtain
2'0 D 45ı ; (4.174)
ı
i.e. the principal axis angle '0 is '0 D 22:5 .
The moments of inertia in the principal axis system can be determined using
the transformation equations (4.155):
1 1
I D Iyy C Izz C Iyy Izz cos 2'0 Iyz sin 2'0
2
2
5 p
D C 2 tb 3 D I1 ;
3
1 1
I D Iyy C Izz Iyy Izz cos 2'0 C Iyz sin 2'0
2
2
5 p
D 2 tb 3 D I2 ;
3
1
I D Iyy Izz sin 2'0 C Iyz cos 2'0 D 0: (4.175)
2
Alternatively, (4.157) can be used, which leads to the same result. However, this
representation does not allow to assign the two principal moments of inertia I1
and I2 uniquely to their coordinate directions.
The transformation of the moments of inertia can also be done graphoanalyt-
ically using Mohr’s circle. This is shown in Fig. 4.39.
There are two possibilities to determine the distribution of the normal
stress xx . The first possibility is to perform the calculation with respect to
the axes y and z, i.e. with respect to the center of gravity C of the cross-section,
without having performed the second cross-sectional normalization. Here, due
to the non-vanishing deviation moment Iyz , equation (4.117) must be used. We
obtain:
Izz M0 C Iyz M0 Iyz M0 C Iyy M0 3 M0
xx D 2
z 2
yD .z C 5y/: (4.176)
Iyy Izz Iyz Iyy Izz Iyz 7 tb 3
The neutral axis follows from the requirement xx D 0 and results in:
z D 5y: (4.177)
It is shown in Fig. 4.40.

The two points of the cross-section farthest from the neutral axis are points A
and B as shown in Fig. 4.40. Their coordinates are yA D b, zA D b, yB D b,
zB D b, and from the stress equation (4.176) the following values are obtained:
12 M0 M0 12 M0 M0
xx;A D 2
D 1:71 2 ; xx;B D 2
D 1:71 2 : (4.178)
7 tb tb 7 tb tb
The second way of determining the stress distribution is to perform the sec-
ond cross-sectional normalization and use the stress equation (4.165). Here, the
124 4 Beams
Iyz
y
tb 3
2tb3 z
3
tb3
3 tb3 2tb3 tb 3 4tb3 2φ 0
I2 3 3 3
Iyy ,Izz φ0
3 2φ 0 5tb3 2tb3 7tb3 8tb3 3tb3 I1 yp

– tb 3 3 3
3
3
– 2tb zp
3
– tb 3
Fig. 4.39 Mohr’s circle for the Z-cross-section.
Fig. 4.40 Stress distribution σxx 12 M0

and neutral axis for the Z- 7tb2
cross-section.
12 M0
7tb2
A
5
y 1
z Neutral axis
transformed bending moments are to be applied, which result from (4.160) as

follows:
M D M0 cos '0 C M0 sin '0 D 1:30M0;
M D M0 sin '0 C M0 cos '0 D 0:54M0 : (4.179)
The expression (4.165) then gives:
M0 M0
xx D 0:42 3
2:16 3 : (4.180)
tb tb
Fig. 4.41 Stress distribution xx 12 M0

and neutral axis for the Z- 7tb2
cross-section in the principal
axis system. 12 M0
7tb2
A
1
yp
5.14
B
zp
Neutral axis
The neutral axis follows as:

D 5:14 : (4.181)
It is shown in Fig. 4.41.
The two relevant points for stress determination are again the two points A
and B when using the principal axis system. Their coordinates A , A , B , B
follow from the transformation equations (4.151) and result as:
A D 0:54b; A D 1:30b; B D 0:54b; B D 1:30b: (4.182)
The stresses in these points then follow as:

M0 M0
xx;A D 1:71 ; xx;B D 1:71 : (4.183)
tb 2 tb 2
These results are identical to (4.178). J
Example 4.20
Consider the cross-section shown in Fig. 4.42, left, which is loaded by the bend-
ing moment My D 250F t. Let the wall thickness be t. The position of the
center of gravity is already shown in Fig. 4.42, left, and both the moments of in-
ertia and the deviation moment with respect to the center of gravity C are given
as follows:
Iyy D 155:65t 4 ; Izz D 52:18t 4 ; Iyz D 51:90t 4 : (4.184)
The stress distribution xx is to be determined.

The principal axis angle follows from (4.154):
2Iyz
tan 2'0 D D 1:003: (4.185)
Izz Iyy
126 4 Beams
Fig. 4.42 Cross-section 12.12 F2

under consideration (left), t
stress distribution (right). xx
1.65t A
3.4t yp
y 1
t y
10t 2.41 14.28 F2
t
z t
zp z
6.5t B
Neutral axis
This yields:
'0 D 22:55ı : (4.186)
The transformation of the moments of inertia results is performed according
to (4.155):
1 1
I D Iyy C Izz C Iyy Izz cos 2'0 Iyz sin 2'0 D 177:19t 4 D I1 ;
2 2
1 1
I D Iyy C Izz Iyy Izz cos 2'0 C Iyz sin 2'0 D 30:65t 4 D I2 ;
2 2
1
I D Iyy Izz sin 2'0 C Iyz cos 2'0 D 0: (4.187)
2
The moment transformation (4.160) leads to:
M D 230:89F t; M D 95:87F t: (4.188)
The stress equation (4.165) then leads to the following expression:

Ft Ft
xx D 1:30 C 3:13 4 : (4.189)
t4 t
From this, the neutral axis can be determined as:
D 2:41 : (4.190)
It is shown in Fig. 4.42, right.

The points relevant for the stress calculation are points A and B marked in
Fig. 4.42, right. Their coordinates follow from (4.151) as:
A D 2:83t; A D 2:51t; B D 1:93t; B D 6:34t: (4.191)
Thus, the following stresses at points A and B can be determined from (4.189):
F F
xx;A D 12:12 ; xx;B D 14:28 : (4.192)
t2 t2
J
Beam deflections
5
In many applications, it is of technical relevance to determine deflections of beam

structures. In this chapter, the necessary basic equations of beam bending are pro-
vided and applied to the analysis of statically determinate and statically indeter-
minate single-span and multi-span beams. This is followed by a presentation of
elementary bending cases, which are then used for the analysis of statically inde-
terminate systems and of multispan and angled beams. Finally, biaxial bending is
considered, i.e. bending about two axes. Students are enabled to formulate beam
bending problems and apply the basic equations to determine the deflections of
beam structures.
5.1 Basic equations of beam bending
In addition to determining the stresses in beams, it is also important in many ap-

plications to make statements about the deformations of beam structures. This field
of activity concerns the determination of the so-called elastic line of a beam. In
general, the three displacements u, v, w occur in a beam structure, where the
displacement u is the displacement in axial direction. The determination of the lon-
gitudinal displacement u of a bar was already the subject of Chap. 3 and will not be
treated further here. Hence, in the following we will consider the determination of
the displacements v and w of beam structures. We assume in all cases a principal
axis system, which we will denote as x, y, z.
Starting point of the considerations are the equilibrium conditions for the beam
with variable bending stiffness EIyy .x/, which is loaded by the line load qz , see
Fig. 5.1, left. We assume here that the reference frame x, y, z is a principal axis
system and consider the infinitesimal beam element of Fig. 5.1, right (length dx).
The equilibrium conditions result in:
dVz dMy
D Vz0 D qz ; D My0 D Vz : (5.1)
dx dx
Nature 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9_5
128 5 Beam deflections
qz(x) Vz qz
dMy
My My+ dx dx
x EIyy(x)
dx
dV
Vz + dxzdx
l
Fig. 5.1 Equilibrium at the infinitesimal beam element.
If we use the constitutive law (4.161) at this point, where for simplicity we want to
denote the reference axes and as y and z, but clearly assume that these are the
principal axes of the cross-section, then we obtain with My0 D Vz and Vz0 D qz :
0 00
My D EIyy w 00 ; Vz D EIyy w 00 ; EIyy w 00 D qz : (5.2)
If the beam under consideration has constant properties with respect to x and thus
has a constant bending stiffness EIyy , then we have:
My D EIyy w 00 ; Vz D EIyy w 000 ; EIyy w 0000 D qz : (5.3)
Regarding the bending moment Mz , the transverse shear force Vy and the line
load qy , the equilibrium conditions are as follows:
dVy dMz
D Vy0 D qy ; D Mz0 D Vy : (5.4)
dx dx
With the constitutive law (4.161) follows:

0 00
Mz D EIzz v 00 ; Vy D EIzz v 00 ; EIzz v 00 D qy : (5.5)
If the beam has a constant bending stiffness EIzz , then the following expressions
result:
Mz D EIzz v 00 ; Vy D EIzz v 000 ; EIzz v 0000 D qy : (5.6)
In the following, we will first restrict ourselves to the case of uniaxial bending in
the xz-plane and employ equations (5.2) and (5.3), respectively.
5.2 Statically determinate single-span beams 129
5.2 Statically determinate single-span beams
From the equations (5.2) and (5.3), respectively, it can be seen that the determination
of the bending deformations or the so-called elastic line w.x/ can be accomplished
by integration of these equations. In principle, there are several ways to do this.
One possibility is to first determine the bending moment My .x/ from equilibrium
considerations for statically determinate systems and then to determine both the
inclination w 0 .x/ and the elastic line w.x/ by single and double integration, respec-
tively. Thus, for a given moment distribution My .x/ we obtain:
EIyy w 00 D My ;
Z
EIyy w 0 D My dx C C1 ;
“
EIyy w D My dxdx C C1 x C C2 : (5.7)
Here, the two integration constants C1 and C2 are to be determined from given
geometric boundary conditions.
Likewise, we can start from the applied load qz .x/. This is especially the case
for statically indeterminate systems where the moment distribution My cannot be
readily determined from equilibrium considerations.
EIyy w 0000 D qz ;
Z
000
EIyy w D Vz D qz dx C C1 ;
“
EIyy w 00 D My D qz dxdx C C1 x C C2 ;
•
1
EIyy w 0 D qz dxdxdx C C1 x 2 C C2 x C C3 ;
2
ZZZZ
1 1
EIyy w D qz dxdxdxdx C C1 x 3 C C2 x 2 C C3 x C C4 : (5.8)
6 2
Here, too, the integration constants are to be determined from given boundary con-
ditions, whereby a distinction is to be made here between geometric boundary
conditions and static boundary conditions. Geometric boundary conditions, in the
case of a beam structure, refer to such conditions that concern the deflection w and
its first derivative/the inclination of the beam axis w 0 . Static boundary conditions
are conditions related to the transverse shear force Vz and the bending moment My .
A selection of typical boundary conditions is shown in Fig. 5.2. In detail the de-
picted boundary conditions are:
At a simply supported beam end, both the deflection w and the bending moment
My D EIyy w 00 vanish (Fig. 5.2, top left).
Fig. 5.2 Typical boundary

conditions for beams. My x My x
Vz w=0 Vz EIw =0
z EIw =0 z EIw =0
My x My x
Vz w=0
Vz
w =0
z w =0 z EIw =0
If there is a free unloaded beam end without any support, then both the transverse
shear force Vz D EIyy w 000 and the bending moment My D EIyy w 00 vanish
(Fig. 5.2, top right).
At a clamped beam end, both the deflection w and the inclination w 0 of the elastic
line become zero (Fig. 5.2, bottom left).
If there is a parallel guidance at one end of the beam (Fig. 5.2, bottom right),
then both the inclination w 0 of the elastic line and the transverse shear force
Vz D EIyy w 000 become zero at this beam end.
In this section we restrict ourselves to single-span beams, i.e., beams for which
both the state variables Vz , My , w 0 , and w and the load qz are continuous and dif-
ferentiable functions, and illustrate the procedure at an elementary example. We
consider the cantilever beam of Fig. 5.3 of length l, which is clamped at its left
end and loaded at its free end by a force F . The beam has a constant bending stiff-
ness EIyy .
We determine the elastic line of the beam by integrating the beam differential
equation (5.3) four times:
EIyy w 0000 D qz .x/ D 0;

EIyy w 000 D Vz .x/ D C1 ;
EIyy w 00 D My .x/ D C1 x C C2 ;
1
EIyy w 0 D C1 x 2 C C2 x C C3 ;
2
1 1
EIyy w D C1 x 3 C C2 x 2 C C3 x C C4 : (5.9)
6 2
Fig. 5.3 Cantilever beam. F
x wmax
w(x)
wmax
l
z
The integration constants C1 ; : : : ; C4 are determined from the boundary conditions,

which can be stated here as follows:
w.x D 0/ D 0; w 0 .x D 0/ D 0; Vz .x D l/ D F; My .x D l/ D 0: (5.10)
From the requirement w.x D 0/ D 0 we immediately obtain
C4 D 0: (5.11)
Similarly, the condition w 0 .x D 0/ D 0 leads to
C3 D 0: (5.12)
The requirement Vz .x D l/ D F results in:
C1 D F: (5.13)
Finally, the last condition My .x D l/ D 0 yields:
C1 l C C2 D 0; (5.14)
and with (5.13) this leads to

C2 D F l: (5.15)
Thus, the state variables of the beam can be specified as:
Vz .x/ D F;
x
My .x/ D F l 1 ;
l
F l2 x x
w 0 .x/ D 2 ;
2EIyy l l
F l3 x 2 x 3
w.x/ D 3 : (5.16)
6EIyy l l
0
The maximum inclination wmax of the elastic line w.x/ as well as the maximum
deflection wmax occur at the free end of the beam with the values
0 F l2 F l3
wmax D ; wmax D : (5.17)
2EIyy 3EIyy
The second possibility to determine the elastic line w.x/ is to start from the bending
moment My .x/, which can be determined at this statically determinate beam from
elementary equilibrium considerations. We have (see also (5.16)):
EIyy w 00 D My D F .x l/;
2
x
EIyy w 0 D F lx C C1 ;
2
3
x lx 2
EIyy w D F C C1 x C C2 : (5.18)
6 2
Fig. 5.4 Superposition prin- F

ciple
q0
w(x)
= q0
wq(x)
+
F
wF(x)
The two integration constants occurring here are determined from the two geometric
boundary conditions w.x D 0/ D 0 and w 0 .x D 0/ D 0 and are obtained as:
C1 D 0; C2 D 0: (5.19)
Thus, the inclination w 0 .x/ and the elastic line w.x/ of the cantilever beam are as
follows:
F l2 x x
w 0 .x/ D 2 ;
2EIyy l l
F l3 x 2 x 3
w.x/ D 3 : (5.20)
6EIyy l l
Apparently, these results are identical to (5.16).
For the determination of beam deflections, the superposition principle applies
since the beam differential equation EIyy w 0000 D qz is a linear differential equa-
tion. This means that the deformations resulting from individual load cases may be
added together to give total deformations of a beam under combined load. This is
illustrated in Fig. 5.4 at the example of a simply supported beam, which is under the
uniform line load q0 and the single force F . Here the elastic line w.x/ is composed
of the two parts wq .x/ and wF .x/, i.e.:
w.x/ D wq .x/ C wF .x/: (5.21)
Example 5.1
Consider the beam of Fig. 5.5 (length l, constant bending stiffness EIyy ), which
is loaded by the uniform line load q0 . We want to determine the elastic line w.x/
of the beam.
Fig. 5.5 Simply supported q0

beam under line load q0 .
x wmax
w(x)
l
We solve the problem by starting from the beam differential equation

EIyy w 0000 D q0 :
EIyy w 0000 D q0 ;
EIyy w 000 D Vz D q0 x C C1 ;
1
EIyy w 00 D My D q0 x 2 C C1 x C C2 ;
2
1 1
EIyy w D q0 x C C1 x 2 C C2 x C C3 ;
0 3
6 2
1 1 1
EIyy w D q0 x 4 C C1 x 3 C C2 x 2 C C3 x C C4 : (5.22)
24 6 2
The boundary conditions to be applied here to determine the integration con-
stants C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 are:
w.x D 0/ D 0; My .x D 0/ D 0;
w.x D l/ D 0; My .x D l/ D 0: (5.23)
From the condition w.x D 0/ D 0 we obtain the constant C4 as
C4 D 0: (5.24)
From the condition My .x D 0/ D 0 follows immediately:
C2 D 0: (5.25)
The condition My .x D l/ D 0 gives:
1
C1 D q0 l: (5.26)
2
Finally, from the condition w.x D l/ D 0 we obtain:
1
C3 D q0 l 3 : (5.27)
24
The state variables of the beam then follow as:
q0 l x
Vz .x/ D 2 1 ;
2 l
q0 lx x
My .x/ D 1 ;
2 l
q0 l 3 x 3 x 2
w 0 .x/ D 4 6 C1 ;
24EIyy l l
q0 l 4 x 4 x 3 x
w.x/ D 2 C : (5.28)
24EIyy l l l
The maximum bending moment occurs at the center of the beam at x D 2l and
amounts to:
l q0 l 2
Mmax D My x D D : (5.29)
2 8
The rotations of the two supports follow from the inclination w 0 as:
q0 l 3 q0 l 3
w 0 .x D 0/ D ; w 0 .x D l/ D : (5.30)
24EIyy 24EIyy
In order to check the correctness of the computations one can use the criterion
that the slope w 0 of the elastic line w must become zero at the center of the beam
at x D 2l . One can easily convince oneself that this is the case.
The maximum deflection occurs at the center of the beam at x D 2l and
amounts to:
l 5q0 l 4
wmax D w x D D : (5.31)
2 384EIyy
J
Example 5.2
Consider the beam shown in Fig. 5.6 with constant bending stiffness EIyy , which
is loaded by a sinusoidal line load qz .x/ D q0 sin. x
l
/. We want to determine the
elastic line w.x/.

beam loaded by sinusoidal
line load qz .x/.
x wmax
w(x)
l
z
To solve the problem, we start from the beam differential equation

EIyy w 0000 D qz :
x
EIyy w 0000 D q0 sin ;
l
l x
EIyy w 000 D Vz D q0 cos C C1 ;
l
2
l x
EIyy w 00 D My D q0 sin C C1 x C C2 ;
l
3 x
l 1
EIyy w 0 D q0 cos C C1 x 2 C C2 x C C3 ;
l 2
4
l x 1 1
EIyy w D q0 sin C C1 x 3 C C2 x 2 C C3 x C C4 : (5.32)
l 6 2
The evaluation of the boundary conditions
w.x D 0/ D 0; My .x D 0/ D 0;
w.x D l/ D 0; My .x D l/ D 0 (5.33)
leads to C1 D C2 D C3 D C4 D 0, so that the state variables of the beam can be

specified as follows:
l x
Vz D q0 cos ;
l
2
l x
My D q0 sin ;
l
3 x
q0 l
w0 D cos ;
EIyy l
4
q0 l x
wD sin : (5.34)
EIyy l
The maximum deflection wmax is obtained at the center of the beam and amounts
to 4
l q0 l
wmax D w x D D : (5.35)
2 EIyy
l
The maximum bending moment Mmax is also present at x D 2
and takes the
value 2
l l
Mmax D My x D D q0 : (5.36)
2
J
Example 5.3
Consider the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 5.7 which has a constant bending
stiffness EIyy and is loaded by a linear line load qz .x/ D q0 xl . The elastic line
of the beam is to be determined.
We employ the beam differential equation EIyy w 0000 D qz as follows:
x
EIyy w 0000 D q0 ;
l
q0 x 2
EIyy w 000 D Vz D C C1 ;
2 l
3
q0 x
EIyy w 00 D My D C C1 x C C2 ;
6 l
q0 x 4 1
EIyy w 0 D C C1 x 2 C C2 x C C3 ;
24 l 2
q0 x 5 1 1
EIyy w D C C1 x 3 C C2 x 2 C C3 x C C4 : (5.37)
120 l 6 2
The boundary conditions to be applied here are:
w.x D 0/ D 0; w 0 .x D 0/ D 0; Vz .x D l/ D F; My .x D l/ D 0: (5.38)
This leads to the following expressions for the integration constants:

q0 l q0 l 2
C1 D ; C2 D ; C3 D 0; C4 D 0: (5.39)
2 3
Thus, the state variables of the beam can be given as:
q0 l x 2
Vz D 1 ;
2 l
q0 l 2 x 3 x
My D C3 2 ;
6 l l
q0 l 3 x 4 x 2 x
w0 D 6 C8 ;
24EIyy l l l
q0 l 4 x 5 x 3 x 2
wD 10 C 20 : (5.40)
120EIyy l l l
J
Fig. 5.7 Cantilever beam q0

under linear line load qz .
x
l
z
5.3 Statically indeterminate single-span beams 137
5.3 Statically indeterminate single-span beams
The beam situations considered so far were statically determinate; both the support
reactions as well as the transverse shear force and the bending moment could be
determined from equilibrium conditions. We now extend the considerations to stat-
ically indeterminate single-span beams. The procedure for the determination of the
state quantities Vz , My , w 0 , w is identical to the explanations for statically determi-
nate systems, but for statically indeterminate beams we must perform the analysis
using the beam differential equation EIyy w 0000 D qz in all cases since the moment
distribution My cannot be obtained exclusively from equilibrium considerations in
such systems.
As an example we consider the beam of Fig. 5.8, which has the length l and the
constant bending stiffness EIyy and which is loaded by the uniform line load q0
and the edge moment M0 . The beam is clamped at its left end at x D 0 and simply
supported at its right end at x D l.
We solve the given statically indeterminate problem by quadruple integration of
the beam differential equation:
EIyy w 0000 D q0 ;
1
2
1 1
EIyy w 0 D q0 x 3 C C1 x 2 C C2 x C C3 ;
6 2
1 1 1
EIyy w D q0 x 4 C C1 x 3 C C2 x 2 C C3 x C C4 : (5.41)
24 6 2
The boundary conditions to be considered here are:
w.x D 0/ D 0; w 0 .x D 0/ D 0; w.x D l/ D 0; My .x D l/ D M0 : (5.42)
From the condition w.x D 0/ D 0 follows immediately:
C4 D 0: (5.43)
Fig. 5.8 Statically indeter- q0

minate beam under uniform M0
line load q0 and edge mo-
ment M0 . x
l
z
The condition w 0 .x D 0/ D 0 gives:
C3 D 0: (5.44)
From the condition w.x D l/ D 0 the following expression can be derived:
q0 l 4 1 1
C C1 l 3 C C2 l 2 D 0: (5.45)
24 6 2
Finally, from the condition My .x D l/ D M0 we obtain:
q0 l 2
C C1 l C C2 D M0 : (5.46)
2
The equations (5.45) and (5.46) represent two equations for the two still unknown
constants C1 and C2 . The solution is:
5q0 l 3M0 q0 l 2 M0
C1 D C ; C2 D : (5.47)
8 2l 8 2
With the constants C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 thus determined, the state variables of the
statically indeterminate beam can be given as follows:
q0 l h x i 3M
0
Vz D 8 5 ;
8 l 2l
q0 l 2 x 2 x M0 x
My D 4 5 C1 3 1 ;
8 l l 2 l
q0 l 3 4 x 3 5x 2 x M0 l x 2 x
w0 D C C 3 2 ;
8EIyy 3 l 2 l l 4EIyy l l
q0 l 4 1 x 4 5x 3 1x 2 M0 l 2 x 3 x 2
wD C C : (5.48)
8EIyy 3 l 6 l 2 l 4EIyy l l
For the special case M0 D 0, the elastic line of the statically indeterminate beam is
shown in Fig. 5.9 qualitatively. The support reactions MA , AV and BV (Fig. 5.10)
can be determined as:
q0 l 2 M0
MA D My .x D 0/ D C ;
8 2
5q0 l 3M0
AV D Vz .x D 0/ D ;
8 2l
3q0 l 3M0
BV D Vz .x D l/ D C : (5.49)
8 2l
5.3 Statically indeterminate single-span beams 139
Fig. 5.9 Elastic line w.x/ of q0

the statically indeterminate
beam under uniform line
load q0 . x
w(x)
l
Fig. 5.10 Determination q0

of the support reactions of MA M0
beam.
AV BV
Example 5.4
Consider the beam of Fig. 5.11 (length l, constant bending stiffness EIyy ), which
is clamped at its left end at x D 0 and has a vertically guided support at its right
end. The load consists of a uniform line load q0 . The state variables Vz , My , w 0
and w of the beam are to be determined.
The problem is solved by quadruple integration of the beam differential equa-
tion EIyy w 0000 D q0 :
EIyy w 0000 D q0 ;
1
2
1 1
EIyy w D q0 x C C1 x 2 C C2 x C C3 ;
0 3
6 2
1 1 1
EIyy w D q0 x C C1 x 3 C C2 x 2 C C3 x C C4 :
4
(5.50)
24 6 2
The boundary conditions are:
w.x D 0/ D 0; w 0 .x D 0/ D 0; Vz .x D l/ D 0; w 0 .x D l/ D 0: (5.51)
Fig. 5.11 Statically inde- q0

terminate beam with one
clamped end and one end
with a vertically guided sup- x
port.
l
z
Fig. 5.12 Support reactions q0

of the statically indeterminate MA MB
beam with one clamped end
and one end with a vertically
guided support. AV
From this, the following integration constants C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 can be obtained:
q0 l 2
C1 D q0 l; C2 D ; C3 D 0; C4 D 0: (5.52)
3
The state variables of the beam then follow as:
x
Vz D q0 l 1 ;
l
1x 2 x 1
My D q0 l 2 C ;
2 l l 3
q0 l 3 1 x 3 1x 2 1x
w0 D C ;
EIyy 6 l 2 l 3l
q0 l 4 1 x 4 x 3 x 2
wD C : (5.53)
6EIyy 4 l l l
The support reactions MA , AV and MB (Fig. 5.12) can be obtained as:
q0 l 2
MA D My .x D 0/ D ;
3
AV D Vz .x D 0/ D q0 l;
q0 l 2
MB D My .x D l/ D : (5.54)
6
J
5.4 Multi-span beams
The explanations so far assumed beam structures where the quantities qz , Vz , My ,

w 0 and w are continuous and differentiable over the whole length of the beam.
Technically very relevant is also the case of the so-called multi-span beams. If the
considered beam is supported by an intermediate support or interrupted by a joint,
or if a beam is to be analyzed where single forces or moments act at any point, or
where discontinuities of the bending stiffness EIyy are present, then the beam has to
be divided mathematically into regions within which both the load qz and the state
variables Vz , My , w 0 , w are continuous. An example for such a multi-span beam
5.4 Multi-span beams 141
Fig. 5.13 Exemplary multi-

span beam.
x
is shown in Fig. 5.13. If we assume the beam differential equation EIyy w 0000 D qz
in each area when considering this example, then the fourfold integration to be
performed here to determine the elastic line must be performed separately in each
subdomain. For the example of Fig. 5.13, this results in four subdomains with a to-
tal of 4 4 D 16 integration constants. In order to determine these, in addition to
the boundary conditions, so-called transition conditions must be formulated at the
boundaries between the subdomains. A selection of typical transition conditions for
the transition between two subdomains i and i C 1 which are loaded by the line
loads qi and qi C1 and have the bending stiffnesses EIi and EIi C1 , respectively,
is shown in Fig. 5.14. At each transition point, four transition conditions can be
formulated.
For illustration we consider the example of Fig. 5.13 and formulate the boundary
and transition conditions. For this purpose, the subdomain axes xi (i D 1; 2; 3; 4)
qz,i qz,i+1 qz,i qz,i+1
My,i My,i+1 My,i My,i+1

Vz,i wi =0 Vz,i+1 Vz,i wi = wi+1 Vz,i+1
wi+1=0 wi = wi+1
wi = wi+1 EIi wi =EIi+1wi+1
EIi wi =EIi+1wi+1 EIi wi =EIi+1wi+1
F
qz,i qz,i+1 qz,i qz,i+1
My,i My,i+1 M y,i My,i+1

Vz,i wi = wi+1 Vz,i+1 Vz,i wi = wi+1 Vz,i+1
EIi wi =0 wi = wi+1
EIi+1wi+1=0 EIi wi = EIi+1wi+1
EIi wi =EIi+1wi+1 EIi wi =EIi+1wi+1 -F
qz,i qz,i+1
My,i My,i+1
M
Vz,i wi = wi+1 Vz,i+1
wi = wi+1
EIi wi = EIi+1wi+1-M
EIi wi =EIi+1wi+1
Fig. 5.14 Exemplary transition conditions.

Fig. 5.15 Formulation of q0

M0 F0
boundary and transition con-
ditions for the multi-span
beam. x1 x2 x3 x4
l1 l2 l3 l4
are introduced as shown in Fig. 5.15. Let the bending stiffness EIyy of the beam be
constant over its entire length.
At the left support point at x1 D 0 the following boundary conditions have to be
fulfilled:
w1 .x1 D 0/ D 0;
M1 .x1 D 0/ D M0 : (5.55)
Herein M1 is the bending moment of subdomain 1. The second boundary condition
in (5.55) can also be represented as follows:
M0
w100 .x1 D 0/ D : (5.56)
EIyy
At the joint at the position x1 D l1 or x2 D 0 the following transition conditions

have to be fulfilled:
w1 .x1 D l1 / D w2 .x2 D 0/;
V1 .x1 D l1 / D V2 .x2 D 0/;
M1 .x1 D l1 / D 0;
M2 .x2 D 0/ D 0: (5.57)
Herein, the moment and transverse shear force conditions can be specified as:
w1000 .x1 D l1 / D w2000 .x2 D 0/;

w100 .x1 D l1 / D 0;
w200 .x2 D 0/ D 0: (5.58)
At the support point x2 D l2 or x3 D 0 the following transition conditions have to

be fulfilled:
w2 .x2 D l2 / D 0;
w3 .x3 D 0/ D 0;
w20 .x2 D l2 / D w30 .x3 D 0/;
M2 .x2 D l2 / D M3 .x3 D 0/; (5.59)
where the last condition occurring here can also be formulated as follows:
w200 .x2 D l2 / D w300 .x3 D 0/: (5.60)
At the force application point x3 D l3 or x4 D 0 the transition conditions are:
w3 .x3 D l3 / D w4 .x4 D 0/;

w30 .x3 D l3 / D w40 .x4 D 0/;
V3 .x3 D l3 / V4 .x4 D 0/ D F0 ;
M3 .x3 D l3 / D M4 .x4 D 0/: (5.61)
The latter two conditions can be formulated as:

F0
w3000 .x3 D l3 / w4000 .x4 D 0/ D ;
EIyy
w300 .x3 D l3 / D w400 .x4 D 0/: (5.62)
Finally, at the clamped edge at x4 D l4 , the following boundary conditions apply:
w4 .x4 D l4 / D 0;
w40 .x4 D l4 / D 0: (5.63)
Hence, a total of 16 conditions are available for the determination of the 16 integra-
tion constants.
Example 5.5
For the beam shown in Fig. 5.16, the state variables Vz , My , w 0 and w are to be
determined. The beam has the bending stiffness EIyy in the area of the length l1
between the two supports. In the cantilevered area with length l2 , the bending
stiffness is 2EIyy . For convenience, the two reference axes x1 and x2 are intro-
duced for the two areas.
There are again two ways to determine the state variables. On the one hand,
we can determine the moment distribution in advance and, starting from this,
determine the inclination w 0 and the elastic line w by simple and twofold inte-
gration, respectively. On the other hand, we can determine the state variables by
quadruple integration of the beam differential equation. Both ways are described
below.
Fig. 5.16 Two-span beam EIyy 2EIyy

under edge moment. x1 x2 M0
l1 l2
z
Fig. 5.17 Moment distribu- M0

tion for the two-span beam.
x1 x2 My
AV BV
We first determine the moment distribution My .xi / (i D 1; 2), it is shown in

Fig. 5.17. It can be formulated as follows:
M0 x 1
My .x1 / D ; My .x2 / D M0 : (5.64)
l1
The support reactions AV and BV are obtained with the directions of action
shown in Fig. 5.17:
M0
AV D BV D : (5.65)
l1
We now determine the inclination w 0 .xi / and the elastic line w.xi / of the beam
by single and twofold integration of the bending moment My .xi /, respectively,
dividing the considerations here into two subdomains. In subdomain 1 we have:
M0 x 1
EIyy w100 .x1 / D My .x1 / D ;
l1
M0 x12
EIyy w10 .x1 / D C C1 ;
2l1
M0 x13
EIyy w1 .x1 / D C C1 x 1 C C2 : (5.66)
6l1
In subdomain 2 we obtain:
2EIyy w200 .x2 / D My .x2 / D M0 ;

2EIyy w20 .x2 / D M0 x2 C D1 ;
M0 x22
2EIyy w2 .x2 / D C D1 x2 C D2 : (5.67)
2
The integration constants C1 , C2 , D1 and D2 are determined from the given

geometric boundary and transition conditions.
At the left support point at x1 D 0, the deflection w1 must disappear:
w1 .x1 D 0/ D 0: (5.68)
From this we obtain directly:

C2 D 0: (5.69)
Analogously, at the right support point at the location x2 D 0, it is required that
the deflection w2 becomes zero, which leads to:
D2 D 0: (5.70)
The deflection w1 becomes zero at the right support point at x1 D l1 :
w1 .x1 D l1 / D 0: (5.71)
This results in:

M0 l 1
C1 D : (5.72)
6
Finally, we need to impose the requirement that on both sides of the right support
point the slopes w10 and w20 of the two subdomains are identical:
w10 .x1 D l1 / D w20 .x2 D 0/: (5.73)
From this we obtain:

2
D1 D M0 l 1 : (5.74)
3
With the integration constants thus determined, the inclination w 0 and the elastic
line w of the beam can be specified. In area 1 we obtain:
" #
M0 l 1 x1 2
w10 .x1 /D 3 1 ;
6EIyy l1
" #
M0 l12 x1 3 x1
w1 .x1 / D : (5.75)
6EIyy l1 l1
In subdomain 2 we have:

M0 l 1 3 x 2
w20 .x2 /D C1 ;
3EIyy 2 l1

M0 l 1 x 2 1 x 2 2
w2 .x2 / D C : (5.76)
2EIyy 2 l1 3
The maximum deflection wmax between the two supports in area 1 is obtained at
the point where the slope w10 becomes zero:
" #
M0 l 1 x1 2
3 1 D 0: (5.77)
6EIyy l1
This can be solved for x1 as follows:
l1
x1 D p : (5.78)
3
Thus, the maximum deflection wmax in subdomain 1 is given as:

l1 M0 l 2
wmax D w1 x1 D p D p 1 : (5.79)
3 9 3EIyy
The inclination of the beam as well as its deflection at the cantilever end at x2 D l2
are given as:
0 M0 l 1 3 l 2
w2 .x2 D l2 / D C1 ;
3EIyy 2 l1

M0 l 1 l 2 1 l 2 2
w2 .x2 D l2 / D C : (5.80)
2EIyy 2 l1 3
We now show how the determination of the state variables Vz , My , w 0 , w can be
performed if we start from the beam differential equation EIyy w 0000 D qz in both
subdomains and integrate fourfold. In domain 1 we obtain:
EIyy w10000 D q0 D 0;
EIyy w1000 D Vz D C1 ;
EIyy w100 D My D C1 x1 C C2 ;
1
EIyy w10 D C1 x12 C C2 x1 C C3 ;
2
1 1
EIyy w1 D C1 x13 C C2 x12 C C3 x1 C C4 : (5.81)
6 2
2EIyy w20000 D q0 D 0;
2EIyy w2000 D Vz D D1 ;
2EIyy w200 D My D D1 x2 C D2 ;
1
2EIyy w20 D D1 x22 C D2 x2 C D3 ;
2
1 1
2EIyy w2 D D1 x23 C D2 x22 C D3 x2 C D4 : (5.82)
6 2
The boundary and transition conditions to be imposed for the given beam situa-
tion are as follows. At the left support at x1 D 0, both the deflection w1 and the
bending moment My vanish:
w1 .x1 D 0/ D 0; My .x1 D 0/ D 0: (5.83)
At the right support point at x1 D l1 or x2 D 0 the following transition conditions

apply. First of all, it must be required that the displacements of the subdomains 1
and 2 disappear at this support, i.e.:
w1 .x1 D l1 / D 0; w2 .x2 D 0/ D 0: (5.84)
In addition, the inclinations of the beam axis must be identical on both sides, so
that we have:
w10 .x1 D l1 / D w20 .x2 D 0/: (5.85)
Finally, the bending moment on both sides of the support must have identical
values in both subdomains, i.e.:
My .x1 D l1 / D My .x2 D 0/: (5.86)
At the cantilever end at x2 D l2 , the following static boundary conditions apply:
My .x2 D l2 / D M0 ; Vz .x2 D l2 / D 0: (5.87)
From the boundary and transition conditions, the integration constants C1 , C2 ,

C3 , C4 and D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 can be determined as:
M0 M0 l 1
C1 D ; C2 D 0; C3 D ; C4 D 0;
l1 6
2
D1 D 0; D 2 D M0 ; D3 D M0 l 1 ; D4 D 0: (5.88)
3
With this, the state variables Vz , My , w 0 , w of the two subdomains can then be
given as follows. In subdomain 1 we obtain:
M0
Vz .x1 / D ;
l1
M0
My .x1 / D x1 ;
l1
" #
2
M 0 l 1 x 1
w10 .x1 / D 3 1 ;
6EIyy l1
" #
M0 l12 x1 3 x1
w1 .x1 / D : (5.89)
6EIyy l1 l1
For subdomain 2, the result is:
Vz .x2 / D 0;
My .x2 / D M0 ;

M0 l 1 3 x2
w20 .x2 / D C1 ;
3EIyy 2 l1

M0 l 1 x 2 1 x 2 2
w2 .x2 / D C : (5.90)
2EIyy 2 l1 3
The support reactions AV and BV can be obtained from this with the directions
of action as shown in Fig. 5.17:
M0
AV D Vz .x1 D 0/ D ;
l1
M0
BV D Vz .x1 D l1 / C Vz .x2 D 0/ D : (5.91)
l1
J
Example 5.6
For the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 5.18, the elastic line w and the inclina-
tion w 0 of the elastic line are to be determined. The beam has the constant bend-
ing stiffness EIyy , the two local axes x1 and x2 are introduced as shown. For the
solution of this problem we start from the differential equation EIyy w 0000 D qz .
The beam differential equation EIyy w 0000 D qz is solved in the two subdomains
by quadruple integration. In the left subdomain we obtain:
EIyy w10000 D q1 ;
EIyy w1000 D Vz;1 D q1 x1 C C1 ;
1
EIyy w100 D My;1 D q1 x12 C C1 x1 C C2 ;
2
1 1
EIyy w10 D q1 x13 C C1 x12 C C2 x1 C C3 ;
6 2
1 1 1
EIyy w1 D q1 x14 C C1 x13 C C2 x12 C C3 x1 C C4 : (5.92)
24 6 2
Fig. 5.18 Beam under line q2

q1
load.
x1 x2
l l
z
EIyy w20000 D q2 ;
EIyy w2000 D Vz;2 D q2 x2 C D1 ;
1
EIyy w200 D My;2 D q2 x22 C D1 x2 C D2 ;
2
1 1
EIyy w20 D q2 x23 C D1 x22 C D2 x2 C D3 ;
6 2
1 1 1
EIyy w2 D q2 x24 C D1 x23 C D2 x22 C D3 x2 C D4 : (5.93)
24 6 2
The integration constants are determined from the boundary and transition con-
ditions of the system. The boundary conditions at the clamped end x1 D 0 are:
w1 .x1 D 0/ D 0; w10 .x1 D 0/ D 0: (5.94)
From this, the two integration constants C3 and C4 follow as:
C3 D C4 D 0: (5.95)
The boundary conditions at the free cantilever end at x2 D l are:
Vz;2 .x2 D l/ D 0; My;2 .x2 D l/ D 0: (5.96)
From this, D1 and D2 can be determined as:
1 2
D1 D q2 l; D2 D q2 l : (5.97)
2
We now consider the transition conditions at the point x1 D l or x2 D 0. There,
the equality of the two transverse forces has to be required:
Vz;1 .x1 D l/ D Vz;2 .x2 D 0/: (5.98)
From this, the integration constant C1 results as:
C1 D l.q1 C q2 /: (5.99)
Likewise, the bending moments must be identical at the transition point between
the two subdomains:
My;1 .x1 D l/ D My;2 .x2 D 0/: (5.100)
It follows:
1 2
C2 D l .q1 C 3q2 /: (5.101)
2
At the transition point, the slope of the elastic line is also identical in both sub-
domains:
w10 .x1 D l/ D w20 .x2 D 0/: (5.102)
From this, the integration constant D3 results as:

3 1
D3 D l q1 C q2 : (5.103)
6
Finally, it is required that the deflections w1 and w2 at the transition point be-
tween the two subdomains match:
w1 .x1 D l/ D w2 .x2 D 0/: (5.104)
From this the integration constant D4 follows as:

4 1 7
D4 D l q1 C q2 : (5.105)
8 12
With the integration constants determined in this way, the expressions (5.92)
and (5.93) can be evaluated. For w10 .x1 / and w20 .x2 / we obtain:
l3 x 3 x 2 x
1 1 1
w10 .x1 / D q1 3.q1 C q2 / C 3.q1 C 3q2 / ;
6EIyy l l l
l3 x 3 x 2 x
2 2 2
w20 .x2 / D q2 3q2 C 3q2 C q1 C 6q2 : (5.106)
6EIyy l l l
The values at the transition point and at the free cantilever end are:
l3
w10 .x1 D l/ D .q1 C 6q2 /;
6EIyy
l3
w20 .x2 D l/ D .q1 C 7q2 /: (5.107)
6EIyy
For the deflections w1 .x1 / and w2 .x2 / of the subdomains we obtain:
l4 x 4 x 3 x 2
1 1 1
w1 .x1 / D q1 4.q1 C q2 / C 6.q1 C 3q2 / ;
24EIyy l l l
l4 x 4 x 3 x 2
2 2 2
w2 .x2 / D q2 4q2 C 6q2
24EIyy l l l
x
2
C 4.q1 C 6q2 / C 3q1 C 14q2 : (5.108)
l
The deflections at the transition point x1 D l or x2 D 0 and at the cantilever end

x2 D l follow as:
l4
w1 .x1 D l/ D .3q1 C 14q2 /;
24EIyy
l4
w2 .x2 D l/ D .7q1 C 41q2 /: (5.109)
24EIyy
J
Example 5.7
Consider the beam shown in Fig. 5.19, which is loaded by a force F . The beam
of length l is divided by the point of application of the force into two subdomains
of lengths l1 and l2 . The beam has a constant bending stiffness EIyy . The two
reference axes x1 and x2 are introduced as shown. The resulting moment diagram
is also shown in Fig. 5.19. The slope w 0 and the elastic line w of the beam are to
be determined.
We solve this problem by integrating the bending moment in each subdomain
twice. The moment distributions can be formulated as follows:
F l2 x 1 F l1
My .x1 / D ; My .x2 / D .l2 x2 /: (5.110)
l l
The twofold integration in subdomain 1 then gives:
F l2 x 1
EIyy w100 D ;
l
F l2 x12
EIyy w10 D C C1 ;
2l
F l2 x13
EIyy w1 D C C1 x 1 C C2 : (5.111)
6l
Fig. 5.19 Simply supported F

beam loaded by a force F
(top), moment distribution
(bottom). x1 x2
l1 l2
l
z
My
Fl1l2
Fl2 l Fl1
AV BV
l l
In subdomain 2 follows:
F l1
EIyy w200 D .l2 x2 /;
l
F l1
EIyy w20 D .l2 x2 /2 C D1 ;
2l
F l1
EIyy w2 D .l2 x2 /3 D1 .l2 x2 / C D2 : (5.112)
6l
Here the coordinate .l2 x2 / was used.
The integration constants C1 , C2 , D1 and D2 are determined from the given
boundary and transition conditions. At the beam end x1 D 0, the deflection w1
must vanish. This leads to:
C2 D 0: (5.113)
Likewise, it is required that at the right end of the beam the deflection w2 disap-
pears, which leads to
D2 D 0: (5.114)
The transition condition w1 .x1 D l1 / D w2 .x2 D 0/ gives the following expres-
sion:
F l 3 l2 F l1 l23
1 C C1 l 1 D D 1 l2 : (5.115)
6l 6l
Analogously, the following condition can be derived from the requirement
w10 .x1 D l1 / D w20 .x2 D 0/:
F l12 l2 F l1 l22
C C1 D C D1 : (5.116)
2l 2l
From (5.115) and (5.116) the following expressions for the integration constants
C1 and D1 can be obtained:
F l1 l2 F l1 l2
C1 D .l C l2 /; D1 D .l C l1 /: (5.117)
6l 6l
The slope w10 or w20 and the elastic line w1 or w2 can then be represented as:

0 F l1 l22 x12 l
w1 .x1 / D 3 C 2 C1 ;
6lEIyy l1 l2 l

F l1 l22 x13 l C l2
w1 .x1 / D C x1 ;
6lEIyy l1 l2 l2
!
2 2
0 F l1 l2 .l2 x2 / l C l1
w2 .x2 / D 3 ;
6lEIyy l1 l2 l1
!
F l12 l2 .l2 x2 /3 l C l1
w2 .x2 / D C .l2 x2 / : (5.118)
6lEIyy l1 l2 l1
J
5.5 Standard bending cases 153
5.5 Standard bending cases
5.5.1 Simply supported beams
A number of frequently recurring standard bending cases are summarized in the

following. A constant bending stiffness EIyy is assumed for all subsequent cases.
Unless otherwise noted, the elastic line w.x/, the maximum deflection wmax and its
location, and the edge rotations of the considered beams are given.
For the simply supported beam under constant line load q0 (Fig. 5.20), we obtain:
q0 l 4 x 4 x 2 x
w.x/ D 2 C
24EIyy l l l
5q0 l 4 l
wmax D at xD
384EIyy 2
q0 l 3
wA0 D wB0 D (5.119)
24EIyy
For the simply supported beam under linear line load with the maximum value q0
(Fig. 5.21) follows:
q0 l 4 x 5 x x 3
w.x/ D 3 10 C7
360EIyy l l l
s r
q0 l 4 8
wmax D 0:006522 at xDl 1
EIyy 15
7q0 l 3 q0 l 3
wA0 D wB0 D (5.120)
360EIyy 45EIyy

beam under constant line
load q0 .
A B
x wmax
w(x)
l

beam under linear line load. A B
x wmax
w(x)
l
z

beam under single force at an
arbitrary position. A B
x1 wmax wF x2
l1 l2
l

beam under centric single
force. A B
x wmax
l l
2 2
For the beam simply supported on both sides under single force (subdomain lengths
l1 and l2 , Fig. 5.22), the following results:

F l1 l22 x13 l
w1 .x1 / D C 1C x1
6lEIyy l1 l2 l2
" #
F l12 l2 .l2 x2 /3 l
w2 .x2 / D C C 1 .l2 x2 /
6lEIyy l1 l2 l1
F l12 l22
wF D
3lEIyy
s
F l2 lN3 l 2 l22
wmax D lN D l1 l2
3lEIyy 3
3 s
F l1 l2 lN l 2 l12
wmax D lN D l2 l1 l2
3lEIyy 3
F l1 l2 .l C l2 / F l1 l2 .l C l1 /
wA D wB D (5.121)
6lEIyy 6lEIyy
For the simply supported beam under a centric single force follows (Fig. 5.23)
F l3 x 3 x l
w.x/ D 4 C3 0x
48EIyy l l 2
" #
2 3
Fl .l x/ l
w.x/ D 4 2
C 3.l x/ xl
48EIyy l 2
F l3
wmax D
48EIyy
F l2
wA0 D wB0 D (5.122)
16EIyy
Fig. 5.24 Simply sup- M0

ported beam under edge
moment M0 . A x wmax B
Fig. 5.25 Simply sup- M0 wmax

ported beam under centric wmax
moment M0 . A x B
l l
2 2
In the case of the beam simply supported on both sides under the edge moment M0
(Fig. 5.24) we obtain:
M0 l 2 x 3 x 2 x
w.x/ D 3 C2
6EIyy l l l
p 2
3M0 l 1
wmax D at x D l 1 p
27EIyy 3
M 0 l M 0 l
wA0 D wB0 D (5.123)
3EIyy 6EIyy
For the simply supported beam under the centric bending moment M0 (Fig. 5.25)
the following results:
M0 l 2 x 3 x l
w.x/ D 4 C 0x
24EIyy l l 2
M0 l 2 x 3 x 2 x l
w.x/ D 4 C 12 11 C3 xl
24EIyy l l l 2
2
M0 l l 1
wmax D p at xD p and x D l 1 p
72 3EIyy 2 3 2 3
M0 l
wA0 D wB0 D (5.124)
24EIyy
5.5.2 Cantilever beams
For the cantilever beams of length l with constant bending stiffness EIyy consid-
ered below, both the elastic line w.x/ and the maximum deflection wmax as well as
0
the maximum slope wmax are given.
Fig. 5.26 Cantilever beam F

under single force F .
x wmax
w(x)
wmax
l
Fig. 5.27 Cantilever beam F

under single force F .
wmax
x wmax
w(x)
l1 l2
l
For a cantilever beam with a force F at the free end of the beam (Fig. 5.26) we
have:
F l3 x 2 x 3
w.x/ D 3
6EIyy l l
F l3 0 F l2
wmax D ; wmax D (5.125)
3EIyy 2EIyy
If we consider a cantilever beam with a single force F acting at the point x D l1
(Fig. 5.27), then we obtain:
" 3 #
F l13 x 2 x
w.x/ D 3 0 x l1
6EIyy l1 l1

F l13 x
w.x/ D 3 1 l1 x l
6EIyy l1
" 3 #
F l3 l1 2 l1 0 F l12
wmax D 3 ; wmax D (5.126)
6EIyy l l 2EIyy
For a cantilever beam with an edge moment M0 (Fig. 5.28) the following results:
M0 x 2
w.x/ D
2EIyy
M0 l 2 0 M0 l
2EIyy EIyy
Fig. 5.28 Cantilever beam M0

under edge moment M0 .
x wmax
w(x)
wmax
l

under line load q0 .
x wmax
w(x)
wmax
l

under linear line load with
maximum value q0 . x wmax
w(x)
wmax
l
If a cantilever beam under the uniform line load q0 (Fig. 5.29) is considered, then
one obtains:
q0 l 4 x 2 x 3 x 4
w.x/ D 6 4 C
24EIyy l l l
q0 l 4 0 q0 l 3
8EIyy 6EIyy
For the case where the considered cantilever beam is under a linear line load with
the maximum value q0 (Fig. 5.30) follows:
q0 l 4 x 5 x 3 x 2
w.x/ D 10 C 20
120EIyy l l l
11q0 l 4 0 q0 l 3
120EIyy 8EIyy
5.5.3 Statically indeterminate systems
The presented standard bending cases can also be used to analyze statically indeter-
minate systems in a very straightforward way. Consider again the beam of Fig. 5.8,
which is clamped at its left end and simply supported at its right end. Let the load
be given in the form of a uniform line load q0 and an edge moment M0 (Fig. 5.31,
top). We want to determine the support reactions of this beam, taking advantage of
the fact that we can superpose the beam deformations due to different load cases.
We first make the beam statically determinate by removing the right support
(so-called 0-system). This results in the elastic line w0 .x/ as shown in Fig. 5.31,
middle. In particular, we are interested here in the deflection w0 .x D l/ at the right
end, which is now thought to be free, resulting in
q0 l 4 M0 l 2
w0 .x D l/ D C ; (5.130)
8EIyy 2EIyy
as can be easily deduced from the standard bending cases of Figs. 5.28 and 5.29.
In the next step, the support reaction BV is applied (so-called 1-system), which
is of course present in reality. It causes the elastic line w1 , and the displacement
w1 .x D l/ at the right end of the beam is (cf. the standard bending case of Fig. 5.26):
BV l 3
w1 .x D l/ D : (5.131)
3EIyy
One can interpret the actually statically indeterminate system as the superposition
of the two described load cases of the 0-system and the 1-system.
At this point we can use the fact that the displacement at the support point x D l
has to vanish. Since w.x/ D w0 .x/ C w1 .x/ holds, we can therefore require:
w0 .x D l/ C w1 .x D l/ D 0: (5.132)

minate beam under constant M0
line load q0 and edge mo-
ment M0 (top), statically x
determinate beam and elastic
line (middle), elastic line due l
to the statically indeterminate
support force BV (bottom). z
q0
M0
w0
w0(x)
w1(x)
w1
BV
This leads to the expression
q0 l 4 M0 l 2 BV l 3
C D 0; (5.133)
8EIyy 2EIyy 3EIyy
which can be solved for the unknown support force BV as follows:
3q0 l 3M0
BV D C : (5.134)
8 2l
This result agrees with (5.49). The elastic line w.x/ D w0 .x/ C w1 .x/, but also the
slope w 0 .x/ D w00 C w10 as well as the bending moment M.x/ D M0 .x/ C M1 .x/
and the transverse shear force V .x/ D V0 .x/ C V1 .x/ of the statically indeterminate
system can be determined from superposition.
Example 5.8
Consider the two-span beam shown in Fig. 5.32, top, with two subdomains of
length l. The load consists of the constant line load q0 .
We obtain the statically determinate 0-system by removing the middle sup-
port and thus making the beam statically determinate. The resulting deflection
w0 .x/ of the beam is shown in Fig. 5.32, middle. Of particular interest here is
the deflection in the center at the support point B, which amounts to:
5q0 .2l/4 5q0 l 4

w0 .x D l/ D D : (5.135)
384EIyy 24EIyy
In the next step, we apply the statically indeterminate support force BV to the
system (1-system, Fig. 5.32, bottom) and thus obtain the displacement w1 .x D l/

minate beam under uniform
line load q0 (top), statically
determinate beam and elas- x
tic line (middle), elastic line
due to the statically indeter- l l
minate support reaction BV z
(bottom). q0
w0(x)
w1(x)
BV
at the support point at the location x D l:
BV .2l/3 BV l 3
w1 .x D l/ D D : (5.136)
48EIyy 6EIyy
The compatibility condition to be applied here requires that the two displace-
ments w0 .x D l/ and w1 .x D l/ in sum become zero:
w0 .x D l/ C w1 .x D l/ D 0; (5.137)
i.e.:
5q0 l 4 BV l 3
D 0: (5.138)
24EIyy 6EIyy
From this, the statically indeterminate support reaction can be determined as:
5
BV D q0 l: (5.139)
4
An alternative way to make the given static system statically determinate is to in-
troduce a full joint at the support point B (Fig. 5.33, top). The resulting rotations
0 0
w0;L .x D l/ and w0;R .x D l/ at the support point B then amount to:
0 q0 l 3 0 q0 l 3
w0;L .x D l/ D ; w0;R .x D l/ D : (5.140)
24EIyy 24EIyy
In the next step, the statically determinate system is subjected to the statically
0
indeterminate bending moment MB D My .x D l/. The two rotations w1;L .x D l/
0
and w1;R .x D l/ on both sides of the support point are then:
0 MB l 0 MB l
w1;L .x D l/ D ; w1;R .x D l/ D : (5.141)
3EIyy 3EIyy
The compatibility condition to be raised here requires equality of rotations on
both sides of the support B, i.e.:
0 0 0 0
w0;L .x D l/ C w1;L .x D l/ D w0;R .x D l/ C w1;R .x D l/: (5.142)
Fig. 5.33 Statically deter- q0

minate beam and elastic line
(top), elastic line due to the
statically indeterminate bend-
ing moment MB (bottom). w0,L(x=l) w0,R(x=l)
w1,L(x=l) w1,R(x=l)
MB MB
From this, the bending moment MB can be determined as:
q0 l 2
MB D : (5.143)
8
Since in the present case the slope of the elastic line on both sides of the support
is zero (both the beam and its load are symmetrical), the compatibility require-
ment can be given as follows:
0 0
w0;L .x D l/ C w1;L .x D l/ D 0;
0 0
w0;R .x D l/ C w1;R .x D l/ D 0: (5.144)
This again gives the result (5.143).

With the bending moment MB thus determined, all other internal forces and
moments of the statically indeterminate system can also be determined. J
Example 5.9
We consider the beam shown in Fig. 5.34, top, that is clamped on both sides. The
beam has the length l and the constant bending stiffness EIyy and is loaded by
the uniform line load q0 . This beam situation is statically indeterminate to the
second degree.
We first solve the problem by integrating the beam differential equation
EIyy w 0000 D q0 . We obtain:
EIyy w 0000 D q0 ;
Z
EIyy w 000 D Vz D q0 dx C C1 ;
“
EIyy w 00 D My D q0 dxdx C C1 x C C2 ;
•
1
EIyy w 0 D q0 dxdxdx C C1 x 2 C C2 x C C3 ;
2
ZZZZ
1 1
EIyy w D q0 dxdxdxdx C C1 x 3 C C2 x 2 C C3 x C C4 : (5.145)
6 2
We obtain the four integration constants C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 from the underlying

boundary conditions. The condition w.x D 0/ D 0 results in:
C4 D 0: (5.146)
From the condition w 0 .x D 0/ D 0 we can conclude:
C3 D 0: (5.147)

minate beam (top), support
reactions and elastic line
(bottom). x
l
z
2
q0l q0l 2
12 12
w(x)
q0l q0l
2 2
Similarly, at the right beam end at x D l, the deflection w must vanish, i.e.
w.x D l/ D 0. We obtain the following expression from this:
1 1 1
q0 l 4 C C1 l 3 C C2 l 2 D 0: (5.148)
24 6 2
Finally the requirement w 0 .x D l/ D 0 leads to
1 3 1
q0 l C C1 l 2 C C2 l D 0: (5.149)
6 2
From the two conditions (5.148) and (5.149), the two integration constants C1
and C2 can be determined as:
1 1
C1 D q0 l; C2 D q0 l 2 : (5.150)
2 12
Thus, the state variables of the beam can be given as:
q0 l x
Vz D 12 ;
2 l
q0 l 2 x 2 x
My D 6 C6 1 ;
12 l l
q l 3 x 3 x 2 x
0
w0 D 2 3 C ;
12EIyy l l l
q0 l 4 x 4 x 3 x 2
wD 2 C : (5.151)
24EIyy l l l
The support reactions of the statically indeterminate beam follow from this as:
q0 l 2 q0 l 2
MA D My .x D 0/ D ; MB D My .x D l/ D ;
12 12
q0 l q0 l
AV D Vz .x D 0/ D ; BV D Vz .x D l/ D : (5.152)
2 2
Fig. 5.35 Statically de- q0

terminate beam (0-system,
top), 1-system (middle) and
2-system (bottom). x w0(x=l)
w0(x)
l w0(x=l )
w1(x=l )
w1(x)
w1(x=l)
BV
MB
w2(x)
w2(x=l) w2(x=l )
Next, we will show how we can determine the support reactions of the stati-
cally indeterminate beam using standard bending cases. We choose the statically
determinate 0-system in such a way that we remove the right restraint, thereby
transforming the static system into a statically determinate beam clamped on one
side (Fig. 5.35, top), which has the elastic line w0 .x/ under the given line load q0 .
The kinematic quantities of interest here are the end displacement w0 .x D l/ and
the end slope w00 .x D l/, which are as follows:
q0 l 4 q0 l 3
w0 .x D l/ D ; w00 .x D l/ D : (5.153)
8EIyy 6EIyy
We now apply at the cantilever end the support force BV acting in reality
(1-system, see Fig. 5.35, center) and determine the end displacement w1 .x D l/
and the end slope w10 .x D l/ as follows:
BV l 3 BV l 2
w1 .x D l/ D ; w10 .x D l/ D : (5.154)
3EIyy 2EIyy
Finally, we apply the restraining moment MB existing in reality at this point

(2-system, see Fig. 5.35, bottom) and determine the end displacement w2 .x D l/
and the end slope w20 .x D l/ as:
MB l 2 MB l
w2 .x D l/ D ; w20 .x D l/ D : (5.155)
2EIyy EIyy
In order to maintain compatibility and to take into account the rigid clamping
actually present at the right end of the beam, it is necessary to require, on the one
hand, that the deflection w disappears at the point x D l and, on the other hand,
that the slope w 0 of the elastic line also becomes zero at this point. We ensure
this by superposing the individual components:

w0 .x D l/ C w1 .x D l/ C w2 .x D l/ D 0;
w00 .x D l/ C w10 .x D l/ C w20 .x D l/ D 0: (5.156)
This leads to the following two expressions:
q0 l 2 BV l MB
C D 0;
8 3 2
q0 l 2 BV l
C MB D 0: (5.157)
6 2
From this, the two support reactions BV and MB can be determined as:
q0 l q0 l 2
BV D ; MB D : (5.158)
2 12
An alternative solution can be found by selecting the 0-system in such a way that
the two clamped ends of the statically indeterminate beam are transformed into
hinged supports (Fig. 5.36, top). The two resulting end rotations are calculated
as:
q0 l 3 q0 l 3
w00 .x D 0/ D ; w00 .x D l/ D : (5.159)
24EIyy 24EIyy
In the next step, we apply the still unknown moment MA (1-system, Fig. 5.36,
middle) and determine the resulting edge rotations as:
MA l MA l
w10 .x D 0/ D ; w10 .x D l/ D : (5.160)
3EIyy 6EIyy
Finally, the restraining moment MB is applied to the right end of the beam
(2-system, Fig. 5.36, bottom). We obtain the resulting edge rotations as follows:
MB l MB l
w20 .x D 0/ D ; w20 .x D l/ D : (5.161)
6EIyy 3EIyy
Fig. 5.36 Statically de- q0

terminate beam (0-system,
top), 1-system (middle) and
2-system (bottom). x
w0(x=0) w0(x) w0(x=l)
l
MA w1(x=0) w1(x) w1(x=l)
w2(x=0) w2(x) w2(x=l) MB

The compatibility constraints to be imposed here require that the superposition

of the individual edge rotations w00 , w10 , w20 becomes zero at both ends of the
beam, i.e.:
w00 .x D 0/ C w10 .x D 0/ C w20 .x D 0/ D 0;
w00 .x D l/ C w10 .x D l/ C w20 .x D l/ D 0: (5.162)
This leads to the following expressions:
q0 l 2 MB
MA D 0;
8 2
q0 l 2 MA
C C MB D 0: (5.163)
8 2
From this, the two support moments MA and MB can be determined as:
q0 l 2
MA D MB D : (5.164)
12
J
5.5.4 Multi-span beams and angled systems
The standard bending cases provided previously can also be applied advantageously
to the analysis of multi-span beams and angled systems. As an introduction, we con-
sider again the beam from Example 5.6, shown in Fig. 5.37, top, and in which we
have marked the points A (clamping point), B (transition between the two subre-
gions), and C (free end) for better clarity. We are looking for the deflection wC of
point C and the slope wC0 of the elastic line at this point.
We can take advantage of the fact that we can superpose deflections from differ-
ent loads and decompose the given static system into several subsystems as shown
in Fig. 5.37, bottom. We first consider the right half of the system, which we may
take to be a cantilever beam with its clamped end at the transition point at x D l.
This cantilever beam is under the uniform line load q2 , and we determine the de-
flection wC q and the slope wC0 q as follows:
q2 l 4 q2 l 3
wC q D ; wC0 q D : (5.165)
8EIyy 6EIyy
Furthermore, we consider the left half of the system, which we may also consider
as a cantilever beam of length l, where we have to take into account not only the
line load q1 but also the bending moment MB D 12 q2 l 2 and the transverse shear
force FB D q2 l, which we can interpret as statically equivalent applied loads at this
location. Due to q2 , MB and FB , the displacements wBq , wBM , wBF and the slopes
Fig. 5.37 Beam under line q2

q1
load (top), decomposition
into subsystems (bottom).
A C
x B wC wC
l l
z q2
B C
q1 wCq
wCq
A B
wBq
wBq
MB
A B
wBM
wBM
FB
A B
wBF
wBF
0 0 0
wBq , wBM , wBF are induced, which result as follows:
q2 l 4 0 q2 l 3
wBq D ; wBq D ;
8EIyy 6EIyy
q2 l 4 0 q2 l 3
wBM D ; wBM D ;
4EIyy 2EIyy
q2 l 4 0 q2 l 3
wBF D ; wBF D : (5.166)
3EIyy 2EIyy
From these deformations, the deflection wB of point B and the rotation wB0 at this
point can be determined as:
wB D wBq C wBM C wBF
q1 l 4 q2 l 4 q2 l 4
D C C
8EIyy 4EIyy 3EIyy
l4
D .3q1 C 14q2 /;
24EIyy
wB0 D wBq
0 0
C wBM 0
C wBF
q1 l 3 q2 l 3 q2 l 3
D C C
6EIyy 2EIyy 2EIyy
l3
D .q1 C 6q2 /: (5.167)
6EIyy
These values are consistent with the results from Example 5.6.
To determine the deflection wC of point C, we add the two deflections wB
and wC q . However, we must take into account that the given load leads to a ro-
tation wB0 at point B as determined, so that the additional portion wB0 l of the deflec-
tion wC results due to this rotation. Hence:
wC D wB C wB0 l C wC q
l4 l4 q2 l 4
D .3q1 C 14q2 / C .q1 C 6q2 / C
24EIyy 6EIyy 8EIyy
l4
D .7q1 C 41q2 /: (5.168)
24EIyy
To determine the slope wC0 , the two rotations wB0 and wC0 q are added together:
wC0 D wB0 C wC0 q

l3 q2 l 3
D .q1 C 6q2 / C
6EIyy 6EIyy
l3
D .q1 C 7q2 /: (5.169)
6EIyy
Again, this is in agreement with the results from Example 5.6.
Example 5.10
We consider the beam from Example 5.5 (see Fig. 5.38) and want to determine
the deflection of point C by using standard bending cases.
The given static system is decomposed as shown in Fig. 5.38, bottom, into two
statically equivalent subsystems. One is the cantilever beam of the subsection
between points B and C, and the simply supported beam between points A and
B which is loaded at its right support by the moment M0 .
A EIyy B 2EIyy C
x M0
l1 l2
B C M0
wCM
wBM wCM
A B
M0
Fig. 5.38 Beam under edge moment (top), decomposition into subsystems (bottom).
We first determine the deflection WCM at the free end on the cantilever beam
between points B and C. It results as:
M0 l22
wCM D : (5.170)
4EIyy
0
Furthermore, we calculate the slope wBM at the support point B of the simply
supported beam between the points A and B, which results as:
0 M0 l 1
wBM D : (5.171)
3EIyy
The deflection wC at the free end of the given beam is then obtained by adding
0
up the deflection wCM and the slope wBM , multiplied by the length l2 :
0
wC D wCM C wBM l2 : (5.172)
This leads to the following expression:

M0 l22 M0 l 1 l 2 M0 l 1 l 2 1 l 2 2
wC D C D C : (5.173)
4EIyy 3EIyy 2EIyy 2 l1 3
J
Example 5.11
Consider the angled beam of Fig. 5.39 (length l, height h, constant bending stiff-
ness EIyy and extensional stiffness EA) loaded by the uniform line load q0 . The
deflection of point C is to be determined by superposition of standard bending
cases.
To solve the problem, we decompose the angled beam into the two statically
equivalent subsystems of Fig. 5.39, right. The region between the two points B
Fig. 5.39 Angled beam q0 q0

under line load (left), de-
composition into subsystems B
wC
C B C
(right). wCq
wCq
h
FB
MB wBM
B
wBM
A
l
A
5.6 Biaxial bending 169
and C is represented by a cantilever beam of length l under the line load q0 ,

whereas the vertical segment between the two points A and B is represented
by a straight beam clamped at the bottom under the statically equivalent load
FB D q0 l and bending moment MB D 12 q0 l 2 .
We first determine the deflection wC q of the cantilever due to the uniform line
load q0 . It results as:
q0 l 4
wC q D : (5.174)
8EIyy
Furthermore, we determine the length change uBF of the vertical beam segment
due to the statically equivalent force FB D q0 l as follows:
FB h q0 lh
uBF D D : (5.175)
EA EA
0
Likewise, the rotation wBM at point B due to the statically equivalent bending
1 2
moment MB D 2 q0 l must be determined:
0 MB h q0 l 2 h
wBM D D : (5.176)
EIyy 2EIyy
The required deflection wC is then the sum of the two displacements wC q

0
and uBF . In addition, there is also the portion resulting from the rotation wBM
multiplied by the length l:
0
wC D wC q C uBF C wBM l: (5.177)
This leads to the following expression for the deflection wC :
q0 lh q0 l 4 q0 l 3 h
wC D C C : (5.178)
EA 8EIyy 2EIyy
J
5.6 Biaxial bending
If a given beam situation not only leads to the deflection w.x/ in the z-direction, but
also causes a deflection v.x/ in the y-direction, then these two deflections are to be
superposed to the total deflection of the beam. This case is called biaxial bending.
For illustration, let us consider the beam of Fig. 5.40, which is clamped at one end
and loaded at its free end by a single force F oriented at an angle of 30ı to the
y-axis.
We first decompose the force F into its components Fy and Fz :
p
ı3 F
Fy D F cos 30 D F; Fz D F sin 30ı D : (5.179)
2 2
Fig. 5.40 Cantilever beam

under single force.
z
30°
x
F
We can then determine the deflections v.x/ and w.x/ as:

p
3F l 3 x 2 x 3
v.x/ D 3 ;
12EIzz l l
F l3 x 2 x 3
w.x/ D 3 : (5.180)
12EIyy l l
The deflections at the cantilever end amount to:

p
3F l 3 F l3
v.x D l/ D ; w.x D l/ D : (5.181)
6EIzz 6EIyy
The resulting deflection f at the cantilever end is then determined as:

s
p F l3 3 1
f D v2 C w2 D C 2 : (5.182)
6 .EIzz /2 EIyy
The procedure is largely analogous also in the case that an axis system is considered
which is not the principal axis system. Then the constitutive relations (4.115) are to
be employed, which we give here once more for the better clarity.
Iyz My C Iyy Mz
Ev 00 D 2
;
Iyy Izz Iyz
Izz My C Iyz Mz
Ew 00 D 2
: (5.183)
Iyy Izz Iyz
As an example, we consider the cantilever beam of Fig. 5.41, which is loaded at its
free end by a force F . We consider a Z-cross-section which has already been treated
Fig. 5.41 Cantilever beam t

(left), cross-section (right). F
t
y h
x t
l
b b
z
z
in Example 4.13. With h D 2b the following moments of inertia and deviation mo-
ment result for this cross-section:
th3 tbh2 8
Iyy D C D tb 3 ;
12 2 3
2
Izz D tb 3 ;
3
tb 2 h
Iyz D D tb 3 : (5.184)
2
At the given cantilever beam, the two bending moments My .x/ and Mz .x/ are
obtained as follows:
My D F .x l/; Mz D 0: (5.185)
From the constitutive law (5.183) then follows:
Iyz My 9F
Ev 00 D 2
D .x l/;
Iyy Izz Iyz 7tb 3
9F
Ev 0 D .x l/2 C C1 ;
14tb 3
3F
Ev D .x l/3 C C1 x C C2 : (5.186)
14tb 3
Analogously we have:
Izz My 6F
Ew 00 D 2
D .x l/;
Iyy Izz Iyz 7tb 3
3F
Ew 0 D .x l/2 C C3 ;
7tb 3
F
Ew D .x l/3 C C3 x C C4 : (5.187)
7tb 3
Evaluating the boundary conditions v.x D 0/ D 0, v 0 .x D 0/ D 0 and w.x D 0/ D 0,
w 0 .x D 0/ D 0 leads to the following integration constants:
9F l 2 3F l 3 3F l 2 F l3
C1 D ; C2 D ; C3 D ; C4 D : (5.188)
14tb 3 14tb 3 7tb 3 7tb 3
Thus the displacements v.x/ and w.x/ in the y-direction and the z-direction can be
given as: " #
3F l 3 .x l/3 x
v.x/ D 3 C1 ;
14Etb 3 l3 l
" #
F l3 .x l/3 x
w.x/ D C3 1 : (5.189)
7Etb 3 l3 l
The deflections at the cantilever end x D l follow as:
3F l 3 2F l 3
v.x D l/ D ; w.x D l/ D : (5.190)
7Etb 3 7Etb 3
Obviously, deflections in both coordinate directions y and z result under the bend-
ing moment My . We obtain the total deflection f at the cantilever end as:
p
p 13F l 3
2
f D v Cw D 2 : (5.191)
7Etb 3
Example 5.12
Consider the simply supported beam of length l as shown in Fig. 5.42. We con-
sider a rectangular cross-section of width b and height h D 2b, installed at an
angle of 45ı . Let the load consist of a uniform line load q0 . The deflection of the
beam is to be determined.
We first determine the moments of inertia IyN yN and IzN zN of the cross-section (the
deviation moment IyN zN is zero). We obtain:
b .2b/3 2b 4 2b b 3 b4
IyN yN D D ; IzN zN D D : (5.192)
12 3 12 6
From this, the moments of inertia Iyy and Izz as well as the deviation moment Iyz
can be determined by transformation:
1 1 5b 4
Iyy D IyN yN C IzN zN C IyN yN IzN zN cos 2' IyN zN sin 2' D ;
2 2 12
1 1 5b 4
Izz D IyN yN C IzN zN IyN yN IzN zN cos 2' C IyN zN sin 2' D ;
2 2 12
1 b4
Iyz D IyN yN IzN zN sin 2' C IyN zN cos 2' D : (5.193)
2 4

beam under uniform line load b
2b
(left), cross-section (right).
y
x 45°
l y z
z
Fig. 5.43 Free body image. q0

My
q0l
2
x
In order to calculate the beam deformations, we need to determine the bending

moment My .x/ which can be obtained by considering the free body image of
Fig. 5.43. We obtain by forming the moment equilibrium around a point at an
arbitrary location x:
q0 l 2 x x 2
My .x/ D : (5.194)
2 l l
We obtain the deflection v.x/ from the constitutive law (5.183) by integration:
Iyz My 9q0 l 2 x x 2
Ev 00 D 2
D ;
Iyy Izz Iyz 8b 4 l l
9q0 l 3 1 x 2 1 x 3
Ev 0 D C C1 ;
8b 4 2 l 3 l
3q0 l 4 x 3 1 x 4
Ev D C C1 x C C2 : (5.195)
16b 4 l 2 l
The two integration constants C1 and C2 can be determined from the boundary
conditions v.x D 0/ D 0 and v.x D l/ D 0 and are as follows:
3q0 l 3
C1 D ; C2 D 0: (5.196)
32b 4
Thus, the deflection v.x/ can be given as:
3q0 l 4 x 4 x 3 x
v.x/ D 2 C : (5.197)
32Eb 4 l l l
We proceed analogously for the determination of the deflection w.x/:
Izz My 15q0 l 2 x x 2
Ew 00 D 2
D ;
Iyy Izz Iyz 8b 4 l l
15q0 l 3 1 x 2 1 x 3
Ew 0 D C C3 ;
8b 4 2 l 3 l
5q0 l 4 x 3 1 x 4
Ew D C C3 x C C4 : (5.198)
16b 4 l 2 l
From the boundary conditions w.x D 0/ D 0 and w.x D l/ D 0 the integration

constants C3 and C4 can be determined:
5q0 l 3
C3 D ; C4 D 0: (5.199)
32b 4
For the deflection w.x/ we thus obtain:
5q0 l 4 x 4 x 3 x
w.x/ D 2 C : (5.200)
32Eb 4 l l l
J
Shear stresses in beams
6
Beams under bending generally do not only develop bending stresses, i.e. normal
stresses. Rather, it turns out that shear stresses in the plane of the cross-section also
occur, which are related to transverse shear forces. All the necessary equations for
the analytical determination of shear stresses are derived for both thick-walled and
thin-walled cross-sections, and it is shown how to carry out the analysis of shear
stresses in beams due to transverse shear forces. An important geometric quantity is
the so-called shear center of a cross-section, where transverse shear forces have to
act in order to avoid (generally unwanted) torsion in the considered beam. Students
are enabled to determine the shear stresses in thick- and thin-walled cross-sections
and to determine the location of the shear center of a cross-section.
6.1 Introduction
So far we have considered straight bars and beams under normal force and bending,
where the normal stress xx occurs as a consequence of the normal force N and
the two bending moments My and Mz . However, the equilibrium conditions for the
beam (see (5.1) and (5.4)) show that the transverse shear forces Vy and Vz must
also be present in order to ensure equilibrium. In the following we will assume that
only the transverse shear force Vz is present and that the transverse shear force Vy is
zero. From Fig. 4.2 we can conclude that Vz is related to a shear stress , and in this
chapter we will deal with the question of how we can determine shear stresses due
to a transverse shear force Vz . The explanations can easily be applied to the case of
the transverse shear force Vy which we will, however, not address in this chapter.
In the following explanations, we distinguish between thick-walled and thin-walled
cross-sections.
The fundamental problem we face in determining the shear stresses due to trans-
verse shear force is the fact that the Euler–Bernoulli beam theory assumes the
normal hypothesis and the hypothesis that the cross-sections remain plane also in
the deformed state. This is equivalent to the fact that we do not have any shear
strains in the beam. However, the shear stress is connected to the shear strain
Nature 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9_6
176 6 Shear stresses in beams
by Hooke’s law
D G: (6.1)
Since as a result of the assumptions of the underlying beam theory the shear
strains disappear, the shear stresses also would have to disappear. This is
a contradiction of the Euler–Bernoulli beam theory which results directly from the
assumptions of this theory and which is unavoidable. Accordingly, no constitutive
law is available for the determination of the shear stress , and we must obtain state-
ments about the shear stress from equilibrium considerations. In the following
explanations, let x, y, z be again the principal axes of the considered cross-section,
and given loads act exclusively in the direction of the principal axis z and result in
bending about the y-axis. In addition, a normal force may occur which is assumed
to be constant along the beam length or only slightly variable. The considerations
are also limited to straight beams which have constant properties or only slightly
varying properties along the longitudinal axis x. In the following, we will assume
linear elasticity and small deformations, with the beam material being isotropic and
homogeneous.
6.2 Thick-walled cross-sections
We consider a beam with an arbitrary cross-section (shown as a simple rectangu-

lar cross-section in Fig. 6.1) subjected to load that leads to the transverse shear
force Vz and the bending moment My as shown in Fig. 6.1, left. We now con-
sider an infinitesimal element of length dx, as indicated in Fig. 6.1, left, and cut
this element free (Fig. 6.1, middle). Here, at the negative edge, we have released
the transverse shear force Vz and the bending moment My as well as the bending
stress xx , whereas at the positive edge, these quantities occur with an infinitesimal
dMy
increment, i.e. Vz C dV dx dx, My C dx dx and xx C dx dx. Similarly, the shear
z dxx
stress xz is released on the vertical surfaces of the infinitesimal element.

We further consider an element of infinitesimal height dz, as indicated in Fig. 6.1,
middle, and cut it free (Fig. 6.1, top right). The shear stress xz (upper surface) and
xz C ddzxz dz (lower surface) occurs on the two horizontal surfaces of the element
of size bdx. The sum of the forces in x-direction gives:

dxx
xx C dx bdz xx bdz
dx

dxz
xz C bdx xz bdx D 0: (6.2)
dz
We introduce at this point the shear flow T .z/ D xz .z/b.z/, which can be in-
terpreted as the mean value of the shear stress over the width b.z/. Furthermore,
let the resulting normal force flow nxx of the normal stress xx be introduced as
nxx .z/ D xx .z/b.z/. The equilibrium condition (6.2) then leads to the following
6.2 Thick-walled cross-sections 177
Vz
xx xz
My
d xx
xx +
xx qz dx dx
d xz
xz +
y dz dz
z d xx
xx +
xz dx dx
qz dz
dx
y
dx
z My x d My
Vz My+
dx dx x
dV
Vz + dxz dx
Fig. 6.1 On the determination of the shear stress xz .
expression:
dT dnxx
D : (6.3)
dz dx
We perform an integration with respect to z on both sides of the equation in the
limits z D z0 and z and obtain:
Zz Zz
dT dnxx
dOz D T .z/ T .z D z0 / D dOz : (6.4)
dOz dx
z0 z0
Therein, T .z/ is the shear flow at an arbitrary point z, and T .z D z0 / is the initial
value of the shear flow at the starting point of integration at z D z0 .
We assume that the reference axes x, y, z are the principal axes of the cross-
section and that the applied load causes the bending moment My . In addition, there
is a normal force N acting at the center of gravity of the cross-section. The normal
force flow nxx then follows as:

N My
nxx D C z b: (6.5)
A Iyy
In (6.4) we have the first derivative of nxx with respect to x, which we obtain as
follows: 0
dnxx N My0
D C z b: (6.6)
dx A Iyy
In the following we want to assume that the first derivative N 0 of the normal force N
vanishes. Furthermore, My0 D Vz , so that (6.6) transitions into:
dnxx Vz bz
D : (6.7)
dx Iyy
Thus it follows from (6.4):
Zz
Vz
T .z/ T .z D z0 / D zbdO
O z: (6.8)
Iyy
z0
The integral expression appearing herein is the static moment Sy .z/ with respect to
a point z, i.e.
Zz
Sy .z/ D zO bdOz : (6.9)
z0
Thus, we obtain for the shear flow T .z/:
Vz Sy .z/
T .z/ T .z D z0 / D : (6.10)
Iyy
Once the shear flow has been determined, the shear stress xz .z/ D Tb.z/
.z/
can be
obtained as:
Vz Sy .z/
xy .z/ xy .z D z0 / D : (6.11)
Iyy b.z/
As an elementary example, consider the rectangular cross-section (width b,
height h) of Fig. 6.2, left. Let the shear force Vz be given. We first determine
the static moment of the partial area A, which can be understood as the sum of
the infinitesimal areas dA D bdOz between z D h2 and the arbitrary location z,
multiplied by the distance z:O
Z z ˇ " #
1 2 ˇˇz bh2 2z 2
Sy .z/ D zbdO O z D b zO ˇ D 1 : (6.12)
2 h 8 h
2
h2
The static moment takes the value zero for z D ˙ h2 , for z D 0 it amounts to
2
Sy .z D 0/ D bh8 .
b b
h A τ (z )
2 τmax
y y dA=bdz^
z z^
h dz^
2
z z
Fig. 6.2 Determination of the shear stress xz on a rectangular cross-section.

3
With the moment of inertia Iyy D bh 12 , the constant section width b and the initial
value xz .z D z0 / D 0 (at the point z D h2 , i.e. at the upper edge of the section,
no shear stresses are introduced into the cross-section), the shear stress xz .z/ is
obtained as: " 2 #
3Vz 2z
xz .z/ D 1 : (6.13)
2bh h
The shear stress is distributed parabolically over z (Fig. 6.2, right), vanishes at the
two cross-section edges z D ˙ h2 and takes its maximum value at the location z D 0
3Vz
at the height of the center of gravity of the cross-section with max D 2bh . The shear
stress xz .z/ is constant over the section width b and is not a function of y for the
considered example.
The static moment can be interpreted as the area A.z/ distinguished by the
point z under consideration multiplied by the centroidal distance zA of this area to
the total center of gravity C of the cross-section. As an example we again consider
the rectangular cross-section of Fig. 6.2 and want to determine the static moment
Sy .z D 0/ for the coordinate z D 0 (Fig. 6.3). The considered area A.z D 0/ is
A.z D 0/ D bh 2
, the distance zA is zA D h4 . Thus, the static moment Sy .z D 0/ is
given as:
bh h bh2
Sy .z D 0/ D A.z D 0/zA D D : (6.14)
2 4 8
3Vz
With (6.10) this gives the maximum value of the shear stress as max D 2bh .
It should be noted that the static moment Sy .z/ for a partial area distinguished by
the coordinate z is identical to the negative static moment of the remaining residual
area A,N i.e. Sy .A/ D Sy .A/
N holds (see Fig. 6.4).

b
the static moment on a rect-
angular cross-section. A(z)
zA
y

the static moment for a par- A
tial area and the remaining y
residual area. z
A
z
Example 6.1
Consider the triangular cross-section of Fig. 6.5. The static moment Sy .z/ and
the shear stress xz at the point z D 0 due to a given transverse shear force Vz
are to be determined. Let the moment of inertia Iyy be given with the value
3 ca3
Iyy D 2ca
36 D 18 .
The static moment Sy .z/ can be determined from the infinitesimal surface
element dA as:
Zz
Sy .z/ D b.Oz /Oz dOz : (6.15)
13 a
We formulate the width b.z/ as a function of z as follows:

2c 4c
b.z/ D zC : (6.16)
a 3
Substitution into (6.15) yields:
Zz ˇ
2c 4c 2c 3 2c 2 ˇˇz
Sy .z/ D zO C zdO
O z D zO C zO ˇ
a 3 3a 3 1a 3
13 a
2c 3 2c 2 8ca2
D z C z : (6.17)
3a 3 81
The static moment Sy at the center of gravity at z D 0 results from this as:
8ca2
Sy .z D 0/ D : (6.18)
81
4c
Thus, the shear stress xz at the location z D 0 with width b.z D 0/ D 3
can be
determined as:
!
8ca2
Vz
81 4Vz
xz .z D 0/ D 3
D : (6.19)
ca 4c 3ac
18 3
J
Fig. 6.5 Triangular cross-

2c
section.
b(z)
a
y 3
z
^ dz^
2a
dA=bdz^ 3
z
Example 6.2
Consider the trapezoidal cross-section shown in Fig. 6.6. Let the moment of
inertia Iyy be given with the value Iyy D 78a4 . The static moment Sy .z/ as well
as the shear stress xz at the height of the center of gravity at z D 0 are to be
determined.
The static moment as a function of the coordinate z can be specified as:
Zz
Sy .z/ D b.Oz /Oz dOz : (6.20)
10
3 a
The width b.z/ can be formulated as a function of z as follows:

z 14a
b.z/ D C : (6.21)
2 3
Then it follows from (6.20):
Zz 3 ˇz
zO 14a zO 7Oz 2 a ˇˇ
Sy .z/ D C zO dOz D C ˇ 10a
2 3 6 3 3
10
3 a
z3 7az 2 1600a3
D C : (6.22)
6 3 81
The static moment Sy at the location of the center of gravity at z D 0 is given as:
1600a3
Sy .z D 0/ D : (6.23)
81
Thus, the shear stress at z D 0 can be determined as:
!
1600a3
Vz
81 400Vz
xz .z D 0/ D D : (6.24)
14a 7371a2
78a 4
3
J
Fig. 6.6 Trapezoidal cross-

3a
section.
10 a
3 6a
y dz^
z^ 8a
3
dA=bdz^
z
b(z)
6a
Example 6.3
Consider the I-shaped cross-section of Fig. 6.7, top left. We want to determine
the shear stress distribution xz due to a given transverse shear force Vz .
We first determine the moment of inertia Iyy of the cross-section as follows:

12a .6a/3 4a 6a3
Iyy D2 C C 2 6a 12a .6a/2 D 5688a4: (6.25)
12 12
To determine the static moment Sy .z/ and the shear stress xz .z/, the three local
axes s1 , s2 and s3 are introduced as shown in Fig. 6.7, top left.
We first consider the upper segment 0 s1 6a (Fig. 6.7, top right). The
area A1 of height s1 , highlighted in dark gray, is calculated as:
A1 D 12as1 : (6.26)
The center of gravity coordinate zC1 of the considered partial area A1 is then:
s1
zC1 D 9a C : (6.27)
2
s1
2 s1
s1 6a s1
9a
y s2 6a 18a y
s3 6a
z z
4a 4a 4a
12a
s2
2
s2 3a
y s2 y
3a
s3
s3 s3
z z
2
Fig. 6.7 I-shaped cross-section.

Thus, the static moment Sy;1 .s1 / of the partial area A1 can be given as:
Sy;1 .s1 / D zC1 A1 D 6as12 108a2s1 : (6.28)
The static moment Sy;1 .s1 / takes the value zero at s1 D 0. At s1 D 6a the value
Sy;1 .s1 D 6a/ D 432a3 results.
We now consider the area 0 s2 6a. The partial area A2 is then:
A2 D 4as2 : (6.29)
The center of gravity coordinate zC 2 is given here as:
s2
zC 2 D 3a C : (6.30)
2
The static moment Sy;2 .s2 / is then the product of zC 2 and A2 , where here the
static moment of the entire partial area A1 must be added. We obtain:
Sy;2 .s2 / D 2as22 12a2 s2 432a3 : (6.31)
Evaluated at s2 D 0, s2 D 3a (center of gravity of the cross-section) and s2 D 6a,

we get:
Sy;2 .s2 D 0/ D 432a3 ;
Sy;2 .s2 D 3a/ D 450a3 ;
Sy;2 .s2 D 6a/ D 432a3 : (6.32)
Finally, the lower section in the range 0 s3 6a is considered. The partial

area A3 and its centroid coordinate zC 3 are:
s3
A3 D 12as3 ; zC 3 D 3a C : (6.33)
2
This gives the static moment in this area as:
Sy;3 .s3 / D zC 3 A3 C Sy .s2 D 6a/ D 6as32 C 36a2 s3 432a3 : (6.34)
Evaluation yields:
Sy;3 .s3 D 0/ D 432a3 ; Sy;3 .s3 D 6a/ D 0: (6.35)

Fig. 6.8 Shear stress distri- V

bution in the I-cross-section. 0.0063 a2z
V
0.019 a2z
V
τmax =0.020 2z
y a
V
0.019 a2z
V
z 0.0063 a2z
With the static moment thus determined, the shear stress xz can be determined
as follows:
xz .s1 D 0/ D 0;

Vz 432a3 Vz
xz .s1 D 6a/ D 4
D 0:0063 ;
5688a
12a a2
Vz 432a3 Vz
xz .s2 D 0/ D 4 4a
D 0:019 2 ;
5688a
a
Vz 450a3 Vz
xz .s2 D 3a/ D 4 4a
D 0:020 2 ;
5688a
a
Vz 432a3 Vz
xz .s2 D 6a/ D 4 4a
D 0:019 2 ;
5688a
a
Vz 432a3 Vz
xz .s3 D 0/ D D 0:0063 2 ;
5688a4 12a a
xz .s3 D 6a/ D 0: (6.36)
A graphical representation of the shear stress distribution is given in Fig. 6.8. J
Example 6.4
Consider the circular cross-section of Fig. 6.9, left, under a transverse shear
force Vz . We want to determine the static moment Sy .z/ and the shear stress xz
distribution as functions of z.
Fig. 6.9 Circular cross- b(z)

section. dA=bdz^
R
R dz^ z z^
y y
z z
6.3 Thin-walled cross-sections 185
We first formulate the width b of an infinitesimal element as a function of z.

From the Pythagorean theorem it follows on the basis of Fig. 6.9, right:
p
b.z/ D 2 R2 z 2 : (6.37)
The static moment is then obtained from integration in the limits of z D R up

to an arbitrary point z:
Zz Zz p
Sy D zO b.Oz /dOz D 2 zO R2 zO 2 dOz
R R
q ˇz q
2 ˇ
3ˇ 2
D 2 2
.R zO / ˇ D .R2 z 2 /3 : (6.38)
3 R 3
R4
Thus, the shear stress in the given circular cross-section with Iyy D 4
and
A D R2 can be determined as:
q !
2 3
Vz .R2 z 2 /
3 4Vz z2
xz D D 1 2 : (6.39)
R4 p 2 3A R
2 R z2
4
Its maximum value at the height of the center of gravity at z D 0 is given by
4Vz
max D : (6.40)
3A
J
6.3 Thin-walled cross-sections
In this section, we now consider straight beams that can be considered to be very
thin-walled. In this case, we can assume that the shear stresses are constant over
the thickness of the individual cross-section segments and, moreover, always run in
the tangential direction. To derive the basic equations for such thin-walled beams,
we consider Fig. 6.10, which shows a thin-walled beam loaded, for example, by
a line load qz . However, also single forces in the z-direction and bending moments
around the y-axis are possible. Again, y and z are the principal axes of the cross-
section. The applied load is assumed to cause the transverse shear force Vz .x/ and
the bending moment My .x/. We now examine an infinitesimal section element of
length dx and cut it out of the beam. The bending moment My causes the lin-
early distributed normal stress xx over z, as shown in the free body image of
Fig. 6.10, middle. Note that the normal stress xx is also a function of the longi-
tudinal coordinate x, so that we apply the normal stress xx to the negative edge of
the infinitesimal element, whereas at the positive edge we have the normal stress xx
Vz
My n xx
Ts dT
Ts+ dxsdx
σ xx qz
s
dT
y Ts+ dssds n xx +d n xx
dx
s
s d σ xx
z ds σ xx +
dx dx
s t(s)
qz
s
s
dx
y Ts (s)
dx d My
My+
dx dx x
z My x dV
Vz Vz + zdx
dx
Fig. 6.10 Determination of the shear stress .s/ on a thin-walled cross-section.
together with an infinitesimal increment ddxxx dx. We proceed in the same way with
the transverse shear force Vz and the bending moment My . We now want to deter-
mine the distribution of the shear stress over the thin-walled cross-section in the
presence of the normal stress xx . For this purpose, we introduce a circumferential
coordinate s as indicated in the infinitesimal element. Since the shear stress is al-
ways parallel to the local coordinate s, we will refer to it as s . We will show later
that we can appropriately describe the shear stress as a function of s, i.e. s D s .s/
holds. Let the wall thickness also be a function of s, i.e. t D t.s/.
At this point, we again introduce the shear flow Ts .s/, which is the resultant of
the shear stress s over the section thickness t:
Ts .s/ D s .s/t.s/: (6.41)
The shear flow thus has the unit of a force per unit length. With (6.41) we assume
that the shear stress s .s/ at each location s is constantly distributed over the wall
thickness t.s/ of the cross-section. This is a useful and valid assumption for thin-
walled cross-sections.
In the free body image of Fig. 6.10, right, an infinitesimal sectional element of
width ds is given, which we have cut out from the infinitesimal sectional element
of Fig. 6.10, middle. Here, on the one hand, the shear force flow Ts .s/ with its
respective infinitesimal increments is shown. In addition, we have the resulting nor-
mal force flow nxx , which represents the resultant of the normal stress xx over the
cross-section thickness t:
nxx .s/ D xx t.s/: (6.42)
We form the equilibrium of forces in the x-direction and obtain:

dnxx dTs
nxx C dx ds nxx ds C Ts C ds dx Ts dx D 0: (6.43)
dx ds
This results in:

dnxx dTs
dxds C dsdx D 0: (6.44)
dx ds
We divide by dx and perform an integration over s from a starting point s D sA to
an arbitrary point s. It follows:
Zs Zs
dTs dnxx
dOs D Ts .s/ Ts .s D sA / D dOs : (6.45)
dOs dx
sA sA
The force flow nxx follows from the normal stress xx due to uniaxial bending with
additional normal force according to
N My
xx D C z: (6.46)
A Iyy
Thus:
N My
nxx D C z t; (6.47)
A Iyy
so that
dnxx N0 My0
D n0xx D C z t: (6.48)
dx A Iyy
We assume that there is a constant normal force N over x, so we can assume N 0 D 0.
With the relation between My and Vz
dMy
D My0 D Vz (6.49)
dx
follows:
Vz
n0xx D zt: (6.50)
Iyy
Then we obtain from (6.45):
Zs Zs
Vz Vz
Ts .s/ Ts .s D sA / D tzdOs D tzdOs : (6.51)
Iyy Iyy
sA sA
The integral appearing in this expression is the static moment Sy .s/ at an arbitrary
point s of the section element under consideration. Thus:
Vz
Ts .s/ Ts .s D sA / D Sy .s/: (6.52)
Iyy
With (6.52) an expression for the determination of the shear force flow Ts .s/ at an
arbitrary location s is found, which depends on the acting shear force Vz and also
Fig. 6.11 Double sym- t

metric I-cross-section with
s1 s2
local circumferential axes si t s3
(i D 1; 2; : : : ; 5). h y C
t
s4 s5
b b
requires the knowledge of the moment of inertia Iyy and the static moment Sy .s/.
The term Ts .s D sA / is the initial value of the shear force flow at a point s D sA .
Once the shear flow Ts .s/ for a thin-walled cross-section is known, then the shear
stress s .s/ at each location s can be determined as:
Ts .s/
s .s/ D : (6.53)
t.s/
In this section, we restrict our considerations to open, thin-walled cross-sections
in which no shear loads are applied at the free ends. Closed cross-sections are not
discussed here. In this case, we can set the initial value Ts .s D sA / to zero if we
place the initial value of the integration in (6.45) at a free end. For the shear flow
Ts .s/ this leaves the following expression:
Vz
Ts .s/ D Sy .s/: (6.54)
Iyy
To illustrate the determination of the shear flow Ts .s/ and the shear stresses s .s/,
we consider the I-cross-section of Fig. 6.11 (web height h, flange width 2b, con-
stant wall thickness t). We assume that this is a very thin-walled cross-section, so
we will again refer exclusively to the skeleton line in all considerations. The coordi-
nate system is a principal axis system. For the calculation, the local circumferential
axes si (i D 1; 2; : : : ; 5) are introduced as shown. It should be noted that the choice
of the starting points and directions of the local axes are arbitrary. The moment of
inertia Iyy can be taken directly from Example 4.12:
th3
Iyy D C tbh2 : (6.55)
12
We will first determine the static moment Sy .s/, which is given by the following
equation:
Zs
Sy .s/ D tzdOs : (6.56)
sA
We first examine segment 1 at z D h2 , which is described by the local axis s1 with

0 s1 b (Fig. 6.12, left). From the integration rule (6.56) we can conclude that
Fig. 6.12 Determination s1 s3

of the static moment for the 2
double symmetric I-cross- h h s3
s1
section. 2 2 s3
y y
h h
2 2
b b b b
z z
the distribution of the static moment in this segment will be linear with s1 since the
coordinate z is constant with the value z D h2 . It is therefore sufficient to determine
the static moment for s1 D 0 and for s1 D b. Between these two edge values the static
moment is linear, as can be seen from the integration up to an arbitrary value s1 :
Zs1 ˇ
h thOs1 ˇˇs1 ths1
Sy .s1 / D t dOs1 D D : (6.57)
2 2 ˇ0 2
0
At the point s1 D 0 the static moment takes the value zero, whereas at the point
s1 D b we obtain:
tbh
Sy .s1 D b/ D : (6.58)
2
We would also obtain the result (6.58) if we multiplied the centroid coordinate
zC;1 D h2 with the area A1 D tb. We proceed analogously in segment 2, where
a linear distribution of Sy .s/ is also obtained which results in Sy .s2 D 0/ D 0 and
Sy .s2 D b/ D t bh
2 .
The web is considered by use of the local reference axis s3 (Fig. 6.12, right),
which has its origin at the intersection point of the two upper flange segments. The
two values of the static moments Sy .s1 D b/ and Sy .s2 D b/ at the point s3 D 0 add
up, and we obtain:
Sy .s3 D 0/ D Sy .s1 D b/ C Sy .s2 D b/ D tbh: (6.59)
The course of the static moment Sy .s3 / over s3 can again be obtained by integration:
Zs3
Sy .s3 / D tbh C tzdOs3 : (6.60)
0
With z D h2 C s3 this yields:
Zs3
h ths3 ts 2
Sy .s3 / D tbh C t C sO3 dOs3 D tbh C 3: (6.61)
2 2 2
0
At the location of the center of gravity of the cross-section at s3 D h2 , the static

moment Sy .s3 / results in:

h h
Sy s3 D D th b C : (6.62)
2 8
This result is also obtained if the considered partial area of the web t h2 is multiplied
by its centroid coordinate h4 and the value Sy .s3 D 0/tbh is added. At the bottom
of the web at the location s3 D h we obtain from (6.61):
Sy .s3 D h/ D tbh: (6.63)
It should be noted here that when considering the web, the function s to be inte-
grated is a linear function, as can be seen from (6.61). Therefore, the static mo-
ment Sy over s3 is parabolic in the web, with the maximum value at the center of
gravity of the cross-section.
Consideration of the two areas 4 and 5, i.e. the two lower flange segments, yields
the following values for the static moment Sy :
tbh
Sy .s4 D 0/ D 0; Sy .s4 D b/ D ;
2
tbh
Sy .s5 D 0/ D 0; Sy .s5 D b/ D : (6.64)
2
The variation of the static moment over the cross-section is shown in Fig. 6.13, left.
With the static moment thus determined, both the shear flow Ts .s/ and the shear
tbh tbhVz bhVz

2 2 Iyy 2 Iyy
s s s (+) s tbhVz s (+) s bhVz
(– )
tbh Iyy Iyy
s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2
s3 s2 s3 s2 s3 s2
(+) V (+) V
th b+ h8 th b+ h8 I z h b+ h8 I z
(– )
yy yy
s4 s5 s4 s5 s4 s5
(+) tbh
(–)
tbhVz (–) bhVz
s s s s s s Iyy
tbh tbhVz Iyy bhVz
2 2 Iyy 2 Iyy
Vz Sy (s) Vz Sy (s)
S y (s) Ts(s) = - τ s(s) = -
I yy I yy t(s)
Fig. 6.13 Static moment Sy .s/, shear flow Ts .s/ and shear stress s .s/ at the I-cross-section under
the transverse shear force Vz .
stress s .s/ can be determined. They are also shown in Fig. 6.13. Here, the sign
indicates the direction of action of Ts .s/ and s .s/. If a positive sign is present, then
the direction of action corresponds to the direction of the local axis si . If, on the
other hand, there is a negative sign, then the direction of action of Ts .s/ and s .s/ is
opposite to the direction of si . The direction of action of shear flow and shear stress
is indicated by arrows.
Some general rules can be derived from the previous considerations:
At a free profile end, the shear flow is always zero, unless tangential shear loads
are applied there.
If z D 0, then Ts and s show constant values. In the case of a constant value for
z not equal to zero (as in the above example in the case of the flange segments)
the course of Ts and s is linear over the local reference axis s. If, on the other
hand, a linearly varying z-coordinate is present in a segment under consideration
(as was the case for the web in the above example), then Ts and s follow as
parabolic functions of s.
The shear flow Ts due to a transverse shear force Vz assumes extreme values
exactly where the y-axis intersects the skeleton line of the cross-section.
If the cross-section under consideration has an axis of symmetry, then the course
of Ts and s is symmetrical due to the shear force acting in the axis of symmetry
(in the above example, the shear flow Ts and shear stress s are symmetrical to
the z-axis). The shear flow Ts and the shear stress s due to Vz show zero values
at intersections of the z-axis with the skeleton line, if z is a symmetry axis.
A very simple verification of the analysis can be performed by considering that
the resultants of the shear stress s of all segments must be equal in sum to
the acting transverse shear force. If only one shear force Vz is acting, then the
z-components of the resultants of the shear flow Ts must add up to the shear
force Vz .
At such points where several segments intersect, the sum of all resulting shear
forces must be zero. For this purpose, we consider again the I-cross-section of
Fig. 6.11. In Fig. 6.14, the section element of Fig. 6.10 of length dx is shown
again. We cut out another section element exactly at the intersection point of the
two flanges and the web and investigate the equilibrium of the resultants of the
shear flows acting at this point. The sum of all forces in x-direction then leads to
.Ts .s1 D b/ C Ts .s2 D b/ Ts .s3 D 0//dx D 0. On the basis of Fig. 6.13 it can
be seen that this requirement is fulfilled here.
s1 s2
qz s3
s4
s4
y dx
Ts (s)
dx Ts(s2= b)
Ts(s1= b)
My
z x
Vz Ts(s3= 0)
Fig. 6.14 Verification of the analysis at the example of the I-cross-section.
Example 6.5
Consider the C-cross-section of Fig. 6.15. Let the arbitrary reference frame y,N zN
be defined as indicated, and we first determine the centroid coordinates yNC , zN C .
We obtain: Z
ydA
N b
2b 2
yNC D Z
A
D 2 D b ;
t.h C 2b/ 2b C h
dA
A
Z
zN dA h
ht Cbt h h
A
zN C D Z D 2 D : (6.65)
t.h C 2b/ 2
dA
A
Fig. 6.15 C-cross-section b

with reference axes y, N zN
(left), center of gravity po- b b
4
sition and center of gravity y
coordinate system y, z h
(right). t 2 C
t h h y
h
2
t
z z
For simplicity, let us assume that the web height h is exactly twice the flange
width b, i.e. h D 2b. For the coordinates of the center of gravity then follows:
b h
yNC D ; zNC D D b: (6.66)
4 2
The moments of inertia IyN yN , IzN zN and the deviation moment IyN zN follow as:
Z
20tb 3
IyN yN D zN 2 dA D ;
3
A
Z
2tb 3
IzN zN D yN 2 dA D ;
3
A
Z
IyN zN D yN zN dA D tb 3 : (6.67)
A
Steiner’s theorem then gives the following values for Iyy , Izz , Iyz with respect
to the center of gravity C:
8tb 3
Iyy D IyN yN zN C2 A D ;
3
5tb 3
Izz D IzN zN yNC2 A D ;
12
Iyz D IyN zN yNC zN C A D 0: (6.68)
The deviation moment becomes zero with respect to the center of gravity, i.e.
y and z constitute a principal axis system.
We again determine the course of the static moment Sy .s/ segment by seg-
ment, and for this purpose we introduce the circumferential local reference axes
s1 , s2 and s3 as shown in Fig. 6.16. We first determine the static moments as
Fig. 6.16 Determination of s2

s1
the static moment Sy .s/ for 2
the C-cross-section. s2
b s1 b b
s2
b b b s3
s3
b b b
functions of the circumferential coordinates s1 , s2 and s3 . We obtain:

Sy .s1 / D .ts1 / .b/ D tbs1 ;
s2 1
Sy .s2 / D Sy .s1 D b/ C ts2 b C D ts22 tbs2 tb 2 ;
2 2
Sy .s3 / D Sy .s2 D 2b/ C ts3 b D tb 2 C tbs3 : (6.69)
Evaluation at relevant points yields:
Sy .s1 D 0/ D 0;
Sy .s1 D b/ D t b .b/ D tb 2 ;
Sy .s2 D 0/ D Sy .s1 D b/ D tb 2 ;

b 3tb 2
Sy .s2 D b/ D tb 2 C bt D ;
2 2
Sy .s2 D 2b/ D tb 2 C 2bt 0 D tb 2 ;
Sy .s3 D 0/ D Sy .s2 D 2b/ D tb 2 ;
Sy .s3 D b/ D 0: (6.70)
The distribution of Sy .s/ is shown in Fig. 6.17, left. With this, both the shear
flow Ts .s/ (Fig. 6.17, middle) and the shear stress s .s/ (Fig. 6.17, right) can be
calculated. The shear flow can be given with (6.69) as a section-wise function
as:
3 Vz s1
Ts .s1 / D ;
8 b b
2
3 Vz 1 s2 s2
Ts .s2 / D 1 ;
8 b 2 b2 b
3 Vz s3
Ts .s3 / D 1 : (6.71)
8 b b
J
Fig. 6.17 Static moment 3Vz 3Vz

Sy .s/, shear flow Ts .s/ and 8b 8tb
shear stress s .s/ for the s s s 3Vz
( ) 2 ( ) 3Vz ( )
C-cross-section under trans- tb 8b 8tb
verse shear force Vz . s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2
s2 2 s2 s2
( ) 3tb ( ) 9Vz ( ) 9Vz
2 16b 16tb
s3 2
s3 s3
tb 3Vz 3Vz
( ) ( ) ( )
s s 8b s 8tb
2
tb 3Vz 3Vz
8b 8tb
Vz Sy (s) Vz Sy (s)
S y (s) Ts(s) = - τ s(s) = -
I yy I yy t(s)
Example 6.6
Consider a thin-walled box-cross-section (width b, height h D b, constant wall

thickness t, Fig. 6.18, top left), which is loaded by a transverse shear force Vz
and which has an opening in the center at its upper edge. The distribution of
the shear flow Ts .s/ is to be determined. How does the distribution of the shear
flow change if the opening is placed in the lower left corner instead (Fig. 6.18,
middle left)? What is the shear flow distribution for a closed box-cross-section
3
(Fig. 6.18, bottom left)? The moment of inertia Iyy is Iyy D 2t3b .
We first consider the cross-section of Fig. 6.18, top left, and introduce the
local circumferential axes si as indicated. The variation of the static moment as
tb2 tb2 3Vz 3Vz

t 4 4 8b s 8b
s1 s5 tb 2 s s tb2 3Vz ( ) s 3Vz
(–) (+) (-)
s2 4 4 8b 8b
t s2 s2 s2 (+) s2
t (–) (+) (-)
h=b y C Sy(s) Ts(s)
3tb2 3tb2 9Vz 9Vz
t 8 8 16b 16b
s4
tb2 (–) (+) tb2 3Vz ( ) (-) 3Vz
s3 s s s s
4 2 4 8b 8b
tb tb2 3Vz 3Vz
z 4 4 8b 8b
b
tb2 3Vz
2 4b
s3 s tb2 s
(+) (-) 3Vz
s4 2 4b
s2 s2
s2 s2
tb2 ( ) (+) 3Vz ( ) (-)
15Vz
y C 8 Sy(s) 5tb2 16b Ts (s)
8 16b
s2
s1 (+) tb2 (-) 3Vz
s 2 2 s 4b
tb 3Vz
z 2 4b
tb2 tb2 3Vz 3Vz
t 4 4 8b s 8b
tb 2 s s tb2 3Vz ( ) s 3Vz
( ) (+) (-)
4 4 8b 8b
t t s2 ( ) (+) s2 s2 (+) (-) s2
y C 3tb2 Sy(s) 3tb2 9Vz Ts(s) 9Vz
t 8 8 16b 16b
tb2 ( ) (+) tb2 3Vz ( ) (-) 3Vz
4 s s 4 8b s s 8b
2
tb tb2 3Vz 3Vz
z 4 4 8b 8b
Fig. 6.18 Considered cross-sections (left), static moments (middle), shear flow distributions
(right).
a function of si can be given as:

Sy .s1 D 0/ D 0;

b b b tb 2
Sy s1 D Dt D ;
2 2 2 4

b tb 2
Sy .s2 D 0/ D Sy s1 D D ;
2 4

b tb 2 b b 3tb 2
Sy s2 D D Ct D ;
2 4 2 4 8
tb 2 tb 2
Sy .s2 D b/ D Ct b0D ;
4 4
tb 2
Sy .s3 D 0/ D Sy .s2 D b/ D ;
4

b tb 2 b b
Sy s3 D D C t D 0;
2 4 2 2
2
tb b tb 2
Sy .s3 D b/ D Ct b D ;
4 2 4
tb 2
Sy .s4 D 0/ D Sy .s3 D b/ D ;
4

b tb 2 b b 3tb 2
Sy s4 D D Ct D ;
2 4 2 4 8
tb 2 tb 2
Sy .s4 D b/ D Ct b0D ;
4 4
tb 2
Sy .s5 D 0/ D Sy .s4 D b/ D ;
4

b tb 2 b b
Sy s5 D D Ct D 0: (6.72)
2 4 2 2
The distribution of the static moment Sy .s/ for the cross-section with the centric
opening in the upper flange is shown in Fig. 6.18, top center. From this, the shear
flow Ts .s/ can then be determined, which is shown in Fig. 6.18, top right.
If the cross-section has its opening in the lower left corner as shown in
Fig. 6.18, middle left, then the course of the static moment Sy .s/ results as
shown in Fig. 6.18, middle. The step-by-step representation of the calculation is
omitted here. The resulting shear flow Ts .s/ is shown in Fig. 6.18, center right.
We now consider the closed box-cross-section of Fig. 6.18, bottom left.
For closed cross-sections the problem arises that the initial value Ts .s D sA /
(see (6.52)) cannot be neglected a priori. The analysis of closed cross-sections
requires more advanced computational methods, which we will not explain here.
However, for the specific case of Fig. 6.18, bottom left, we can take advantage
of the fact that in the two horizontal segments of this doubly symmetric cross-
section, at those points where the z-axis intersects the skeleton line, the static
moment and hence the shear flow Ts become zero. Therefore, for this case, it
is sufficient to consider one of the two symmetry halves and to set the static
moment to zero at the resulting free ends. This results in the distributions for the
static moment Sy .s/ and the shear flow Ts as shown in Fig. 6.18, bottom center
and bottom right, respectively. Apparently, identical distributions are obtained
here as those already determined for the cross-section with a centric opening in
its upper flange (Fig. 6.18, top). J
Example 6.7
Consider the circular cross-section of constant wall thickness t as shown in

Fig. 6.19, left. We are looking for the distribution of the shear flow Ts . How
does the shear flow change when the cross-section has a centric opening at its
right edge (Fig. 6.19, right)?
We first consider the closed circular cross-section of Fig. 6.19, left, taking ad-
vantage of the fact that it is a symmetric cross-section. Under the shear force Vz ,
the shear flow will exhibit zero values at those points where the z-axis inter-
sects the cross-section respectively the skeleton line. It is therefore sufficient
to cut the cross-section into two halves and to consider one of these two halves
(Fig. 6.20, top left). To describe the static moment and the shear flow, the angle '
is introduced as shown. The infinitesimal element dA can then be determined as
dA D tRm d'. The static moment Sy at any point ' D ˛ is then calculated with
z D Rm cos ' as:
Z˛
ˇ˛
Sy D 2
.Rm cos '/tRm d' D Rm t sin ' ˇ0 D Rm
2
t sin ˛: (6.73)
0
The distribution of the static moment over half the cross-section is shown in
Fig. 6.20, top center. At the point ' D 2 the maximum value with Sy D Rm 2
t
3
occurs. The resulting shear flow curve T with Iyy D tRm is shown in Fig. 6.20,
top right. The maximum value of the shear flow occurs at the height of the center
Vz
of gravity at ' D 2 and amounts to max D R m
.
The course of the shear flow T shown in Fig. 6.20, top right, refers only to the
left half of the actually closed, thin-walled circular cross-section. The course in
the right half is obtained by mirroring the left half, the distribution for the closed
cross-section is as shown in Fig. 6.20, bottom.
Fig. 6.19 Thin-walled cir-

cular cross-section (left),
Rm Rm
circular cross-section with an
opening (right).
y y
t t
z z
Fig. 6.20 Determination dA=tRmd

of the static moment Sy and
the shear flow T at the thin- Rm cos Rm (-) (+)
Vz
walled circular cross-section. y Rm2 t Sy Rm T
Vz (+) )+( Vz
Rm T Rm
We now consider the cross-section of Fig. 6.19, right, with a centric opening
at its right edge, and determine the static moment Sy as shown in Fig. 6.21, left.
With z D Rm sin ' the static moment follows as:
Z˛
ˇ˛
Sy D 2
.Rm sin '/tRm d' D Rm t cos ' ˇ0 D Rm
2
t.cos ˛ 1/: (6.74)
0
Thus, the shear flow T can be determined as:

Vz
T D .1 cos ˛/: (6.75)
Rm
The maximum value results at the point ' D and amounts to:
2Vz
Tmax D : (6.76)
Rm
This value is exactly two times higher than the maximum value of the closed
profile. J
dA=tRmd
Rm Rm sin (+)
y
2Vz
Rm T
Fig. 6.21 Determination of the static moment Sy at the thin-walled circular cross-section with
a centric opening at its right edge (left), distribution of the shear flow T (right).
Example 6.8
Consider the triangular cross-section with an opening at its right edge as shown
in Fig. 6.22, left. The cross-section is subjected to the transverse shear force Vz .
The distribution of the shear flow Ts is to be determined. The dimension a is
given, the wall thickness is constant with the value t.
The local circumferential axes s1 , s2 , s3 are introduced as indicated in
Fig. 6.22. We determine the static moment Sy as a function of the circum-
ferential coordinates s1 , s2 , s3 as follows:
Zs1 ˇs
sO1 sO12 ˇˇ 1 s2
Sy .s1 / D tdOs1 D t ˇ D t 1 ;
2 4 0 4
0
Zs2 ˇs
a taOs2 t sO22 ˇˇ 2 ta2
Sy .s2 / D C sO2 tdOs2 C Sy .s1 D a/ D C
2 2 2 ˇ0 4
0
ts22 tas2 ta2
D ;
2 2 4
Zs3 ˇs
a sO3 taOs3 t sO32 ˇˇ 3 ta2
Sy .s3 / D tdOs3 C Sy .s2 D a/ D
2 2 2 4 ˇ0 4
0
ts32 tas3 ta2
D C : (6.77)
4 2 4
ta 2 1 Vz ta 2
4 4 Iyy
ta 2 1 Vz ta 2
(-) 4 Iyy (+)
a 4
s2 s1
(-) (+)
a y t 3ta2 3 Vz ta 2 Ts(s)
8 Sy(s) 8 Iyy
s3 ta 2 (-) 1 Vz ta 2 (+)
a 4 ta 2 4 Iyy 1 Vz ta 2
z 4 4 Iyy
Fig. 6.22 Triangular cross-section with an opening at its right edge (left), static moment Sy (mid-
dle), shear flow Ts (right).
We calculate the static moment at relevant points of the cross-section:

Sy .s1 D 0/ D 0;
a ta2
Sy .s1 D a/ D t a D ;
4 4
ta2
Sy .s2 D 0/ D Sy .s1 D a/ D ;
4
a ta2 a a 3
Sy s2 D D Ct D ta2 ;
2 4 2 4 8
ta2
Sy .s2 D a/ D ;
4
ta2
Sy .s3 D 0/ D Sy .s2 D a/ D ;
4
ta2 a
Sy .s3 D a/ D C t a D 0: (6.78)
4 4
The distribution of the static moment Sy .s/ is shown in Fig. 6.22, middle. The re-
sulting shear flow is shown in Fig. 6.22, right. The shear flow can be represented
using (6.77) as follows:
Vz Vz ts12
Ts .s1 / D Sy .s1 / D ;
Iyy Iyy 4

Vz Vz ts 2 tas2 ta2
Ts .s2 / D Sy .s2 / D 2 C C ;
Iyy Iyy 2 2 4

Vz Vz ts32 tas3 ta2
Ts .s3 / D Sy .s3 / D C : (6.79)
Iyy Iyy 4 2 4
We also determine the forces F1 , F2 , F3 resulting from Ts .si / by integrat-
ing (6.79):
Za Za
Vz t Vz ta3
F1 D Ts .s1 /ds1 D s12 ds1 D ;
Iyy 4 Iyy 12
0 0
Za Za
Vz ts 2 tas2 ta2 Vz ta3
F2 D Ts .s2 /ds2 D 2 C C ds2 D ;
Iyy 2 2 4 Iyy 3
0 0
Za Za
Vz ts32 tas3 ta2 Vz ta3
F3 D Ts .s3 /ds3 D C ds3 D : (6.80)
Iyy 4 2 4 Iyy 12
0 0
6.4 Shear center 201
Fig. 6.23 Resulting forces on F1

the triangular cross-section
with an opening at its right F2
edge.
F3
To verify our calculation we form the horizontal and vertical sum of forces
(Fig. 6.23). The sum of horizontal forces results in F1 cos 30ı F3 cos 30ı , which
in sum gives the value zero. This is an obvious result because there is no shear
force component in the horizontal direction. The vertical force sum leads to
1 Vz 3
F2 F1 cos 60ı F3 cos 60ı D ta : (6.81)
4 Iyy
We now determine the moment of inertia Iyy of the cross-section. The part of
t a3
the vertical web results in IyN y;2
N D 12 . The moments of inertia IyN y;1
N and IyN y;3
N of
the segments running diagonally are obtained with the result from Example 4.18
with ' D 60ı as
ta3 ta3
IyN y;1
N D IyN y;3
N D .1 C cos 120ı / D : (6.82)
24 48
Steiner’s theorem then yields:
2 2
Iyy D IyN y;1
N C IyN y;2
N C IyN y;3
N C zS;1 A1 C zS;3 A3
ta3 ta3 ta3 a 2 a 2

D C C C ta C ta
48 12 48 4 4
ta3
D : (6.83)
4
Thus, the vertical force sum yields the value Vz . This is also an obvious re-
sult – the sum of vertical forces must be equal to the applied transverse shear
force Vz . J
6.4 Shear center
In a number of practically relevant cross-sections, the application of the shear force

at the center of gravity C leads to undesired torsion of the beam. There is a specific
point where a transverse shear force has to be applied if this (generally unplanned)
torsion is to be avoided. This point is called the shear center M, and we devote
this section to determining the location of this specific point. For motivation, we
Fig. 6.24 Resulting forces 3Vz

on the C-cross-section under 8tb 3V
the transverse shear force Vz . s F1 = 16z
( +)
3Vz
8tb
s1 s2
s2
( +) 9Vz
F2 =Vz
16tb
s3
( +) 3Vz
s 8tb 3V
3Vz F1 = 16z
8tb
Vz Sy (s)
τ s(s) = -
I yy t(s)
consider the C-cross-section of Fig. 6.24 (flange width b, web height h D 2b), which
is subjected to the transverse shear force Vz . If the line of action of Vz passes through
the center of gravity C of the cross-section, then a torsional effect occurs in this
cross-section – the cross-section twists around the x-axis. To show this, we first
form the forces F1 and F2 resulting from the shear flow Ts according to (6.71)
acting in the flanges and web, respectively. It follows by integration:
Zb
3 Vz s1 3
F1 D ds1 D Vz ;
8 b b 16
0
Z2b
3 Vz 1 s22 s2
F2 D 1 ds2 D Vz : (6.84)
8 b 2 b2 b
0
It turns out that the resulting force F2 corresponds exactly to the shear force Vz ,
which is an obvious result for equilibrium reasons. In addition, the two partial
forces F1 acting in the flanges of the cross-section are equal in magnitude, but have
different directions of action, so that they cancel each other out. This is also an
obvious result for reasons of equilibrium since no shear force Vy is acting.
From Fig. 6.24 it can be concluded that the resulting forces F1 and F2 produce
a torsional moment Mx about the center of gravity C:
b 5Vz b
Mx D 2 F1 b F2 D : (6.85)
4 8
Obviously, when the shear force acts at the center of gravity C, there is an additional
and usually unwanted torsional effect in addition to a bending effect. This can be
Fig. 6.25 Position of the b

shear center M for the C-
cross-section. b 3b
4 8
h Vz
2 C
h y M
h
2
avoided only if the shear force acts at the so-called shear center M. Let yM and zM
be the coordinates of the shear center M. We then require:
5Vz b
Mx D Vz yM : (6.86)
8
The y-coordinate yM of the shear center M then follows as:
5b
yM D : (6.87)
8
The shear center M is marked in Fig. 6.25. It is located outside the cross-section. If
the additional torsional effect due to the shear force Vz is to be avoided, it must be
ensured by design that the line of action of Vz passes through the shear center M
at yM . The determination of the shear center coordinate zM can be omitted in this
example. In the presence of a symmetry axis, as given for this example, the shear
center is always located on this symmetry axis.
Some general rules can be derived for the determination of the shear center M of
thin-walled cross-sections:
If there is an axis of symmetry for a cross-section, then the shear center M is

always located on this axis of symmetry.
If the cross-section under consideration is a point-symmetric or double-symmet-
ric cross-section, the shear center M is always located in the center of gravity
C.
If a cross-section consists of a number of thin-walled straight segments all inter-
secting at one point, then the shear center M is located exactly at the intersection
of the segments.
Fig. 6.26 shows the shear center positions for selected thin-walled cross-sections.
b1
Symmetry axis Symmetry axis
t1 t1 t1 M
h I3 b2h2t1
e= e=
I1+ I3 e t2 4Iyy y C
b31t1 h M C Symmetry axis
I1 = 12 y h y
C t2
t2 M
b33t3
I3 = 12
t3 t1
z z
z
b3 b e
Symmetry axis Symmetry axis Symmetry axis
t1 t1
t2
C M C M
t
y Symmetry axis
y Symmetry axis
y Symmetry axis
t2 t2 C M
t1 t1
t yp
z z M z t1
t2
t
C
y C M y
yp
t
zp
z
zp
z
Fig. 6.26 Location of the shear center M for selected cross-sections.
Example 6.9
For the triangular cross-section discussed in Example 6.8, the location of the
shear center is to be determined. For convenience, we use a reference frame y,
Q zQ
as shown in Fig. 6.27. The equivalence of moments about the x-axis then gives:
p
3
Vz yQM D F2 a: (6.88)
2
Vz t a3 t a3
Solving for yQM gives with F2 D Iyy 3
and Iyy D 4
:
p
2 3
yQM D a: (6.89)
3
Fig. 6.27 Position of the F1

shear center M for the trian- Vz
gular cross-section.
M F2 y~
F3
~
z
y~M
The position of the shear center with respect to the z-direction

Q can be directly
inferred as zQM D 0. The cross-section is simply symmetric, and the shear center
is always positioned on the symmetry axis. J
Example 6.10
For the thin-walled circular cross-section with an opening at its right edge as
discussed in Example 6.7, we want to determine the position of the shear center
(Fig. 6.28). For this purpose, we consider the infinitesimal element dA D tRm d˛
on which the shear stress .˛/ acts. The resulting moment about the x-axis is
then given by the circumferential integral of the shear stress .˛/ with the con-
stant lever arm Rm :
Z2 Z2
Vz Rm
Mx D .˛/Rm d˛ D .1 cos ˛/d˛ D 2Vz Rm : (6.90)

0 0
If we equate this with the resulting moment Vz yM of the shear force Vz , we

obtain:
yM D 2Rm : (6.91)
Again, the determination of the shear center coordinate zM can be omitted
since we are dealing with a simply symmetrical cross-section, so that zM D 0
results. J
Fig. 6.28 Position of the ( ) dA=tRmd

shear center M for the cir-
cular cross-section with an
opening. Vz Rm
M y
z
yM
Torsion
7
This chapter is devoted to the consideration of straight bars under torsion. First,
the constitutive law of St. Venant’s torsion is derived, and members with circular
cross-sections as well as with open and closed cross-sections with thin walls are
discussed. Finally, the determination of the state variables for statically determinate
and statically indeterminate single-span and multi-span members is shown. Students
are enabled to solve simple torsion problems of straight bars analytically with the
help of the provided equations.
7.1 Introduction
So far, straight bars and beams under normal forces and bending have been con-
sidered. However, torsion is an equally important aspect of analysis and design for
bars, and this chapter is devoted to the consideration of torsion of straight bars,
here the so-called St.-Venant’s torsion1 . In particular, we assume that the twisting
of the cross-section causes shear stresses in the plane of the cross-section, but that
no cross-section distortions occur and thus no normal stresses develop in the direc-
tion of the bar axis (so-called warping stresses). The latter aspects are part of the
so-called non-uniform torsion or warping torsion which we will not discuss in this
book.
Consider the beam shown in Fig. 7.1, which is subjected to an eccentric force F
with the eccentricity e. The beam is supported at both ends against deflection as well
as against torsion of the cross-section. The statically equivalent condition is to shift
the force to the beam axis (system bending) and at the same time to apply a mo-
ment acting around the beam longitudinal axis, the torsional moment MT D F e
(system torsion). In this case, the system concerning bending consists of a beam
simply supported at both ends under the single force F , in which bending mo-
ments My and shear forces Qz are generated (if the reference axes are a principal
axis system). The stress state in this beam will then be composed of the normal
1
Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-Venant, 1797–1886, French scientist.
Nature 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9_7
208 7 Torsion
Fork restraint
y
y y
F z F
z
e z
MT =Fe
x x x
Bending
Torsion
Fig. 7.1 Beam under eccentric load (left) and the resulting analysis models: system bending (mid-
dle), idealized as a beam simply supported at its edges, and system torsion (right), idealized as
a beam with fork restraints at its both ends.
Fig. 7.2 Bar supported on y

both sides by fork restraints
under torsional moment mT mT
distributed along the length
of the bar. z
stress xx due to bending and the shear stress due to shear, which we can treat
using the means of the previous chapters. However, due to the applied torsional
moment MT D F e, an internal torsional moment Mx will develop, which in turn
leads to shear stresses in the cross-sectional plane. Torsional moments can also
occur in a distributed form mT (see Fig. 7.2), which in turn result in internal tor-
sional moments Mx . The special feature of the so-called fork restraint for members
under torsion, as shown in Fig. 7.1, right, will be discussed later. However, it should
be noted at this point that a fork restraint supports the bar in such a way that rotation
of the bar about its longitudinal axis x is prevented at this point.
In this chapter we will assume that torsion and bending can be considered inde-
pendently from each other. In this basic introduction to the subject of torsion, we
cannot fully explain when this assumption is actually valid, but we will assume that
beam bending and torsion can be treated independently.
St.-Venant torsion of straight bars is based on the following assumptions:
Due to torsion of the bar, a twisting of the cross-section will occur. We assume
that the axis of rotation can adjust itself freely and is not forced by any external
constructive measures.
We assume that only a rotation respectively an angle of twist #.x/ about the
member axis x results.
7.2 Solid bar with circular cylindrical cross-section 209
We assume that torsion and bending can be treated independently and that the
superposition principle is valid.
We assume that although the cross-section of the bar will rotate about the bar
axis and the angle of twist #.x/ about the longitudinal axis x will result, the
cross-section will retain its shape and dimensions also in the twisted state. This
assumption is called the hypothesis of straight radii.
We assume warping-free cross-sections. This means that due to the angle of
twist # around the bar axis x there are no displacements u in the longitudinal
direction.
Geometric and material linearity is assumed, i.e. the deformations are small and
Hooke’s law is valid.
7.2 Solid bar with circular cylindrical cross-section
As a first example we consider the clamped solid bar with circular cross-section
(radius R, Fig. 7.3). The bar is loaded at its free end by the torsional moment MT ,
which causes the constant internal torsional moment Mx in the bar. We now con-
sider an infinitesimal section element of length dx, which we cut out of the bar
(Fig. 7.3, right). The torsional loading results in the shear strain of the surface
and the incremental angle of twist d# of the cross-section. The radial coordinate,
measured from the center of gravity of the cross-section, is denoted by r.
The shear strain and the angle of twist of the cross-section # are related as
follows:
dx D rd#: (7.1)
This expression can be solved for the shear strain :
d#
Dr D r# 0 : (7.2)
dx
We call the first derivative of the angle of twist # occurring in this expression the
twist # 0 of the bar.
Mx
x r
MT R
x Mx
l dx d
(+) Mx
MT
Fig. 7.3 Solid bar with circular cross-section under torsional moment MT and corresponding
internal torsional moment Mx (left), infinitesimal element (right).
210 7 Torsion
If the shear strain is given, then the shear stress distribution over the bar cross-
section can be calculated. We use the constitutive law D G, where G is the shear
modulus of the material:
D G D Gr# 0 : (7.3)
Obviously, there is a linear shear stress distribution over the radial coordinate r.
At the center of gravity of the cross-section, the shear stress becomes zero, and it
reaches its yet to be determined maximum value at the edge of the cross-section at
r D R.
Once the shear stress distribution has been determined, we can calculate the re-
sulting torsional moment Mx :
Z Z Z
Mx D rdA D Gr 2 # 0 dA D G# 0 r 2 dA: (7.4)
A A A
The area integral appearing in (7.4) can be subdivided into two partial integrals with
the area element dA D rdrd' (Fig. 7.4, left) as follows:
Z2 ZR Z2
R4 R4
Mx D G# 0 r 3 drd' D G# 0 d' D G# 0 : (7.5)
4 2
0 0 0
At this point, the torsional moment of inertia IT is introduced as follows:

R4
IT D : (7.6)
2
We then obtain:
Mx D GIT # 0 : (7.7)
The product GIT of shear modulus and torsional moment of inertia is called tor-
sional stiffness. Equation (7.7) represents the constitutive law for St.-Venant torsion.
Thus (7.3) can be represented as:
Mx
D Gr# 0 D r: (7.8)
IT
The maximum value of the torsional stress at the section edge r D R can then be
given as (Fig. 7.4, right):
Mx R
D : (7.9)
IT
Fig. 7.4 Infinitesimal area dA=rdrd

element dA (left), shear stress d (r) Mx R
profile .r/ over the circular IT
cross-section (right).
dr
r
7.3 Thin-walled bar with circular cylindrical cross-section 211
From equation (7.8) in conjunction with Fig. 7.4, right, it can be concluded that the
shear stress is linear along the radial coordinate. Thus, in the region of the center
of gravity of the considered cross-section, there is a poor utilization of the material.
7.3 Thin-walled bar with circular cylindrical cross-section
As another elementary case, we consider the thin-walled bar with circular cylindri-
cal cross-section of constant wall thickness t (see Fig. 7.5). We assume that the wall
thickness t is significantly smaller than the two radii Ri and Ra , where r D Ri and
r D Ra are the locations of the inner and outer surface of the cylinder. Let the wall of
the circular cylindrical cross-section be bisected at each point of the circumferential
coordinate s by the skeleton line at the point r D Rm .
From the consideration of the solid circular cross-section we already know that
the shear stress according to (7.8) is distributed linearly over the radial coordinate r.
Since we assume that the wall thickness t is very small for the example of a thin-
walled circular cylindrical cross-section, we can assume that the shear stress is
constant over the thickness t of the cross-section. This is shown in Fig. 7.5, bottom
right. Since we will refer all considerations to the skeleton line with the circumfer-
ential axis s, we will refer to the shear stress as s accordingly.
Let us now consider an infinitesimal element which we cut out of the cylinder
(Fig. 7.6) and where we apply the shear stress s . At the infinitesimal element of
Fig. 7.5 Bar segment with Mx

circular cylindrical cross-
section under torsional
moment Mx (top), dimen- r t
sions (bottom left), shear
x Mx
stress distribution (bottom
right). t dx
Ri Rm Ra
s τs (s)
Fig. 7.6 Infinitesimal ele- dx

ment cut out of the bar with ∂τs
τs +
∂s
ds
circular cylindrical cross- ∂τs
τs τs+ dx
section. ∂x
ds
τs
212 7 Torsion
Fig. 7.6, right, the force equilibrium with respect to the x-direction is obtained as:

@s
ts dx s C ds tdx D 0: (7.10)
@s
This leads to the following expression:
@s
D 0: (7.11)
@s
From this it can be concluded that the shear stress s does not undergo any change
over the circumferential coordinate s, and thus it is constant over the entire circum-
ference of the circular cylindrical cross-section. The internal torsional moment Mx
follows as: Z Z
Mx D rs dA D s rdA: (7.12)
A A
Since the radius is constant with r D Rm it can be drawn in front of the integral:
Z
Mx D Rm s dA: (7.13)
A
If we use the area element dA D Rm td', we obtain:
Z2
2 2
Mx D s Rm t d' D 2Rm ts : (7.14)
0
This can be solved for s :

Mx
s D 2t
: (7.15)
2Rm
Since the shear stress s was assumed to be constant over the wall thickness, this
also represents the maximum value:
Mx
max D : (7.16)
WT
Herein, WT is the section modulus of torsion or the torsional resistance moment:
2
WT D 2Rm t: (7.17)
At this point we use the relation (7.2) as well as the constitutive law D G, and it
follows:
s D Gr# 0 : (7.18)
Solving for # 0 with r D Rm and inserting (7.15) gives:
s Mx
#0 D D 3 Gt
: (7.19)
GRm 2Rm
7.4 Bars with arbitrary thin-walled cylindrical cross-sections 213
With the torsional moment of inertia

3
IT D 2Rm t (7.20)
we obtain:
Mx
#0 D : (7.21)
GIT
This can be brought into the form
Mx D GIT # 0 ; (7.22)
and again the constitutive law of St. Venant’s torsion is obtained, as already shown
with (7.7).
The mutual angle of twist of the two bar ends # is obtained by integrating the
twist # 0 over the bar length:
Zl Zl
0 Mx
# D # dx D dx: (7.23)
GIT
0 0
In case of a constant torsional moment Mx and a torsional moment of inertia IT

which is constant over the bar length, the mutual angle of twist of the bar ends is
given as:
Mx l
# D : (7.24)
GIT
If one is interested in designing a circular cylindrical cross-section that is as stiff
as possible, then one will try to maximize the torsional stiffness GIT . This is best
done by controlling the radius Rm , which enters IT to the third power.
7.4 Bars with arbitrary thin-walled cylindrical cross-sections
We now extend the considerations to the case of a bar having an arbitrary thin-
walled cylindrical cross-section with arbitrarily varying wall thickness t D t.s/
along the circumference (Fig. 7.7). The axis about which the cross-section twists
is called axis of rotation D.
At this point we introduce the shear flow Ts as follows:
Ts D s .s/t.s/: (7.25)
The shear flow is the resultant of the shear stress s .s/ over the section thickness
t.s/, and it has a corresponding unit of force per unit length, e.g. [N/m]. Using the
free body image of Fig. 7.7, right, the force equilibrium concerning the x-direction
gives the following result:
@Ts
D 0: (7.26)
@s
214 7 Torsion
t(s) Ts Ts
ds
dx τs (s)
s
∂Ts
D Ts +
∂x
dx
∂T
τ s (s) τs (s) Ts + s ds
∂
x Mx
τ s (s)
Fig. 7.7 Arbitrary thin-walled cylindrical cross-section with arbitrarily varying wall thickness
along the circumference.
This means that the shear flow Ts takes the same value at every point s on the
skeleton line, i.e. it is constant over the circumference of the cross-section. Here,
however, it is important to note that this does not hold for the shear stress s .s/ D
T .s/
t .s/
, which is shown in Fig. 7.7 in a qualitatively manner. The smaller the wall
thickness, the higher the shear stress will be. The maximum shear stress max there-
fore occurs at the location of the smallest wall thickness tmin .
We now want to establish a relationship between the shear flow Ts and the tor-
sional moment Mx . For this purpose, we consider the free body image of Fig. 7.8,
in which a sectional element of the cross-section of length ds is shown. The shear
flow Ts acting in this sectional element has the lever arm r t (measured from the
tangent of the skeleton line) with respect to the axis of rotation D as shown. The
sectional element has the distance r.s/ from the axis of rotation. The shear flow
causes the partial torsional moment dMx as follows:
dMx D Ts dsr t : (7.27)
The torsional moment Mx is obtained by integration over the circumference over
the cross-section, represented by a ring integral:
I
Mx D Ts r t ds: (7.28)
With
1
dAm D r t ds (7.29)
2
Fig. 7.8 Free body image of Tangent of the skeleton line

a cross-sectional element ds.
ds
rt
Ts
D dAm
we can solve for ds:

dAm
ds D 2 : (7.30)
rt
Substituting into (7.28) gives:
I
Mx D 2Ts dAm (7.31)
Am
or
Mx D 2Ts Am : (7.32)
Herein, Am is the area of the cross-section enclosed by the skeleton line. With this,
the shear flow Ts due to the torsional moment Mx can be determined as:
Mx
Ts D : (7.33)
2Am
The shear flow Ts as a consequence of the torsional moment Mx is thus calculated
for an arbitrary thin-walled cross-section as the torsional moment Mx divided by
twice the area Am enclosed by the skeleton line. Equation (7.33) is the so-called
First Bredt formula2 . Hence, the shear stress can also be determined, and it follows:
Ts Mx
s .s/ D D : (7.34)
t.s/ 2Am t.s/
It should be noted that s , in contrast to Ts , is generally a function of the circum-
ferential coordinate s. It reaches its maximum at the point of the cross-section with
the smallest wall thickness t D tmin :
Mx
max D : (7.35)
2Am tmin
Consequently, the smallest wall thickness tmin is decisive for the design of a thin-
walled hollow section under torsion.
At this point, the torsional resistance moment WT according to
WT D 2Am tmin (7.36)
can be introduced. Then we can write for (7.35):

Mx
max D : (7.37)
WT
We will now consider the determination of the torsional moment of inertia IT for
the thin-walled closed cross-section considered here. For this purpose, we examine
the cross-section twisted about the axis of rotation D and consider Fig. 7.9. Since
we assume that the cross-section remains unchanged in shape and dimensions, the
2
Rudolf Bredt, 1842–1900, German engineer.
216 7 Torsion
Fig. 7.9 Displacement of

a point P on the skeleton line. P
dr
rt dv
r P Skeleton line
D d Tangent
rotation of the cross-section around the axis of rotation D is a pure rigid body rota-
tion. We now examine the displacements of the point P according to Fig. 7.9, where
P is displaced by the measure dr perpendicular to the radius r. Let the displace-
ment projected onto the tangent of the skeleton line be dv. Since we can assume
small deformations and hence small angles, we can deduce from Fig. 7.9:
dr D rd#: (7.38)
We also find:
dv dv
cos ˛ D D : (7.39)
dr rd#
Also, the following relation is valid:
rt
cos ˛ D : (7.40)
r
Equating (7.39) and (7.40), we obtain:
dv D r t d#: (7.41)
We derive (7.41) once, and assuming that r t is independent of x for a prismatic bar,
we arrive at:
dv d#
D rt D r t d# 0 : (7.42)
dx dx
Now the shear strain of an infinitesimal element of the bar is considered (see
Fig. 7.10). The shear strain is composed of the angles ˛ and ˇ, which can be
determined as follows, assuming small angles:
dv du
˛D ; ˇD : (7.43)
dx ds
Thus:
dv du
D˛Cˇ D C : (7.44)
dx ds
Using Hooke’s law D G yields:
s dv du
D D C : (7.45)
G dx ds
x
dx
ds t(s) dv
dx
s ds
D s
du
x Mx
Fig. 7.10 Shear strain of an infinitesimal element.
With the shear flow Ts D s .s/t.s/ as well as (7.41) we obtain:

Ts du
D rt # 0 C : (7.46)
Gt.s/ ds
The expression duds

represents the change of the displacement u of the cross-section
over the circumferential coordinate s and thus the warping of the cross-section. In
this context warping refers to displacements u of the cross-section which occur out
of the cross-section plane in the x-direction.
We form the circumferential integral over the expression (7.46):
I I I
Ts du
ds D r t # 0 ds C ds: (7.47)
Gt.s/ ds
We first consider the second integral on the right side. We can consider the circum-
ferential integral as an integral from a starting point s D sA to the end point s D sE .
Hence:
I ZsE
du du
ds D ds D u.s D sE / u.s D sA /: (7.48)
ds ds
sA
However, since we are currently considering a closed cross-section where the points
s D sE and s D sA coincide, this integral becomes zero:
I
du
ds D 0: (7.49)
ds
We thus obtain: I I
Ts 1
ds D # 0 r t ds: (7.50)
G t.s/
The integral of the right side gives the value 2Am :
I
Ts 1
ds D 2Am # 0 : (7.51)
G t.s/
218 7 Torsion
Using the constitutive law (7.21) we obtain:

I
Ts 1 Mx
ds D 2Am : (7.52)
G t.s/ GIT
From (7.32) we can conclude Mx D 2Ts Am so that:
I
1 Ts
Ts ds D 4A2m : (7.53)
t.s/ IT
This expression can be solved for the torsional moment of inertia IT :
4A2m
IT D I : (7.54)
ds
t.s/
This is the so-called Second Bredt formula.
In many engineering applications, one is dealing with cross-sections composed
of n rectilinear segments of lengths li and whose wall thicknesses ti are constant.
One can then transform equation (7.54) into the following form:
4A2m 4A2m
IT D D n : (7.55)
n Z li X li
X ds
t
i D1 i
i D1
ti
0
In the special case that the cross-section has the constant wall thickness t, then this
expression becomes:
4A2m t
IT D : (7.56)
U
Here U is the circumference of the cross-section described by the skeleton line.
A discussion of the result for the torsional stiffness GIT of a bar shows that for
a given material it can only be controlled by the torsional moment of inertia IT . If
one is interested in the highest possible torsional stiffness, then according to (7.54)
and (7.56) one will strive to maximize the area Am enclosed by the skeleton line,
which enters here in second power. If it is a cross-section with constant wall thick-
ness t, then it turns out that the circular cross-section is the optimal shape.
Example 7.1
Consider the thin-walled box cross-section of Fig. 7.11 (width b, height h, wall
thicknesses t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 as indicated). From (7.54) and (7.55), respectively, with
Am D bh, the torsional moment of inertia IT for the given cross-section follows
as:
4b 2 h2
IT D : (7.57)
b h b h
C C C
t1 t2 t3 t4
7.5 Bars with open thin-walled cross-sections 219
Fig. 7.11 Thin-walled box t1

cross-section.
t2 t4
h
t3
b
We consider the case t1 D t, t2 D 2t, t3 D 5t, t4 D 2t and b D 100t, h D 200t.

For this we obtain:
4.20;000t 2 /2
IT D D 5 106 t 4 : (7.58)
100t 200t 100t 200t
C C C
t 2t 5t 2t
If we consider the special case that all wall thicknesses have the identical value t,
then (7.56) can be used to calculate IT . With U D 600t, the result is:
4.20;000t 2 /2 t 8
IT D D 106 t 4 : (7.59)
600t 3
J
7.5 Bars with open thin-walled cross-sections
In this section we consider thin-walled open cross-sections, where we want to study

cross-sections composed of segments with constant thickness t. Some technically
relevant examples are shown in Fig. 7.12.
In Fig. 7.13, left, a segment of such a thin-walled cross-section is given. Let
this segment be a rectangular cross-section with height h and thickness t, assuming
t h. We can interpret this cross-section as a number of nested hollow cross-
sections, as indicated in Fig. 7.13, left. The wall thickness of such a hollow cross-
section is dy.
t1 t1 t1 t1 t1
t2 t2 t2 t2 t2
t3 t3 t3
Fig. 7.12 Thin-walled open cross-sections consisting of segments of constant thickness.

220 7 Torsion
t
dy
Am
dy
τ
2y
τ (y)= τmax
t
y h
Fig. 7.13 Cross-sectional segment and its idealization.
Since we assume that the thickness t of the considered segment is sufficiently

small, we can assume (similarly to the solid circular cross-section) that the shear
stress is linearly distributed across the thickness and runs exclusively in the
z-direction in the present case, reaching its maximum value max at the edge of
the cross-section. This is shown in Fig. 7.13, middle. The circulating effect of the
shear stress due to torsion, which actually occurs at the upper and lower ends of
the segment, is not considered due to the assumption t h. Thus, we assume
a number of partial cross-sections as shown in Fig. 7.13, right, which run com-
pletely over the height h of the segment. If we assume sufficiently small values
for dy, then we can assume that the shear stress is constant in each of these sub-
sections, as shown in Fig. 7.13, right. Each of these partial cross-sections encloses
the partial surface Am D 2yh. Using the first Bredt formula (7.33), the partial shear
flow dTs D .y/dy gives the corresponding partial torsional moment, which is
transmitted over the considered partial cross-section:
dMx D 2Am dTs : (7.60)
With
2y
.y/ D max (7.61)
t
and Am D 2yh we obtain:
8y 2 hmax
dMx D dy: (7.62)
t
t
Integration over the cross-section from y D 0 to y D 2
provides:
1
Mx D max ht 2 : (7.63)
3
Using the torsional resistance moment
1 2
WT D ht (7.64)
3
leads to the maximum shear stress as follows:
Mx
max D : (7.65)
WT
An expression for the torsional moment of inertia can be found in the same way.
We use the second Bredt formula (7.54) and apply it to the partial cross-section of
Fig. 7.13. For the partial moment of inertia dIT we obtain:
dIT D 8hy 2 dy: (7.66)
Integrating over the entire cross-section leads to the torsional moment of inertia IT :
t
Z2
1 3
IT D IT dy D ht : (7.67)
3
0
Obviously, there is a significant difference between an open cross-section and

a closed cross-section in terms of stress distributions across the cross-section thick-
ness. This is shown in Fig. 7.14. Here, the arbitrary cross-section of Fig. 7.7 (shown
again in Fig. 7.14, left) is compared with an identical cross-section, but converted
into an open cross-section by a cut in the longitudinal direction (Fig. 7.14, right).
In an open cross-section, the shear stresses s .s/ due to torsion run linearly over
the wall thickness and assume their maximum values at the edge of the wall.
They therefore reach their maximum at the point of the cross-section where the
wall thickness has its maximum, i.e. at t D tmax . This is in contrast to the closed
t(s) τ s (s) t(s)

τ s (s)
s s
τ s (s) τ s (s) τ s (s)

τ s (s)
x Mx x Mx
τ s (s) τ s (s)
Fig. 7.14 Shear stress distribution in an arbitrary closed cross-section and a similar open cross-
section.
222 7 Torsion
cross-section, where the maximum shear stress is reached where the smallest wall
thickness t D tmin is present.
We now consider thin-walled open cross-sections as shown in Fig. 7.12. Based
on the assumption that the cross-sections do not change in shape or dimensions due
to torsion, we can assume that all segments of the cross-section undergo the same
angle of twist # and thus also the same twist # 0 . We can write for the segment i of
the cross-section:
Mx;i
#i0 D D # 0: (7.68)
GIT;i
The same applies to the total cross-section:
Mx
#0 D ; (7.69)
GIT
or rearranged:
Mx D GIT # 0 : (7.70)
The total torsional moment Mx is composed of the partial moments of the segments
of the cross-section:
n
X n
X n
X
Mx D Mx;i D # 0 GIT;i D # 0 GIT;i : (7.71)
i D1 i D1 i D1
Equating (7.70) and (7.71), we obtain:

n
X
GIT # 0 D # 0 GIT;i ; (7.72)
i D1
or after eliminating the twist # 0 :

n
X
GIT D GIT;i : (7.73)
i D1
The torsional stiffness GIT of a cross-section composed of several segments is thus

obtained by adding the individual contributions GIT;i of the segments of the cross-
section.
Example 7.2
An I-cross-section as shown in Fig. 7.15 is considered in which the torsional

moment of inertia IT results from the sum of the individual contributions of the
segments of the cross-section:
n
X n
1X 3
IT D IT;i D li t : (7.74)
i D1
3 i D1 i
Fig. 7.15 Shear stresses t

due to torsion in the I-cross-
section.
t τ s (s)
h Mx
t
b b
Here li is the length of the segment i, ti is the corresponding wall thickness. The
following torsional moment of inertia results:
1
IT D .4b C h/t 3 : (7.75)
3
The resulting distribution of the shear stresses due to torsion at this I-cross-
section is shown in Fig. 7.15, right, qualitatively. J
Example 7.3
Consider the circular ring profile of Fig. 7.16 with constant thickness t and ra-
dius Rm with respect to the skeleton line. The profile is considered once as
a closed cross-section and once as an open cross-section, and essential differ-
ences in the load-bearing behavior with respect to torsion are to be studied on
the basis of this example.
First, the torsional moments of inertia IT are calculated for both cross-
sections. For the closed cross-section, using (7.56) yields:
2 2
4A2m t 4 Rm t 3
IT D D D 2Rm t: (7.76)
U 2Rm
For the open cross-section follows with (7.67):
1 3 1 2
IT D ht D .2Rm /t 3 D Rm t 3 : (7.77)
3 3 3
We now form the ratio of these values and obtain:

2Rm 3
t Rm 2
D3 : (7.78)
2 t
Rm t 3
3
Fig. 7.16 Closed and open t t

circular ring cross-section.
Mx Rm Mx
Rm
τ s (s) τ s (s)
224 7 Torsion
It can be seen that the torsional moment of inertia IT of the closed cross-section
is higher than the torsional moment of inertia of the open cross-section by a fac-
tor of 3. Rtm /2 . Many cross-sections in practical applications will be thin-walled
where the wall thickness t is significantly smaller than the radius Rm . For this
reason, the difference between the two torsional moments of inertia will be sig-
nificant in many technically relevant cases.
In a similar way, we want to investigate the difference in the shear stresses
due to torsion. In both cases, the maximum shear stress is calculated using the
formula max D M WT . The torsional resistance moment WT is obtained for the
x
closed cross-section as:

2
WT D 2Am tmin D 2Rm t: (7.79)
For the open cross-section we obtain with (7.64):
1 2 2
WT D ht D Rm t 2 : (7.80)
3 3
If we compare the maximum shear stresses, we obtain the following result:
2
max;c Rm t 2 1 t
D 3 D : (7.81)
max;o 2Rm2t 3 Rm
The maximum shear stresses at the open cross-section are thus higher than in the
case of the closed cross-section by a factor of 3 Rtm . J
7.6 Determination of internal moments
We consider the constitutive law (7.22):

Mx D GIT # 0 : (7.82)
Equilibrium at an infinitesimal element of the bar (Fig. 7.17) yields the following
equilibrium condition with dMx D dM dx
x
dx:
dMx
D Mx0 D mT : (7.83)
dx
mT mT
Mx Mx + dM x
x
dx
Fig. 7.17 Free body image for the infinitesimal element of the bar under torsion.
7.6 Determination of internal moments 225
The first derivative of the torsional moment Mx corresponds to the negative dis-
tributed torsional load mT . Substituting this into the constitutive law (7.82), we
obtain:
.GIT # 0 /0 D mT : (7.84)
In the case of a prismatic bar with constant torsional stiffness GIT , it follows:
GIT # 00 D mT : (7.85)
From (7.84) and (7.85), respectively, one can then determine the twist # 0 and the
torsional moment Mx as well as the angle of twist # by single and double integration
of the load mT , respectively:
.GIT # 0 /0 D mT ;
Z
GIT # 0 D Mx D mT dx C C1 ;
“
GIT # D mT dxdx C C1 x C C2 : (7.86)
The constants C1 and C2 are determined from given boundary conditions. A se-
lection of typical boundary conditions is shown in Fig. 7.18. In the case of a fork
restraint at x D 0 (Fig. 7.18, left), the cross-section is prevented from twisting.
Thus:
#.x D 0/ D 0: (7.87)
If the bar is not subject to any support at the point x D 0 (Fig. 7.18, middle), then
the torsional moment Mx becomes zero at this location:
Mx .x D 0/ D 0: (7.88)
Because of the relation (7.82) this is equivalent to the fact that at this point the twist
# 0 disappears, i.e.:
# 0 .x D 0/ D 0: (7.89)
At a free bar end where a torsional moment Mx;0 is applied, the torsional mo-
ment Mx must be equal to the applied torsional moment Mx;0 :
Mx .x D 0/ D Mx;0 : (7.90)
Mx Mx Mx,0 Mx
x x x
Fig. 7.18 Typical boundary conditions of a bar under torsion at the point x D 0: Fork restraint
(left), free end (center), free end with end moment (right).
226 7 Torsion
Example 7.4
We consider the bar of constant torsional stiffness GIT shown in Fig. 7.19 under
a constant torsional load mT . The bar is subject to fork restraints at both ends.
The torsional moment Mx .x/ and the angle of twist #.x/ are to be determined.
To determine the torsional moment Mx and the angle of twist # we em-
ploy (7.86). The following boundary conditions are given:
#.x D 0/ D 0; #.x D l/ D 0: (7.91)
The first condition in (7.91) results in:
C2 D 0: (7.92)
From the second condition in (7.91) we obtain:
1
C1 D mT l: (7.93)
2
The angle of twist thus follows as:
mT x
#.x/ D .l x/: (7.94)
2GIT
The torsional moment Mx results as:

l
Mx .x/ D mT x : (7.95)
2
The state variables #.x/ and Mx .x/ are shown in Fig. 7.19. Under a constant
load mT , the torsional moment Mx is linear and the angle of twist is quadratically
distributed over x. J
Fig. 7.19 Bar supported by mT

fork restraints at both ends
under uniform load mT (top), x
GIT
resulting state variables #.x/
and Mx .x/ (bottom).
l
ϑ (x)
(+)
2
mT l
ϑ max=
mT l 8GIT
(+)
2 Mx (x)
(-)
mT l
2
Example 7.5
We consider the bar under fork restraints shown in Fig. 7.20 under the single mo-
ment MT;0 . The bar has the constant torsional stiffnesses GIT;1 and GIT;2 in the
sections of lengths l1 and l2 , respectively. We want to determine the distribution
of the torsional moment Mx .
We introduce the two longitudinal axes x1 and x2 as shown in Fig. 7.20.
From (7.86), we then obtain for the section 0 x1 l1 :
GIT;1 #100 D mT;1 ;

GIT;1 #10 D Mx D mT;1 x1 C C1 ;
1
GIT;1 #1 D mT;1 x12 C C1 x1 C C2 : (7.96)
2
In the section 0 x2 l2 we have:
GIT;2 #200 D mT;2 ;

GIT;2 #20 D Mx D mT;2 x2 C C3 ;
1
GIT;2 #2 D mT;2 x22 C C3 x2 C C4 : (7.97)
2
In (7.96) and (7.97) the terms mT;1 and mT;2 are zero.
From the boundary and transition conditions the constants C1 ; : : : ; C4 can be
determined:
#1 .x1 D 0/ D 0;
#1 .x1 D l1 / D #2 .x2 D 0/;
Mx;1 .x1 D l1 / D Mx;2 .x2 D 0/ C MT;0 ;
#2 .x2 D l2 / D 0: (7.98)
Fig. 7.20 Bar supported by MT,0

fork restraints at both ends
under single moment MT;0 x1 x2
(top), distribution of the GIT,1 GIT,2
torsional moment Mx .x/
(bottom). l1 l2
MT,0 l1
Mx (x1) =MT,0 -
l1+l2GIT,1
GIT,2
(+)
Mx
(-)
MT,0 l1
Mx (x2) = -
l1+l2GIT,1
GIT,2
228 7 Torsion
The resulting system of equations leads to the constants C1 ; : : : ; C4 as follows:

0 1
B l1 C
B C
C1 D MT;0 B1 C; C2 D 0;
@ GIT;1 A
l1 C l2
GIT;2
MT;0 l1 MT;0 l1 l2
C3 D ; C4 D : (7.99)
GIT;1 GIT;1
l1 C l2 l1 C l2
GIT;2 GIT;2
The moment distribution Mx can thus be determined as:

0 1
B l1 C MT;0 l1
B C
Mx;1 D MT;0 B1 C; Mx;2 D : (7.100)
@ GIT;1 A GIT;1
l1 C l2 l1 C l2
GIT;2 GIT;2
The distribution of Mx is shown in Fig. 7.20. J
Example 7.6
Consider the cantilever of Fig. 7.21 (length 2l, constant torsional stiffness GIT ),
which is loaded by two single torsional moments MT;0 . The maximum shear
stress max in the given thin-walled rectangular cross-section is to be determined.
What is the angle of twist at x D 2l? In addition, determine how large the ratio Ram
must be if the rectangular cross-section is replaced by a circular cross-section
with radius Rm and constant wall thickness t and the maximum shear stress is
MT,0 t
x
MT,0
t
l l 2t
2a
(+) Mx Rm
MT,0
2MT,0
a
Fig. 7.21 Cantilever under two single moments MT;0 (top), distribution of the torsional moment
Mx .x/ (bottom), considered cross-sections (right).
to remain the same. How large is Ram if the angle of twist at the free cantilever
end #.x D 2l/ is to remain the same?
For the given rectangular cross-section, the maximum shear stress max is
given as:
2MT;0 2MT;0 2MT;0 MT;0

max D D D D : (7.101)
WT 2Am tmin 2 .2a a/ t 2ta2
To determine the angle of twist of the bar end at x D 2l, the torsional moment
of inertia IT is required. It can be determined from Bredt’s second formula as:
4A2m 4.2a a/2

IT D I D ! D 4a3 t: (7.102)
ds a 2a
2 C
t.s/ t 2t
The required angle of twist is obtained by adding the angles of twist of the two
segments 0 x l and l x 2l of the bar:
2MT;0 l MT;0 l 3MT;0 l

#.x D 2l/ D C D : (7.103)
GIT GIT 4Ga3 t
In order to determine the ratio Ram which must be maintained if the same maxi-
mum shear stress is to occur for the circular cross-section, the torsional resistance
moment WT of the circular cross-section is first determined:
2
WT D 2Am tmin D 2Rm t: (7.104)
This gives the maximum shear stress at the circular cross-section as:
2MT;0 MT;0
max D 2
D 2t
: (7.105)
2Rm t Rm
Equating with (7.101) gives:

r
Rm 2
D : (7.106)
a
To determine the ratio Ram so that the same angle of twist #.x D 2l/ occurs for the
circular cross-section as for the rectangular cross-section, the torsional moment
of inertia of the circular cross-section is first calculated. It follows as:
3
IT D 2Rm t: (7.107)
230 7 Torsion
Thus, the angle of twist #.x D 2l/ can be determined as:
3MT;0 l 3MT;0 l
#.x D 2l/ D D 3t
: (7.108)
GIT 2GRm
Equating with (7.103) gives:

r
Rm 3 2
D : (7.109)
a
J
Example 7.7
A bar of length 2l supported on both sides by fork restraints is considered which

is loaded by the torsional moment flow mT (Fig. 7.22). In the range 0 x1 l the
torsional stiffness GIT;1 is given, in the range 0 x2 l we have the torsional
stiffness GIT;2 . The torsional moment Mx and the angle of twist # are to be
determined.
We solve the given problem by integration. For 0 x l follows:
GIT;1 #100 D mT ;

GIT;1 #10 D Mx;1 D mT x1 C C1 ;
1
GIT;1 #1 D mT x12 C C1 x1 C C2 : (7.110)
2
In the section 0 x2 l2 we have:
GIT;2 #200 D mT ;

GIT;2 #20 D Mx;2 D mT x2 C D1 ;
1
GIT;2 #2 D mT x22 C D1 x2 C D2 : (7.111)
2
The boundary and transition conditions to be applied here are:
#.x1 D 0/ D 0; #.x2 D l/ D 0;
Mx;1 .x1 D l/ D Mx;2 .x2 D 0/; #1 .x1 D l/ D #2 .x2 D 0/: (7.112)
Fig. 7.22 Bar under fork mT

restraitns at both ends under
torsional moment flow mT . x1
GIT,1
x2
GIT,2
l l
From the first condition we obtain C2 D 0. The three remaining conditions lead
to the following linear system of equations for the constants C1 , D1 and D2 :
1
mT l 2 C D1 l C D2 D 0;
2
mT l C C1 D D1 ;

1 1 2 1
m T l C C1 l D D2 : (7.113)
GIT;1 2 GIT;2
This yields:
GIT;2
3C
mT l GIT;1
C1 D ;
2 GIT;2
1C
GIT;1
0 1
GIT;2
3C
mT l B
B GIT;1 C
C
D1 D B 2 C;
2 @ GIT;2 A
1C
GIT;1
0 1
GIT;2
3 C
mT l 2 B
B GIT;1 C
C
D2 D B3 C: (7.114)
2 @ GIT;2 A
1C
GIT;1
Thus, the torsional moments in the two segments can be formulated as:
0 1
GIT;2
B 3C
B l GIT;1 C
C
Mx;1 D mT Bx1 C;
@ 2 GIT;2 A
1C
GIT;1
0 1
GIT;2
3C
mT l B
B x2 GIT;1 C
C
Mx;2 D B2 C 2 C: (7.115)
2 @ l GIT;2 A
1C
GIT;1
232 7 Torsion
The angles of twist in the two segments follow as:

2 3
GIT;2
3C
mT l 2 6
6 x1 2 x1 GIT;1 7
7
#1 D 6 7;
2GIT;1 4 l l GIT;2 5
1C
GIT;1
2 0 1 3
GIT;2 GIT;2
3C 3C
mT l 2 6
6 x2 2 x2 B
B GIT;1 C
C GIT;1 7
7
#2 D 6 B 2C 3 C 7: (7.116)
2GIT;2 4 l l @ GIT;2 A GIT;2 5
1C 1C
GIT;1 GIT;1
J
Energy methods
8
Energy methods are well suited to determine both the deformations and the static
state quantities such as forces and moments in elastic structures. After a brief intro-
duction to the concepts of work and energy, strain energy and complementary strain
energy are introduced for bars and beams. Then, the principle of work and energy
is used to determine deformations in beam and bar structures. Another essential as-
pect of energy methods in structural mechanics concerns the so-called principle of
virtual forces, from which the unit load theorem can be derived for the determina-
tion of deformations of structures. In formalized form, this procedure is also known
as the so-called force method, and it is shown how the force method can be used
for the analysis of deformations of beam and bar structures, but also of statically in-
determinate structures. When applied to multiply statically indeterminate systems,
the so-called reciprocity theorems, here in the form of Betti’s and Maxwell’s the-
orems, are also used. Students are enabled to apply the provided energy methods
to the analysis of statically determinate and statically indeterminate bar and beam
structures.
8.1 Work and energy
8.1.1 Introduction
In the following, we always assume so-called conservative forces. These are forces
for which the work W done by them depends only on the starting and end point of
their motion, but not on the distance covered. All following explanations assume
elastic material behavior.
Fig. 8.1 shows a particle under a force F which is displaced by the action of
the force by the distance u in the direction of action of the force. The work W
corresponds to the force F multiplied by the distance u:
W D F u: (8.1)
Nature 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9_8
234 8 Energy methods
Fig. 8.1 Displacement of F F

a particle under the force F
by the distance u in the direc- u
tion of action of the force.
This very simple result follows from the fact that we have tacitly agreed that the
force F remains constant over the distance u covered and that the displacement u
points exactly in the direction of action of the force F . We now want to make these
considerations more general and consider the situation of Fig. 8.2. A particle under
the force F D .Fx ; Fy ; Fz /T is shown, which moves on a spatial trajectory with
the position vector r D .rx ; ry ; rz /T from a point A to a point B. Let the position
vectors associated with points A and B be rA and r B , respectively. Let the force F
be location dependent, which means that F can have different magnitudes and di-
rections of action at different positions on the trajectory. The work increment dW ,
which is driven by the force F D .Fx ; Fy ; Fz /T along a displacement increment
du D .du; dv; dw/T can be expressed as the scalar product of F and du:
dW D F du D Fx du C Fy dv C Fz dw: (8.2)
The total work done by F on the trajectory between points A and B then follows as
the sum of all work increments. Thus, the integral over the scalar product F du is to
be formed:
ZB
W D F du: (8.3)
A
Work is a scalar quantity. It is expressed in Newton meters1 [Nm] or in Joules2 [J],

where 1 Nm D 1 J. The Joule is the SI unit for work and energy:
kg m2
1J D 1 : (8.4)
s2
If we consider a moment M D .Mx ; My ; Mz /T subjected to a rotation ' D
.'x ; 'y ; 'z /T , the procedure is quite analogous. The work increment dW performed
Fig. 8.2 Particle under force F

F on a spatial trajectory z
between points A and B. A r dr=du
rA r+dr
rB B
x y
1
Isaac Newton, 1642–1726, English scientist.
2
James Prescott Joule, 1818–1889, English physicist.
8.1 Work and energy 235
by the moment M along the rotation d' D .d'x ; d'y ; d'z /T then is:
dW D M d' D Mx d'x C My d'y C Mz d'z : (8.5)
The total work performed between an initial rotation 'A and a final rotation 'B is
given as:
Z'B
W D M d': (8.6)
'A
In the following, some types of mechanical work are briefly considered. First of all,
we will consider the so-called lifting work, which is done when an object of mass m
is lifted against the gravitational field of the earth by the amount h. This is shown
in Fig. 8.3. The lifting work performed in this case can be derived from (8.3) by
replacing the integral limits A and B with the values 0 and h and defining the force
vector F as F D .mg; 0; 0/T D const. It follows:
W D mgh: (8.7)
For this simple example, the work performed is the weight mg multiplied by the
distance h.
Another type of work is the so-called friction work, which is performed when
a body is displaced by a distance s on a rough surface with friction coefficient
(Fig. 8.4). Here, the frictional force FR must be overcome, which corresponds to
the force F multiplied by the coefficient of friction , which the body exerts on the
surface. The friction work performed is then given as:
W D FR s D F s; (8.8)
as one can easily convince oneself by means of (8.3).

As a final example, consider the work that is performed when applying a tensile
force F on a linear elastic spring. In Fig. 8.5a linear elastic spring (spring con-
stant k) is shown, which is loaded by a tensile force F . The work performed when
the spring is tensioned from its unloaded state to the length u and thus the force F
Fig. 8.3 Lifting work.

g h
m
Fig. 8.4 Friction work. s

FR= μF
F
Fig. 8.5 Length change u F

of a spring with stiffness k k
loaded by force F .
u
W
F u
is increased from the value 0 to its final value F during the deformation process
follows with the linear elastic spring law F D ku from (8.3):
Zu Zu
1 2 1
W D F duO D k ud
O uO D ku D F u: (8.9)
2 2
0 0
Thus, the performed work corresponds to the area below the line in the force-dis-
placement diagram shown in Fig. 8.5, right.
8.1.2 Internal and external work
For a solid body problem in elastostatics, a distinction must be made between the
external work We on the one hand and the internal work Wi on the other. External
work We is work performed by the external loads acting on a solid body along the
displacements of the body. Considering the example of the linear elastic spring of
Fig. 8.5, the work done in tension W according to (8.9) is an external work.
The loads acting on a body cause a state of stress inside the body. Internal
work Wi is thus the work which the internal forces perform along the displace-
ments of the body points. This is particularly easy to illustrate with the example of
the linear elastic spring already considered. Here the tensile force F will cause an
inner spring force with the magnitude F , and the inner work increment dWi is thus
the product of inner force F and displacement increment du:
dWi D F du: (8.10)
The total internal work Wi is then the sum of all work increments dWi , i.e.:
Zu
Wi D F du:
O (8.11)
0
If a linear-elastic spring with the spring law F D ku is given, then the following
results:
Zu
1 1
Wi D k ud O uO D ku2 D F u: (8.12)
2 2
0
8.2 Strain energy and complementary strain energy 237
Thus Wi D We holds, i.e. internal work and external work are identical.
At this point we introduce the so-called strain energy or internal energy ˘i . If
we consider an elastic structure, or even, as already shown in the example of the
spring of Fig. 8.5a linear elastic structure, then the internal work Wi is completely
stored in the solid as internal energy or as strain energy ˘i and can be completely
recovered when the load is removed from the body. The term potential ˘i is also
common at this point.
8.1.3 Principle of work and energy
The principle of work and energy of elastostatics states that the work We done by the
given loads on a solid body is fully converted into internal work Wi in a conservative
system. Hence:
Wi D We : (8.13)
At the same time, it follows that the internal work Wi is stored as internal energy or
as strain energy in the solid under consideration and can be completely recovered
when the load is removed from the body. Thus, we have:
˘i D We : (8.14)
This relation is also called the principle of work and energy of elastostatics and
has many applications. The principle of work and energy is valid for any friction-
less elastic self-contained system. It also states that no energy can be lost in such
a system and is thus also called the principle of conservation of energy.
8.2 Strain energy and complementary strain energy
8.2.1 The bar
We consider the homogeneous bar of Fig. 8.6 (cross-sectional area A, modulus

of elasticity E) under a tensile normal force N . The normal stress xx D NA acts
in the bar, it is uniformly distributed over the cross-section. Let the bar be elas-
tic, but not necessarily linearly elastic. We cut an infinitesimal section element of
length dx out of the bar and investigate its deformation behavior. At the negative
cutting edge the displacement u is present, while at the positive cutting edge the
displacement u C du dx
dx D u C u0 dx D u C "xx dx occurs. The normal stress xx
performs a work increment along the infinitesimal strain d"xx of xx Ad"xx dx. With
dV D Adx this can be rewritten as xx d"xx dV . At this point, let us introduce the
abbreviation dU0 D xx d"xx , so that dU0 dV is obtained. The quantity dU0 is the
so-called incremental strain energy density, it is shown in the stress-strain diagram
of Fig. 8.7, top left.
Fig. 8.6 Bar (top), infinites- N Cross-sectional area A

N
imal element (bottom) in its x
undeformed and its deformed
state.
xx xx
u
dx u+du=u+ du
dx
dx
=u+ xx dx
Fig. 8.7 Stress-strain di- F

agram with strain energy Wi = Π i
density U0 and complemen- U0
tary strain energy density UN 0 U0
(left), force-displacement di-
Wi = Π i
agram with strain energy ˘i dU0
and complementary strain u
energy ˘N i (right) using the d
example of the bar under ten- F
sion; elastic material behavior Wi = Π i
(top) and the special case of U0
linear elasticity (bottom).
U0
dU0 Wi = Π i
u
d
The strain energy density U0 is obtained by integrating dU0 over the entire strain
history up to the desired strain "xx :
Z"xx
U0 D xx dO"xx : (8.15)
0
The strain energy density U0 is the area below the graph of Fig. 8.7, top left.
If the special case of linear elasticity is given, then with Hooke’s law xx D E"xx
and with the kinematic relation "xx D u0 the following expression for the normal
stress xx follows:
xx D E"xx D Eu0 : (8.16)
The normal force N of the bar follows from the integration of the normal stress xx
over the cross-sectional area A:
Z Z Z
0 0
N D xx dA D Eu dA D Eu dA D EAu0 : (8.17)
A A A
Solving for u0 yields:

N
u0 D : (8.18)
EA
For the normal stress xx the following well-known relation follows from (8.16):
N
xx D Eu0 D : (8.19)
A
The strain energy density U0 then follows as:
Z"xx Z"Oxx
1 2 1 1
U0 D xx dO"xx D E "xx dO"xx D E"xx D xx "xx D Eu02 : (8.20)
2 2 2
0 0
The strain energy density is the energy per unit volume introduced into the bar as
a result of the strain "xx . In the case of an elastic bar, where the deformation state is
fully reversible, it is possible to fully recover this energy and convert it into work.
The term density, which appears here, indicates that the strain energy is related to
the volume of the considered element.
The work increment dWi at the infinitesimal element follows when the strain
energy density U0 is multiplied by the volume dV :
Z"xx
dWi D xx dO"xx dV D U0 dV: (8.21)
0
The internal work done Wi and thus the strain energy ˘i stored in the bar follows
from the integration over the bar volume. With dV D Adx it follows:
Z l Z"xx Zl
Wi D xx dO"xx Adx D A U0 dx D ˘i : (8.22)
0 0 0
The strain energy ˘i is shown in the force-displacement diagram of Fig. 8.7, right,
for the general case of elasticity and for the special case of linear elasticity. In both
cases, it is the surface under the displayed graphs.
In the case of linear elasticity we obtain:
Z Zl Z Zl
1 02 1
Wi D U0 dx D E u dAdx D EA u02 dx D ˘i : (8.23)
2 2
V 0 A 0
2
xx N2
Using u02 D "2xx D E2
D E 2 A2
, this can be written as:
Zl Zl
1 N2 1 N2
Wi D EA 2 2
dx D dx D ˘i : (8.24)
2 E A 2 EA
0 0
If both the normal force N and the extensional stiffness EA are constant, then the
following expression results:
N 2l
Wi D ˘i D : (8.25)
2EA
From similar considerations, the complementary strain energy density can be de-
rived:
Zxx
U0 D "xx dO xx : (8.26)
0
From Fig. 8.7, left, it can be concluded that
U0 C U 0 D xx "xx (8.27)
holds. For linear elasticity we obtain:
1
U0 D xx "xx : (8.28)
2
One can also deduce this result directly from Fig. 8.7, bottom left. For the case of
linear elasticity, the stress-strain diagram is a straight line and the area above this
line is exactly the value of U 0 .
The inner complementary work W i or the complementary strain energy ˘ i can
be determined as:
Zxx
dW i D "xx dO xx dV D U 0 dV: (8.29)
0
Integration over the bar volume results in:
Z l Zxx Zl
Wi D "xx dO xx Adx D A U 0 dx D ˘ i : (8.30)
0 0 0
For the special case of linear elasticity we obtain:
Zl
1 N2
Wi D dx D ˘ i : (8.31)
2 EA
0
Obviously, the expressions for Wi and W i are identical for linear elasticity
(cf. Fig. 8.7, bottom).
Example 8.1
Consider the truss of Fig. 8.8 loaded by the single force F . We want to determine
the strain energy ˘i and the complementary strain energy ˘ i . The horizontal
members 1, 2, 4 and 5 have the cross-sectional areas A1 and the elastic modu-
lus E1 . The vertical bars 3, 6 and 8, on the other hand, have the values A2 and E2 .
The diagonal bars 7 and 9 have the cross-sectional area A3 and the modulus of
elasticity E3 . Hooke’s law is assumed to be valid.
To solve the problem we first determine the bar forces Ni (i D 1; 2; : : : ; 9).
Obviously, the forces 1, 2 and 8 are zero, so that:
N1 D N2 D N8 D 0: (8.32)
At the left support (see free body image of Fig. 8.8, top right), the bar force N6
is given as:
F
N6 D : (8.33)
2
For reasons of symmetry, this result is also valid for bar 3:
F
N3 D : (8.34)
2
At the free body image of the upper left node (Fig. 8.8, lower right), the vertical
sum of forces is obtained as follows:
F
N7 sin 45ı D 0: (8.35)
2
This results in the following bar force N7 :
F
N7 D p : (8.36)
2
For reasons of symmetry, the same result is obtained for the bar force N9 :
F
N9 D p : (8.37)
2
Fig. 8.8 Truss under single 5 4

force F (left), free body N6
images (right).
l 6 7 8 9 3
0
F N1
1 2 2
F N5
45°
F
l l 2 N7
From the horizontal sum of forces follows:
N7 cos 45ı C N5 D 0: (8.38)
We can determine the bar force N5 as:

F
N5 D : (8.39)
2
For reasons of symmetry, this result is also valid for the bar force N4 :
F
N4 D : (8.40)
2
At this point, all bar forces are available, from which we can determine the bar
stresses as:
Nj
xx;j D : (8.41)
Aj
We have:
F
xx;1 D xx;2 D 0; xx;3 D xx;6 D ;
2A2
F F
xx;4 D xx;5 D ; xx;7 D xx;9 Dp ; xx;8 D 0: (8.42)
2A1 2A3
From this we can determine the bar strains "xx;j as:
xx;j
"xx;j D : (8.43)
Ej
We obtain:
F
"xx;1 D "xx;2 D 0; "xx;3 D "xx;6 D ;
2E2 A2
F F
"xx;4 D "xx;5 D ; "xx;7 D "xx;9 Dp ; "xx;8 D 0: (8.44)
2E1 A1 2E3 A3
Thus, the strain energy densities U0;j of the bars can be determined as:
1
U0;j D xx;j "xx;j ; (8.45)
2
i.e.:
F2
U0;1 D U0;2 D 0; U0;3 D U0;6 D ;
8E2 A22
F2 F2
U0;4 D U0;5 D ; U 0;7 D U 0;9 D ; U0;8 D 0: (8.46)
8E1 A21 4E3 A23
From this, the strain energies of the individual bars follow as:
Z Zlj Z
˘i;j D U0;j dVj D U0;j dAj dx D U0;j Aj lj ; (8.47)
Vj 0 Aj
thus:
F 2l
˘i;1 D ˘i;2 D 0; ˘i;3 D ˘i;6 D ;
8E2 A2
p 2
F 2l 2F l
˘i;4 D ˘i;5 D ; ˘i;7 D ˘i;9 D ; ˘i;8 D 0: (8.48)
8E1 A1 4E3 A3
The total strain energy stored in the truss then follows from the sum of the con-
tributions of the individual members:
9 p !
X F 2l 1 1 2
˘i D ˘i;j D C C : (8.49)
j D1
2 2E1 A1 2E2 A2 E3 A3
For the special case where all bars have identical extensional stiffnesses EA, we
get:
p F 2l
˘i D .1 C 2/ : (8.50)
2EA
To determine the complementary strain energy, we first determine the comple-
mentary strain energy densities U 0;j of the individual bars:
1
U 0;j D xx;j "xx;j ; (8.51)
2
which leads to the following expressions:
F2
U 0;1 D U 0;2 D 0; U 0;3 D U 0;6 D ;
8E2 A22
F2 F2
U 0;4 D U 0;5 D ; U 0;7 D U 0;9 D ; U 0;8 D 0: (8.52)
8E1 A21 4E3 A23
Integration over the bar volume leads to the complementary strain energy:
Z Zlj Z
˘ i;j D U 0;j dVj D U 0;j dAj dx D U 0;j Aj lj : (8.53)
Vj 0 Aj
Thus:
F 2l
˘ i;1 D ˘ i;2 D 0; ˘ i;3 D ˘ i;6 D ;
8E2 A2
p 2
F 2l 2F l
˘ i;4 D ˘ i;5 D ; ˘ i;7 D ˘ i;9 D ; ˘ i;8 D 0: (8.54)
8E1 A1 4E3 A3
The complementary strain energy of the truss is the sum of the fractions of the
individual members:
9 p !
X F 2l 1 1 2
˘i D ˘ i;j D C C : (8.55)
j D1
2 2E A
1 1 2E A
2 2 E A
3 3
If identical extensional stiffnesses EA are given in all bars, then we obtain:

p F 2l
˘ i D .1 C 2/ : (8.56)
2EA
Since we have assumed linear elasticity for this example, this expression is iden-
tical to the strain energy ˘i . J
8.2.2 The Euler–Bernoulli beam
We now extend our considerations to the Euler–Bernoulli beam under uniaxial

bending about the y-axis with simultaneous normal force action, i.e. the normal
force N , the transverse shear force Qz and the bending moment My occur. A pre-
requisite for uniaxial bending is that one of the cross-sectional principal axes co-
incides with the z-axis and thus no biaxial bending occurs. The beam has the
extensional stiffness EA and the flexural stiffness EIyy .
The area integrals occurring in the following are the moment of inertia Iyy , the
static moment Sy and the cross-sectional surface A:
Z Z Z
AD dA; Sy D zdA; Iyy D z 2 dA: (8.57)
A A A
The displacement field of the Euler–Bernoulli beam with simultaneous bar action is:
uP D u zP w 0 ; wP D w: (8.58)
Herein, P is an arbitrary point of the cross-section at the location zP , and u and w

are the displacements of the centroid axis in the x-direction and the z-direction.
The normal strain "xx can be determined as follows:
duP
"xx D D uP0 D u0 zP w 00 : (8.59)
dx
The normal stress xx can be determined from Hooke’s law xx D E"xx as:

xx D E u0 zw 00 : (8.60)
In the sense of generality of the explanations we want to drop the indexing concern-
ing the point P from this point on.
The normal force N follows as:
Z Z Z
N D xx dA D Eu0 dA Ezw 00 dA
A A A
Z Z
0 00
D Eu dA Ew zdA: (8.61)
A A
Since the cross-sectional axes are assumed to be the principal axes (i.e., Sy D 0),
the second term in (8.61) vanishes, and the following expression remains:
N D EAu0 : (8.62)
The bending moment My can be determined in the same way:

Z Z Z
My D xx zdA D Eu0 zdA Ez 2 w 00 dA
A A A
Z Z
0 00
D Eu zdA Ew z 2 dA: (8.63)
A A
With Sy D 0 and the moment of inertia Iyy follows:
My D EIyy w 00 : (8.64)
Substituting (8.62) and (8.64) into (8.60) gives the following expression for the
normal stress xx :
N My
xx D C z: (8.65)
A Iyy
The strain energy density U0 for the linear elastic Euler–Bernoulli beam follows as:
Z"xx Z"xx
1 2 1 2
U0 D xx dO"xx D E "Oxx dO"xx D E"xx D E u0 zw 00 : (8.66)
2 2
0 0
The strain energy ˘i follows from integration over the beam volume dV D dAdx:
Z Zl Z
1
˘i D U0 dV D E u02 2z u0w 00 C z 2 w 00 2 dAdx; (8.67)
2
V 0 A
and taking into account Sy D 0:
Zl Zl
1 02 1 2
˘i D EAu dx C EIyy w 00 dx: (8.68)
2 2
0 0
This can be expressed by the normal force N and the bending moment My as:
Zl Zl
1 N2 1 My2
˘i D dx C dx: (8.69)
2 EA 2 EIyy
0 0
Similarly, a shear component due to shear stress xz and shear strain xz can be
formulated for the inner potential ˘i :
Zl Z Zl Z 2
1 1 xz
˘i D xz xz dAdx D dAdx: (8.70)
2 2 G
0 A 0 A
This part must not be neglected a priori, since even if the shear strain xz vanishes
due to the kinematic assumptions of the Euler–Bernoulli beam (see Chap. 4), the
shear stress xz must occur in order to maintain equilibrium (see Chap. 6). Substi-
Vz Sy
tuting the relation xz D Iyy b for a rectangular cross section of width b in (8.70),
we obtain:
Zl Z
1 1 Vz Sy 2
˘i D dAdx; (8.71)
2 G Iyy b
0 A
Zl
1 Vz2
˘i D dx: (8.72)
2 GAeff
0
Herein, Aeff is the so-called effective cross-sectional area, which is defined as

Z
1 1 Sy2
D 2 dA: (8.73)
Aeff Iyy b2
A
This is the effective area of a cross-section under transverse shear that is available
for load transfer. It can be calculated with the help of the so-called shear correction
factor K and the cross-sectional area A:
Aeff D KA: (8.74)

Hence:
Zl
1 Vz2
˘i D dx: (8.75)
2 KGA
0
In combination with (8.69) we obtain:
Zl Zl Zl
1 N2 1 My2 1 Vz2
˘i D dx C dx C dx: (8.76)
2 EA 2 EIyy 2 KGA
0 0 0
The complementary strain energy density can be determined in a similar manner.

We have:
Zxx Zxz
U0 D "xx dO xx C xz dOxz : (8.77)
0 0
The second term appearing here again must not be neglected a priori. With Hooke’s
law xx D E"xx and xz D Gxz then follows:
Zxx Zxz
xx xz 2 2
U0 D dO xx C dOxz D xx C xz : (8.78)
E G 2E 2G
0 0
z y V S
The complementary strain energy ˘ i can be determined with xz D Iyy b e.g. for
a rectangular cross-section of width b by integration over the beam volume:
Z Zl Z 2
xx 2
˘i D U 0 dV D C xz dAdx
2E 2G
V 0 A
Zl Z " 2 #
1 N My 1 Vz Sy 2
D C z C dAdx; (8.79)
2E A Iyy 2G Iyy b
0 A
Zl Zl Zl
1 N2 1 My2 1 Vz2
˘i D dx C dx C dx: (8.80)
2 EA 2 EIyy 2 KGA
0 0 0
The comparison between (8.80) and (8.76) shows that both expressions are identi-
cal.
The shear correction factor K is K D 56 for a rectangular cross-section, in-
dependent of the concrete dimensions of the cross-section. However, the general
determination of the shear correction factor for arbitrary cross sections cannot be
dealt with in this book.
8.2.3 Bar under torsion
We consider a straight bar of length l subjected to the torsional moment Mx . The

torsional stiffness GIT is given. The work increment dWi is obtained with the angle
of twist # as:
1
dWi D Mx d#: (8.81)
2
From the constitutive law (7.7) for torsion GIT # 0 D Mx follows:
Mx dx
d# D : (8.82)
GIT
Equation (8.81) then transforms into:
1 Mx2 1 2
dWi D dx D GIT # 0 dx: (8.83)
2 GIT 2
Integrating over the bar length l, we obtain the strain energy of the bar due to tor-
sion:
Zl Zl Zl
1 Mx2 1 0 1 2
˘i D dx D Mx # dx D GIT # 0 dx: (8.84)
2 GIT 2 2
0 0 0
8.2.4 Combined load
If there is a situation with simultaneous axial strain, bending about the two prin-
cipal axes y and z, transverse shear forces in both principal axial directions, and
torsion, then the strain energy or inner potential can be formed by superposition of
the individual components as follows:
Zl Zl Zl
1 1 02 1
00 2 2
˘i D EAu dx C EIyy w dx C EIzz v 00 dx
2 2 2
0 0 0
Zl
1 2
C GIT # 0 dx; (8.85)
2
0
or formulated in the occurring forces and moments:
Zl Zl Zl
1 N2 1 My2 1 Mz2
˘i D dx C dx C dx
2 EA 2 EIyy 2 EIzz
0 0 0
Zl Zl Zl
1 Vy2 1 Vz2 1 Mx2
C dx C dx C dx: (8.86)
2 Ky GA 2 Kz GA 2 GIT
0 0 0
8.3 Application of the principle of work and energy 249
The complementary strain energy ˘ i is:
Zl Zl Zl
1 N2 1 My2 1 Mz2
˘i D dx C dx C dx
2 EA 2 EIyy 2 EIzz
0 0 0
Zl Zl Zl
1 Vy2 1 Vz2 1 Mx2
C dx C dx C dx: (8.87)
2 Ky GA 2 Kz GA 2 GIT
0 0 0
Here Ky and Kz are the shear correction factors assigned to the two transverse shear
forces Vy and Vz . Further details are not given here.
8.3 Application of the principle of work and energy

to the determination of elastic deformations
We want to use the principle of work and energy (8.14), i.e. the equality of strain
energy and external work ˘i D We , to calculate deformations of bar and beam
structures under single forces and moments. For this purpose, we consider the truss
of Fig. 8.9 consisting of two members. Both members have the same extensional
stiffness EA. The vertical displacement w of the force application point is to be
determined. For this purpose, the principle of work and energy ˘i D We is em-
ployed. From the free body image of Fig. 8.9, the bar forces can be determined
F F
as N1 D tan.˛/ and N2 D sin.˛/ . The strain energy ˘i can then be determined as
follows:
l
Zl Z
cos.˛/
1 N12 1 N22
˘i D dx C dx: (8.88)
2 EA 2 EA
0 0
If we insert the bar forces N1 and N2 , we obtain:

F 2l 1
˘i D 1 C : (8.89)
2EA tan2 .˛/ cos3 .˛/
Fig. 8.9 Truss under single

F
force F .
1
α N1 α
w F
2
l
N2
The external work We is obtained as:
1
We D F w: (8.90)
2
If we evaluate the principle of work of energy ˘i D We , we obtain:

F 2l 1 1
1C D F w: (8.91)
2EA tan2 .˛/ cos3 .˛/ 2
This expression can be solved directly for the displacement w:

Fl 1
wD 1 C : (8.92)
EA tan2 .˛/ cos3 .˛/
The principle of work and energy can be used for the simple determination of de-
formations in structures under single forces and moments. However, this procedure
is limited in scope, since it can only be used to determine displacements or rotations
at the points of application of the individual forces and moments, and furthermore
only those deformations whose direction also corresponds to the direction of action
of the applied force or moment.
Example 8.2
Consider the linear elastic cantilever beam of Fig. 8.10, which is loaded by the
single force F . Let the constant bending stiffness EIyy be given. The vertical
displacement of the force application point is to be determined. When determin-
ing the displacement, only the bending moment My is to be taken into account
in the strain energy. First, the bending moment My .x/ is determined, it is shown
in Fig. 8.10. The strain energy follows as:
Zl
1 My2 F 2l 3
˘i D dx D : (8.93)
2 EIyy 6EIyy
0
The external work We is given as:
1
We D F w: (8.94)
2
The deflection w then follows from the principle of work and energy ˘i D We
as:
F l3
wD : (8.95)
3EIyy
J
8.3 Application of the principle of work and energy 251
F Fl F
0
x w
F
l
Fl
z My(x) Fl
(-)
F My
x
Fig. 8.10 Cantilever beam under single force F .
Example 8.3
We consider the simply supported linear elastic beam (constant bending stiffness
EIyy ) of Fig. 8.11, which is loaded at its left support by the edge moment M0 .
The rotation of the left support is to be determined.
The strain energy of the beam reads:
Zl
1 My2 M02 l
˘i D dx D : (8.96)
2 EIyy 6EIyy
0
The external work We is:

1
We D M': (8.97)
2
From ˘i D We the rotation ' of the left support follows as:
M0 l
'D : (8.98)
3EIyy
J
Fig. 8.11 Beam under edge M0

moment M0 .
M0 (+)
Fig. 8.12 Truss under single l l

force, free body images to N5 45°
4 5
determine support reactions F
45° 2
and bar forces. l 3 N2
1 2 F
F N4 2
F 0
F F
2 2
F F
F 45° 2
F
2
N1
Example 8.4
Consider the truss of Fig. 8.12. The horizontal deflection w of the point of appli-
cation of the force F is to be determined using the principle of work and energy.
All members have identical extensional stiffnesses EA.
The determination of the support reactions and the bar forces is left to the
reader. Here, only the result for the strain energy ˘i is reported:
9 Zlj 9
1X Nj2 1 X Nj lj
2 p F 2l
˘i D dxj D D .1 C 2 2/ : (8.99)
2 j D1 Ej Aj 2 j D1 EA 4EA
0
The external work is:

1
We D F w: (8.100)
2
The principle of work and energy ˘i D We then leads to the horizontal deflec-
tion w of the force application point as follows:
p Fl
w D .1 C 2 2/ : (8.101)
2EA
J
Example 8.5
Consider the angled beam shown in Fig. 8.13, left, with constant extensional
stiffness EA and constant bending stiffness EIyy . The deflection of the force
application point in the direction of the force F is to be determined using the
principle of work and energy ˘i D We .
8.4 The principle of virtual forces 253
Fig. 8.13 Static system (left), F w

normal force and bending
moment diagrams (right). h F 0
EA, EIyy N(x)
(+)
x
l My(x)
(-)
Fh
(-)
Fh
The distributions of the normal force N.x/ and the bending moment M.x/
are shown in Fig. 8.13, right. The strain energy ˘i can be determined as:
Zl Zh Zl Zh
1 N2 1 N2 1 My2 1 My2
˘i D dx C dx C dx C dx; (8.102)
2 EA 2 EA 2 EIyy 2 EIyy
0 0 0 0
resulting in:
l h2 h
˘i D F 2 C Cl : (8.103)
2EA 2EIyy 3
Herein, we have neglected the influence of the transverse shear force Vz . With
the external work We D 12 F w, the deflection w follows from ˘i D We :

l h2 h
wDF C Cl : (8.104)
EA EIyy 3
J
8.4 The principle of virtual forces
There are work and energy principles that are based on the consideration of so-
called virtual forces. For this purpose, we first introduce the concepts of virtual
forces and the so-called complementary virtual work.
8.4.1 Formulation for the beam
We consider a body in its equilibrium state. The body is subjected to a virtual equi-
librium group F , which performs the complementary virtual work ıW along the
actual displacements:
ıW D ıF u: (8.105)
Fig. 8.14 Cantilever beam δFV l

under virtual forces. δFH δFH
x
EA, EIyy , KGA
δFV
δFV
l
As an example, consider the cantilever beam of Fig. 8.14 (length l, stiffnesses EA,
EIyy , KGA). We assume that the given axis system is a principal axis system, and
only uniaxial bending with respect to the y-axis is considered here. Let the beam
be clamped at its left end, and at its free end the virtual forces ıFV and ıFH are
applied as shown.
The virtual forces will cause the virtual horizontal support force ıFH and the
virtual vertical support force ıFV . In addition, the virtual support moment ıFV l at
the clamping point occurs. These virtual force quantities thus form an equilibrium
group, all equilibrium conditions are satisfied. However, the virtual complementary
work ıW a is only caused by the two virtual forces ıFH and ıFV at the cantilever
end, because no displacements and thus no virtual work are possible at the clamping
point. Thus:
ıW a D ıFV w.x D l/ C ıFH u.x D l/: (8.106)
The virtual complementary internal work ıW i follows from the virtual normal
stress ıxx and the virtual shear stress ıxz and the associated real strains:
Z
ıW i D ."xx ıxx C xz ıxz /dV : (8.107)
V
We divide the strain "xx into the two parts "0xx and "1xx . Here "0xx is related to the
center of gravity of the beam and thus describes a bar action. The term "1xx describes
the linear variability of the strain over z and thus describes a curvature of the beam
due to a bending moment. The volume integral is decomposed into an integral over
the cross-sectional area A and an integral over the longitudinal axis x:
Zl Z

ıW i D "0xx C z"1xx ıxx C xz ıxz dAdx: (8.108)
0 A
Integration over the cross-sectional area A results in:
Zl

ıW i D "0xx ıN C "1xx ıMy C xz ıVz dx: (8.109)
0
Herein, ıN , ıMy and ıVz are the virtual forces and moment induced by the virtual
external forces. They perform virtual work along the real strains.
If we assume linear elasticity, then we obtain for "0xx and "1xx :
N M
"0xx D ; "1xx D : (8.110)
EA EIyy
Thus:
Zl
N ıN My ıMy Vz ıVz
ıW i D C C dx: (8.111)
EA EIyy KGA
0
The virtual force quantities have the following properties:
The virtual force quantities are virtual and do not exist in reality.
The virtual force quantities are infinitesimally small.
The virtual force quantities must satisfy equilibrium conditions and obey all
given stress boundary conditions.
The principle of virtual forces requires the equality of the virtual internal comple-
mentary energy and the virtual external complementary work:
ıW i D ıW a : (8.112)
This principle applies to arbitrary virtual force quantities satisfying given stress
boundary conditions. The principle of virtual forces applies to any material behav-
ior.
8.4.2 The unit load theorem
A very useful theorem that can be derived from the principle of virtual forces is
the so-called unit load theorem. We consider an arbitrary beam loaded by the two
virtual forces ıFH and ıFV and the virtual single moment ıM . The correspond-
ing real displacements and rotation are u, w and '. The principle of virtual forces
ıW i D ıW a is then:
Zl
N ıN My ıMy Vz ıVz
C C dx D uıFH C wıFV C 'ıM: (8.113)
EA EIyy KGA
0
In the case of a truss with m bars loaded exclusively by single forces at the nodes of
the members, the following expression remains due to the constancy of the member
forces:
X m
Ni ıNi li
D uıFH C wıFV : (8.114)
i D1
.EA/i
Here li and .EA/i are the length and the extensional stiffness of the bar i.
F δFV
EA δFH
1 45° w
2l
l
u
EA 2
Fig. 8.15 Truss under single force F (left), deformed structure under virtual forces with real nodal
displacements (right).
The practical value of the unit load theorem proves itself in the determination of
deformations of static systems. For illustration, we consider the truss of Fig. 8.15.
Let the load consist of the vertically acting single force F , and we want to de-
termine the two nodal displacements u and w as indicated. Both members have
identical constant extensional stiffnesses EA. To determine the two unknown nodal
displacements u and w, we apply the two virtual forces ıFV and ıFH at the node.
The principle of virtual forces is then:
m p
X Ni ıNi li N1 ıN1 l N2 ıN2 2l
D C D ıFH u C ıFV w: (8.115)
i D1
.EA/i EA EA
To determine the displacement u, we set the virtual force ıFV to zero:

p
N1 ıN1 l N2 ıN2 2l
C D ıFH u: (8.116)
EA EA
Virtual forces may be arbitrary within the limits of the static system under con-
sideration. Consequently, for ıFH a unit force ıFH D 1 can be assumed, and we
obtain: p
C D u: (8.117)
EA EA
Obviously, the nodal displacement u can be read directly from (8.117). Here the
forces N1 and N2 are the real bar forces due to the single force F . The forces ıN1
and ıN2 are the bar forces due to the virtual unit force ıFH D 1. We have:
p
N1 D F; N2 D 2F;
ıN1 D 1; ıN2 D 0: (8.118)
For the nodal displacement u thus follows from (8.117):
F .1/ l Fl
uD D : (8.119)
EA EA
The same procedure can be followed to determine the displacement w. In (8.115) we

set the virtual single force ıFH to zero, and the virtual single force ıFV is assumed
as a unit force ıFV D 1. It follows:
p
C D w: (8.120)
EA EA
The real bar forces N1 and N2 due to F are already given in (8.118). The virtual bar
forces ıN1 and ıN2 caused by the virtual unit force ıFV D 1 are determined as:
p
ıN1 D 1; ıN2 D 2: (8.121)
We can thus calculate the nodal displacement w as follows:

p Fl
w D .1 C 2 2/ : (8.122)
EA
Obviously, the unit load theorem allows us to determine deformations in static sys-
tems quite easily. In formalized form, this procedure is also called the force method,
which we will discuss later.
Example 8.6
Consider the beam shown in Fig. 8.16. The beam has the length l and the con-
stant bending stiffness EIyy . The load is given in the form of a single force F
acting at the center of the beam, and the deflection w in the center of the beam
is to be determined by means of the principle of virtual forces, wherein we want
to assume the contribution of the transverse shear force Vz as being negligible.
We first determine the moment distribution of the beam due to the given sin-
gle force F , it is shown in Fig. 8.16, left. To calculate the deflection w, we also
apply a virtual single force ıF at the center of the beam and determine the cor-
responding moment diagram, shown in Fig. 8.16, right. The principle of virtual
F δF
x1 x2 x1 x2
EIyy EIyy
l/2 l/2
l l
M0 M1
(+) (+)
Fx - F x2 + Fl 1x - 1 x2 + l
2 1 Fl 2 4 2 1 l 2 4
4 4
Fig. 8.16 Beam under single force F (top left), beam under virtual force ıF D 1 (top right),
corresponding moment diagrams (bottom).
forces is:
Zl
My ıMy
dx D wıF: (8.123)
EIyy
0
Herein, My is the bending moment due to the given force F , ıMy is the bending
moment due to the virtual force ıF . If we set ıF as unit load ıF D 1, we are left
with:
Zl
My ıMy
dx D w: (8.124)
EIyy
0
Thus, the deflection we are looking for can be read from (8.124) in a simple
and straightforward way. It is now our task to perform the integration of the two
presented moment functions prescribed in (8.124). Since both moment lines My
and ıMy have discontinuities at the center of the beam, the two reference axes
x1 and x2 are introduced as shown in Fig. 8.16 and the integral in (8.124) is
decomposed into two partial integrals. It follows:
l l
Z2 Z2
M.x1 /ıM.x1 / M.x2 /ıM.x2 /
wD dx1 C dx2 : (8.125)
EIyy EIyy
0 0
A very common notation is to not denote the virtual quantities with the symbol ı,
but rather to denote the moment distributions as M0 (bending moment due to the
given load) and M1 (bending moment due to the virtual unit force):
l l
Z2 Z2
M0 .x1 /M1 .x1 / M0 .x2 /M1 .x2 /
wD dx1 C dx2 : (8.126)
EIyy EIyy
0 0
If we perform the prescribed integrations, we obtain:
l l
Z2 Z2
1 F 1 1 F Fl 1 l
wD x1 x1 dx1 C x2 C x2 C dx2 :
EIyy 2 2 EIyy 2 4 2 4
0 0
(8.127)
Evaluation yields:
F l3
wD : (8.128)
48EIyy
J
8.4.3 Use of integral tables
The preceding example has shown that the determination of deflections with the
help of the unit load theorem is done by integration of products of state variables,
here the products of the moment distributions M0 .x1 / and M1 .x1 / as well as M0 .x2 /
and M1 .x2 /. For more complex systems, however, this approach quickly becomes
impractical due to the necessity of solving integrals. One can make use of the fact
that diagrams of the state variables of static systems are in most cases built up of
elementary standard cases, for which the results of the integrations can be summa-
rized in so-called integral tables. This is shown below at the example of two linear
functions f .x/ and g.x/ defined in the limits of x D 0 and x D l. Let the bound-
ary values of f .x/ be f .x D 0/ D 0 and f .x D l/ D F , and let those of g.x/ be
g.x D 0/ D 0 and g.x D l/ D G. The two functions f .x/ and g.x/ can then be
formulated as follows:
F G
f .x/ D x; g.x/ D x: (8.129)
l l
The integral
Zl
f .x/g.x/dx (8.130)
0
then gives the value 13 F Gl. One can always reuse this result when one has to
perform the integration of the product of two linear functions as defined in (8.129).
Furthermore, for two linear functions f .x/ and g.x/ with boundary values
f .x D 0/ D F and f .x D l/ D 0 as well as g.x D 0/ D G and g.x D l/ D 0, the
value of the integral (8.130) is the same.
Thus, for Example 8.6, using the result provided above, one can immediately
evaluate the two integrals without first multiplying the two functions and actually
solving the integrals. For the deflection of the beam in Example 8.6 follows:
l l
Z2 Z2
M0 .x1 /M1 .x1 / M0 .x2 /M1 .x2 /
wD dx1 C dx2
EIyy EIyy
0 0

1 1 Fl l l 1 Fl l l
D C
EIyy 3 4 4 2 3 4 4 2
F l3
D : (8.131)
48EIyy
Results for the integrals of two multiplied functions are summarized in so called
integral tables. A selection of results for frequently occurring functions f .x/ and
g.x/ is shown in Fig. 8.17.
g(x) G G G G G
f(x) l l l l
F 1 FGl 1 FGl 2 FGl

FGl 2 2 3
l
F 1 FGl 1 FGl 1 FGl 1 FGl

2 3 6 3
l
F 1 FGl 1 FGl 1 FGl 1 FGl

2 6 3 3
l
F 1 FGl 1 FGl(1+ ) 1 FGl(1+ ) 1 FGl(1+ )

l l 2 6 6 3
l
F1
F2
l l l l
F1 F2 2 (F1 +F2 )G 6 (F1 +2F2 )G 6 (2F1 +F2 )G 3 (F1 +F2 )G
l
F
2 FGl 1 FGl 1 FGl 8
l
3 3 3 15FGl
G
Quadratic functions
F 1 FGl 1 FGl 1 1
3 4 12FGl 5 FGl
l
G 1 FGl 1 1 FGl 1
F
3 12FGl 4 5 FGl
l
F1 F2 F3 Gl(F +4F +F ) Gl(2F +F ) Gl(F +2F ) Gl

6 1 2 3 6 2 3 6 1 2 15(F1 +8F2 +F3 )
l
Rl
Fig. 8.17 Integral table 0 f .x/g.x/dx for a selection of typical cases.
8.5 The force method 261
8.5 The force method
The analysis of static systems by means of the principle of virtual forces in connec-
tion with the unit load theorem is often summarized under the term force method.
In this section, we will formalize this procedure and look at it in more depth, high-
lighting other applications besides the determination of deformations.
8.5.1 Determination of deformations of statically determinate

systems
We start our considerations with the analysis of deformations of statically determi-

nate truss structures. For this purpose, consider a truss consisting of m members.
The truss is loaded in such a way that constant normal forces Ni (i D 1; 2; : : : ; m)
occur in the members. Let the length of the bar i be li , and let the constant ex-
tensional stiffness EIi be present in bar i. Then, using the force method, one can
calculate a deformation w at any point of the truss as follows:
For the given truss, the bar forces Ni (i D 1; 2; : : : ; m) are determined as a result
of the given real loads.
Furthermore, the bar forces ıNi D N i are determined due to a virtual single
force F D 1 at the considered location in the direction of the displacement w to
be determined.
The displacement w can be calculated according to the following formula:
X m
Ni N i
wD li : (8.132)
i D1
.EA/i
The procedure is illustrated at the example of the truss shown in Fig. 8.18, on which
the indicated deflection w is to be determined by means of the force method.
F
6 5 2F 6 5
l 1 7 8 4 1 7 8 4
9 9
2 3 2 3
l
w l F =1
Fig. 8.18 Truss under point forces (left), truss under virtual point load (right).
We first determine the bar forces Ni (i D 1; 2; : : : ; 9) due to the two point forces
and obtain:
F 3F F
N1 D ; N2 D 2F; N3 D 0; N4 D ; N5 D ;
2 2 2
F F 3F
N6 D ; N7 D p ; N8 D p ; N9 D F: (8.133)
2 2 2
The bar forces N i due to the virtual unit force F D 1 are obtained as:
1 1 1
N 1 D ; N 2 D 0; N 3 D 0; N 4 D ; N 5 D ;
2 2 2
1 1 1
N 6 D ; N 7 D p ; N 8 D p ; N 9 D 0: (8.134)
2 2 2
The deflection w can then be determined as follows:
X 9
Ni N i
wD li
i D1
.EA/i
1 F 1 3F 1 F 1 F 1 F 1 p 3F 1 p
D lC l l lp p 2l C p p 2l :
EA 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(8.135)
This results in:
p Fl
wD 2 : (8.136)
EA
Example 8.7
Consider the truss shown in Fig. 8.19. The deformed truss is to be determined by
means of the force method.
Fig. 8.19 Truss under point VII VI V

load F (top), deformed struc- 6 5
ture (bottom, displacements
Fl
in unit EA ). 4
l 7 8 9 10 11 F
1 2 3
I II III IV
l l l
2.00 3.00
17.66
6.83
F
3.00
5.83 5.00 6.00
16.66
29.48
Table 8.1 Bar forces for the individual load cases.

Bar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
p p p
li l l l 2l l l l 2l l 2l l
p p p
Ni 3F 2F F 2F F 2F 0 2F F 2F F
N i;I;v 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 0 0 0
N i;II;h 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
p
N i;II;v 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
N i;III;h 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
p p
N i;III;v 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 2 0
N i;IV;h 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
p p p
N i;IV;v 3 2 1 2 1 2 0 2 1 2 1
N i;V;h 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
p p
N i;V;v 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 2 1
N i;VI;h 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
p
N i;VI;v 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0
To determine the deformed truss, only the horizontal and vertical displace-
ments of the truss nodes are required, between the nodes the deformation figure
will consist of straight lines. To determine the nodal displacements, first the
member forces Ni (i D 1; 2; : : : ; 11) due to the applied single force F are deter-
mined. After that, horizontal and vertical virtual single forces F D 1 are applied
at each node, and the virtual bar forces N i are calculated, which we want to
identify with Roman numbers for the node number and with h and v (horizontal
and vertical), respectively. The virtual forces are applied acting to the right and
downward, respectively, in all cases. The determined bar forces are summarized
in Table 8.1.
The required displacements can be determined as follows:
X m
Ni N i
ıD li : (8.137)
i D1
.EA/i
We obtain:
Fl
ıI;h D 0; ıI;v D 0; ıII;h D 3 ;
EA
p Fl Fl Fl
ıII;v D 3 C 2 2 D 5:83 ; ıIII;h D 5 ;
EA EA EA
p Fl Fl Fl
ıIII;v D 11 C 4 2 D 16:66 ; ıIV;h D 6 ;
EA EA EA
p Fl Fl Fl
ıIV;v D 21 C 6 2 D 29:49 ; ıV;h D 3 ;
EA EA EA
p Fl Fl Fl
ıV;v D 12 C 4 2 D 17:66 ; ıVI;h D 2 ;
EA EA EA
p Fl Fl
ıVI;v D 4 C 2 2 D 6:83 : (8.138)
EA EA
The deformed truss is shown in Fig. 8.19, bottom. J
F F
q
F =1
x x
w
l l l l
2Fl Fl
Fl (-)
M0 due to F(x=2l) Fl
(-) Fl
(-) (-)
=
Fl
M0 due to F(x=l) ql 2 ql 2
(-)
0 8 8
2ql 2 (+) (+)
1 ql 2
2ql 2 (-) 1 ql 2
M0 due to q 2 2
(-) (-) (-)
=
2l l
l (-)
M1 due to F =1 l
(-) l (-) (-)
=
Fig. 8.20 Beam under line load q and point loads F (top left), beam under virtual point load
F D 1 (top right), corresponding moment diagrams (bottom).
The force method can also be applied to the determination of deformations of beams
and beam systems. As an introductory example, we consider the cantilever beam of
Fig. 8.20. The cantilever beam has the length 2l and the constant bending stiffness
EIyy . The load consists of the constant line load q and the two point forces F . The
deflection w at the end of the cantilever beam is to be determined.
We first determine the moment distribution M0 due to the applied load and the
moment diagram M1 due to the virtual single force F D 1 at the end of the can-
tilever wherein we decompose the moment diagrams into elementary segments as
shown in Fig. 8.20. We also use the superposition principle and determine the mo-
ment line M0 for the respective partial loads separately. The evaluation is performed
section by section on the intervals 0 x l and l x 2l.
The deflection w1 due to the single force F at x D 2l follows as:

1 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 8 F l3
w1 D F l C F l C F l C F l3 C F l3 D : (8.139)
EIyy 3 2 2 3 3 EIyy
For the deflection w2 due to the force F at x D l we obtain:

1 1 3 1 3 5 F l3
w2 D Fl C Fl D : (8.140)
EIyy 3 2 6 EIyy
The deflection w3 due to the line load q follows as:

1 1 4 2 4 1 1 1 1 1
w3 D ql C ql ql 4 C ql 4 C ql 4 ql 4 C ql 4 ql 4
EIyy 12 3 24 4 12 6 24
ql 4
D2 : (8.141)
EIyy
The total deflection w is then the sum of the partial deflections w1 , w2 , w3 :

8 F l3 5 F l3 ql 4 1 21 3
w D w1 C w2 C w3 D C C2 D F l C 2ql 4 :
3 EIyy 6 EIyy EIyy EIyy 6
(8.142)
Example 8.8
Consider the frame of Fig. 8.21, top left. The frame is subjected to a constant
line load q and has the constant bending stiffness EIyy .
We want to determine the mutual displacement w of the vertical frame mem-
bers at their half height.
We apply opposing virtual loads to determine the mutual displacement w of
the vertical frame members, as shown in Fig. 8.21, top right, and determine the
moment diagrams for both the given load and the virtual load case. They are
h
2 F=1 F=1
h
2
l l
2 2
M0 M1
1ql 2 (-) (-) 1 2 0 0
8 (-) (-) 8ql
(-) 1h 1h
1 ql
=16
2 4 4
(-)
(-) (-)
(-)
Fig. 8.21 Frame structure under line load q, determination of the mutual horizontal displacement
at half height of the vertical frame members.
shown in Fig. 8.21, bottom. Superposition of the moment lines M0 and M1 then
gives the mutual displacement of the considered points as follows:
ql 2 h2
wD : (8.143)
64EIyy
J
Example 8.9
For the beam shown in Fig. 8.22, the rotation of the left support is to be de-
termined. The beam is loaded by the line load q and has the length l and the
constant bending stiffness EIyy .
Superposition of the two moment lines M0 and M1 yields the rotation ' as
follows:
1 1 ql 2 ql 3
'D 1l D : (8.144)
EIyy 3 8 24EIyy
J
Example 8.10
For the beam structure of Fig. 8.23, the mutual rotation ' of the beam segments
intersecting in the joint is to be determined. The beam has the constant bending
stiffness EIyy .
The superposition of the two moment diagrams M0 and M1 leads to the de-
sired mutual rotation ' as follows:
q 3
'D l2 2.3l2 C 2l1 /l12 : (8.145)
24EIyy
J
Example 8.11
Consider the beam of Fig. 8.24 (length 2l), which is loaded by two edge mo-
ments MA and MB . The rotations 'A and 'B are to be determined. We also want
to clarify how large the moment MB must be for a given MA so that 'A D 'B . In
the left half, the beam has the bending stiffness 2EIyy , in the right half the value
EIyy is given.
In order to apply the force method, we first determine the moment line M0
due to the two edge moments MA and MB , as shown in Fig. 8.25. The bending
stiffness EIyy is not constant along the beam length. Therefore, it is convenient
to decompose the moment diagram as shown in Fig. 8.25 into triangles and rect-
angles of length l. In this way, the later superposition of the moment diagrams is
facilitated.
To determine the rotation 'A , a virtual single moment is applied to the left
support (Fig. 8.26) and the corresponding moment diagram is determined. In or-
q
M=1
x
l
(+) 1 (+)
M0 M1
1ql 2
8
Fig. 8.22 Determination of the rotation of the left support of a simply supported beam under line
load q.
q
M=1
x
l1 l2
1 ql l
2 12
l (+)
(-) 1+ l 1 1
M0 2 M1
1 ql 2
8 2
Fig. 8.23 Determination of the mutual rotation of the beam segments at the joint.
Fig. 8.24 Beam under two MA 2EIyy EIyy φB MB

edge moments MA and MB .
x φ
A
l l
der to determine the rotation 'A the moment lines M0 and M1 are superimposed:
Z
M0 M1
'A D dx
EIyy

l 1 MA 1 1 MA 1 1 MA 1 MA 1
D C C C
2EIyy 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

l 1 MB 1 1 MB 1 l 1 MB 1 1 MB 1
C C
2EIyy 6 2 2 2 2 2 EIyy 6 2 2 2 2 2
l 1 MA 1 3MA l MB l
C D : (8.146)
EIyy 3 2 2 8EIyy 4EIyy
In quite the same way, the rotation 'B can be determined (Fig. 8.27). The super-
position of the moment diagram M0 and the moment diagram M1 results in the
Fig. 8.25 Moment dia- MA MB

gram M0 due to the two edge
moments MA and MB . x
l l
MA (+)
(-) MB
MA
=
(+)
+
(-) MB
MA =
2
(+)
+ MB
(-)
2
MB
2
Fig. 8.26 Moment dia- 1

gram M1 due to a virtual
x
single moment at the left
support. l l
1 (+)
1
2
= 1
2
(+)
Fig. 8.27 Moment dia- 1

gram M1 due to a virtual
single moment at the right x
support.
l l
(-) 1
1
2
= 1
2
(-)
rotation 'B :
MA l 5MB l
'B D C : (8.147)
4EIyy 8EIyy
By equating the two expressions (8.146) and (8.147), one can determine the mo-
ment MB as a function of MA such that the two rotations 'A and 'B are identical.
It follows:
3MA l MB l MA l 5MB l
D C : (8.148)
8EIyy 4EIyy 4EIyy 8EIyy
This expression can be solved for MB :
5
MB D MA : (8.149)
7
J
Example 8.12
Consider the beam of Fig. 8.28 loaded by a single force F , which exhibits differ-
ent bending stiffnesses EI1 D 3EIyy , EI2 D 2EIyy , EI3 D EIyy in its segments.
The displacements w and wF as well as the mutual rotation ' of the two beam
segments intersecting at the joint are to be determined using the force method.
The moment diagram due to the given load is shown in Fig. 8.28, bottom.
We apply the virtual forces and moments corresponding to the displacements
and the mutual rotation at the relevant points of the beam and determine the
corresponding moment distributions. They are shown in Fig. 8.29.
For the displacement w follows:
Zl
M0 M1 1 1 F l3
wD dx D l F l l D : (8.150)
3EIyy 3EIyy 3 9EIyy
0
Fig. 8.28 Beam under w

single force F , moment dia- F
φ
gram M0 (bottom).
x EI1 EI2 EI3 wF
l l l
Fl
(-) F
(+)
Fl
Fig. 8.29 Beam under virtual l

forces and moments, result- (+) 1
ing moment diagrams M1 . 0 0
l
1
(-)
(+)
l
2
(+)
0
1 1
The displacement wF results as:
Zl Zl Zl
M0 M1 M0 M1 M0 M1
wF D dx C dx C dx
3EIyy 2EIyy EIyy
0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
D l F l l C l F l l C l F l l
3EIyy 3 2EIyy 3 EIyy 3
11F l 3
D : (8.151)
18EIyy
The mutual rotation ' is determined as follows:
Zl Zl
M0 M1 M0 M1
'D dx C dx
3EIyy 2EIyy
0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
D l 1 .F l/ C l F l 2C l F l 1
2EIyy 6 3EIyy 3 3EIyy 6
7F l 2
D : (8.152)
36EIyy
J
8.5.2 Statically indeterminate systems
The force method also proves to be very useful in the analysis of statically indeter-
minate systems. At this point we will restrict ourselves to system which are statically
indeterminate to the first degree. As an introductory example, consider the system
shown in Fig. 8.30, top. Let the beam of length l and constant bending stiffness
EIyy be clamped at its left end and simply supported at its right end. The load is
given in the form of a uniform line load q. The moment distribution M.x/ is to be
determined.
x B
l 1 ql 2
2
ql 2 (-)
q 2 8 = -
1 ql (+)
2
ql 2
δ0 8
M0 due to q
F=1 l
δ0 M1 due to F1=1
B=1 l
δ1 M1 due to B =1
Final moment distribution:
1 ql 2
8
Fig. 8.30 Statically indeterminate beam under line load q, representation of the calculation steps
for determining the moment line M.x/.
In order to determine the state variables of the statically indeterminate beam,

an arbitrary support reaction is released by removing the corresponding kinematic
bond. In this example, we remove the support B. As a consequence, the support
reaction B is released and the beam becomes statically determinate. The resulting
statically determinate system is called the 0-system. The choice of the statically
determinate 0-system is arbitrary, but it is imperative to ensure that the system does
not become displaceable and thus unusable by removing the kinematic bond.
The moment diagram M0 due to the given load is now determined at the statically
determinate 0-system. It is shown in Fig. 8.30, middle. The deflection ı0 at the
support point B can then be determined by means of the force method. We apply
a virtual single force F D 1 at the right end of the beam and determine the moment
diagram M1 . In order to perform the superposition of the two moment lines M0 and
M1 appropriately, we have decomposed the moment diagram M0 into a quadratic
ql 2
parabola with
2
the maximum value 8 and a triangular area with the maximum
value ql2 . Then, for the deflection ı0 we obtain:
Zl
M0 M1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 3ql 4
ı0 D dx D l l ql l l ql D :
EIyy EIyy 3 2 3 8 24EIyy
0
(8.153)
In the next step, we determine the deflection ı1 that would result from the support
force B. At this point, the support force B is still unknown, so we assume B to
be a unit force B D 1. The deflection ı1 due to B D 1 (so-called 1-system) then
results as:
Zl
M1 M1 l3
ı1 D dx D : (8.154)
EIyy 3EIyy
0
The two deflections ı0 and ı1 cannot occur in reality due to the support at point B.
Therefore the following compatibility condition applies:
ı0 C Bı1 D 0: (8.155)
This means that both the deflection ı0 and the deflection ı1 multiplied by B must
cancel each other out. From this requirement, the support force B can be deter-
mined as:
3ql 4
ı0 24EIyy 3
BD D D ql: (8.156)
ı1 l3 8
3EIyy
The negative sign indicates that B actually acts in the opposite direction than shown
in Fig. 8.30. Once the support force B is given, then all further support reactions
and consequently all state variables can be determined. The final moment line M.x/
on the statically indeterminate system is shown in Fig. 8.30, bottom.
In general, support reactions and internal forces and moments of the system (here
symbolically denoted by S) can be determined from the superposition of the indi-
vidual calculations:
S D S0 C BS1 : (8.157)
Here S0 are the internal forces and moments on the statically determinate 0-system
due to the given load. The quantities S1 are the internal forces and moments at the
statically determinate 0-system due to the unit load B D 1, which must be multi-
plied in (8.157) by the determined value for B. The moment distribution M for the
statically indeterminate system follows as:
M D M0 C BM1 : (8.158)
It is common to denote a statically indeterminate support reaction as X. The com-
patibility condition is then in general form:
ı0 C Xı1 D 0: (8.159)
The solution is:
ı0
X D : (8.160)
ı1
The internal forces and moments in the statically indeterminate system are then:
S D S0 C XS1 : (8.161)
Example 8.13
Consider the statically indeterminate beam shown in Fig. 8.31 under a single
force F . The support reactions A, B and MA of this statically indeterminate
beam are to be determined using the force method.
The statically determinate 0-system is generated by releasing a statically in-
termediate quantity. Here, we will treat the support moment MA as statically
indeterminate quantity by replacing the clamped end with a hinged support. The
statically determinate 0-system is shown in Fig. 8.32, top.
Fig. 8.31 Statically indeter- F

minate beam (top), support
reactions (bottom).
x
ll l2
MA F
A B
Fig. 8.32 Statically determi- F

X=1
nate 0-system (top), moment
diagram M0 (middle) due x
to the given load, moment
diagram M1 (bottom) due to ll l2
quantity X D 1 (1-system). l
l (+) l
F l +2l F l +ll
l 2 l 2
ll
F l +l l2
l 2
1
X=1 (-)
1 1
ll
l l+ l 2
l l+ l 2 = l2
l l+ l 2
l l+ l 2
(-)
l2
l l+ l 2
We determine the moment diagram M0 for the statically determinate 0-system.

It is given in Fig. 8.32, middle. Moreover, the moment diagram M1 is required as
a result of the statically indeterminate moment X D 1, it is shown in Fig. 8.32,
bottom. The statically indeterminate moment X can then be determined using
the rotations ı0 and ı1 of the support point:
Zl
M0 M1
ı0 D dx
EIyy
0

1 1 l1 l2 l1 1 l1 l2 l2 1 l1 l2 l2
D l1 F l1 F l2 F
EIyy 6 l1 C l2 l1 C l2 2 l1 C l2 l1 C l2 3 l1 C l2 l1 C l2
2 2
F l1 l2 l1 l1 l2 l2
D 2
C (8.162)
EIyy .l1 C l2 / 6 2 3
and
Zl
M1 M1
ı1 D dx
EIyy
0

1 1 l12 l1 l2 l22 1 l22
D l1 C l 1 C l 1 C l 2
EIyy 3 .l1 C l2 /2 l1 C l2 l1 C l2 .l1 C l2 /2 3 .l1 C l2 /2
3
1 l1 2 2 l23
D C l 1 l 2 C l 1 l 2 C : (8.163)
EIyy .l1 C l2 /2 3 3
The statically indeterminate support moment X D MA then follows from the

compatibility equation
ı0
X D ; (8.164)
ı1
thus:
F l1 l2 l2
XD 1C D MA : (8.165)
2.l1 C l2 / l1 C l2
The support force B can be determined from this as:
F l12
B D B0 C XB1 D Œl2 C 2.l1 C l2 / : (8.166)
2.l1 C l2 /3
The support force A follows as:
A D F B: (8.167)
J
Example 8.14
Consider the statically indeterminate beam shown in Fig. 8.33 which is loaded by
the line load q. The moment diagram of the beam that is statically indeterminate
to the first degree is to be determined by means of the force method. The beam
has a constant bending stiffness EIyy .
We make the beam statically determinate by releasing the moment above the
middle support by inserting a full joint at this location. The moment diagrams
M0 and M1 are shown in Fig. 8.34. The compatibility equation to be applied
here is:
ı0
X D : (8.168)
ı1
The two rotations ı0 and ı1 are:
Z
M0 M1 1 1 ql 2 ql 3
ı0 D dx D 2 l 1D ;
EIyy EIyy 3 8 12EIyy
Z
M1 M1 1 1 2l
ı1 D dx D 2 l 1D : (8.169)
EIyy EIyy 3 3EIyy
Thus, the statically indeterminate bending moment can be determined as:
ql 2
X D : (8.170)
8
The reaction forces A of the outer supports follow from this as:
3
A D A0 C XA1 D ql: (8.171)
8
Fig. 8.33 Static system and q

load.
l l
q
X =1
x x
ql ql 1 2 1
ql l l l
2 2
M0 (+) (+) M1 (+) 1
1ql 2 1ql 2
8 8
Fig. 8.34 Moment diagrams M0 (left) and M1 (right).

Fig. 8.35 Moment diagram 1ql 2

for the statically indetermi- M 8
nate beam.
(+) (+)
3ql 5ql 3ql

8 4 8
The support force B of the middle support is:

5
B D B0 C XB1 D ql: (8.172)
4
The final moment distribution in the statically indeterminate system follows from
the condition
M D M0 C XM1 : (8.173)
The moment diagram is shown in Fig. 8.35. J
Example 8.15
Consider the frame that is shown in Fig. 8.36, which is statically indeterminate
to the first degree. The bending stiffness EIV is given in the vertical bars, in the
horizontal beam the value EIH is given. The frame is loaded by a single force
as shown. The system is made statically determinate by introducing a moment
joint, and the static quantity thus released is to be determined. In addition, the
support reactions and the moment diagram of the statically indeterminate system
for the special case EIV D EIH and h D l are to be determined. We use the force
method for the solution of this problem, taking into account only the contribution
due to the bending moments in the deformation calculations.
The statically determinate 0-system is generated by introducing a moment
joint at the force application point and releasing the bending moment at this
Fig. 8.36 Statically inde-

terminate frame under single F
force.
EIH
h EIV EIV
l l
2 2
l
Fl Fl
4 F 4 1 1
(-) (-) (-)
Fl Fl 1 1
4 4
(-) (-) (-) X =1 (-)
Fl M0 Fl 1 M1 1
4h 4h h h
F F
2 2 0 0
Fig. 8.37 Moment diagrams M0 (left) and M1 (right).
point. The resulting moment lines M0 and M1 at the 0-system and the 1-system
are shown in Fig. 8.37.
From the compatibility equation we determine the statically indeterminate
bending moment X D M as:
ı0
X D : (8.174)
ı1
The quantities ı0 and ı1 result from the superposition of the moment diagrams as:
Z
M0 M1 Fl h l
ı0 D dx D C ;
EIyy 2 3EIV 4EIH
Z
M1 M1 2h l
ı1 D dx D C : (8.175)
EIyy 3EIH EIV
This leads to the statically indeterminate bending moment as:

!
h l
Fl C
3EIV 4EIH
X D ! : (8.176)
2h l
2 C
3EIH EIV
If the special case EIV D EIH and h D l is considered, we obtain:
7
X D F l: (8.177)
40
The support reactions and the moment distribution are calculated from the con-
dition
S D S0 C XS1 : (8.178)
They are shown in Fig. 8.38. J
Fig. 8.38 Support reactions 3 3

and moment diagram of the 40 Fl 40 Fl
statically indeterminate frame
F
for the special case EIV D
3 (-) (-) 3
40 Fl 40 Fl
EIH and h D l. (-)
(+)
(-)
7
40 Fl
3 3
40 F M 40 F
F F
2 2
8.6 Reciprocity theorems
8.6.1 Betti’s theorem
We want to motivate Betti’s theorem3 using the situation of Fig. 8.39. Consider
a linear elastic solid loaded by two point forces F1 and F2 . Let us denote the dis-
placements of the two force application points as u1 and u2 , respectively.
We now perform the following thought experiment. We first consider the situa-
tion that only the force F1 acts on the solid and the force F2 is not yet present. The
force F1 then performs work along the displacement u1 as follows:
1 .1/
We D F1 u1 : (8.179)
2
.1/
Here the superscript .1/ indicates that the displacement u1 is caused by the
force F1 .
In the next step, the force F2 is applied to the solid body, and we want to assume
that the force F1 still acts at full magnitude. The total work done is then:
1 .1/ 1 .2/ .2/
We D F1 u1 C F2 u2 C F1 u1 : (8.180)
2 2
Fig. 8.39 On Betti’s theo-

rem. F1 F2
u2
u1
3
Enrico Betti, 1823–1892, Italian mathematician.
8.6 Reciprocity theorems 279
.1/
In addition to the work 12 F1 u1 already performed, another share results from the
.2/
force F2 performed along the displacement u2 . However, additionally the part of
the force F1 has to be taken into account, which performs additional work along the
.2/
displacement u1 caused by F2 (so-called passive work).
The thought experiment is now repeated in reverse order, and we first apply the
force F2 . It follows:
1 .2/
We D F2 u2 : (8.181)
2
The force F2 now acts at full magnitude, and the force F1 is additionally applied.
The total work done is then:
1 .2/ 1 .1/ .1/
We D F2 u2 C F1 u1 C F2 u2 : (8.182)
2 2
The total work must be identical in both cases. If we equate (8.180) and (8.182), we
obtain:
1 .1/ 1 .2/ .2/ 1 .2/ 1 .1/ .1/
F1 u1 C F2 u2 C F1 u1 D F2 u2 C F1 u1 C F2 u2 : (8.183)
2 2 2 2
.1/ .2/
The terms 12 F1 u1 and 12 F2 u2 cancel out, and the following expression remains:
.2/ .1/
F1 u1 D F2 u2 : (8.184)
This is Betti’s theorem. It states that the work done by a force F1 along a dis-
.2/
placement u1 caused by a force F2 acting at another point is identical to the work
.1/
performed by the force F2 along the displacement u2 caused by F1 . In symbolic
form we can also write:
W12 D W21 ; (8.185)
or in general form:
Wij D Wj i ; i ¤ j: (8.186)
Herein, the index i indicates the location and the index j indicates the cause of the
performed work.
8.6.2 Maxwell’s theorem
Maxwell’s theorem4 is obtained by taking the forces F1 and F2 in Betti’s theorem

as unit loads. Maxwell’s theorem then reads:
.2/ .1/
u1 D u2 : (8.187)
The following notation will prove to be useful at a later point:
ıij D ıj i ; (8.188)
with i ¤ j .
4
James Clerk Maxwell, 1831–1879, Scottish physicist.
8.7 Statically indeterminate systems
Betti’s theorem and Maxwell’s theorem can be applied to the analysis of systems
that are statically indeterminate to a higher degree using the force method. For this
purpose, the introductory example of Fig. 8.40, top left, is considered. The beam
under consideration has the total length 2l and the constant bending stiffness EIyy .
The beam is supported in such a way that at its left end it is rigidly clamped. In the
middle of the beam and at the right end, the beam is simply supported. This beam
is thus statically indeterminate to the second degree. In order to be able to apply
the force method, we make the beam statically determinate by releasing a suffi-
cient number of kinematic bonds and releasing the statically indeterminate reaction
forces without rendering the system unusable. In the example, this is done by re-
moving the two simple supports, see Fig. 8.40, top right. Due to this removal, the
displacements ı10 and ı20 arise at the two support points due to the given load
(0-system), which of course cannot occur at the actually statically indeterminate
system. Therefore, we now apply the still unknown support force X1 (Fig. 8.40,
1-system, bottom left) at the center support point, which we consider as a unit force.
It invokes the two displacements ı11 and ı21 on the 1-system. From the indexing of
these displacements it is clear that these are displacements at points 1 and 2 (indi-
cated by the first index in each case) caused by X1 (indicated by the second index).
In the same way, we can proceed with the unknown support force at the right support
by applying the unit load X2 D 1 (2-system) and considering the two displacements
ı12 and ı22 caused by it (Fig. 8.40, bottom right).
All displacements mentioned above cannot occur in the actually statically inde-
terminate system. Therefore, there are two compatibility conditions for a system
that is statically indeterminate to the second degree. Regarding ı10 , ı11 and ı12 at
the support point in the beam center, it follows:
ı10 C X1 ı11 C X2 ı12 D 0: (8.189)
q q
x δ10 δ20
l l
δ11 δ21 δ12 δ22
X1 =1 X2 =1
Fig. 8.40 Statically indeterminate beam, determination of the support reactions.

8.7 Statically indeterminate systems 281
At the support point at the right end of the beam, on the other hand, the compatibility
condition to be fulfilled is:
ı20 C X1 ı21 C X2 ı22 D 0: (8.190)
These are two equations for the two unknown support reactions X1 and X2 .
From Maxwell’s theorem the equality of the two displacements ı12 and ı21 can
be concluded:
ı12 D ı21 : (8.191)
In general terms, we can write:
ıij D ıj i ; i ¤ j: (8.192)
The two compatibility conditions then take the following form:
ı10 C X1 ı11 C X2 ı12 D 0;

ı20 C X1 ı12 C X2 ı22 D 0: (8.193)
Thus, if a system is considered that is statically indeterminate to the second degree,

which is to be treated by means of the force method, then a total of five displace-
ments are to be determined. If only the influence of the bending moment M is taken
into account, then these displacements result as:
Z
Mi Mj
ıij D dx: (8.194)
EIyy
The compatibility conditions (8.193) can be solved for the statically indeterminte
quantities X1 and X2 as follows:
ı10 ı22 C ı20 ı12 ı20 ı11 C ı10 ı12

X1 D 2
; X2 D 2
: (8.195)
ı11 ı22 ı12 ı11 ı22 ı12
Once the support reactions of the beam have been determined, the further support
reactions as well as the internal forces and moments of the statically indeterminate
system can be determined:
S D S 0 C X1 S 1 C X2 S 2 : (8.196)
Here S1 and S2 are the forces and moments due to the statically indeterminate quan-
tities X1 and X2 .
Example 8.16
Consider the statically indeterminate system shown in Fig. 8.41, left. The given
frame structure is statically indeterminate to the second degree. The support
forces and the moment distribution are to be determined. We want to use the
force method for the analysis, normal force and transverse shear force influences
are to be neglected.
We choose the statically determinate 0-system as shown in Fig. 8.41, right.
Here, a moment joint was introduced at the upper left corner, and the clamped
end is transformed into a hinged support. The moment diagram M0 is shown in
Fig. 8.42, top. The corresponding bending moment diagrams as a consequence of
the statically indeterminate quantities X1 D 1 and X2 D 1 are shown in Fig. 8.42,
middle. The compatibility equations to be fulfilled here are:
ı10 C X1 ı11 C X2 ı12 D 0;

ı20 C X1 ı12 C X2 ı22 D 0: (8.197)
The quantities ıij (i; j; D 0; 1; 2) currently amount to:
F l2 l 2l
ı10 D ; ı11 D ; ı12 D ;
3EIyy EIyy 3EIyy
F l2 5l
ı20 D ; ı22 D : (8.198)
2EIyy 3EIyy
The statically indeterminate quantities X1 and X2 can thus be determined as:

2 5
X1 D F l; X2 D F l: (8.199)
11 22
The support reactions and the resulting moment distribution of the statically in-
determinate system are shown in Fig. 8.42, bottom. J
Statically indeterminate system 0-system
F F
l l
Fig. 8.41 Statically indeterminate system (left), statically determinate 0-system (right).
0-system
Fl
(-)
0 0 M0
0 0
F 2F
1-system X 2=1 2-system

1 1
(-) 1 (+)
0 0
(+) 1 (+) (-)
M1 M2
X1 =1
1 1 1 1
(+) l l l l
1
1 1
l l 0 0
Support reactions and bending moment

13 Fl
22 Fl
5 (-) (-)
22 Fl (+) (+) (-)
9
22 Fl
5
22 Fl
2 M
11 Fl
9 9
(-) 22 F 22 F
2
11 Fl
9 20 F
11 F 11
Fig. 8.42 Bending moment distributions for the 0-system, the 1-system and the 2-system; support
reactions and bending moment diagram for the statically indeterminate system.
Systems with higher degrees of static indeterminacy can be treated quite analo-
gously using the force method. If a system is considered that is statically indeter-
minate to the third degree, then the following compatibility conditions are to be
considered:
ı10 C X1 ı11 C X2 ı12 C X3 ı13 D 0;
ı20 C X1 ı21 C X2 ı22 C X3 ı23 D 0;
ı30 C X1 ı31 C X2 ı32 C X3 ı33 D 0; (8.200)
or after application of Maxwell’s theorem:
ı10 C X1 ı11 C X2 ı12 C X3 ı13 D 0;

ı20 C X1 ı12 C X2 ı22 C X3 ı23 D 0;
ı30 C X1 ı13 C X2 ı23 C X3 ı33 D 0: (8.201)
In vector-matrix notation, we have:

2 30 1 0 1
ı11 ı12 ı13 X1 ı10
4ı12 ı22 ı23 5@X2 A D @ı20 A: (8.202)
ı13 ı23 ı33 X3 ı30
Thus there are three equations for the determination of the three unknown quantities
X1 , X2 and X3 . The coefficient matrix is symmetric as a consequence of Maxwell’s
theorem.
We now consider a static system with the degree of static indeterminacy n. The
n compatibility conditions to be considered are then:
ı10 C X1 ı11 C X2 ı12 C X3 ı13 C C Xn ı1n D 0;

::
:
ın0 C X1 ı1n C X2 ı2n C X3 ı3n C C Xn ınn D 0: (8.203)
In vector-matrix notation we can write:

2 30 1 0 1
ı11 ı12 ı13 ı1n X1 ı10
6ı12 ı22 ı23 ı2n 7 B X2 C Bı20 C
6 7B C B C
6ı13 ı23 ı33 ı3n 7 B C B C
6 7BX3 C D Bı30 C; (8.204)
6 :: :: :: :: :: 7B :: C B :: C
4 : : : : : 5@ : A @ : A
ı1n ı2n ı3n ınn Xn ın0
or in symbolic form:
ıX D ı 0 : (8.205)
The matrix ı is symmetric as a consequence of Maxwell’s theorem.
Example 8.17
Consider the frame structure shown in Fig. 8.43 which is statically indeterminate
to the third degree. We want to determine the support reactions and the moment
distribution. The depicted statically determinate 0-system is to be used.
Currently, the following compatibility conditions have to be considered for
the determination of the three statically indeterminate quantities X1 , X2 and X3 :
ı10 C X1 ı11 C X2 ı12 C X3 ı13 D 0;

ı20 C X1 ı12 C X2 ı22 C X3 ı23 D 0;
ı30 C X1 ı13 C X2 ı23 C X3 ı33 D 0: (8.206)
The displacements and rotations ıij are obtained as:
1 1
ı10 D F h.l C h/; ı11 D .l C 2h/;
3EIyy 3EIyy

1 1 1 1 1 1
ı12 D lC h ; ı13 D lC h ;
EIyy 2 6 EIyy 3 2

1 1 1 1 2
ı20 D Fh l C h ; ı22 D lC h ;
EIyy 2 3 EIyy 3

1 1 1 1
ı23 D .l C h/; ı30 D Fh l C h ;
2EIyy EIyy 3 2

1 1
ı33 D l Ch : (8.207)
EIyy 3
Statically indeterminate system Statically determinate 0-system

F
Fig. 8.43 Statically indeterminate frame (left), statically determinate 0-system (right).
Equation (8.206) takes the following form:

2 ! !3 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
6 .l C 2h/ lC h lC h 7 F h.l C h/ C
6 3 2 6 3 2 70 1 B B 3 !C
6 ! ! 7 B
6 1 1 2 1 7 X1 B 1 1 C C
6 7 F h l C h C:
6 l C h lC h .l C h/ 7@X2 A D B B 2 3 C
6 2 6 3 2 7 B !C
6 ! ! 7 X3 B C
6 1 1 1 1 7 @F h 1l C 1h A
4 5
lC h .l C h/ l Ch 3 2
3 2 2 3
(8.208)
This results in the following statically indeterminate quantities X1 , X2 , X3 :
h.3h C l/ 3h2 h.3h C l/

X1 D F; X2 D F; X3 D F: (8.209)
2.6h C l/ 2.6h C l/ 2.6h C l/
The support reactions of the statically indeterminate system then result in:
3h2
AV D AV 0 C X1 AV 1 C X2 AV 2 C X3 AV 3 D F;
l.6h C l/
F
AH D Ah0 C X1 AH1 C X2 AH 2 C X3 AH 3 D ;
2
3h2
B V D B V 0 C X1 B V 1 C X2 B V 2 C X3 B V 3 D F;
l.6h C l/
F
BH D BH 0 C X1 BH1 C X2 BH 2 C X3 BH 3 D : (8.210)
2
The moment distribution M of the statically indeterminate system then follows
from superposition of the individual partial moment lines:
M D M0 C X1 M1 C X2 M2 C X3 M3 : (8.211)
It is shown in Fig. 8.44, bottom. J

Fh
1
(+) F (-)
1
(+) Fh (-)
0 0-system 1-system
1 (+) 1
F h h
0 1
X 1=1
Fh Fh 1
1
l l l
X 2=1 l
(+)
1 1
(+)
1 1 1
(+)
(+) (+)
2-system 0 3-system
1 1
h h
0 0
1 X 3=1
0 0 l 1
l
Support reactions and bending moment
Fh
(+) F
2 (-) (-) 2
3h 2 3h
2(6h+l) F 2(6h+l) F
(+)
3h
2(6h+l) F
h(3h+l)
(+) 2(6h+l) F (-)
F F
2 h(3h+l) h(3h+l) 2
2(6h+l) F 2(6h+l) F
2 2
3h 3h
l(6h+l) F l(6h+l) F
Fig. 8.44 Moment diagrams.

Buckling of bars
9
This chapter deals with the fundamentals of the buckling of bars under compressive
load. After a brief introduction to the stability of equilibrium and the determination
of critical loads (i.e. the load under which a previously straight member changes to
a deflected position), as necessary for the understanding of this chapter, we discuss
the determination of buckling loads of bars under compressive load under vari-
ous boundary conditions. The purpose of this chapter is to enable students to treat
stability problems of compressed members and to determine buckling loads for el-
ementary cases.
9.1 Introduction
The aim of the design of a structure is to provide sufficient stiffness and strength,
taking into account specific requirements. Engineers in practice are therefore often
concerned with providing the corresponding verification, usually in the form of
a strength verification, i.e. the verification that the stresses in a structure do not
exceed permissible values. Considering the tensile member of Fig. 9.1, it must be
verified that the tensile stress D FA does not exceed an allowable value allow
(taking safety factors into account if necessary). Thus, the bar under tension requires
the consideration of a strength problem.
A completely different situation arises when the considered bar is subjected to
a compressive load F (Fig. 9.2). In many technically relevant cases there is no
strength problem (i.e. the corresponding strength of the material is not reached by
the applied load), but rather, depending on the magnitude of the applied load, several
equilibrium states can occur that describe different configurations of the bar. Thus,
Fig. 9.1 Bar under tensile F

load.
Nature 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9_9
290 9 Buckling of bars
undeformed F
deformed
Fig. 9.2 Bar under compressive load.
there is not necessarily an unambiguous relationship between the applied load and
the resulting bar response. In addition to the straight configuration, configurations
are also possible that are accompanied by a bending of the bar. This phenomenon,
i.e. the bending of a compression member when a certain load is reached, is referred
to as buckling. Also, the term of the so-called flexural buckling is commonly used
to make it clear that, although we are dealing with a bar, it reacts to the applied load
like a beam by bending. This deflection generally occurs abruptly when a defined
load level F D Fcrit is reached, which we refer to as critical load or buckling load.
This field of knowledge is the so-called stability theory, and it is the objective of
a stability analysis to determine the critical load or buckling load Fcrit at which the
previously straight member changes into a deflected position.
9.2 Types of equilibrium
In what follows we want to clarify the term stability and the related stability of equi-
librium in more detail. For this purpose we consider the so-called sphere analogy
(see Fig. 9.3). A rigid sphere of mass m is considered, which is located on differ-
ently shaped surfaces. Gravity acts as indicated. First, we consider the case that the
sphere lies on a concave surface (Fig. 9.3, top left). In this case, the sphere will
come to rest by itself in its rest position at the lowest point of the surface and will
find its natural equilibrium position there. If the position of the sphere is changed
by deflecting it infinitesimally and then leaving it to itself (i.e. if an infinitesimal
perturbation of the state of equilibrium is applied), then the sphere will always re-
turn to its original position under the influence of the gravitational field of the earth
and through the influence of sliding friction and will resume its state of rest at the
lowest point of the concave surface. Such an equilibrium position is called stable
equilibrium.
This behavior of the rigid sphere on a concave surface can be directly transferred
to the elastic bar under compressive axial load of Fig. 9.2 (see also Fig. 9.3, bottom
left). The bar has the length l and the bending stiffness EI . The force F is below
the buckling load, i.e. F < Fcrit . If an infinitesimal lateral deflection is applied to
the bar (i.e. if the straight equilibrium position is subjected to a disturbance) and
the bar is then left to itself, the bar will return to the straight undeformed position
by itself. Thus, the bar under compression is in stable equilibrium for all loads F
below the buckling load Fcrit .
9.2 Types of equilibrium 291
Stable equilibrium Indifferent equilibrium Unstable equilibrium

Rest position Infinitesimally
Infinitesimally
Infinitesimally adjacent position
adjacent position
Rest position adjacent position
g Rest position
m
F<Fcrit F=Fcrit F>Fcrit
undeformed bar undeformed bar undeformed bar

Infinitesimally Infinitesimally Infinitesimally
adjacent position adjacent position adjacent position
EI EI EI
returns by itself to both positions remains in deflected position,
initial position are possible deflections increase with
l l load increase l
x x x
Fig. 9.3 Sphere analogy and its transfer to the straight bar under axial compression.
We will now consider the case where the sphere is in a state of equilibrium on
a horizontal plane (Fig. 9.3, top center). Now, we will apply a perturbation in such
a way that we place the sphere at another position on the plane and then leave it there
to itself. In this case, the sphere will not return to its initial equilibrium position, but
rather remains in its new rest position. Accordingly, in this case both mentioned
positions are possible equilibrium positions, and the equilibrium in this case is no
longer unambiguous – several equilibrium positions exist simultaneously. This type
of equilibrium is called indifferent equilibrium.
This part of the sphere analogy can also be applied to the bar under compression.
It can be seen that when a certain load level is reached and an infinitesimal lateral
perturbation is applied, the bar will no longer return to the straight initial position,
but will rather remain in the deflected position. Obviously, several equilibrium posi-
tions exist at the same time, so that indifferent equilibrium exists at this point. This
state can only occur at a certain magnitude of the load F , namely exactly when the
force F reaches the critical load: F D Fcrit . At this point, we also speak of bifurca-
tion of equilibrium. The occurrence of indifferent equilibrium is often also referred
to as onset of buckling.
The last part of the sphere analogy concerns the case where the sphere is at rest
on a convex surface (Fig. 9.3, top right). If the sphere is subjected to an infinites-
imal perturbation and then left to itself, the sphere will not return to its initial rest
position. The motion of the sphere follows the direction of the applied perturbation.
Such an equilibrium position is called unstable equilibrium. Unstable equilibrium
is characterized by the fact that the rest position is left at the slightest disturbance
and is not resumed by itself.
Considering the bar under compression, unstable equilibrium means that the case
exists where the force F has already exceeded the buckling load and thus F > Fcrit
and the bar is still in its straight configuration. Even though everyday experience
shows us that this case will not occur in any practically relevant system, this is, as
we will show, a mathematically possible solution. In this condition at this load level,
even the smallest perturbation in the form of an infinitesimal lateral deflection is
sufficient to move the bar from its straight position to an adjacent deflected position
(i.e. a buckled position), and thus the straight position is unstable for F > Fcrit . The
greater the load F , the greater the lateral deflection will be. The laterally deflected
position, however, is stable.
The distinction whether an equilibrium position is stable, indifferent or unstable
can be made particularly advantageously by energy considerations. The example of
the sphere analogy shows that in the case of the sphere which takes its rest position
at the lowest point of a concave surface, the potential energy is a minimum – any
other position is accompanied by an increase of the potential energy. This means
that energy must be supplied to move the sphere from its rest position. Stable equi-
librium is therefore accompanied by a minimum of energy. Conversely, unstable
equilibrium means that energy is released when the sphere is moved from its rest
position. Unstable equilibrium is therefore accompanied by a maximum of potential
energy.
9.3 Determination of critical loads
The determination of critical loads can be motivated particularly clearly by systems

of rigid bars. As an introductory example, we consider the elastically supported
beam of Fig. 9.4, left. We consider a straight, ideally rigid and massless bar of
length l, which is simply supported at its lower end. In addition, the support is
reinforced by an elastic rotational spring with stiffness k (linear-elastic spring law
M D k'). The bar is loaded at its upper end by the compressive force F . We assume
that the applied force retains its direction even when the bar is deflected from the
equilibrium position, i.e. we consider a conservative force.
There are basically two ways to determine critical loads. One is the determination
via equilibrium considerations (also referred to as equilibrium method), and the
other is the consideration of the energy of the system. We start the elaborations
with the consideration of the equilibrium method. For this purpose, we deflect the
bar from its straight configuration by the angle ', Fig. 9.4, middle. The angle '
is required to be j'j < 2 , but we do not impose the requirement that it must be
a small angle. The consideration of equilibrium of the deformed system is common
in stability theory and in fact mandatory to obtain statements about critical loads.
The rotation of the bar by the angle ' around its support point leads to a restrain-
ing moment of the magnitude k'. If the sum of the moments about the support point
9.3 Determination of critical loads 293
F
F
F
lsinφ l(1-cosφ)
Postbuckling range
φ =0
rigid
Postbuckling range
φ =0
l lcosφ Asymptote for
φ l Bifurcation linearized analysis
Fcrit = k
l Prebuckling range
φ =0
k kφ –φ φ
Fig. 9.4 Elastically clamped massless ideally rigid bar under compressive load F (left), deflected
position (middle), force-rotation diagram (right).
is calculated, the result is:

k' F l sin ' D 0: (9.1)
This equation has two solutions. On the one hand, (9.1) can be solved by setting
' D 0, independent of the acting force F :
' D 0: (9.2)
This result means that the straight undeformed configuration with ' D 0 is an equi-
librium position. This is shown in Fig. 9.4, right, indicated as a vertical line in the
force-rotation diagram.
The second solution is obtained by discussing (9.1) in more detail. Since
' sin ' holds for all angles ', the solution ' ¤ 0 is only possible if the force F
takes values F > kl . The resulting force-rotation curve is also shown in Fig. 9.4,
right. As a consequence, for all F < kl only the solution ' D 0 exists. Accordingly,
for the force F D kl both the straight and the deflected configurations are possi-
ble, and it is said that a bifurcation of equilibrium occurs at this point. The force
F D kl apparently characterizes the transition from the straight state to the deflected
position and thus represents the critical load Fcrit of the rigid elastically clamped
bar:
k
Fcrit D : (9.3)
l
It is common to speak of the so-called prebuckling range at load levels below the
critical load. The postbuckling range, on the other hand, is reached when the force F
assumes values above the critical load Fcrit .
It is important to note at this point that the described procedure applies to the
discussed example of the elastically clamped rigid bar for arbitrary angles with
j'j < 2 . Thus, it is a solution for a so-called geometrically nonlinear problem, i.e.
a problem with large deformations. It should be noted, however, that finding such
geometrically nonlinear solutions is very difficult, and considering the postbuckling
range is also not relevant for a good number of engineering applications – in many
engineering situations, one will design a bar-like structure against the critical load,
but not beyond it. For this reason, we want to linearize the present geometrically
nonlinear problem, which means that we assume small angles '. Then we have:
sin ' ': (9.4)
The equilibrium condition (9.1) then takes the following form:
.k F l/' D 0: (9.5)
If the trivial solution ' D 0 is not considered further (which would correspond to
the bar remaining straight) and the bracket term in (9.5) is set to zero, then this
expression can be solved directly for the force F . The solution then corresponds to
the critical load Fcrit :
k
Fcrit D : (9.6)
l
Thus, from the linearization of the problem, the critical load Fcrit can be immedi-
ately determined. In many practical applications, linearized considerations are used
to determine critical loads. As a drawback, it must be accepted that when consider-
ing a linearized problem, no statements about the postbuckling range with F > Fcrit
are possible (see Fig. 9.5).
If the equilibrium method is used, statements can be made about critical loads,
but no statements about the type of equilibrium (stable, indifferent, unstable) are
possible in this way. Such statements are only possible by means of an energetic
consideration, which we will briefly discuss using the example of the elastically
clamped rigid bar. For this purpose, we consider the total potential of the bar, again
in the deflected state. The total potential is denoted here as ˘ , it is composed of the
inner potential ˘i of the elastic spring and the external potential ˘e of the applied
Fig. 9.5 Force-rotation dia- F

gram for linearized analysis.
Asymptote for
Bifurcation linearized analysis
Fcrit = k
l
–φ φ
9.3 Determination of critical loads 295
force F . The bar is assumed to be ideally rigid, so that it does not deform and
undergoes a pure rigid body rotation '. Consequently, no energy is stored in the bar
itself. The total potential ˘ is therefore:
1 2
˘ D ˘i C ˘e D k' F l.1 cos '/: (9.7)
2
This means that the elastic spring stores potential energy, whereas the applied
force F has lost potential energy, which explains the negative sign of the corre-
sponding term in (9.7).
The condition for the existence of an equilibrium state is that the first variation
ı˘ of the total potential ˘ vanishes:
ı˘ D 0: (9.8)
Since we are dealing with a system with one degree of freedom ', we may
write (9.8) in the following form:
@˘
D k' F l sin ' D 0: (9.9)
@'
It turns out that this expression corresponds exactly to the equilibrium condi-
tion (9.1) that we have already derived using the equilibrium method.
The nature of the equilibrium can be determined by considering the second vari-
ation ı 2 ˘ , which for the present example reads:
@2 ˘
D k F l cos ': (9.10)
@' 2
We first consider the case of the undeflected bar and set ' D 0:
@2 ˘
D k F l: (9.11)
@' 2
There are three cases to be distinguished here.
2
If F < kl D Fcrit , then @@'˘2 > 0 holds. This is equivalent to the total potential for
0 F < Fcrit assuming a minimum in the equilibrium position ' D 0. Obviously,
energy must be expended to change into any other possible configuration. Thus,
the equilibrium position ' D 0 is a stable equilibrium position for 0 F < Fcrit .
2
If F > kl D Fcrit , then @@'˘2 < 0 holds. The change into any other possible adjacent
equilibrium position is therefore accompanied by a loss of energy. Consequently,
the equilibrium position ' D 0 is unstable for F > kl D Fcrit . Thus, the bar will
immediately move from the straight position to an adjacent position and remain
in this position, no matter how small the perturbation.
2
If F D kl D Fcrit , then @@'˘2 D 0 holds. Thus, a change to a possible adjacent con-
figuration is neither associated with energy loss, nor is energy input necessary.
For ' D 0 at F D kl D Fcrit we thus have indifferent equilibrium.
Fig. 9.6 Functions f .'/ D '

and f .'/ D tan.'/.
tan
f( )
tan
/2 3 /2
These conclusions can be stated more generally as:
ı 2 ˘ D 0: Indifferent equilibrium
ı 2 ˘ > 0: Stable equilibrium
ı 2 ˘ < 0: Unstable equilibrium
Finally, we want to consider which equilibrium state arises when ' ¤ 0 holds. As we
already know, this state can only occur for forces F > kl D Fcrit . From the condition
2
@˘
@'
D k' F l sin ' D 0 we obtain F l D k sin' ' , which after substituting into @@'˘2
transforms into the following expression:

@2 ˘ '
D k 1 : (9.12)
@' 2 tan '
2
Since tan' ' < 1 (Fig. 9.6), provided that j'j < 2 , we can conclude @@'˘2 > 0 for any
angle ' ¤ 0. Thus, the equilibrium position ' ¤ 0 is a stable equilibrium position.
The types of equilibrium that arise are shown in Fig. 9.7.
Fig. 9.7 Stable, unstable and F

indifferent equilibrium states.
Postbuckling range
φ =0
(unstable)
Postbuckling range
φ =0
(stable)
Bifurcation
Fcrit = k
l Prebuckling range
(indifferent) φ =0
(stable)
–φ φ
9.4 Buckling of bars: The four Euler cases 297
9.4 Buckling of bars: The four Euler cases
9.4.1 Introductory example: Euler case II
In this section we will discuss a deformable linear elastic bar under compressive
load (Fig. 9.8). The bar configurations considered in this section are also commonly
referred to as the so-called four Euler cases1 .
Consider an elastic (modulus of elasticity E) and ideally straight bar of length l,
which has the moment of inertia I . The bar is simply supported at its left end and
is loaded at this point by the compressive force F while the right end is also sim-
ply supported. The aim of the following explanations is to determine the buckling
load Fcrit for this bar. The force is applied at the center of gravity of the beam’s
cross-section. This special situation of a straight bar under compression is com-
monly referred to as Euler case II.
As already shown for the example of the rigid bar of Sect. 9.3 we have to in-
vestigate the equilibrium at the deformed system (deflection w.x/) to determine
the buckling load Fcrit . Here it is assumed that these deformations remain infinites-
imally small, which is commonly referred to as the so-called second-order theory.
We consider the free body image of Fig. 9.8, right, in which we investigate the de-
formed bar cut at the arbitrary location x. We form the moment equilibrium around
the point S in the deflected configuration and obtain (note that both the normal
force N and the transverse shear force V have no lever arm here and accordingly
do not appear in the moment sum, and that furthermore there is no vertical support
force):
M.x/ F w.x/ D 0: (9.13)
Here it was implicitly assumed that length change of the bar due to the applied
compressive load can be neglected. Application of the constitutive law
EI w 00 .x/ D M.x/ (9.14)
then yields:
EI w 00 .x/ C F w.x/ D 0: (9.15)
F EI F w(x) V M
x w(x)
S N
l 0
Fig. 9.8 Euler case II.
1
Leonhard Euler, 1707–1783, Swiss mathematician and physicist.
It is useful at this point to use the abbreviation
F
2 D ; (9.16)
EI
so that (9.15) takes the following form:
w 00 .x/ C 2 w.x/ D 0: (9.17)
This is a second-order ordinary linear homogeneous differential equation with con-

stant coefficients. It is commonly referred to as buckling differential equation. Its
general solution is:
w.x/ D C1 sin x C C2 cos x; (9.18)
where C1 and C2 are constants. This means that the so-called buckling shape or
buckling mode is composed of a sine function and a cosine function.
The boundary conditions to be applied here require that the deflection w.x/ van-
ishes at the two support points x D 0 and x D l:
w.x D 0/ D 0; w.x D l/ D 0: (9.19)
Evaluating the first boundary condition immediately gives C2 D 0, leaving the fol-
lowing expression for the buckling shape:
w.x/ D C1 sin x: (9.20)
Apparently, the buckling shape of this simply supported beam is described by a sin-
gle sinusoidal function.
Evaluating the second boundary condition in (9.19) yields:
C1 sin l D 0: (9.21)
Obviously, there are two possible solutions. The first solution is C1 D 0. However,
since C2 has already been determined to be zero, this solution would mean that the
buckling shape (9.18) becomes zero overall and the bar does not buckle. This is
a mathematically correct solution, but it has no technical relevance, so it is often
referred to as trivial solution. We therefore require that the sine function in (9.21)
vanishes:
sin l D 0: (9.22)
This can be fulfilled only if the argument l of the sine function corresponds to
a multiple of , i.e. if:
n l D n: (9.23)
Herein, n is an integer greater than zero. We have to exclude the value n D 0,
because it leads again to the trivial solution. Also negative values for n are excluded.
We have added the additional index n to the value n to make clear that it depends
on n. The quantities n are also called the eigenvalues of the buckling problem
under consideration. Since the number n is not bounded above, there is an infinite
number of eigenvalues n .
We substitute (9.16) into (9.23) and obtain:
r
Fn
l D n: (9.24)
EI
This expression can be solved for the buckling load, and it follows:
n2 2 EI
Fn D : (9.25)
l2
Thus, depending on the value n, there is an infinite number of solutions for the
buckling load Fn . Technically relevant from the set of all possible buckling loads is
always the smallest load, which results here with n D 1. Thus it follows:
12 2 EI 2 EI
F1 D D D Fcrit : (9.26)
l2 l2
At this point it is of interest to determine the concrete form of the buckling shape
w.x/. With 1 according to (9.16) we have:
r
F1
1 D D : (9.27)
EI l
With (9.20) we obtain: x
w.x/ D C1 sin ; (9.28)
l
i.e. the buckling shape is described by a sine function which describes one half
wave along the entire length of the bar. Note, however, that the constant C1 remains
undetermined. For its determination, investigations in the framework of a so-called
geometrically nonlinear theory have to be carried out, which, however, is not part
of this chapter. Accordingly, we know at this point that the buckling shape is de-
scribed by the sine function given in (9.28), but we cannot make any statements
about its amplitude. A calculation within the framework of the second order theory
is obviously limited to the onset of buckling when the critical load is reached.
Fig. 9.9 shows the first three buckling modes w1 , w2 , w3 of the bar together with
the corresponding buckling loads F1 , F2 , F3 . Obviously, the first and technically
relevant buckling mode w1 is described by one sine half-wave over the length of the
bar, whereas the second buckling shape w2 describes two sine half-waves. Analo-
gously, the third eigenmode w3 is already characterized by three sine half-waves,
and quite analogous conclusions can be drawn for higher buckling modes. Also on
the basis of this representation it can be concluded that only the buckling load F1
together with the corresponding buckling mode w1 is of interest – it is obvious that
such a bar always buckles in a single sine half-wave over its entire length, but never
with several half-waves.
2 2
F1 = 1 2 EI
l
w1(x)=C1sin 1 x
l
2 2
F2 = 2 2 EI
l
w2(x)=C1sin 2 x
l
2 2
F3 = 3 2 EI
l
w3(x)=C1sin 3 x
l
Fig. 9.9 The first three buckling modes for Euler case II.
9.4.2 Euler case I
We consider the bar of Fig. 9.10, top. Let an elastic ideally straight bar of length l
with the bending stiffness EI be given, which is rigidly clamped at its left end and
free at its right end. At the free end x D l the compressive force F is applied. This
special situation is commonly referred to as Euler case I.
Again, we consider the bar in its deflected position (Fig. 9.10, middle). The bar
exhibits the deflection w.x D l/ D ı at its free end x D l. To determine the buckling
load, we consider the free body diagram of Fig. 9.10, bottom, and form the sum of
all moments about the point S at an arbitrary location x. We obtain:
M.x/ C F .ı w.x// D 0; (9.29)
Fig. 9.10 Euler case I.

x F
EI
l
w(x)
δ
F
x l-x
M
N S
δ-w(x)
F
V
l-x
F
which can be brought into the following form with 2 D EI
:
w 00 .x/ C 2 w.x/ D 2 ı: (9.30)
This is a second order ordinary linear inhomogeneous differential equation with

constant coefficients. Its total solution w.x/ is composed of a homogeneous solution
wh .x/ and a particular solution wp .x/, where the homogeneous solution wh can be
given as:
wh .x/ D C1 sin x C C2 cos x: (9.31)
Since the term 2 ı is a constant term, an approach of the form wp .x/ D C D const:
for the particular solution is used. Substituting in (9.30) then immediately gives
C D ı, so that:
wp .x/ D ı: (9.32)
The total solution of the buckling differential equation for Euler case I is then:
w.x/ D wh .x/ C wp .x/ D C1 sin x C C2 cos x C ı: (9.33)
We first consider the boundary condition that at the clamping point x D 0 the de-
flection of the bar w.x D 0/ vanishes, i.e. we require w.x D 0/ D 0. With (9.33)
we obtain:
w.x D 0/ D C2 C ı D 0; (9.34)
from which
C2 D ı: (9.35)
The solution (9.33) then takes the following form:
w.x/ D C1 sin x ı cos x C ı: (9.36)
The second boundary condition requires that at the clamped end x D 0 the inclina-
tion w 0 .x D 0/ of the member axis becomes zero: w 0 .x D 0/ D 0. With (9.33) this
results in:
C1 D 0: (9.37)
If we neglect the solution D 0 (which would be equivalent to a vanishing buckling
load), only the solution C1 D 0 remains at this point. For (9.36) thus remains:
w.x/ D ı.1 cos x/: (9.38)
We now also require that at the free end x D l the deflection w.x/ must take the
value ı: w.x D l/ D ı. This leads to:
ı.1 cos l/ D ı: (9.39)
Thus:
cos l D 0: (9.40)
This condition can only be satisfied if the argument l of the cosine function is
a multiple of , again using the notation n :
2n 1
n l D : (9.41)
2
Fn
Herein n is again an integer greater than zero. With 2n D EI
this can be solved for
the buckling load Fn as follows:
.2n 1/2 2 EI
Fn D : (9.42)
4l 2
From this we obtain the technically relevant buckling load F1 with n D 1, it repre-
sents at the same time the critical load Fcrit :
2 EI
F1 D D Fcrit : (9.43)
4l 2
The corresponding value 1 is:

1 D : (9.44)
2l
Thus, the buckling shape w.x/ according to (9.38) can be given as:
h x i
w.x/ D ı 1 cos : (9.45)
2l
It is shown in Fig. 9.10. Again, the amplitude of the buckling shape, represented by
the value ı, remains undetermined as already discussed for Euler case II.
9.4.3 Euler case III
As a further elementary case of bar buckling (the so-called Euler case III) we con-
sider the bar of Fig. 9.11, top. Given is a linear elastic and ideally straight bar of
length l, which is clamped at its left end, whereas the right end is simply supported
and is loaded by the compressive force F .
We cut the bar at an arbitrary point x and form the moment equilibrium around
the point S, taking into account the support reaction B at the right support. The
result is:
M.x/ C B.l x/ F w.x/ D 0: (9.46)
F
This equation can be put into the following form with 2 D EI using the constitutive
law M.x/ D EI w 00 .x/:
B
w 00 .x/ C 2 w.x/ D .l x/: (9.47)
EI
Fig. 9.11 Euler case III.

x F
EI
l
w(x)
F
x l-x
V F
M w(x)
N S
B
l-x
Also in this case, the total solution of this inhomogeneous ordinary linear differ-
ential equation with constant coefficients is composed of a homogeneous solution
wh .x/ and a particular solution wp .x/, where the homogeneous solution can be
given as (cf. also (9.31))
wh .x/ D C1 sin x C C2 cos x: (9.48)
For the particular solution wp .x/ we use an approach as follows:
wp .x/ D C C Dx; (9.49)
with the two constants C and D to be determined. Inserting (9.49) into the differ-
ential equation (9.47) results in the following constants C and D after coefficient
comparison:
Bl B
C D ; DD : (9.50)
F F
Thus, the total solution of the differential equation (9.47) can be given as:
B
w.x/ D wh .x/ C wp .x/ D C1 sin x C C2 cos x C .l x/: (9.51)
F
The following boundary conditions apply at x D 0:
w.x D 0/ D 0; w 0 .x D 0/ D 0: (9.52)
This leads to the constants C1 and C2 as follows:
B Bl
C1 D ; C2 D : (9.53)
F F
Thus, the buckling shape w.x/ can be represented according to (9.51) as:

Bl sin x x
w.x/ D cos x C 1 : (9.54)
F l l
As is common for stability problems in the framework of second-order theory the

amplitude of the buckling shape remains undetermined.
Evaluating the boundary condition w.x D l/ D 0 at the right end of the bar results
in:
Bl sin l
cos l D 0: (9.55)
F l
At this point only the zeroing of the parenthesis term leads to a meaningful result,
which eventually yields:
tan l D l: (9.56)
This is an implicit equation for the determination of the buckling load Fcrit , which
generally requires a numerical-iterative solution. Equations of this type occur fre-
quently in the analysis of stability problems. Such an equation is called buckling
condition.
The solution can be determined straightforwardly by plotting both the tangent
function tan l and the function l and finding the first intersection point greater
than zero (Fig. 9.12). The intersection point is found at l D 4:49, which can also
be represented as a multiple of as l D 1:43. Thus, using (9.16), the buckling
load Fcrit can be given as:
1:432 2 EI 2:04 2 EI
Fcrit D D : (9.57)
l2 l2
Fig. 9.12 Functions f .l/ D

l and f .l/ D tan.l/.
tan( l)
tan( l)
/2 3 /2
4.49
l
9.4.4 Euler case IV
As the fourth and last Euler case (the so-called Euler case IV) we want to consider
the bar of Fig. 9.13 of length l which has the constant bending stiffness EI and is
rigidly clamped at its left end at x D 0. At the right end, let the bar be guided in such
a way that the deflection w and the slope w 0 are prevented, but a displacement in
the axial direction and thus also an introduction of the compressive force F are pos-
sible. We cut the bar free at an arbitrary point x and consider the free body image
shown in Fig. 9.13, bottom. Here, a support moment MB must be taken into ac-
count. We form the sum of all moments around the point S and obtain the following
buckling differential equation:
MB
w 00 .x/ C 2 w.x/ D : (9.58)
EI
This is a second-order ordinary linear inhomogeneous differential equation with
constant coefficients. Its solution, consisting of homogeneous and particular solu-
tion, can be given as:
MB
w.x/ D C1 sin x C C2 cos x C : (9.59)
F
The two constants C1 and C2 can be determined from the boundary conditions
w.x D 0/ D 0 and w 0 .x D 0/ D 0 as:
MB
C1 D 0; C2 D : (9.60)
F
The buckling form w.x/ is then:
MB
w.x/ D .1 cos x/: (9.61)
F
Again, the amplitude of the buckling shape remains undetermined.
Fig. 9.13 Euler case IV.

x F
EI
l
w(x)
F
x l-x
M V w(x)
F
S
N MB
l-x
The two boundary conditions w.x D l/ D 0 and w 0 .x D l/ D 0 give rise to the

following two conditions:
cos l D 1; sin l D 0: (9.62)
Both conditions are to be fulfilled simultaneously. Obviously, the first condition is
satisfied if the argument of the cosine function is an integer positive even multiple
of . The second condition, on the other hand, is satisfied if the argument of the
sine function is an integer positive multiple of . Thus, both conditions can only
be satisfied for l D 2; 4; 6; : : :. The technically relevant solution is again the
smallest possible value, i.e. l D 2. From this then follows the critical load Fcrit
as:
4 2 EI
Fcrit D : (9.63)
l2
9.4.5 Summary of the results
The four Euler cases are summarized in Fig. 9.14. The following conclusions can
be drawn from these results:
The buckling load depends on the modulus of elasticity of the material of the
bar. Consequently, a high modulus of elasticity increases the buckling load Fcrit .
A high moment of inertia I results in a high buckling load Fcrit .
The higher the length of the bar, the smaller the buckling load Fcrit becomes.
Thus, a long bar buckles at smaller loads than a short bar.
Euler case I Euler case II Euler case III Euler case IV

F F F F
l l l l
x x x x
2 2 2 2
Fcrit = EI2 Fcrit = EI2 Fcrit = 2.04 EI2 Fcrit = 4 2EI
4l l l l
Fig. 9.14 Euler cases I-IV.

9.5 Buckling length 307
The buckling load Fcrit is particularly strongly dependent on the boundary condi-
tions of the bar. The lowest buckling load is obtained for Euler case I (Fig. 9.14,
left), which can be explained by the free end at the location x D l. Obviously,
free ends lead to a reduction of the buckling resistance. The buckling load for Eu-
ler case II is already four times higher than for Euler case IV, and there is even
a factor of 16 between Euler cases I and IV. The correct consideration of the
boundary conditions in the analysis of the stability behavior of bars is therefore
particularly important.
9.5 Buckling length
The buckling loads Fcrit for Euler cases I-IV can be expressed in the form
2 EI 2 EI
Fcrit D D ; (9.64)
.ˇl/2 s2
where we want to call the term s D ˇl the so-called buckling length. This is shown
in Fig. 9.15. The buckling length is the distance between two inflection points of
F F F F
l=0.7l
l=l l=0.5l
l=2l
2 2 2 2
Fcrit= EI2 Fcrit= EI2 Fcrit= 2.04 EI2 Fcrit= 4 2EI
4l l l l
=2 =1 =0.7 =0.5
Fig. 9.15 Definition of the buckling length s D ˇl.

the buckling shape. It amounts to 2l for Euler case I, l for Euler case II, 0:7l for
Euler case III and finally 0:5l for Euler case IV. Thus, all four Euler cases can be
represented in the form (9.64), and only the correct buckling length s D ˇl or the
correct buckling coefficient ˇ has to be used.
Example 9.1
Consider the static system of Fig. 9.16, top. We want to determine how high the
moment of inertia I of the column has to be for a triple safety against buckling.
Furthermore, how does the result change if the column is supported at mid-height
by an additional support (Fig. 9.16, bottom)? The column has the elastic modu-
lus E, the lengths l and h and the angle ˛ are given.
We determine the compressive force N acting on the column. In order to do
this, we first determine the forces S of the diagonal struts. From the free body
image of Fig. 9.16, right, we obtain:
F
SD : (9.65)
2 sin ˛
The compressive force N then follows as:
N D 2S cos ˛ D F cot ˛: (9.66)
As shown in Fig. 9.16, top, the buckling shape of the column corresponds to
Euler case II. The critical load of the column is thus:
2 EI
Fcrit D ; (9.67)
s2
l l
α
h S
F F F α
S
h
α
S α α S
α N
h
F F
h
α
Fig. 9.16 Static system (top), system with additional support of the column (bottom).
where the buckling length is s D 2h, thus:
2 EI 2 EI
Fcrit D 2
D : (9.68)
.2h/ 4h2
The criterion for a safety factor of 3 against buckling to be applied here is as

follows:
1
jN j Fcrit ; (9.69)
3
thus:
2 EI
F cot ˛ : (9.70)
12h2
This can be solved for the moment of inertia I , and we obtain:
12F h2
I cot ˛: (9.71)
E 2
If the column is supported by an additional centric support, the buckling length
is s D h, and the critical load Fcrit is then:
2 EI
Fcrit D : (9.72)
h2
From the criterion jN j 13 Fcrit then follows:
3F h2
I cot ˛: (9.73)
E 2
J
Example 9.2
Consider the lever of Fig. 9.17, top, which is supported by the two columns 1
and 2 (moduli of elasticity E1 , E2 , moments of inertia I1 , I2 ). The two moments
of inertia I1 , I2 of the columns are to be determined such that there is a triple
safety against buckling.
The compressive forces N1 and N2 can be determined from the free body
image of Fig. 9.17 as:
N1 D F; N2 D 2F: (9.74)
We first consider column 1, and if this column is the cause of the buckling fail-
ure of the structure, a buckling figure will occur as shown in 9.17, bottom left.
This corresponds to Euler case II with the buckling length s D 2l. The buckling
load Fcrit;1 is thus:
2 E1 I1 2 E1 I1
Fcrit;1 D D : (9.75)
.2l/2 4l 2
The criterion for triple buckling safety of column 1 is:

1
N1 Fcrit;1 : (9.76)
3
This can be solved for I1 using (9.74) and (9.75), and we obtain:
F l2
I1 12 : (9.77)
E1 2
The buckling shape for column 2 is shown in Fig. 9.17, bottom right. This corre-
sponds to Euler case I, and the buckling length s is s D 2 3l D 6l. The buckling
load can thus be given as:
2 E2 I2 2 E2 I2
Fcrit;2 D D : (9.78)
.6l/2 36l 2
For a triple buckling safety we require:
1
N2 Fcrit;2 : (9.79)
3
Solving this expression for I2 with (9.74) and (9.78), we obtain:
F l2
I2 216 : (9.80)
E2 2
J
Fig. 9.17 Static system (top),

buckling figures (bottom).
E1,I1
2l
F F N1
N2
E2,I2 3l
2l 2l
Example 9.3
The horizontal beam of length 2l shown in Fig. 9.18, top, is loaded by the con-
stant line load q0 and is simply supported at its left end. At its right end, the
beam is supported by a vertical column of length h. The column has the bend-
ing stiffness EI . We want to determine the bending stiffness EI so that there
is n-fold safety against buckling for the column. Furthermore, we want to deter-
mine how the result changes if the support at the left end is replaced by a fixed
hinged support as shown.
Due to the applied load in the form of the constant line load q0 , the column
experiences the compressive force N D q0 l. The resulting buckling figure is
shown in Fig. 9.18, middle, and corresponds to Euler case I with the buckling
length 2h. The critical load then follows as:
2 EI 2 EI
Fcrit D D : (9.81)
.2h/2 4h2
For an n-fold buckling safety we require
1
N Fcrit : (9.82)
n
Fig. 9.18 Static system (top), q0

buckling figure (middle),
buckling figure with a fixed
hinged support at the left end
of beam (bottom).
EI
h
2l
q0
q0
This can be solved for the bending stiffness EI as follows:
4nq0 h2 l
EI : (9.83)
2
If the support at the left end of the beam is now exchanged for a fixed hinged sup-
port, the buckling figure results as shown in Fig. 9.18, bottom. This corresponds
to Euler case III, and the corresponding buckling load is:
2 EI
Fcrit D 2:04 : (9.84)
h2
With N D q0 l and the criterion (9.82) the bending stiffness EI follows as:
nq0 h2 l
EI : (9.85)
2:04 2
J
9.6 General form of the buckling differential equation
The buckling differential equations (9.17), (9.30), (9.47) and (9.58) derived so far
have validity only for the specific Euler cases under consideration and are therefore
not generally applicable to other buckling problems. We therefore want to extend
our considerations at this point and derive a general form of the buckling differential
equation, employing very basic equilibrium considerations and using the free body
image of Fig. 9.19. Shown here is a bar under a compressive force F . No boundary
conditions are provided at this point for the bar in order to make the considerations
as general as possible. For the sake of simplicity, we restrict ourselves to the case
of a constant bending stiffness EI over the entire length l of the beam. Using the
free body image, we now form the force and moment balances. The equilibrium of
forces in the direction of the normal force N results in:
N V d' N dN D 0; (9.86)
or:
dN C V d' D 0: (9.87)
Expansion of this expression as follows
dN d'
dx C V dx D 0 (9.88)
dx dx
yields:
N 0 C V ' 0 D 0: (9.89)
In quite the same way we can form the equilibrium of forces in the direction of the
transverse shear force:
V 0 N' 0 D 0: (9.90)
9.6 General form of the buckling differential equation 313
F F (V+dV)sin(d φ) ~ Vd φ
x
V+dV
dφ
R
M
dφ (V+dV)cos(d φ) ~ V+dV
N
V R N+dN
dφ
(N+dN)sin(d φ) ~ Nd φ
V+dV (N+dN)cos(d φ) ~ N+dN
M+dM
N+dN
Fig. 9.19 Free body image.
Finally, we form the moment equilibrium around the positive cutting edge of the
free body image of Fig. 9.19. This results in the well-known relationship between
bending moment and transverse shear force:
M 0 D V: (9.91)
We first consider equation (9.89). With the constitutive law M D EI ' 0 and V D
EI ' 00 we obtain:
N 0 C EI ' 00 ' 0 D 0: (9.92)
The expression ' 00 ' 0 can be considered to be very small, so we can neglect the
second term in (9.92). Thus:
N 0 D 0: (9.93)
This means that the normal force N in the considered bar is constant over the bar
length and its first derivative N 0 disappears, which is immediately obvious due to
the considered bar situation.
For equation (9.90) we obtain with V 0 D EI ' 000 and N D F :
EI ' 000 C F ' 0 D 0; (9.94)
or with ' D w 0 (assumption of small angles):
EI w 0000 C F w 00 D 0: (9.95)
With the abbreviation

F
2 D (9.96)
EI
Equation (9.95) can be written as:
w 0000 C 2 w 00 D 0: (9.97)
This is the general buckling differential equation, which can be used to treat ar-
bitrary bar buckling problems. It is a fourth order ordinary linear homogeneous
differential equation. Its general solution is:
w D C1 sin.x/ C C2 cos.x/ C C3 x C C4 ; (9.98)
with the integration constants C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 .

We demonstrate the procedure for determining the buckling load using (9.97)
and (9.98) on the basis of Euler case II (see Fig. 9.8). The boundary conditions for
this buckling situation can be given as follows:
w.x D 0/ D 0; M.x D 0/ D EI w 00 .x D 0/ D 0;

w.x D l/ D 0; M.x D l/ D EI w 00 .x D l/ D 0: (9.99)
Evaluation of the boundary conditions employing (9.98) gives the following linear
system of equations:
C2 C C4 D 0;
C2 D 0;
C1 sin.l/ C C2 cos.l/ C C3 l C C4 D 0;
C1 sin.l/ C C2 cos.l/ D 0: (9.100)
In vector-matrix notation, this can be represented as:

2 30 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 C1 0
6 0 1 0 0 7BC2 C B0C
6 7B C B C
4sin.l/ cos.l/ l 15@C3 A D @0A: (9.101)
sin.l/ cos.l/ 0 0 C4 0
In order to avoid the trivial solution we determine the coefficient determinant and
equate it to zero:
ˇ ˇ
ˇ 0 1 0 1ˇˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ ˇ 0 1 0ˇˇ
ˇ 0 1 0 0 ˇ ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇsin.l/ cos.l/ l 1ˇ D ˇsin.l/ cos.l/ l ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇsin.l/ cos.l/ 0ˇ
ˇsin.l/ cos.l/ 0 0ˇ
ˇ ˇ
ˇsin.l/ l ˇ
Dˇˇ ˇ D l sin.l/ D 0: (9.102)
sin.l/ 0ˇ
The buckling condition thus determined can be satisfied only if l is an integer

multiple of :
l D n; for n D 1; 2; 3; : : : (9.103)
Using according to (9.96), we immediately obtain the buckling load as follows:
n2 2 EI
Fn D : (9.104)
l2
Technically relevant is the smallest value with n D 1, so that:
2 EI
Fcrit D : (9.105)
l2
The buckling load determined in this way agrees with the expression (9.26).
We also determine the corresponding buckling shape from the system of equa-
tions (9.101). It is immediately obvious that we can set the constants C2 and C4 to
zero. From the third equation in (9.101) we obtain
C1 sin.l/ C C3 l D 0; (9.106)
which we can solve for C3 :
sin.l/
C3 D C1 ; (9.107)
l
so that the solutiong (9.98) takes the following form:
sin.l/
w.x/ D C1 sin.x/ C1 x: (9.108)
l
Since sin.l/ must be zero according to the eigenvalue equation (9.102), we have:
w.x/ D C1 sin.x/: (9.109)
With D n l the buckling shape w.x/ for the technically relevant case n D 1 is
obtained as follows: x
w.x/ D C1 sin : (9.110)
l
Again, the constant C1 and thus the amplitude of the buckling mode remains unde-
termined.
Example 9.4
We consider Euler case I (Figs. 9.10 and 9.20) and want to use the differential
equation (9.97) together with its solution (9.98) to determine the critical load for
this situation. The boundary conditions to be applied here are as follows. At the
clamped end of the bar, both the deflection w and its derivative w 0 must vanish:
w.x D 0/ D 0; w 0 .x D 0/ D 0: (9.111)
Fig. 9.20 Euler case I. F F
F
EI
l
φ=w
x
V
The bending moment M D EI w 00 must become zero at the top of the beam:
EI w 00 .x D l/ D 0; (9.112)
which can also be formulated more simply as:
w 00 .x D l/ D 0: (9.113)
As a final condition, the equilibrium between the transverse shear force V and
the compressive force F must be considered (see Fig. 9.20, right). The sum of
forces in the direction of the transverse shear force results in:
V .x D l/ F sin.'.x D l// D 0: (9.114)
Assuming small angles, i.e. sin.'/ D ' D w 0 , gives:
V .x D l/ F w 0 .x D l/ D 0: (9.115)
With the constitutive relation V D EI w 00 it follows:
EI w 000 .x D l/ F w 0 .x D l/ D 0; (9.116)
or
w 000 .x D l/ C 2 w 0 .x D l/ D 0: (9.117)
This last boundary condition states that the transverse shear force in the buckled
state has a component in the direction of the applied compressive force F .
Evaluating the four boundary conditions yields the following linear homoge-
neous system of equations for the constants C1 ; : : : ; C4 :
C2 C C4 D 0;
C1 C C3 D 0;
C1 sin.l/ C C2 cos.l/ D 0;
C3 D 0: (9.118)
In vector-matrix notation this can be written as:

2 30 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 C1 0
6 0 1 0 7BC2 C B0C
6 7B C B C
4sin.l/ cos.l/ 0 05@C3 A D @0A: (9.119)
0 0 1 0 C4 0
This is a homogeneous linear system of equations with four equations for the
four constants C1 ; : : : ; C4 . To avoid the trivial solution we require the vanishing
of the coefficient determinant:
ˇ ˇ
ˇ 0 1 0 1ˇˇ
ˇ
ˇ 0 1 0ˇˇ
ˇ
ˇsin.l/ cos.l/ 0 0ˇ D 0: (9.120)
ˇ ˇ
ˇ 0 0 1 0ˇ
This leads to:

ˇ ˇ
ˇ 0 1 0 1ˇˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ ˇ 0 1ˇˇ
ˇ 0 1 0ˇˇ ˇ
ˇ D ˇˇsin.l/ cos.l/ 0ˇˇ
ˇsin.l/ cos.l/ 0 0ˇˇ
ˇ ˇ 0 0 1ˇ
ˇ 0 0 1 0ˇ
ˇ ˇ
ˇ 0 ˇˇ
ˇ
D ˇ D cos.l/ D 0: (9.121)
sin.l/ cos.l/ˇ
The expression cos.l/ D 0 is the buckling condition required to determine the

buckling load Fcrit . It is fulfilled if the following holds:
2n 1
l D ; for n D 1; 2; 3; : : : (9.122)
2
From this, the buckling load Fn follows as a function of n:
2 EI
Fn D .2n 1/2 : (9.123)
4l 2
The technically relevant case follows with n D 1
2 EI
F1 D D Fcrit : (9.124)
4l 2
This expression is in agreement with (9.43). J

Example 9.5
Consider the bar shown in Fig. 9.21. The bar has the constant bending stiffness
EI and length l and is clamped at its lower end at x D 0. At its upper end at
x D l, the bar is guided horizontally in such a way that a bending moment can
be absorbed, but no transverse shear force can occur at this point.
Starting from the solution (9.98) of the buckling differential equation (9.97),
the evaluation of the boundary conditions
w.x D 0/ D 0; w 0 .x D 0/ D 0;
w 0 .x D l/ D 0; w 000 .x D l/ D 0 (9.125)
yields the following homogeneous linear system of equations:
C2 C C4 D 0;
C1 C C3 D 0;
C1 cos l C2 sin l C C3 D 0;
C1 cos l C C2 sin l D 0: (9.126)
To avoid the trivial solution, the coefficient determinant is set to zero:

ˇ ˇ
ˇ 0 1 0 1ˇˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ ˇ 0 1ˇˇ
ˇ 0 1 0 ˇ ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ cos.l/ sin.l/ 1 0ˇ D ˇ cos.l/ sin.l/ 1ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ cos l sin l 0ˇ
ˇ cos l sin l 0 0ˇ
D sin l D 0: (9.127)
The resultant buckling condition is therefore
sin l D 0: (9.128)
Fig. 9.21 Bar under com- F F

pressive load F clamped at
the lower end with a horizon-
tally guided support at the
upper end.
EI
l
x
This condition apparently agrees with the buckling condition of Euler case II
(see (9.22)), so that the technically relevant buckling load is obtained as:
2 EI
Fcrit D : (9.129)
l2
J
Example 9.6
Consider a straight elastic bar of length l with constant bending stiffness EI

which is simply supported at its left end at x D 0 and loaded by the compressive
force F . The right end at x D l is also simply supported and is reinforced by
a torsional spring with the stiffness k' (see Fig. 9.22). We want to determine the
buckling condition for this bar.
For this situation, the boundary conditions are:
w.x D 0/ D 0;
M.x D 0/ D EI w 00 .x D 0/ D 0;
w.x D l/ D 0;
M.x D l/ C k' w 0 .x D l/ D EI w 00 .x D l/ C k' w 0 .x D l/ D 0: (9.130)
Evaluating these conditions with the general solution (9.98) of the buckling dif-
ferential equation (9.97), we obtain the following linear homogeneous equation
system:
C2 C C4 D 0;
C2 D 0;
C1 sin.l/ C C2 cos.l/ C C3 l C C4 D 0;
.EI 2 sin.l/ C k' cos.l//C1

C.EI 2 cos.l/ k' sin.l//C2 C C3 k' D 0: (9.131)
To avoid the trivial solution, we set the coefficient determinant to zero and, after
a short calculation, we obtain the following buckling condition which describes
the buckling of the elastically clamped bar:
k' sin.l/ l.EI sin.l/ C k' cos.l// D 0: (9.132)
Obviously, this is an implicit buckling condition that requires a numerical evalu-

ation. This will not be discussed here.
Fig. 9.22 Bar with elastic kφ

clamping. F
x
l
The present buckling situation includes two limit cases. If the spring stiff-
ness k' tends to zero, then the buckling condition (9.132) reduces to:
sin.l/ D 0: (9.133)
This corresponds to the buckling condition for Euler case II.

For the limit case k' ! 1, which describes a rigid clamping at x D l, the
following buckling condition is obtained from (9.132):
tan.l/ l D 0: (9.134)
This buckling condition has already been derived for Euler case III, which is an
equally obvious result. J
Index
A Constitutive law, 50
Angle of twist, 208 Euler–Bernoulli beam, 80
Torsion, 210
Critical load, 290
B
Bar, 45
Beam theory, 75 D
Beams, 73 Deformation, 9
Deviation moment, 79
Bending angle, 73
Disk, 23
Bending stiffness, 80
Displacements, 1, 10
Betti’s theorem, 278
Biaxial bending, 78, 169
Bifurcational buckling, 291 E
Bredt’s formulas Effective cross-sectional area, 246
First Bredt formula, 215 Elastic line, 127
Second Bredt formula, 218 Equilibrium
Buckling Bifurcation, 291
Energy method, 294 Indifferent, 291
Influence of boundary conditions, 307 Stable, 290
Linearization, 294 Unstable, 291
Buckling condition, 304 Equilibrium conditions, 1, 127
Local, 7, 8
Buckling differential equation, 298, 314
Euler cases, 297
Buckling length, 307
Euler–Bernoulli beam theory, 75
Buckling load, 290
Extensional stiffness, 51
External work, 236
C
Cauchy stress tensor, 7 F
Compatibility condition, 272 First cross-sectional normalization, 88
Complementary strain energy, 240 Flexural buckling, 290
Complementary strain energy density, 240 Force equilibrium, 8
Complementary virtual work, 253 Force method, 64, 261
Constitutive equations, 1, 15 Fork restraint, 225
Nature 2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66590-9
322 Index
G P
Generalized Hooke’s law, 14 Parallel-axis theorem, 89
Geometric boundary conditions, 129 Plane stress state, 23
Geometric linearity, 11 Point load, 4
Poisson’s ratio, 15
Polar moment of inertia, 80
H Potential, 237
Hooke’s law, 14 Principal axes
Hydrostatic stress state, 36 Moments of inertia, 115
Hypothesis Normal stresses, 30
Flat cross-section, 75 Principal direction
Normal hypothesis, 75 Normal stresses, 30
Straight radii, 209 Shear stresses, 31
Principal moments of inertia, 117
Principal shear stress, 32
I Principal stresses, 30
Indifferent equilibrium, 291, 296 Principle of conservation of energy, 237
Inertia circle, 118 Principle of virtual forces, 255
Infinitesimal strain tensor, 14 Principle of work and energy, 237
Integral table, 259
Internal energy, 237
Internal work, 236 R
Invariant, 30, 119 Resistance moment, 120
J S
Joule, 234 Second cross-sectional normalization, 115
Second-order theory, 297
Section modulus, 120
K Shear center, 201
Kinematic equations, 1, 10, 13 Shear correction factor, 246
Kinematics Shear flow, 176, 186
Euler–Bernoulli beam, 77 Torsion, 213
Shear modulus, 16
Shear strains, 10
L Shear stress, 3, 5
Line loads, 4 Torsion, 210
Linear elasticity, 14 Transverse shear force, 175
Skeleton line, 83, 211
Stability theory, 290
M Stable equilibrium, 290, 296
Material law, 15 Standard bending cases, 153
Maxwell’s theorem, 279 Static boundary conditions, 129
Modulus of elasticity, 15 Static moment, 79
Mohr’s stress circle, 33 Statically indeterminate systems, 270
Moment equilibrium, 6 Steiner’s theorem, 89
Moments of inertia, 79 Strain energy, 237
Multi-span beam, 140 Strain energy density, 238
Strain state, 1
Strain tensor, 14
N Strains, 10
Neutral axis, 105 Stress, 2
Normal strain, 9, 10 Stress state, 1, 5
Normal stress, 2, 5 Stress vector, 5
Index 323
St.-Venant’s torsion, 207 Transition conditions, 55, 141

Superposition principle, 132 Transverse contraction, 10, 15
Surface loads, 4 Twist, 209
T
U
Thermal expansion coefficient, 17
Torsion, 207 Uniaxial bending, 78
Axis of rotation, 213 Unit load theorem, 255
Constitutive law, 210 Unstable equilibrium, 291, 296
First Bredt formula, 215
Second Bredt formula, 218
Shear flow, 213 V
Shear stress, 210 Virtual forces, 254
Twist, 209 Volume forces, 4
Torsional moment, 209
Torsional moment of inertia, 210
Torsional resistance moment, 212, 215
W
Torsional stiffness, 210
Transformation equations Warping, 217
Moments of inertia, 117 Warping-free cross-section, 209
Plane stress state, 30 Work, 233

Mittelstedt C Engineering Mechanics 2 Strength of Materials

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Mittelstedt C Engineering Mechanics 2 Strength of Materials

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Christian Mittelstedt

ISBN 978-3-662-66589-3 ISBN 978-3-662-66590-9 (eBook)

Editor-in-Chief: Michael Kottusch

Darmstadt Christian Mittelstedt

1 Introduction to linear elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Plane stress state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5 Beam deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

6 Shear stresses in beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

8 Energy methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

8.2.3 Bar under torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

9 Buckling of bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Kinematic equations: The so-called kinematic equations establish a relationship

1.2 State of stress

1.2.1 Bar unter tension

To motivate the concept of the stress state, as an introductory elementary example

Fig. 1.1 Bar under tension A

Fig. 1.2 Bar under tension A

AN cos C AN sin F D 0: (1.2)

Analogously, the sum of the vertical forces results in:

AN sin AN cos D 0: (1.3)

The stress state is generally described by the simultaneous occurrence of normal

1.2.2 Stress vector and stress tensor

u D u.x; y; z/; v D v.x; y; z/; w D w.x; y; z/: (1.6)

Fig. 1.4 Infinitesimal cube and associated stress components.

Fig. 1.5 Moment equilibrium xx

1.2.3 Equilibrium conditions

Fig. 1.6 Local equilibrium z

Summarizing and observing ij D j i yields:

@xx @xy @xz

@xx @xy @xz

1.3 Deformation and strain state

1.3.1 Bar under tension

Fig. 1.7 Bar (top), length A

Fig. 1.8 Infinitesimal bar

1.3.2 Infinitesimal strain tensor

If a solid body is subjected to load, the body points experience displacements.

Normal strain xx Shear strain yz

in the y-direction. The displacements of the point D follow analogously: uD D u,

With AB D dx, it then follows from (1.23):

it follows from (1.26):

1.4 The generalized Hooke’s law

Fig. 1.11 Stress-strain dia-

Fig. 1.12 Sheet under tension x F Cross-sectional area A x

corresponding equations describing a linear elastic material behavior. Such equa-

xx D E"xx : (1.35)

"yy D "xx : (1.36)

1.4.2 Three-dimensional material law

Fig. 1.13 Cuboid under

1.4.3 Temperature influence

A linearly elastic isotropic cube (edge length a, modulus of elasticity E, Pois-

0 D yy .p0 C zz /;

Fig. 1.14 Cube in enclosure. p0 p0

Fig. 1.15 Two cubes in en- p0 p0

Analogously, we obtain for "xx;2 :

We now additionally consider the case where there is a constant temperature

Let an isotropic cube be positioned in an enclosure as shown in Fig. 1.16. The

Fig. 1.16 Cube in enclosure. p0 p0

The previous considerations of the stress state referred to spatial, three-dimensional

zz D xz D yz D 0: (2.1)

Fig. 2.1 Disk (left), stresses in a disk (right).

For the equilibrium conditions (1.20) the following remains:

Obviously, the third equation in (1.20) is automatically satisfied.

Fig. 2.2 Triangular disk

"yy D "xx : (1.36)

0 D yy .p0 C zz /;

Fig. 2.7 On the equality of the two principal directions p and p C 2 .

A.x/ D R2 .x/: (3.3)

N.x/ D Ax Al D A.x l/: (3.22)

Since x l holds, N is a compressive force for all x. Accordingly, we obtain for

"T .x/ D ˛T T .x/: (3.40)

If both a mechanical stress and a temperature change T are present simultane-

xx D E."xx ˛T T /: (3.43)

The length change l of the bar is given as:

For the special case of a constant temperature change T it follows:

For the segment l1 x l1 C l2 we have: