Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Process Safety and Environmental Protection

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psep

Numerical simulation of fire smoke control methods in subway

stations and collaborative control system for emergency rescue
Kai Wang a,b,c,∗ , Weiyao Cai b , Yuchen Zhang b , Haiqing Hao b , Ziting Wang b
a
State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, China
b
School of Safety Engineering, China
c
Key Laboratory of Coal Methane and Fire Control, Ministry of Education, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: As subway fires can easily cause numerous casualties, this paper proposes the idea of active disaster
Received 16 July 2020 relief, which involves ventilation, exhaust, smoke blocking and exhaust, and other facilities coordinating
Received in revised form 29 August 2020 centralised control to assist passenger evacuation and firefighting. The ventilation and smoke exhaust
Accepted 14 September 2020
method used in multilayer crossing complex subways is analysed, and a typical interchange transfer
Available online 18 September 2020
station is selected to build a numerical model. The combined control of fire smoke is analysed based
on six ventilation modes, and fire dynamics simulator software is used to perform several numerical
Keywords:
simulations. According to the simulation results, ventilation and smoke control is used in the cases of
Subway fire
Smoke isolation
fire on the second and third floor in the underground, the airflow speed of the stairway reached 2 m/s,
Mechanical smoke extraction which can completely restrain the smoke on the fire floor. According to the characteristics of different fire
Information fusion sources and smoke control scenarios, a remote monitoring model of multielement information fusion,
Collaborative centralised control such as ventilation path, fan characteristics, smoke exhaust channel, and smoke blocking facilities, is
established, and a multielement disaster information-fusion-based collaborative centralised emergency
rescue platform for subway fire disaster relief is developed. Real-time disaster analysis is performed,
and intelligent control of airflow and smoke exhaust in the complex form of subway-controlled smoke
turbulence field is developed to facilitate safe escape and efficient firefighting and rescue of people during
emergencies.
© 2020 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction experiences in subway operation and management is insufficient,

Outstanding features and advantages such as large passen-
ger volume, high speed, punctuality, convenience, safety and
environmental protection, have made the subway the preferred
transportation mode for major cities to solve traffic congestion
(Cong et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2016a; Li et al., 2016; Weng et al.,
2016). Several mega cities around the world, including Paris, Tokyo,
New York, and London, have built an integrated and interconnected
subway network (Barbato et al., 2014; Se et al., 2012; Zhou et al.,
2017; Costantino et al., 2014). At present, 32 cities in China have
subway networks that are either completed or under construction.
The Beijing Subway has become one of the busiest subways in the
world (Ji et al., 2017; Yuan et al., 2018). In 2020, the total mileage of
the subway will reach 6100 km in China. Nevertheless, the general
∗ Corresponding author at: School of Safety Engineering, China University of Min-
ing & Technology, Xuzhou, 22116, China.
E-mail address: wangkai850321@163.com (K. Wang).
and the construction of the disaster emergency rescue system is
imperfect, resulting in the risk of major casualties in the event
of a fire in the subway system (Zhong et al., 2016; Wang et al.,
2017a). Statistics show that about 85 % of subway casualties are
attributed to the hot and toxic smoke during a subway fire (Guo
et al., 2018). Among them, the cross transfer station fire has its
particularity due to its structure, function, and the characteristics
of people flow. Compared with a single station, there is a greater
risk of fire in the transfer station, which is mainly manifested in
the transfer station has complex functions and many factors that
cause a fire (Yuan and Smith, 2015; Ura et al., 2014). The under-
ground space structure of the transfer station is complex, and the
smoke spread in the case of fire is affected by many factors (Gao
et al., 2016; He et al., 2017). Typical fire accidents in subways in the
recent years is shown in Table 1. All in all, the frequent occurrence
of fire accidents in subways is an important factor restricting the
development of the subway transportation. Statistical data show
that an efficient emergency response system can reduce accident
losses to 6 % (Wang et al., 2016b). Subway ventilation and smoke

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2020.09.033
0957-5820/© 2020 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161
Table 1
Typical fire accidents in subways in the recent years.
Time Site
2000.11 Austria
2001.8 Sao Paulo, Brazil
2003.2 Taegu
2004.2 Moscow, Russia
2011.4. Minsk, Belarus
2012.11 Guangzhou, China
2013.6 Moscow, Russia
2014.7 Pusan, Korea
2016.1 Tokyo, Japan
2017.2 Hong Kong, China,
2018.1 Guangzhou, China
2020.3 New York, USA
exhaust are the complex engineering systems, the process safety
and failure must be monitoring on the real time. In order to predict
the failure, a dynamic Bayesian network offers much flexibility in
representing different failure scenarios and the interdependence
of failure causes (Tanjin Amin et al., 2018). The applicability of
deterministic modeling approach to model domino effect evolu-
tion path, evolution times and evolution probabilities for different
primary fire accident scenarios, the approach is effective to model
the dynamic evolution of accident propagation (Ding et al., 2020a,
2020b, 2019). In order to prevent fires and mitigate their impact, the
ranges of safety measures of fires are also studied by analyzing 14
credible scenarios (Yang et al., 2018). For the security reasons, the
successful intrusion probabilities and security potentials of barriers
using a Bayesian network considering the dependency of barriers
and interaction of different intrusion scenarios (Song et al., 2018).
Inherently safer design is an effective solution to prevent accidents
because it postulates that the best way to reduce risk is to avoid the
hazard rather than control the hazard (Abidin et al., 2018). Thus,
it is imperative to study the real-time evaluation of the subway
disaster, including automatic airflow control and smoke exhaust
technology. A collaborative centralised control system should be
established, which combined mechanical ventilation and smoke
isolation. Based on multielement disaster information fusion, a col-
laborative emergency rescue platform of subway fire disaster relief
should be constructed, and a software and hardware system for
smoke flow control was developed, and a new emergency rescue
system was constructed.
For the fire smoke control in the subway station, the addition
of a centralized smoke exhaust will exhaust part of the smoke and
heat and induce longitudinal ventilation velocity, thus affecting the
critical velocity. The performance of the train fire screen door and
ventilation system was evaluated by conducting an evacuation sim-
ulation and verified that the platform screen (PSD) and effective
ventilation equipment in the subway fire can improve the evac-
uation efficiency (Krol et al., 2017; Tanaka et al., 2015). Several
mechanical ventilation forms under tunnel fire conditions were
simulated and compared by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
(Gannouni and Ben, 2015). The temperature, visibility, and CO con-
centration distribution at the height of the human eye (1.6 m) in
the subway station were studied under different smoke exhaust
modes, and determined the smoke exhaust mode that meets evac-
uation requirements (Muduli et al., 2018). The effects of different
ventilation methods were studied for the safe evacuation of per-
sonnel (Mei et al., 2017). Thus, the transport characteristics of
the complex form of subway fire smoke flow under the action of
multiple facilities should be analysed, such as ventilation, smoke
exhaust, smoke blocking, and isolation. Numerical model of a typ-
ical cross-interchange station, and different fire scene of smoke
control modes should be constructed,
Complex forms of subway tunnels such as ultra-deep burial,
multivariate line crossing, large long interval, and dense platform
147
Occurrence reason Deaths Injuries
Train fire in the subway tunnel 155 18
Fire in the subway station 1 27
Fire in the subway station 487 146
Explosion caused fire in the subway station 50 100
Explosion in the subway station 15 200
Power failure fire 0 7
Cable fire in the subway station 0 66
Train equipment fire 0 5
Fire in the subway station 0 2
Fire in the subway station 1 18
Cable fire in the tunnel 3 0
Train fire in the subway station 1 16
are emerging, posing new challenges to ventilation safety and dis-
aster recovery. With the increasing emergence of complex forms
of subway tunnels, such as ultra deep buried, multi-line crossing,
large long interval, and dense platform, new challenges are put for-
ward to ventilation safety and disaster rescue. The fire development
and smoke transportation behavior of the complex controlled flow
field in subway system, and the mechanism of multi-field coupling
dynamic control of airflow and smoke in different scenarios need
to be further studied. The coordinated and optimized configuration
of multi-element air control and smoke exhaust facilities is the key
to achieve efficient air control and smoke exhaust in subway fire.
Intelligent control of complex forms of subway ventilation facilities
and real-time monitoring and early warning of fire parameters is a
powerful guarantee for safe transportation.
2. Modelling and numerical simulation analysis of subway
station fire
The internal structure of a subway transfer station is complex,
and a large number of electrical devices support the safe opera-
tion of the subway system. Once a fire occurs, it is difficult for
passengers to escape. Therefore, the physical structure, ventilation,
and smoke exhaust facilities of the subway station are analysed; a
numerical model similar to the actual situation is developed, and
the ventilation and smoke exhaust control conditions of the sub-
way are determined together with the fire scene for the simulation
and analysis of subway fire.
2.1. Subway station fire modelling and scene analysis
1) Analysis of subway station structure
Herein, the typical “cross” transfer station fire is presented as an
example to study the smoke movement law and control method.
The control of subway disaster smoke flow mainly depends on
ventilation, the smoke exhaust system, ceiling screen, and other
facilities. The typical structure of a subway ventilation and smoke
exhaust system is shown in Fig. 1. The spatial structure system of
the Beijing Huang Zhuang metro station is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 shows the composition of the subway ventilation and
smoke exhaust system in detail. The specific principles are
described as follows. Under the power of the fresh air blower, the
air flow enters the mixed air chamber from the air inlet pavilion
through the muffler, and the combined air-conditioning cabinet
provides fresh air flow to the platform, station hall and other
spaces through the air supply pipe network. Under the power of the
return/exhaust fan, the exhaust subway station will be discharged
from the ground by the exhaust pavilion through the platform and
the return exhaust pipe network of the station hall, to realize air
replacement in underground space. In the event of fire, in order to
provide support for the evacuation of personnel,the smoke flow is
148 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161

Fig. 1. Structural schematics of subway ventilation and smoke exhaust system.

Fig. 2. Spatial structure schematics of actual operation of Xin Zhuang metro station.

isolated and the smoke exhaust fan is turned on to quickly discharge
the smoke flow from the ground through the smoke blocking arm
and other facilities of the fire compartment. Fig. 2 shows the spatial
structure of the Beijing Subway Huang Zhuang interchange station,
which is a typical c̈rossẗransfer station,the setting of entrances and
exits and the relationship between layers guide the construction of
physical models for fire smoke simulation in subway stations.
2) Metro station modelling and parameter setting
To simulate the smoke flow control of subway fire more realisti-
cally and to enable a rapid rescue after a disaster, the actual subway
structure was simplified, where some equipment and structures
that were insignificant to the simulation results were disregarded;
subsequently, the Pyrosim numerical model of the “cross” transfer
station was established.
This model comprised three layers: the second and third floors in
the underground were platform layers, the first floor in the under-
ground was a station hall layer, and multiple sets of stairs were
set between the station hall layer and platform layer. According to
the design of an island station, the two sides of the platform layer
were set as the track area, whereas the track area and platform area
were separated by symmetrical screen doors on both sides, and the
screen doors were closed to isolate smoke in case of disaster to
improve the smoke removal efficiency of the platform. Based on
the investigation of the Huang Zhuang station where Beijing Metro
lines 4 and line 10 cross, a simplified model was established: the
geometric dimension of the station hall layer was set as 128 m
long, 18 m wide, and 5 m high; the two platform layers were 128 m
long, 16 m wide, and 5 m high. The numerical model of the specific
subway station are shown in Fig. 3.
The ventilation and smoke exhaust system facilities were con-
structed as follows: the ventilation system of the subway station
was on the first, second, and third floors in the underground; every
floor comprised two air supply pipes, and two return/exhaust pipes
were arranged along the length direction. In the normal ventilation
mode, the airflow speed of the air inlet and air outlet was 1 m/s; in
the disaster state, the air outlet was connected to a smoke exhaust
fan, the exhaust speed was 2 m/s, and the air supply speed was 1
m/s. The number and air volume of the inlet and exhaust outlets are
shown in Table 2. Together with the numerical model of the metro
station, the location features of the air inlet and exhaust outlets are
shown in Fig. 4.
The ceiling screen in the public area of the metro station was set
at the top of the station hall and platform and around the stairway.
Each station hall floor and platform floor comprised two smoke
control zones, each of which measured 600 m2 in area. A ceiling
screen was set at the edge of the smoke control zone to block and
gather smoke flow. The sagging height of the ceiling screen was 2 m
such that the smoke storage height of the ceiling was 2 m, which can
effectively prevent smoke from spreading to the adjacent smoke
control zones.
 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161 149

Fig. 3. Schematics of station platform.

In terms of combustibles in a conventional fire, the combustibles
in the platform included mainly those in luggage and garbage cans.
The statistical research results of Hansell and Morgan show that the
fire intensity in densely populated places is about 2 MW. The UK’s
Fire Research Institute (FRS) measured the maximum heat release
rate of 1.2 MW in experiments with handcart piled with multiple
pieces of luggage (Ingason, 2008). In this paper, the heat release rate
of the steady-state combustion of the fire source is set as 1.5 MW,
considering that the subway station has a high density of personnel
and many pieces of luggage are continuously ignited.
150 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161

Table 2
Smoke exhaust and air supply parameters.

Location Number of Normal exhaust Disaster exhaust Number of air Supply air rate
smoke outlets air rate (m3 /h) air rate (m3 /h) inlets (m3 /h)

First floor in underground 26 93600 187200 48 172800

Second floor in underground 50 180000 360000 50 180000
Third floor in underground 44 158400 316800 44 158400

Table 3
Four kinds of grid scheme.

Scheme Grid size/m Number of Grids Run time/s

1 0.10 5000000 300h50min

2 0.15 2603670 190h31 min
3 0.20 1250000 80h18min
4 0.25 860000 40h4min

Q is the heat release rate, kW; a is the ambient air density,

Fig. 4. Schematics of air supply and exhaust outlets.
Grid size is a parameter that must be set in a numerical simula-
tion. Because of the significant amount of calculation in small-scale
eddy current simulation, the basic turbulence equation must be
filtered in the large eddy simulation method through Favre to deter-
mine the large and small eddy structures, which must be nested
in the subgrid (Smagorinsky) model. The grid size setting must
capture the large eddy structure in the flow field.
In the fire dynamics simulator (FDS) user guide, Mc Grattan
stated that the ratio of the characteristic diameter of the fire source
to the nominal size of a mesh cell D*/␦x represents the precision of
the fire source grid, in which a greater value implies a higher pre-
cision (McGrattan and Forney, 2018). D* is expressed as follows:
2
Q 5
D∗ = ( √ )
˛ cp TA g
kg/m3 ; CP is the specific heat of air, J/kg ◦ C TA is the ambient tem-
perature, K; g is the acceleration of gravity, m/s2 .
The FDS technical reference guide summarises the parameter
settings of 36 types of numerical simulations of different building
structures. Most of the values of D*/␦x are between 3 and 16. Some
scholars believe that when the value of D*/␦x is between 4 and 16,
the numerical model can solve the turbulence problem in the fire
smoke well (Wang et al., 2016c). Currently, a value between 10 and
20 is still used in some studies. In this study, MATLAB was used
to calculate the relationship among various D*/␦x values, different
fire heat release rates, and mesh resolutions, as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 shows that the grid is not sufficiently dense, and the accu-
racy is relatively insufficient when selecting a 3X scale. Selecting a
20X scale results in an extremely dense grid, which would be com-
putationally time consuming. Therefore a 4X to 10X scale is more
reasonable. According to the simulated fire source power of 1.5
MW, ␦x was calculated to be between 0.11 and 0.27. Choose four
grid sizes within this range, and verify the grid independence of
the simplified model calculation results of typical simulation con-
ditions. The simulation time is set to 360 s. The specific scheme
is shown in the Table 3. Combined with the verification of grid
independence, the grid size selected in this simulation was 0.15
m.
Fig. 5b shows the grid setting of the local encryption area around
the fire source. For the grid setting of other areas, refer to the results
of the grid accuracy verification which is calculated, the grid size

Fig. 5. Effects of D*/␦x and grids selection demonstration.

 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161
Fig. 6. Schematics of parameter measuring point setting.
Table 4
Ventilation and control modes of different cases.
Case Fire location velocity of single
air inlet
1 1 m/s
Third floor in the
underground platform
2 1 m/s
3 1 m/s
4 Second floor in the 1 m/s
underground
5 platform 1 m/s
6 1 m/s
of the area away from the fire source is generally twice that of the
fire source area (Weng et al., 2014; Gao et al., 2015).
In the FDS simulation, many monitoring points were established
to obtain smoke parameters at specific locations to analyse the tem-
poral and spatial evolution of fire smoke flow. According to the
characteristics of subway fire and the people’s needs in an escape
environment, a thermocouple was placed every 1 m at the top of
the fire site, whereas a CO sensor, visibility sensor, and tempera-
ture sensor were placed at the height of the human eye (1.6 m).
Furthermore, sensors for measuring the airflow speed, smoke, CO
concentration, and visibility were placed at all stairways. Addition-
ally, those sensors were placed at the junctions of the second and
third floors in the underground as well as at the height of human
eyes in the centre of the smoke prevention zone on each floor. The
arrangement of the sensor measuring points on both sides of the
ignition point on the third floor in the underground is shown in
Fig. 6.
3) Scene analysis and settings
The location of the subway fire was random selected; the ven-
tilation and smoke exhaust methods were various, and the escape
path was complex. Therefore, it was difficult to evacuate and extin-
guish the fire after the disaster. To master the control method of
subway disaster smoke flow and improve the efficiency of venti-
lation and evacuation, the flow organization mode of fire smoke
and fresh air in the public area of the platform, the pressure distri-
bution characteristics of the station hall and each platform layer,
and the effects of the operation states of the air supply unit and air
return unit on the smoke movement were investigated by setting
different ventilation and smoke exhaust facilities in the numeri-
cal simulation. Based on the analysis of the subway fire scene, six
151
velocity of single Ventilation modes Control mode
smoke outlet
1 m/s Normal ventilation The air supply and exhaust outlets of
each floor are opened
2 m/s Ventilation control mode 1 Open the exhaust on the third floor in
the underground; open supply outlet
on the first floor
2 m/s Ventilation control mode 2 Open the exhaust on the third floor in
the underground; open supply outlet
on first and second floors
1 m/s Normal ventilation The air supply and exhaust outlets of
each floor are opened
2 m/s Ventilation control mode 3 Open the exhaust on the second floor
in the underground; open supply
outlet on the first floor
2 m/s Ventilation control mode 4 Open the exhaust on the third floor in
the underground; open supply outlet
on the first and third floors in the
underground
case conditions were established for numerical simulation, and the
movement rules before and after the fire smoke flow control were
observed comprehensively. In all cases, the ceiling screens were
in the drooping state, and the entrance of the station hall was in
an open-ventilation state. The specific parameters of the six fire
control air and smoke exhaust scenarios are shown in Table 4.
A brief introduction to the six cases is presented as follows: All
air supply and exhaust outlets in cases 1 and 4 were opened to
maintain normal ventilation, and no pressure difference existed
between the layers. In case 2, the smoke exhaust fan of the third
floor in the underground was turned on to generate a negative pres-
sure; the air inlet of the first floor in the underground was opened
to generate a positive pressure, which produced an airflow from the
first floor in the underground to suppress smoke. In case 3, the air
supply outlet on the second floor in the underground was opened,
as in case 2, to increase air supply. In case 5, the smoke exhaust
fan of the second floor in the underground was turned on to gen-
erate a negative pressure, and the air inlet of the first floor in the
underground was opened to a generate positive pressure, which
produced an airflow from the first floor in the underground to the
second floor in the underground to suppress the smoke. Based on
case 5, the air supply outlet of the third floor in the underground
was opened in case 6 to increase air supply.
2.2. Numerical simulation results of fire scene in MTR Station
The application range of the fire dynamics simulation software
FDS was extended from ultrahigh buildings, enterprise workshops,
etc. to roadways and subways, and the abstract fire smoke evolu-
tion into a concrete image was investigated successfully. Combined
with the ventilation and smoke exhaust system in a subway station,
the distribution law of smoke flow, temperature, and visibility of
152 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161

Fig. 7. Snapshots of smoke spread in case 1.

different fire sources in the normal air supply and smoke exhaust
fan system was investigated in this study to establish an evacuation
route and plan for fire rescue.
High concentration smoke produced by fire not only affects the
breathing of passengers, but also reduces the visibility of the evac-
uation path, which significantly reduces the evacuation efficiency.
According to the metro design code, the evacuation time shall not
exceed 6 min. The FDS numerical simulation time was set to 400 s,
and the simulation was performed according to the scene settings.
The distribution rule and evolution path of the high concentration
smoke produced by the fire in the subway structure was analysed
to establish a smoke flow control method and personnel evacuation
path selection. The numerical simulation results of the fire smoke
migration in case 1 are shown in Fig. 7. The average airflow speed
of stairs 1–3 and stairs 2–3 in case 1 is shown in Fig. 8. The smoke
diffusion condition of cases 2 and 3 at 360 s is shown in Fig. 9. The
average airflow speed of each stair in cases 1, 2, and 3 is shown in
Fig. 8. Average airflow speed of stairs 1–3 and 2–3 in case 1.
Fig. 10. The ceiling temperature in the horizontal direction of the
fire source in cases 1, 2, and 3 is shown in Fig. 11.
As shown in Fig. 7, when the case 1 platform layer begins to catch outward, and the temperature decreased after the smoke spread
fire, the fire source continuously produced smoke as the fire pro- when entraining the air. Hence, the resulting thermal buoyancy
ceeded. At the beginning, the smoke exhaust rate of the exhaust decreased, and the buoyancy of the smoke became smaller than that
fan was lower than the rate of the smoke produced by the fire of gravity, which resulted in settlement. When the smoke sank over
source. Consequently, the smoke accumulated slowly and spread the ceiling screen, it spread upward. At this time, no strong airflow
K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161 153

Fig. 9. Smoke diffusion condition of Cases 2 and 3 at 360 s.

Fig. 10. Average wind speed of each stair in case 1, 2, and 3.

154 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161
Fig. 11. Ceiling temperature in horizontal direction of fire source of cases 1, 2, and 3.
flowing down the staircase was available to blow back the smoke;
hence, the smoke spread to the upper layer because of buoyancy,
endangering the safety of the upper personnel. In case 1, the smoke
had spread to the second and third floors in the underground of the
staircase at 200 s, and some of the smoke had spread to the second
floor in the underground. The connecting aisle from the second floor
to the first floor in the underground had already been filled with
smoke. At 400 s, the smoke had spread through stair 1–3 into the
first floor in the underground of the station hall, a large part of the
station hall side of the space was filled with smoke, the second floor
in the underground was partially filled with smoke, and the smoke
have the trend to fill the first and second floors in the underground.
As shown in Fig. 7, the smoke exhaust efficiency of case 1 was
insufficient. Even though a ceiling screen was installed to collect
smoke to improve the smoke exhaust efficiency, the smoke exhaust
rate was still lower than the rate of smoke produced by the combus-
tion of the fire source, and the smoke was increasing. The airflow
speed at the stairway could not stop the spread of smoke, and the
smoke moved to the upper station hall.
As show in Fig. 8, because the air outlets and air supply openings
of each floor were opened simultaneously in the normal ventila-
tion mode, the negative pressure of the air outlet and the positive
pressure of the air outlet cancelled each other out, and the pres-
sures of the various floors did not differ significantly. The airflow
speed due to the pressure difference was low as well. The results
of the measurement points indicate that the airflow speed on the
side of the fire was less than 0.6 m/s, which could not prevent the
smoke from spreading to the upper layer; therefore, case 1 venti-
lation mode cannot be used when a fire occurs on the third floor in
the underground.
According to the simulation results, Fig. 9 shows that both cases
2 and 3 can control the smoke from spreading upward, and that
the smoke control effect is significantly better than that of case 1.
The smoke in both cases was always on the fire floor, and there
was no sign of smoke spreading on the two stairs of the fire floor.
The smoke control effect of case 3 was better than that of case 2.
A small amount of smoke spread out of the smoke-proof zone on
the side of the fire. In this case, the subway had sufficient smoke-
exhausting capacity, and the spreading smoke was pulled into the
smoke exhaust at the stairs; it could not accumulate or spread to
the upper floors.
As shown in Fig. 10, the pressure difference formed by the fans in
the two fire ventilation modes caused the airflow speed to increase;
subsequently, the airflow speed fluctuated around a certain value.
In cases 2 and 3, owing to the combined effect of the exhaust fan,
ceiling screen, and airflow control smoke at the stairway, the smoke
was firmly controlled at the fire source. To achieve this balance, the
airflow and ceiling screen operated synergistically to gather the
smoke and improve the smoke exhaust efficiency. At this time, the
smoke exhaust rate of the smoke exhaust was equivalent to the rate
of smoke generated by the fire source; therefore, the smoke could
not spread to other locations. After the air supply was turned on
in case 2, the airflow on the first floor in the underground station
hall passed through the second floor stairs, and control the smoke
on the third floor in the underground. The average airflow speed of
the six measuring points at the stairway exit oscillated at 1.4 m/s.
And the wind speed of the two stairs connecting the first floor to
the third floor (No.1 stair 1–3 and No. 2 stair 1–3) is about 0.9 m/s,
which also can prevent the smoke spreading to the other floor. In
case 3, the air supply outlets of the second floor platform to the first
floor in the underground were opened. The opening of the second
floor vent in the underground was equivalent to increasing the air
flow from the first floor to the third floor in the underground. The
monitoring of the measurement points at the stairway entrance
indicated that the airflow speed fluctuated at approximately 2 m/s.
And the airflow speed at the two stairs connecting the first floor to
the third floor (No. 1 stair 1–3 and No. 2 stair 1–3) is around 1 m/s,
which also can limit smoke on fire floor.
The higher airflow speed of case 3 enabled a better smoke con-
trol; therefore, smoke was concentrated in the smoke prevention
zone, and the concentration of smoke increased, thereby increasing
the working efficiency of the smoke exhaust port. Furthermore, the
amount of smoke pulled out was larger and hence the effect of case
3 was better than that of case 2.
Fig. 11(a) shows the thermocouple measurement results at 0.2
m from the ceiling of the third floor in the underground, whereas
Fig. 11(b) shows those after the removal of several points around
the fire source and temperature difference amplification. Owing to
the airflow effect of the staircase between the second and third
floors in the underground, the flame plume was not perpendicular
to the top. Because of the airflow effect of the stairwell between the
second and third floors in the underground, the flame plume was
not perpendicular to the upper side but biased to one side, resulting
in the temperature above the fire source not being the highest. The
temperature in case 1 on the left ceiling near the fire source was
 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161
Fig. 12. CO distribution of cases 1, 2, and 3 at eye height (1.6 m) at 100 and 360 s.
the highest because smoke could not be effectively removed and
the temperature was high.
The temperature at the high-temperature zone was disregarded,
and the measurement points around the high-temperature zone
were selected for comparison. The temperatures of cases 2 and 3
were similar, whereas that of case 1 on the side of the fire source
was approximately 5 ◦ C higher than those of the other two cases,
which indicates that the two fire ventilation modes exhausted more
heat relative to case 1 normal ventilation mode and resulted in a
significant temperature decrease.
To assess the safe escape path for subway passengers and to
analyse the migration and distribution of hot smoke airflow in dif-
ferent cases, the CO concentration distribution was analysed, as
shown in Fig. 12; moreover, the temperature and visibility distri-
butions are shown in Figs. 13 and 14, respectively.
Fig. 12 shows that under the action of many exhaust fans, a large
portion of the CO produced by the fire was exhausted by the fan,
and its high-concentration area was near the fire source and the fire
layer, which was close to the corner position. Under the effects of
the first and second floors in the underground downward airflow,
CO gathered to the lower left. Because there were fewer vents in
the corners, the smoke could not be effectively exhausted.
Although the distribution rules of cases 2 and 3 were similar, the
smoke was concentrated at the leftmost end. However, the down-
draft of case 3 rendered the exhaust efficiency higher than that
of case 2. Furthermore, CO was removed with the smoke, thereby
155
resulting in a lower CO concentration in the left space. The blue area
on the left was the downward airflow of stairs 1–3, which caused
CO to be blown away and the concentration to be lower than the
surrounding concentration.
The temperature distribution shown in Fig. 13 shows that the
downward airflow of stair 1–3 blew to the wall such that the air
flowed in the opposite direction to the wall. Because smoke control
and ventilation measures were implemented, the high tempera-
ture area was controlled in the smoke control zone, indicating that
the mechanical smoke exhaust system of cases 2 and 3 effectively
eliminated and suppressed the smoke and reduced the smoke tem-
perature. The temperature of the large area around the fire point
was below 50◦ , which was conducive to evacuation. However, the
high-temperature red area of case 3 was smaller than that of case
2. Only one side exhibited a higher temperature; therefore, case 3
was better than case 2 for temperature control.
As shown in Fig. 14, the visibility distribution rules of fire ven-
tilation modes for cases 2 and 3 were similar. The smoke was
controlled in the smoke-control zone on the left side; a small
amount of smoke overflow was blown back by the airflow under the
stairway entrance; and no smoke entered the second floor in the
underground. The fire ventilation mode of cases 2 and 3 controlled
the smoke better than that of case 1. The red area on the left side
was stair 1–3, where the downward airflow blew the smoke away,
resulting in a higher visibility compared with the surrounding area.
156 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161
Fig. 13. Ceiling temperature of cases 1, 2, and 3 at 100 and 360 s.
Based on the results, case 1 ventilation and smoke exhaust mode
is not applicable to fires on the third floor subway platform in
the underground. The maximum downward airflow speed of the
stairway was only 0.6 m/s, which could not effectively control and
eliminate smoke. In the simulation, part of the smoke spread to the
second floor in the underground. In cases 2 and 3, the smoke was
concentrated in the fire area, and the CO, temperature, visibility,
and other indicators were significantly better compared with case
1. The downward airflow speed of case 2 stairway was less than that
of case 3, and the ability to collect and remove smoke was slightly
less. The CO and temperature distribution diagram shows that case
2 was weaker than case 3. Therefore, case 3 should be considered
for controlling airflow and exhaust smoke for fires occurring on the
third floor in the underground.
The fire sources of cases 4, 5, and 6 were set on the side of the
second floor in the underground platform. According to the prede-
termined ventilation control and smoke exhaust mode, the smoke
migration diagram 360 s after the occurrence of fire is shown in
Fig. 15. The pressure distribution diagram of each layer is shown
in Fig. 16; the airflow speed distribution characteristics of the key
stairway entrance are shown in Figs. 17 and 18, whereas the tem-
perature distribution curves of the ceiling is shown in Fig. 19. The
co-distribution characteristic curves at a 1.6 m height are shown in
Fig. 20.
As shown in Fig. 15, case 4 was in the normal ventilation state,
and the smoke spread was not controlled. At 360 s, the smoke
spread from the second floor to the first floor. By contrast, the smoke
was controlled better in cases 5 and 6. Within 360 s, the smoke was
controlled in the smoke control zone on the fire side and did not
spread to other floors.
As shown in the pressure and airflow speed distribution dia-
grams in Figs. 16 and 17, because the air inlet and exhaust vents
were all opened during case 4 fire, the positive and negative pres-
sures on the same floor cancelled each other out, and the pressure
difference between the fire floor and other floors was small. This
situation is similar to case 1 and will not be repeated. In case 5, the
exhaust port was opened on the second floor in the underground
to provide a negative pressure, whereas the air supply port was
opened on the first floor in the underground to generate a positive
pressure. The pressure on the first floor in the underground was sig-
nificantly higher than those on the 2nd floor in the underground,
and the downward airflow at the stairway prevented the smoke
from spreading upward.
In case 6, the pressure was positive owing to the simultaneous
supply of air from the first and third floors in the underground and
the negative pressure from the exhaust of the second floor in the
underground, which increased the airflow speed of the third floor
 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161 157

Fig. 14. Visibility of cases 1, 2, and 3 at 100 and 360 s.

in the underground to the second floor (compared with case 5),

thereby restricting the smoke flow in the fireproof area.
As shown by the monitoring data presented in Fig. 18, the airflow
speed changed with time in three cases. The pressure difference
between the floors in different cases resulted in a large difference
in the airflow speed at the staircase. Among the three staircases
connecting the second and first floors in the underground in case
5, the difference between the two layers was the largest, and the
airflow speed of the three staircases was the highest, with average
values fluctuating at about 1.75, 1.5, and 1.5 m/s. In case 6, the air
supply port of the third floor in the underground was opened such
that the third floor in the underground was in a positive-pressure
state. The airflow speed at the stairway was smaller than that of
case 5, and the values were 1.2, 1.0, and 1.3 m/s. The airflow speed
limited the spread of the 1.5 WM fire smoke. In case 4, almost no
pressure difference was observed in any floor; therefore, the airflow Fig. 15. Smoke diffusion condition of cases 4, 5, and 6 at 360 s.
speed was the smallest, and the airflow speed change was unstable,
pulsating at approximately 0.25 m/s. ports was small, the amount of smoke exhausted was less than that
As show in Fig. 19, the spread of smoke in case 5 can be lim- of cases 4 and 6, and the heat extracted by the smoke exhaust was
ited when fire ventilation is enabled, but the ceiling temperature less. In the case 5 fire ventilation mode, a negative pressure had
is higher than those of the other two cases, especially at the right to be formed on the fire layer to limit the smoke. The air supply
side of the fire source; the closer to the fire source, and the gap is port was not opened as in case 4, and the lack of low-temperature
larger, the maximum reaches 40◦ C. In case 5, only the second floor fresh air flow reduced the smoke temperature. Because the smoke
smoke exhaust fan was turned on, the number of smoke exhaust was controlled in the smoke prevention zone of the fire area, the
158 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161

Fig. 16. Pressure distribution of cases 4, 5, and 6 at 360 s.

Fig. 19. Ceiling temperature in horizontal direction of fire source of cases 4, 5, and
6.

Fig. 17. Velocity distribution of cases 4, 5, and 6 at 360 s.

heat was more concentrated compared with case 4, and the ceiling
temperature of case 5 was higher.
The three staircases on the second and first floors in the under-
ground were equipped with CO-measuring points. As shown from
the monitoring results in Fig. 20, a large amount of CO was detected
at stairs 1 and 2 in case 4, which is consistent with the smoke dis-
tribution map. The other two cases suppressed the flow of CO to
the upper layer in 360 s, and the CO concentration was low and Fig. 20. Volume fraction of CO in stairways of cases 4, 5, and 6.
negligible. Although the CO concentration differences in all cases
were considerable, they were all within the safe range, and were
thus not detrimental to the human body. to form a negative pressure; furthermore, the air inlet on the first
When a fire occurred, the normal ventilation of cases 4 and 1 was floor in the underground was opened to provide a positive pressure,
similar, and almost no pressure difference was observed between which generated a high speed of airflow at the stairway entrance,
the floors, which caused the airflow speed of the stairs on the first thereby restraining the smoke from spreading to the upper layer.
and second floors in the underground to be low; hence, the smoke As shown from the monitoring results of the roof temperature mea-
could not be prevented from spreading to the upper layer. In cases suring point at the fire source location, the roof temperature of case
5 and 6, the smoke was effectively controlled because the air inlet 5 was extremely high relative to that of case 6; as such, the tem-
was closed on the fire floor, whereas the smoke exhaust was opened perature cannot be well suppressed. Therefore, when a fire occurs

Fig. 18. Average airflow speed of each stair in cases 4, 5, and 6.

 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161 159

Fig. 21. Structural block diagram of the subway fire collaborative control system.

on the second floor in the underground, case 6 provides the best and smoke flow also need to be deeply integrated. Based on the
ventilation mode. ES-DSS autonomous dynamic emergency rescue decision-making
model of complex forms of fires, an autonomous dynamic rescue
decision-making system of complex forms of subway fires is devel-
3. Research and design of fire smoke control system in
oped, using distributed measurement and control point layout and
subway station
collaborative centralized control methods to achieve intelligent
regulation of catastrophic air and smoke flow. The system consists
The subway fire smoke spreads fast, has strong toxicity, and it
of distributed monitoring substation, industrial Ethernet commu-
is difficult to evacuate when the fire occurs which is difficult to
nication module, environmental monitoring module, automatic fire
rescue, which poses a great threat to the life safety of passengers.
extinguishing spray module, remote screen door control module,
Therefore, the article study on the smoke flow control mecha-
remote smoke ceiling screen control module, supply fan and gate
nism of different fire locations in the complex subway network
valve control module, smoke exhaust fan, and It consists of gate
structure, and a collaborative centralized control system combin-
valve control module, fire door status monitoring module, ES-DSS
ing mechanical ventilation and smoke isolation is established. In
independent dynamic decision-making module, remote disaster
order to solve a real decision-making problem in a much more
relief command center and so on. The subway fire emergency res-
reliable and appropriate way, Yazdi introduces a novel approach
cue cooperative centralized control system, as a key equipment for
that integrates optimization features, DEMATEL (decision-making
controlling airflow and smoke in a catastrophic condition, must
trial and evaluation laboratory), and Bayesian structural network
start and operate stably and reliably and realize the control of the
(Yazdi et al., 2020). Analysis of the characteristics of subway fire
remote command center. The block diagram of the structure of the
scenes and ventilation and smoke exhaust devices to constructs
complex centralized control system for subway fire air and smoke
the expert system - decision support system (ES-DSS) autonomous
flow is shown in Fig. 21.
dynamic decision-making model for disaster relief, determines the
The related monitoring sub stations of each module of the
best scheme of airflow and smoke control, controls the polluted
complex fire air and smoke flow collaborative centralized control
area of smoke flow, and guarantees the fresh air supply to create
system collect data in real-time, transmit data to the monitoring
conditions for the rapid evacuation of passengers.
center, and the database of the monitoring center processes and
In a complex form of the transfer station, the air flow is com-
analyzes the ventilation status of the subway in real-time. Under
posed of multiple branches to form a network structure, and
normal conditions, real-time monitoring of ventilation and air con-
regulating a branch will affect the entire network structure. There-
ditioning of the subway system shall be carried out to ensure the
fore, the ventilation network structure of the multi-branch subway
comfort and safety of personnel. In case of abnormality, firstly,
station is studied. After the fire occurs, through the coordinated
obtain the fire information through the environmental monitor-
centralized control of smoke blocking, isolation, ventilation, and
ing module, and the monitoring center obtains the best ventilation
smoke exhaust facilities, the purpose of reaching the minimum
and smoke exhaust scheme by using the ES-DSS independent disas-
smoke pollution area and quickly exhausting the ground is reached.
ter relief decision-making system; secondly, the monitoring center
With the complexity of the subway station network structure
issues instructions to trigger the linkage control of the fire door
changing, new challenges have been raised for post-disaster emer-
and the closing of the ceiling screen, monitor the status of the air-
gency rescues such as smoke isolation methods, optimal emission
flow control facilities in real-time, control the fire smoke flow in a
paths, and optimal passenger evacuation path planning. Moreover,
small range, and start the sprinkler system, Quickly extinguish the
there are still no specific smoke control guidelines for such complex
fire source; finally, switch the relevant air valves and gate valves,
station.
open the air supply fan and open the smoke exhaust fan to realize
Subway integrated supervisory control system plays an impor-
the fresh air flow in and smoke exhaust. According to the distribu-
tant role in the daily operation of the subway and the early
tion of smoke and passage, the system adjusts the air control and
warning and rescue of disasters. The complex form of subway dis-
aster emergency decision-making and intelligent regulation of air
160 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161
Fig. 22. Visual form of ES-DSS Decision Making System for Subway Disaster Rescue.
smoke exhaust scheme in real-time to create the best conditions
for personnel evacuation and fire fighting and disaster relief.
The integrated background computing software is built into
the cooperative control system of airflow and smoke flow in the
complex form of subway fire. All the monitoring parameters are
coordinated and analyzed to ensure the optimal ventilation under
normal conditions. After the fire, according to the location and
spread characteristics, the best evacuation route for passengers is
analyzed to determine the smoke flow path and the control method
of fresh air flow under the premise of ensuring the safety of per-
sonnel. Firstly, the ventilation network structure of the subway, the
working conditions of the air supply fan and the smoke exhaust
fan, and the ventilation path planning after controlling the air and
smoke exhaust are embedded into the background database. After
the fire, the real-time air volume on the key air supply and smoke
exhaust path in the disaster relief process can be obtained through
the continuous iteration of airflow network calculation, which pro-
vides data support for the control of fire smoke flow. The complex
form of subway fire specific flow collaborative control system by
numerical simulation and field test, calculated the catastrophe in
the process of the ideal air volume, air exhaust path according to
the ideal air volume setting threshold, when the actual air volume
and air volume ideal error more than 10 %, the system automati-
cally adjusts the frequency of the supply air exhaust fan, provide
good conditions for evacuation. The remote visualization form of
the complex form of the cooperative centralized control system for
subway fire and smoke flow is shown in Fig. 22.
4. Conclusions
1) Six of air control modes for fires in a typical cross-interchange
subway station were established. The numerical simulation
results showed that the airflow continuously flowed to the fire
floor, and the airflow speed of the stairway reached 2 m/s, which
can completely restrain the smoke spread. However, in case
1, the pressure difference of each floor was small under nor-
mal ventilation, causing the airflow speed of the stairway to be
lower than 0.6 m/s, which hindered the collection of exhaust
smoke and prevented it from spreading to the upper layer. The
airflow speed of case 2 was 1.5 m/s, less than case 3, thereby
enabling smoke elimination. However, compared with other dis-
aster indicators, case 2 exhibited lower CO removal capacity,
cooling capacity, and visibility in the smoke flow area compared
with case 3.
2) Case 4 is similar to case 1 in terms of smoke flow characteristics.
The airflow speed of case 5 oscillated at 1.75, 1.5 and 1.5 m/s in
three staircases. The airflow speed of case 6 oscillated at 1.2, 1.0,
and 1.3 m/s in three staircases; both cases demonstrated good
smoke exhaustion. In case 5, the number of opened air supply
outlets was less than that in case 6, resulting in the poor cooling
effect of fresh airflow. The measuring point temperature of case
5 was significantly higher than that of case 6 (the maximum
difference was 40 ◦ C), which affected the evacuation of people in
the fire layer. Therefore, case 3 and case 6 should be considered
for controlling the air and exhaust smoke after a fire occurs on
the different floors in the underground.
3) The characteristics of a subway fire scene, ventilation, and smoke
exhaust device were analysed. The expert system - decision
support system autonomous dynamic decision-making method
of disaster rescue was proposed, and the best scheme for air
control and smoke exhaust was determined. An intelligent simu-
lation software was developed to study and evaluate the disaster
situation in real time, dynamically convey the command of
smoke control and evacuation information, effectively control
the smoke pollution area, and ensure fresh air supply to facilitate
rapid evacuation of passengers.
 K. Wang et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 147 (2021) 146–161
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
Acknowledgments
This work was partly supported by the Fundamental Research
Funds for the Central Universities (2019GF03), and the Priority Aca-
demic Program Development (PAPD) of Jiangsu Higher Education
Institutions.
References
Abidin, M.Z., Rusli, R., Khan, F., et al., 2018. Development of inherent safety bene-
fits index to analyse the impact of inherent safety implementation. Process Saf.
Environ. Prot. 117, 454–472.
Barbato, Cascetta, F., Musto, M., Rotondo, G., 2014. Fire safety investigation for road
tunnel ventilation systems-an overview. Tunnelling Undergr. Space Technol. 43,
253–265.
Cong, H.Y., Wang, X.S., Zhu, P., Jiang, T.H., Shi, X.J., 2017. Improvement in smoke
extraction efficiency by natural ventilation through a board-coupled shaft dur-
ing tunnel fires. Appl. Therm. Eng. 118, 127–137.
Costantino, Musto, M., Rotondo, G., Zullo, A., 2014. Numerical analysis for reduced
scale road tunnel model equipped with axial jet fan ventilation system. Energy
Proc. 45, 1146–1154.
Ding, L., Khan, F., Abbassi, R., Ji, J., 2019. FSEM: an approach to model contribution of
synergistic effect of fires for domino effects. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 189, 271–278.
Ding, L., Ji, J., Khan, F., 2020a. Combining uncertainty reasoning and deterministic
modeling for risk analysis of fire-induced domino effects. Saf. Sci. 129, 104802.
Ding, L., Khan, F., Ji, Jie, 2020b. A novel approach for domino effects modeling and
risk analysis based on synergistic effect and accident evidence. Reliab. Eng. Syst.
Saf., http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2020.107109.
Gannouni, Soufien, Ben, Maad Rejeb, 2015. Numerical study of the effect of blockage
on critical velocity and back-layering length in longitudinally ventilated tunnel
fires. Tunnelling Undergr. Space Technol. 48, 147–155.
Gao, R., Li, A., Zhang, Y., et al., 2015. How domes improve fire safety in subway
stations. Saf. Sci. 80, 94–104.
Gao, Z.H., Liu, Z.X., Wan, H.X., Zhu, J.P., 2016. Experimental study on longitudinal
and transverse temperature distribution of sidewall confined ceiling jet plume.
Appl. Therm. Eng. 107, 583–590.
Guo, X., Pan, X., Wang, Z., et al., 2018. Numerical simulation of fire smoke in extra-
long river-crossing subway tunnels. Tunnelling Undergr. Space Technol. 82,
82–98.
He, B., Jiang, X., Yang, G., et al., 2017. A numerical simulation study on the forma-
tion and dispersion of flammable vapor cloud in underground confined space.
Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 107, 1–11.
Ingason, H., 2008. State of the art of tunnel fire research. Fire Saf. Sci. 9, 33–48.
Ji, Jie, Guo, Fangyi, Gao, Zihe, Zhu, Jiping, Jinhua, Sun, 2017. Numerical investiga-
tion on the effect of ambient pressure on smoke movement and temperature
distribution in tunnel fires. Appl. Therm. Eng. 118, 663–669.
Krol, M., Krol, A., Koper, P., Wrona, P., 2017. Full scale measurements of the opera-
tion of fire ventilation in a road tunnel. Tunnelling Undergr. Space Technol. 70,
204–213.
161
Li, Y., Fan, C., Ingason, H., et al., 2016. Effect of cross section and ventilation on heat
release rates in tunnel fires. Tunnelling Undergr. Space Technol. 51, 414–423.
McGrattan, K., Forney, G., 2018. Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 6) User’s Guide.
Natl. Inst. Standards Technol.
Mei, F.Z., Tang, F., Ling, X., Yu, J.S., 2017. Evolution characteristics of fire smoke layer
thickness in a mechanical ventilation tunnel with multiple point extraction.
Appl. Therm. Eng. 111, 248–256.
Muduli, L., Jana, P.K., Mishra, D.P., 2018. Wireless sensor network based fire moni-
toring in underground coal mines: a fuzzy logic approach. Process Saf. Environ.
Prot. 113, 435–447.
Se, C.M.K., Lee, E.W.M., Lai, A.C.K., 2012. Impact of location of jet fan on airflow
structure in tunnel fire. Tunnelling Undergr. Space Technol. 27, 30–40.
Song, G., Khan, F., Yang, M., 2018. Security assessment of process facilities-Intrusion
modeling. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 117, 639–650.
Tanaka, S., Majima, M., Kato, Kawabata, N., 2015. Performance validation of a hybrid
ventilation strategy comprising longitudinal and point ventilation by a fire
experiment using a model-scale tunnel. Fire Saf. J. 71, 287–298.
Tanjin Amin, Md., Khan, Faisal, Imtiaz, Syed, 2018. Dynamic availability assessment
of safety critical systems using a dynamic Bayesian network. Reliab. Eng. Syst.
Saf. 178, 108–117.
Ura, F., Kawabata, N., Tanaka, F., 2014. Characteristics of smoke extraction by natural
ventilation during a fire in a shallow urban road tunnel with roof openings. Fire
Saf. J. 67, 96–106.
Wang, Y.F., Qin, T., Sun, Z.F., et al., 2016a. Full-scale fire experiments and simulation
of tunnel with vertical shafts. Appl. Therm. Eng. 105, 243–255.
Wang, K., Jiang, S., Ma, X., et al., 2016b. Numerical simulation and application study
on a remote emergency rescue system during a belt fire in coal mines. Nat.
Hazards 84, 1463–1485.
Wang, S., Jiang, Ma, X., et al., 2016c. Information fusion of plume control and person-
nel escape during the emergency rescue of external-caused fire in a coal mine.
Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 103, 46–59.
Wang, Y.F., Sun, X.F., Li, B., et al., 2017a. Small-scale experimental and theoretical
analysis on maximum temperature beneath ceiling in tunnel fire with vertical
shafts. Appl. Therm. Eng. 114, 537–544.
Weng, M., Yu, L., Liu, F., et al., 2014. Full-scale experiment and CFD simulation on
smoke movement and smoke control in a metro tunnel with one opening portal.
Tunnelling Undergr. Space Technol. 42, 96–104.
Weng, M.C., Lu, X.L., Liu, F., Du, C.X., 2016. Study on the critical velocity in a sloping
tunnel fire under longitudinal ventilation. Appl. Therm. Eng. 94, 422–434.
Yang, Khan, F., Yang, M., et al., 2018. A numerical fire simulation approach for effec-
tiveness analysis of fire safety measures in floating liquefied natural gas facilities.
Ocean. Eng. 157, 219–233.
Yazdi, M., Khan, F., Abbassi, R., Rusli, R., 2020. Improved DEMATEL methodology for
effective safety management decision-making. Saf. Sci. 127, 104705.
Yuan, L., Smith, A.C., 2015. Numerical modeling of water spray suppression of con-
veyor belt fires in a large-scale tunnel. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 95, 93–101.
Yuan, L., Thomas, R.A., Rowland, J.H., et al., 2018. Early fire detection for underground
diesel fuel storage areas. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 119, 69–74.
Zhong, Shi, C., He, L., et al., 2016. Smoke development in full-scale sloped long
and large curved tunnel fires under natural ventilation. Appl. Therm. Eng. 108,
857–865.
Zhou, T.N., Liu, J.H., Chen, Q.P., Chen, X., Wang, J., 2017. Characteristics of smoke
movement with forced ventilation by movable fan in a tunnel. Tunnelling
Undergr. Space Technol. 64, 95–102.