CHRISTINE ALONZO

1:
The Nature and
Relationship of
Science, Technology
and Society.
What is Science?
• Science came from the Latin word “Scientia” which
means “knowledge”.
• Science has traditionally been defined as an organized
and systematized body of knowledge based on facts.
• These facts are determined by an exact set of procedures
popularly known as scientific method.
Scientists’ definition of
science:
• G. Gore (1878) - science is the interpretation of nature
and man is the interpreter.
• A. Einstein (1940) - science is the attempts to make the
chaotic diversity of our sense experience correspond to a
logically uniform system of thought.
• Calleja (1987) – science is a scholarly activity whose
province is the material world including man, but
excluding his non-biological activities.
• Huxley (1974) – science is common sense…the necessary
mode of working of the human mind
• Zimman (1976) – deplored that science is viewed as the
product of the mind that tends to ignore the body
Scientists’ definition of
science:
• Simpson (1974) – science is not a body of facts, not a method
or a technique…science is, or perhaps has, certainly a point
of view, as systematic orientation, application to all material
aspects of our world, in everyone’s daily activities as well as
in a laboratory.
• Posadas (1982) – science is the dynamic cumulative system of
verifiable concepts, principles, methods, laws, theories and
processes which seek to describe, understand and predict
natural phenomena.
• Caoili (1968) – science is an activity concerned with the
systematic understanding and explanation of the laws of
nature, centering on research toward discovery or production
of new knowledge as the end result.
• Campbell (1974) – science is the study of those judgments
concerning which universal agreement can .be obtained
 1. Science as a Process
a. Concerned with discovering
relationships between observable
phenomena in terms of theories.
b. Systematized theoretical inquiries
c. It seeks for truth about nature.
d. It is determined by observation,
hypothesis, measurement, analysis
Definition of and experimentation
e. It is the description and
Science: explanation of the development of
knowledge
f. It is the study of the beginning and
end of everything that exist.
g. Conceptualization of new ideas,
from the abstract to the particular.
h. Kind of human cultural activity.
2. Science as a Product
a. Systematized, organized body of knowledge based on facts or truths observations.
b. A set of logical and empirical methods which provide for the systematic observation
of empirical phenomena.
c. Source of cognitive authority.
d. Concerned with verifiable concepts
e. A product of the mind
f. It is the variety of knowledge, people, skills, organizations, facilities, techniques,
physical resources, methods and technologies that taken together and in relation with
one another.

Science is our most effective way of understanding the natural world. All science
involves some form of observation or experiment, and some sort of theorizing
about how to explain the evidence collected. Clearly, science is a product of
human curiosity.
Why are we curious?
• It is almost an instinct for us humans to try to
understand what our senses perceived because of our
highly developed mental skills.
• These are the mental skills to observe, infer, measure,
classify, experiment, and to communicate.
• Through the ages, our ancestors learned to use these
skills in a methodical manner to investigate the ‘how,’ the
‘why,’ and the ‘when’ of natural events.
• This methodical manner to our mental skills to satisfy
human curiosity is the scientific method.
What sets the limitation of science?
• Science is a product of the human senses and the human
mind and that is why there could be no science in the absence
of an intelligent being like a human or any other intelligent
creature like him.
• And therein lies the limitation of science; the limitation of the
human senses and the limitation of the human mind.
• We cannot investigate what our senses cannot perceive, and
we cannot explain beyond what our human mind can
understand.
• As a matter of fact, the optical and the electron microscope,
the optical and radio telescopes, and all the other new
scientific instruments are but the result of our attempts to
extend our sense of perception.
What is Technology?
• The world technology is believed to be Greek in origin. It
is derived from “techne” which means art, and
“technologia” which literally means systematic treatment.
Many people regard technology as simply applied
science.
• In their view, scientists produce knowledge and then
technologists turn it into important products and devices,
such as computers and spacecraft.
What is Technology?
1. Scribner-Bantan English Dictionary (1979) – technology is
defined as (1) science of industrial arts and manufacture; (2)
applied science; (3) all the means employed by a social
group for material comforts.

2. Posadas (1982) – defined technology as the system of know-

how, skills, techniques and processes which enable societies
to produce, distribute, install, maintain or improve goods
and services need to satisfy human needs.
3. Bridgstock (1998) - technology as a body of skills and
knowledge by which we control and modify the world
Definitions of Technology
On the same view, technology is defined as both a PROCESS and a PRODUCT
1. TECHNOLOGY AS A PROCESS
a. It is the application of science.
b. The practice, description, and terminology of applied sciences.
c. The intelligent organization and manipulation of materials for useful purposes.
d. The means employed to provide for human needs and wants.
e. Focused on inventing new or better tools and materials or new and better ways
of doing things.
f. A way of using findings of science to produce new things for a better way of
living.
g. Search for concrete solutions that work and give wanted results.
h. It is characteristically calculative and imitative, tends to be dangerously
manipulative.
i. Form of human cultural activity.
Definitions of Technology
2. TECHNOLOGY AS A PRODUCT
a. A system of know-how, skills, techniques and processes.
b. It is like a language, rituals, values, commerce and arts, it is an
intrinsic part of a cultural system and it both shapes and reflects the
system values.
c. It is the product of the scientific concept.
d. The complex combination of knowledge, materials and methods.
e. Material products of human making or fabrication.
f. Total societal enterprise.

Technology is any activity and/or product thereof that tends to

increase man’s chances of survival.
Is Technology a part of Science?
• The little we understood about nature we were able to use
to develop technologies that enabled us to survive and
progress; and to be the most dominant animal species on
earth.
• But technology is not science. Science only seeks to
understand nature, no more no less; technology is but
the application of what science has discovered, for better
for worst.
• That is why usefulness is not a prerequisite to the
generation of knowledge; on the contrary, usefulness is
the primary prerequisite to the generation of technology.
Is Technology a part of Science?
• The little we understood about nature we were able to use
to develop technologies that enabled us to survive and
progress; and to be the most dominant animal species on
earth.
• But technology is not science. Science only seeks to
understand nature, no more no less; technology is but
the application of what science has discovered, for better
for worst.
• That is why usefulness is not a prerequisite to the
generation of knowledge; on the contrary, usefulness is
the primary prerequisite to the generation of technology.
What is Society?
• According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, a society is
an aggregate of people living together in a more or less
ordered community.
• It is a community of people living in a particular country
or region and having shared customs, laws, and
organizations.
Relationship of Science, Technology
and Society
What is STS?
• Science-Technology-Society (STS) education addresses
the need for a more scientifically and technologically
literate citizenry in such a way that will enable our future
citizens to make informed and responsible decision which
will not only affect their own lives but the sustainability of
the planet Earth as we know it.
Importance of STS
• Most people would agree that science and technology are
of great importance in the world today.
• It is equally clear that science can alter our entire
conception of ourselves and our place in the universe.
• The most famous instance of this was the series of events
known as the Scientific Revolution.
• During this turbulent time in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, Galileo and other scientists began
to argue that the Earth was not at the center of the
universe, but whirled on its own axis, and orbited around
the Sun.
Definitions of Science and Technology
1. A field of endeavor upon which a two-way interaction
operates between science and technology.
2. Interdependent and overlapping methods which employ both
existing knowledge and existing know-how.
3. A system of know-how, skills, techniques and processes
which enable society to produce, distribute, install, maintain or
improve goods and services needed to satisfy human needs.
4. Is an interdisciplinary field of study that seeks to explore and
understand the many ways that modern science and
technology shape modern culture, values and institutions, and
how modern values shape science and technology.
Purposes of Science and Technology
1. To improve quality of human condition.
2. To provide solution to our practical problems.
3. To establish relevant institutional linkages and essential
mechanisms
4. To develop individual knowledge.
5. To find order in the chaos of nature and deliver personal and
social liberation
6. To give an information and explanation of the natural world
7. To develop new areas of knowledge
8. To combat irrationality.
9. To maintain the availability of natural resources
Limitations of Science and Technology
1. Epistemological concerns. It cannot help us with questions about the God, the ultimate
Good, and Truth. It cannot deny nor confirm the existence of God, soul, heaven and other
uncertainties.
2. Metaphysical concerns. Immaterial and transcendental nature is beyond the grasp of
scientific inquiry. It cannot speak to issues of ultimate origin, meaning, or morality.
3. Axiological concerns. It cannot answer questions about value.
4.Dependent on the values and personal beliefs of those who use it.
5. Use of natural resources that are being used in science and technology are limited
6. Data is limited to the physically observable.
7. Ultimately rest on past observations
8. Not all of its principles are applicable to different world phenomena.
9. Needs human intervention to carry out its functions properly
10. It can predict forces of nature but it cannot prevent the prevent the
prevalence/occurrence
11. Can not guarantee an ultimate solution to any specific problem.
12. Can not fully explain what is in the mind of a person.
Limitations of Science and Technology

• There is a responsibility for all people to have some

awareness of how science and technology work. Science
and technology are changing every aspect of our lives, all
the time.
• No one in the contemporary world is untouched, and
the greater our understanding of what is happening, the
greater our ability to ensure that science and technology
are used in ways which benefit the human race, rather
than leading to our destruction.
Science VS. Technology
Relationships of STS
Chapter 1.1.2 Characteristics
of Science & Technology
The Scientific Method
 The Scientific
Method
- a process or sequence of
activities undertaken to gather
information and to come to
conclusions about the natural
world.
1. Making Observations and Gathering Knowledge
About A Phenomenon

-(Initial Observation, Recognition of a

Problem and Defining It, Further
Observation and Expanding
Knowledge)
-The prefix "super" means "above." So
supernatural means "above (or beyond)
the natural."
-The toolbox of a scientist contains only
the natural laws of the universe;
supernatural questions are outside
their reach.
1. Making Observations and Gathering Knowledge
About A Phenomenon

-Man has the inherent capacity to observe the things

around him.
-Careful observation could make one recognize that there
is a problem or a phenomenon that is worthy of further
attention and study.
-After initial observations, details not previously observed
can be determined using instrumentation.
-Search and review of related literature (books, scientific
journals, online sources, etc.) should also be undertaken
to learn more about the problem.
2. Formulation of Hypothesis (Use of inductive reasoning
to provide a tentative solution to the problem)

-Scientists use generalizations to come up

with a hypothesis, which is an
intelligent guess that is a possible
explanation for a natural event. The
hypothesis is presented as an actual
statement and must be testable.
-In the development and proving of
hypotheses, scientists use inductive and
deductive logic
2. Formulation of Hypothesis (Use of inductive reasoning
to provide a tentative solution to the problem)

Inductive logic involves arriving at a probable conclusion based

on several samplings.
- Example:
• a person tasted a green mango and found it sour and
slightly tangy to the taste buds. Then he subsequently
tasted 24 other mangoes and found the same result. Based
on the these 25 samplings, he may then conclude that all
green mangoes are sour and tangy to the taste.

- Inductive logic thus proceeds from several specific

observations to a generalization

- Cell Theory, the Theory of Biological Evolution by Natural

Selection, and the theory of plate tectonics, all these are
generalizations arrived at by inductive reasoning.
2. Formulation of Hypothesis (Use of inductive reasoning
to provide a tentative solution to the problem)

Deductive logic proceeds from a generalization to specifics.

- Example:
- After testing 25 green mangoes and finding them sour and
tangy, one may hypothesize that the next mango he will
taste will be sour and tangy. This kind of reasoning is used
to formulate a new hypothesis after a generalization.

- The scientists may further formulate a new hypothesis

using deductive logic. If 25 green mangoes are sour and
tangy, then the next green mango I will taste should be sour
and tangy. If indeed the mango tasted sour and tangy, then
the validity of the original generalization has gained greater
probability (or credibility). Thus, the scientific procedure; or
science progress by the interplay of inductive and deductive
reasoning.
.
3. Testing of Hypothesis (Experimentation and Conduct of
Further Observations)

- In this phase, the scientist uses deductive

reasoning involving the “if, then” logic.
- Foresight or the capability to predict what will
happen next is necessary to guide the scientist
on how to go about his experiment.
- The scientist must come up with an
experimental design that will make him
generate meaningful results.
- Usually a “control” or “control group” is set
up side by side with the experimental group.
- This contains all components and undergoes all
parts of the experiment except for the factor
being tested.
3. Testing of Hypothesis (Experimentation and Conduct of
Further Observations)

-In any experiment, we can really only

test one thing at a time. So we try to
control all the variables except one that
we will change.
- Independent variable = the variable that
you change during the experiment
- Dependent variable = the variable that
you observe changes in (depends on the
independent variable)
4. Experimentation

- Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis

is true or false.
- It is important that the test is fair:
- You change ONLY ONE variable at a time,
keeping all others the same (constant).
- You should repeat your experiment several
times to make sure your results weren’t just an
accident.
- Good precision = at least 3 trials
5. Drawing of Conclusion (Analysis of Data to Determine
whether the Hypothesis is Supported or Not, Publication of
Results)
-Data are results of the experiment which
may lead one to accept or reject the
hypothesis initially formulated.
-These should be observable and
objective.
-Mathematical data are usually presented
in tabulated and graphical forms and
may require statistical analysis to
confirm validity or significance.
5. Drawing of Conclusion (Analysis of Data to Determine
whether the Hypothesis is Supported or Not, Publication of
Results)
- A conclusion is the answer to the problem
and based on a supported hypothesis.
- Science is a progressive process such that
the conclusion of one experiment can lead to
the hypothesis for another experiment.
- The results that do not support the
hypothesis may be used by scientists to
formulate another hypothesis to be tested.
- Conclusions from many different but related
experiments may lead to the development of
a Scientific Theory, a general concept
about the natural world.
5. Drawing of Conclusion (Analysis of Data to Determine
whether the Hypothesis is Supported or Not, Publication of
Results)
-A theory, therefore, is a hypothesis that has been
repeatedly and extensively tested and always found to be
true.
-However, no theory in science is ever absolutely and finally
proven.
-Scientists should be ready to alter or even abandon their
most cherished generalizations when new facts contradict
them (Keeton and McFadden, 1983).
From Scientific Knowledge to Technology
1. J. Watt’s invention of the condensation steam engine that was
a prime mover of transport and industry, was made possible by
the concept of latent heat discovery of J. Black.
2. London’s synthetic dye industry came from the accidental of
aniline dye magenta by W. Perkins attempt to synthesize
quinine.
3.Hermann von Helmholtz’s study on sound waves inspired A.
Graham Bell to create the telephone.
4. The electrical industry owes much to the works of H.C.
Oersted on magnetic fields produced by electric currents which
was used by A. Volta who invented electrical batteries.
5. The dynamo, alternator and transformer were made based
from the works of M. Faraday on interrelated concepts of
motion, magnetism and electricity.
Sample Problem: Freezing Water
Consider how the scientific method applies in this simple experiment with freezing water under two different
conditions.
1. Define Purpose: I want to know if water freezes faster on its own or with sugar added to it.
2. Construct Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there will be no difference in how long it takes the water to
freeze, whether or not it has sugar added to it. The alternative hypothesis is that there will be a statistically
significant difference in freezing time between the two scenarios.
3. Test Hypothesis and Collect Data: Fill two identical containers with the same amount of room temperature
water. Add a measured amount of sugar to one of the containers. Place the two containers into the freezer. At
regular intervals of 15 minutes, open the freezer and observe the status of the water in each container. Continue
until both have completely frozen. Write down the time it took for each container of water to reach a fully frozen
level.
4. Analyze Data: Look at the time it took for each container of water to freeze. Did the water with sugar added
take a significantly longer or shorter amount of time to freeze?
5. Draw Conclusion: Based on the results of your experiment, come to a conclusion as to whether water with sugar
freezes faster, slower, or at the same rate as water without sugar added.
6. Communicate Results: Report your findings in the form of a written report as an oral presentation.
• In the case of this experiment, you may choose to vary the amount of sugar added (during step 3 of the scientific
method above) to see if it alters the results as well. This could be a more robust experiment as you would then
have additional data to report.
Sample Problem: Counting Cars
Applications of the scientific method include simple observation too.
1. Define Purpose: I want to know if solo drivers are illegally using the carpool lane on the freeway in my city, and if so, how
widespread the problem is.
2. Construct Hypothesis: The null hypothesis might be that there are zero people driving alone who are using the carpool
lane on the freeway. The alternative hypothesis could be that there are a significant number of solo drivers using the
carpool lane.
3. Test Hypothesis and Collect Data: To test this hypothesis, you might find a pedestrian-friendly overpass from which you
can observe the carpool lane on the freeway. For a 60-minute period during rush hour, you tally up the number of
vehicles in the carpool lane who have the minimum number of passengers to qualify for the lane, as well as a separate
tally for the number of vehicles with solo drivers. (For the purposes of this experiment, we might ignore location-specific
exemptions, like how some states allow electric vehicles to drive in the carpool lane regardless of the number of
passengers.)
4. Analyze Data: Review your data. You might choose to calculate the percentage of vehicles that contained solo drivers.
5. Draw Conclusion: Based on the data you collected, decide whether a significant number of solo drivers were using the
carpool lane during your observation period.
6. Communicate Results: Present your findings in a written or oral presentation.
While a single sampling over a single rush hour in one location may not be representative of a city as a whole, these sorts of
observations can be a great starting point for further study and analysis.
Chapter 1.1.2 Characteristics
of Science & Technology
Scientific Processes
Basic Science Process Skills

1.Observing - using your senses to gather information about an

object or event. It is description of what was actually perceived.
This information is considered qualitative data.
2.Measuring - using standard measures or estimations to describe
specific dimensions of an object or event. This information is
considered quantitative data.
3.Inferring - formulating assumptions or possible explanations based
upon observations.
4.Classifying - grouping or ordering objects or events into categories
based upon characteristics or defined criteria.
5.Predicting - guessing the most likely outcome of a future event
based upon a pattern of evidence.
6.Communicating - using words, symbols, or graphics to describe an
object, action or event.
Integrated Science Process Skills

1.Formulating Hypotheses - stating the proposed solutions or expected outcomes

for experiments. These proposed solutions to a problem must be testable.
2.Identifying of Variables - stating the changeable factors that can affect an
experiment. It is important to change only the variable being tested and keep the
rest constant. The one being manipulated is the independent variable; the one
being measured to determine its response is the dependent variable; and all being
kept constant are constants or controlled variables.
3.Defining Variables Operationally - explaining how to measure a variable in an
experiment.
4.Describing Relationships Between Variables - explain relationships between
variables in an experiment such as between the independent and dependent
variables.
5.Designing Investigations - designing an experiment by identifying materials and
describing appropriate steps in a procedure to test a hypothesis.
 Chapter 1.1.3
Characteristics of
Science & Technology
Scientific Traits and Values
Scientific Traits and Values
Intellectual Honesty
-This attitude allows a scientist to recognize the work done by other scientists before him. This attitude is
also shown by reporting data truthfully.
Open Mindedness
-A scientist is open minded. Open-mindedness is an attitude that allows a scientist to look at other
possibilities.
-Evaluate, validate and accept other people’s idea towards a question.
Creative and Critical Thinker
-A scientist can do critical assessment of results and limitations.
-This enables a scientist to come up with new concepts which lead to discoveries that traditional
scientists have overlooked.
Curiosity
-This attitude/quality-curiosity-enables a scientist to try to discover more about the things around him.
Risk taker, confident and persistent
-These attitudes are very important because it enables a scientist to continue a project despite obstacles
and failures.
Scientific Traits and Values

• Objectivity
- A scientist must be objective in declaring results of his/her experiments and
Judgment is based on observable phenomena and not influenced by emotions or
personal prejudices
- The moral, social and personal responsibility and accountability of a scientist to all
of his works must be observed.
• Precision
- A scientist must always consider the precision of his work if it forms a pattern or
repeatedly occurring in nature. Lack of precision to a work would mean
inconsistency.
• Collaboration and Readiness to reach consensus
- “No Man is an Island”
- All people need others criticism for us to know if this can be widely accepted or
not.
- Two minds are better than one.