Compressed Air System

One in a
series of
industrial
energy
efficiency
sourcebooks
Improving
Compressed Air
System Performance
a sourcebook for industry
U.S. Department of Energy

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Bringing you a prosperous future where energy is clean,
abundant, reliable, and affordable
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
Improving Compressed Air System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry is a cooperative effort of the
U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) BestPractices and the
Compressed Air Challenge®. EERE originally undertook this project as part of a series of sourcebook publications
on industrial systems. Other topics in this series include: pump systems; fan systems; motors; process heating; and
steam systems. As work on the first edition progressed, the Compressed Air Challenge® was formed, bringing
together the extraordinary combined talents of compressed air system auditors, trade associations, equipment
manufacturers and distributors, utilities, and government agencies in a collaborative effort to improve the
performance of industrial compressed air systems. The two programs joined forces in preparing this second
edition. For more information about EERE and the Compressed Air Challenge®, see Section 3: Where to Find Help.
The Compressed Air Challenge®, EERE’s BestPractice Program, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and
Resource Dynamics Corporation wish to thank the staff at the many organizations who so generously assisted
in the collection of data for this sourcebook. The contributions, review, and input of the following participants
in the Compressed Air Challenge® are appreciated:
Chris Beals, Air Science Engineering, Inc.

Joseph Ghislain, Ford Motor Land Services Corporation
Henry Kemp, Strategic Air Concepts
David McCulloch, The Compressed Air and Gas Institute
Wayne Perry, Kaeser Compressors, Inc.
David Prator, Atlas Copco
William Scales, Scales Air Compressor Corporation
Gary Shafer, Ingersoll-Rand Company
Dean Smith, Air Science Engineering, Inc.
Tom Taranto, ConservAIR, Inc.
H.P. Van Ormer, Air Power USA
We would also like to thank the following member companies of the Compressed Air and Gas Institute for
their input:
Atlas Copco Compressors Inc.

Campbell Hausfeld
domnick hunter inc.
Gardner Denver Machinery Inc.
Hankison International
Ingersoll-Rand Company
Pneumatech/ConservAIR Inc.
Quincy Compressor Division, ENPRO
Sullair Corporation
Zeks Air Drier Corporation
Finally, a special thanks to David McCulloch, William Scales, and Gary Shafer for their extraordinary assistance.
Prepared for: Compressed Air Challenge® and the

United States Department of Energy
Prepared by: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Washington, DC
Resource Dynamics Corporation
Vienna, VA
i Improving Compressed Air System Performance

Table of Contents
Contents
Acknowledgements i
Table of Contents ii
List of Figures, Tables, and Appendices Figures iii
Quick Start Guide 1
Section 1: Introduction to Industrial Compressed Air Systems 3

Components of An Industrial Compressed Air System 3
Uses of Compressed Air 15
Section 2: The Performance Opportunity Roadmap 17

1-Analyzing Compressed Air Needs 19
2-Potentially Inappropriate Uses of Compressed Air 23
3-Compressed Air System Leaks 27
4-Pressure Drop and Controlling System Pressure 31
5-Compressed Air System Controls 35
6-Compressed Air Storage 41
7-Proven Opportunities at the Component Level 47
8-Maintenance of Compressed Air Systems for Peak Performance 53
9-Heat Recovery and Compressed Air Systems 59
10-Baselining Compressed Air Systems 61
11-Determining Your Compressed Air System Analysis Needs 65
12-Compressed Air System Economics and Selling Projects to Management 69
Section 3: Where To Find Help 75

BestPractices 75
Compressed Air Challenge® 78
Directory of Contacts 80
Resources and Tools 81
Appendices 93
Appendix A: Glossary of Basic Compressed Air System Terminology 95
Appendix B: Packaged Compressor Efficiency Ratings 101
Appendix C: CAGI’s Compressor and Dryer Data Sheets 103
Appendix D: The Compressed Air System Marketplace 109
Appendix E: Guidelines for Selecting a Compressed Air System Provider 117
A Sourcebook for Industry ii

Analyzing Compressed Air Needs
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Components of a Typical Compressed Air System 4
Figure 1.2 Compressor Family Tree 5
Figure 2.1 Performance Opportunities 18
Figure 2.2 Compressed Air System Block Diagram 20
Figure 2.3 Pressure Profile at a Single Point in Time 21
Figure 2.4 Pressure Profile over a Defined Time Period 22
Figure 2.5 Effect of Receiver Capacity on Lubricant-Injected Rotary Compressor
with Load/Unload Capacity Control 43
Figure 2.6 Lubricant-Injected Rotary Compressor with Inlet Valve Modulation 43
Figure 2.7 Lubricant-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor Performance
with Variable Displacement 44
Figure 2.8 Lubricant-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor Performance
with Variable Speed Control 45
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Industrial Sector Uses of Compressed Air 15
Table 1.2 Non-Manufacturing Sector Use of Compressed Air 16
List of Appendices Figures

Compressor Data Sheet–Rotary Screw Compressors 104
Dryer Data Sheet–Refrigerant Dryers 105
Dryer Data Sheet–Regenerative Dessicant-Type Dryers 106
Dryer Data Sheet–Membrane-Type Dryers 107
Appendix D-1.1 The Air Compressor Marketplace 110
iii Improving Compressed Air System Performance

Quick-Start Guide
Quick-Start Guide
This sourcebook is designed to provide compressed air 10—Baselining Compressed Air Systems
system users with a reference that outlines opportunities 11—Compressed Air System Assessments and
for system performance improvements. It is not Audits and Selecting a Service Provider
intended to be a comprehensive technical text on 12—Compressed Air System Economics and
improving compressed air systems, but rather a Selling Projects to Management
document that makes compressed air system users aware
of the performance improvement potential, details Section 3. Where To Find Help
some of the significant opportunities, and directs users The third section of this sourcebook is a directory
to additional sources of assistance. The sourcebook is of resources, tools, and information that are available
divided into the three main sections outlined below. to compressed air systems users to help them improve
their systems. It includes:
Section 1. Introduction to Industrial Compressed
Air Systems • A description of EERE’s BestPractices, a national
This section is intended for readers who want to effort sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy
gain an understanding of the basics of industrial aimed at improving the performance of industrial
compressed air systems. The components of an systems
industrial compressed air system are described and • A description of the Compressed Air Challenge®,
applications of compressed air systems in different a national effort involving all compressed air
industries are characterized. Compressed air system market stakeholders aimed at increasing the demand
users already familiar with compressed air fundamentals for high performance compressed air systems,
may want to skip this section. primarily through awareness building, education,
and training
Section 2. Performance Improvement Opportunity • A directory of association and other organization
Roadmap contacts involved in the compressed air system
This section consists of a series of fact sheets that market
outline specific opportunities for enhancing the • A listing and description of compressed air system-
performance of a compressed air system. The fact related resources and tools, including books,
sheets address system-level opportunities such as using brochures, periodicals, software, videos, workshops,
heat recovery and fixing leaks as well as individual and training courses.
component-level opportunities. The following fact
sheets are included. Appendices
The sourcebook also contains five appendices.
1—Analyzing Compressed Air Needs Appendix A is a glossary defining terms used in the
2—Potentially Inappropriate Uses of Compressed compressed air industry. Appendix B contains infor-
Air mation on Packaged Compressor Efficiency Ratings.
3—Compressed Air System Leaks Appendix C contains Data Sheets outlining a common
4—Pressure Drop and Controlling System Pressure format and style for reporting compressor and dryer
5—Compressed Air System Controls performance. Appendix D presents an overview of the
6—Compressed Air Storage compressed air systems marketplace. Appendix E
7—Proven Opportunities at the Component Level contains Guidelines for Selecting a Compressed Air System
8—Maintenance of Compressed Air Systems for Service Provider, a document that offers guidance for
Peak Performance selecting a firm to provide integrated services to
9—Heat Recovery and Compressed Air Systems improve compressed air system performance.
A Sourcebook for Industry 1

Quick-Start Guide
The Systems Approach

Improving and maintaining peak compressed air
system performance requires not only addressing
individual components, but also analyzing both the
supply and demand sides of the system and how they
interact. This practice is often referred to as taking a
“systems approach” because the focus is shifted away
from individual components to total system perform-
ance. Applying the systems approach usually involves
the following types of interrelated actions:
• Establishing current conditions and operating

parameters, including baselining of inefficiencies
• Determining present and future process production
needs
• Gathering and analyzing operating data and
developing load duty cycles
• Assessing alternative system designs and improve-
ments
• Determining the most technically and economically
sound options, taking into consideration all of the
sub-systems
• Implementing those options
• Assessing operations and energy consumption and
analyzing economics
• Continuing to monitor and optimize the system
• Continuing to operate and maintain the system for
peak performance.
2 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

Introduction To Industrial Compressed Air Systems
Section 1. Introduction to Industrial Compressed Air Systems
This section of the sourcebook is intended for readers bellows, used by blacksmiths to intensify the heat in
who want to gain an understanding of the basics of their furnaces. The first industrial compressors were
industrial compressed air systems. A glossary of basic simple, reciprocating piston-driven machines powered
terminology is included in Appendix A for users by a water wheel.
unfamiliar with the terms used in this chapter. A modern industrial compressed air system is
Compressed air is used widely throughout industry composed of several major sub-systems and many
and is often considered the “fourth utility” at many sub-components. Major sub-systems include the
facilities. Almost every industrial plant, from a small compressor, prime mover, controls, treatment equipment
machine shop to an immense pulp and paper mill, has and accessories, and the distribution system. The
some type of compressed air system. In many cases, compressor is the mechanical device that takes in
the compressed air system is so vital that the facility ambient air and increases its pressure. The prime mover
cannot operate without it. Plant air compressor systems powers the compressor. Controls serve to regulate the
can vary in size from a small unit of 5 horsepower (hp) amount of compressed air being produced. The treat-
to huge systems with more than 50,000 hp. ment equipment removes contaminants from the
In many industrial facilities, air compressors use compressed air, and accessories keep the system
more electricity than any other type of equipment. operating properly. Distribution systems are analogous
Inefficiencies in compressed air systems can therefore to wiring in the electrical world—they transport
be significant. Energy savings from system improve- compressed air to where it is needed. Compressed air
ments can range from 20 to 50 percent or more of storage can also serve to improve system performance
electricity consumption. For many facilities this is and efficiency. Figure 1.1 shows a representative
equivalent to thousands, or even hundreds of thousands industrial compressed air system and its components.
of dollars of potential annual savings, depending on
use. A properly managed compressed air system can Compressor Types
save energy, reduce maintenance, decrease downtime, Many modern industrial air compressors are sold
increase production throughput, and improve product “packaged” with the compressor, drive motor, and
quality. many of the accessories mounted on a frame for ease
Compressed air systems consist of a supply side, of installation. Provision for movement by forklift is
which includes compressors and air treatment, and a common. Larger packages may require the use of an
demand side, which includes distribution and storage overhead crane. An enclosure may be included for
systems and end-use equipment. A properly managed sound attenuation and aesthetics.
supply side will result in clean, dry, stable air being As shown in Figure 1.2, there are two basic
delivered at the appropriate pressure in a dependable, compressor types: positive-displacement and dynamic.
cost-effective manner. A properly managed demand In the positive-displacement type, a given quantity of
side minimizes wasted air and uses compressed air for air or gas is trapped in a compression chamber and the
appropriate applications. Improving and maintaining volume which it occupies is mechanically reduced,
peak compressed air system performance requires causing a corresponding rise in pressure prior to
addressing both the supply and demand sides of the discharge. At constant speed, the air flow remains
system and how the two interact. essentially constant with variations in discharge
pressure. Dynamic compressors impart velocity energy
Components of an Industrial to continuously flowing air or gas by means of
Compressed Air System impellers rotating at very high speeds. The velocity
energy is changed into pressure energy both by the
A compressor is a machine that is used to increase impellers and the discharge volutes or diffusers. In the
the pressure of a gas. The earliest compressors were centrifugal-type dynamic compressors, the shape of

4

Air Air
Air Inlet Dryer Filter Receiver Pressure/Flow
Filter Controller
Compressor
Package
Enclosure Distribution
System
Pneumatic
Improving Compressed Air System Performance
Tool
Aftercooler
and Lubricant
Cooler
Motor
Control
Panel
Compressor
Air End Filter, Regulator,
Lubricant/Air and Lubricator
Separator
Figure 1.1 Components of a Typical Industrial Compressed Air System.

Compressors
Positive Displacement Dynamic
Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial
Single-Acting Helical-Screw Liquid-Ring Scroll Sliding-Vane Lobe
Double-Acting
Figure 1.2 Compressor Family Tree.
the impeller blades determines the relationship mesh, trapping air, and reducing the volume of the air
between air flow and the pressure (or head) generated. along the rotors to the air discharge point. Rotary
screw compressors have low initial cost, compact size,
Positive-Displacement Compressors low weight, and are easy to maintain. Rotary screw
These compressors are available in two types: compressors may be air- or water-cooled. Less common
reciprocating and rotary. Reciprocating compressors rotary compressors include sliding-vane, liquid-ring,
work like bicycle pumps. A piston, driven through a and scroll-type.
crankshaft and connecting rod by an electric motor,
reduces the volume in the cylinder occupied by the air Single-Acting, Reciprocating Air Compressors
or gas, compressing it to a higher pressure. Single- This type of compressor is characterized by its
acting compressors have a compression stroke in only “automotive” type piston driven through a connecting
one direction, while double-acting units provide a rod from the crankshaft. Compression takes place on
compression stroke as the piston moves in each the top side of the piston on each revolution of the
direction. Large, industrial reciprocating air compressors crankshaft. Single-acting, reciprocating air compressors
are double-acting and water-cooled. Multi-stage, double- may be air-cooled or liquid-cooled. These may be single-
acting compressors are the most efficient compressors stage, usually rated at discharge pressures from 25 to
available, and are typically larger, noisier, and more 125 pounds per square inch gauge (psig), or two-stage,
costly than comparable rotary units. Reciprocating usually rated at discharge pressures from 125 psig to
compressors are available in sizes from less than 1 hp 175 psig or higher.
to more than 600 hp. The most common air compressor in the fractional
Rotary compressors have gained popularity and and single-digit hp sizes is the air-cooled, reciprocating
are now the “workhorse” of American industry. They air compressor. In larger sizes, single-acting reciprocating
are most commonly used in sizes from about 30 to compressors are available up to 150 hp, but above 25 hp
200 hp. The most common type of rotary compressor are much less common. Two-stage and multi-stage
is the helical-twin, screw-type (also known as rotary designs include inter-stage cooling to reduce discharge
screw or helical-lobe). Male and female screw-rotors air temperatures for improved efficiency and durability.

Pistons used in single-acting compressors are of travels concentrically within the cylinder. These
the “automotive” or “full skirt” design, the underside compressors may be single- or multi-stage, depending
of the piston being exposed to the crankcase. on discharge pressure and hp size. These can range
Lubricated versions have a combination of compression upwards from 10 hp and with pressures upwards from
and lubricant-control piston rings, which seal the 50 psig.
compression chamber, control the lubricant to the Cooling. Double-acting air compressors generally
compression chamber, and act (in some designs) as have cooling water jackets around the cylinder body
support for piston movement on the cylinder walls. and in the cylinder head. This, combined with their
Lubricant-free, or non-lube designs, do not allow relatively slow speed of operation and water-cooled
lubricant in the compression chamber and use pistons intercooling, results in excellent compression efficiency.
of self-lubricating materials or use heat resistant, Lubrication. Cylinder lubrication is generally by
non-metallic guides and piston rings which, are self- means of a forced-fed cylinder lubricator, with a feed
lubricating. Some designs incorporate a distance piece rate of several drops per minute, depending on cylinder
or crosshead to isolate the crankcase from the size and piston speed and as specified by the manu-
compression chamber. facturer. Lubricant-free versions also are available with
Lubricant-less designs have piston arrangements polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) or similar materials for
similar to lubricant-free versions but do not have pistons, riders, and compression rings. A distance piece
lubricant in the crankcase. Generally these have a grease is provided between the crankcase and the cylinder(s)
pre-packed crankshaft and connecting rod bearings. to ensure that no part of the piston rod, which enters
Cooling. Single-acting air compressors have different the lubricated crankcase, can enter the lubricant-free
arrangements for removing the heat of compression. cylinder area.
Air-cooled versions have external finning for heat Balance. Single- and two-cylinder compressors of
dissipation on the cylinder, cylinder head, and in some this type generally require a substantial foundation
cases, the external heat exchanger. Air is drawn or blown due to unbalanced reciprocating forces.
across the fins and the compressor crankcase by a fan, Drives. Below 200 hp, belt drives and flange-mounted
which may be the spokes of the drive pulley/flywheel. induction motors are normally used. For motors larger
Liquid-cooled compressors have jacketed cylinders, than 300 hp, flange-mounted, synchronous motors are
heads and heat exchangers, through which liquid sometimes used with a 1.0 power factor or 0.8 leading
coolant is circulated to dissipate the heat of compression. power factor to provide power factor correction to off-
Water, or an ethylene glycol mixture to prevent freezing, set other induction-type electrical loads.
may be employed.
Drives. The most common drive arrangement is a Lubricant-Injected Rotary Screw Compressors
belt drive from an electric motor. The compressor The lubricant-injected rotary screw compressor
sheave also acts as a flywheel to limit torque pulsations powered by an electric motor has become a dominant
and its spokes often are used for cooling air circulation. type of industrial compressor for a wide variety of
Belt drives allow a great degree of flexibility in obtaining applications.
the desired speed of rotation. Compression Principle. The lubricant-injected, rotary-
Flange-mounted, or direct-coupled motor drives screw compressor consists of two intermeshing rotors
provide compactness and minimum drive maintenance. in a stator housing having an inlet port at one end
Belts and couplings must be properly shielded for and a discharge port at the other. The male rotor has
safety and to meet Occupational Safety & Health lobes formed helically along its length while the female
Administration (OSHA) requirements in industrial plants. rotor has corresponding helical grooves or flutes. The
number of helical lobes and grooves may vary in
Double-Acting, Reciprocating Air Compressors otherwise similar designs.
Double-acting reciprocating compressors use both Air flowing in through the inlet port fills the
sides of the piston for air compression, doubling the spaces between the lobes on each rotor. Rotation then
capacity for a given cylinder size. A piston rod is causes the air to be trapped between the lobes and the
attached to the piston at one end and to a crosshead stator as the inter-lobe spaces pass beyond the inlet
at the other end. The crosshead ensures that the piston port. As rotation continues, a lobe on one rotor rolls

into a groove on the other rotor and the point of controlling the discharge temperature. A thermostatic
intermeshing moves progressively along the axial bypass valve allows some or all of the lubricant being
length of the rotors, reducing the space occupied by circulated to bypass the lubricant cooler to maintain
the air, resulting in increased pressure. Compression the desired temperature over a wide range of ambient
continues until the inter-lobe spaces are exposed to the temperatures.
discharge port when the compressed air is discharged. Generally, suitable lubricant temperature and
Lubricant is injected into the compression chamber viscosity are required for proper lubrication, sealing,
during compression and serves three basic functions: and to avoid condensation in the lubricant sump. It
1) it lubricates the intermeshing rotors and associated also is necessary to avoid excessive temperatures, which
bearings; 2) it takes away most of the heat caused by could result in a breakdown of the lubricant and
compression; and 3) it acts as a seal in the clearances reduced life.
between the meshing rotors and between rotors and In addition to lubricant cooling, an aftercooler is
stator. used to cool the discharged air and a moisture separator
Lubrication. The generic term “lubricant” has been removes the condensate. In the majority of applications,
used instead of oil. The lubricant may be a hydrocarbon air-cooled, radiator-type lubricants and air coolers are
product, but most compressors now use cleaner and employed and provide the opportunity for heat recovery
longer life synthetic lubricants, including diesters, from the compression process for facility heating. In
polyglycols, polyalphaolefins, polyol esters, and silicon- water-cooled designs, water-cooled heat exchangers
based lubricants. These newer products are suitable for with water control valves also are available on most
a wider range of temperatures. rotary screw compressor packages.
A mixture of compressed air and injected lubricant In multi-stage designs, lubricant may be removed
leaves the air end and is passed to a sump/separator and air-cooled between the stages in an intercooler, or
where the lubricant is removed from the compressed the air/lubricant mixture may pass through a curtain
air. Directional and velocity changes are used to of lubricant as it enters the next stage.
separate most of the liquid. The remaining aerosols in Single-stage, lubricant-injected, rotary screw
the compressed air then are separated by means of a compressor packages are available from 3 to 900 hp, or
coalescing filter, resulting in only a few parts per 8 to 5000 cubic feet per minute (cfm), with discharge
million (ppm) of lubricant carry-over (usually in the pressures from 50 to 250 psig. Two-stage versions can
range of 2 to 5 ppm). A minimum pressure device, often reduce specific power and some can achieve discharge
combined with a discharge check valve, prevents pressures up to 500 psig. Lubricant-injected, rotary screw
excessive velocities through the separator element until vacuum pumps also are available from 80 to 3,100 inlet
a normal system pressure is achieved at start-up. Most cfm and vacuum to 29.7 inches Hg. Lubricant-injected,
lubricant-injected rotary screw compressor packages rotary-vane compressors are a less common type of rotary
use the air pressure in the lubricant sump/separator, compressor and are available in a limited size range.
after the discharge of the air end, to circulate the
lubricant through a filter and cooler prior to Lubricant-Free Rotary Screw Compressors
reinjection to the compression chamber. Some designs The principle of compression in lubricant-free
may use a lubricant pump. rotary screw compressors is similar to that of the
Multi-stage compressors. Multi-stage compressors lubricant-injected rotary screw compressors but, with-
may have the individual stages mounted side by side, out lubricant being introduced into the compression
either in separate stators or within a common, multi- chamber. Two distinct types are available: the dry-type
bore stator housing. Alternatively, the stages may be and the water-injected type.
mounted in tandem with the second stage driven In the dry-type, the intermeshing rotors are not
directly from the rear of the first stage. Multiple stages allowed to touch and their relative positions are main-
are used either for improved efficiency at a given tained by means of lubricated timing gears external to
pressure or to achieve higher pressures. the compression chamber. Since there is no injected
Cooling. The temperature of the lubricant injected fluid to remove the heat of compression, most designs
into the compression chamber is generally controlled use two stages of compression with an intercooler
directly to a minimum of 140°F, or indirectly by between the stages and an aftercooler after the second

stage. The lack of a sealing fluid also requires higher compressor types to accommodate demand load
rotation speeds than for the lubricant-injected type. swings while the centrifugal compressors handle the
Dry-type, lubricant-free rotary screw compressors have base load.
a range from 25 to 4,000 hp or 90 to 20,000 cfm. Axial compressors consist of a rotor with multiple
Single-stage units operate up to 50 psig, while two-stage rows of blades and a matching stator with rows of
can achieve up to 150 psig. stationary vanes. The rotating blades impart velocity
In the water-injected type, similar timing gear energy, primarily in an axial plane. The stationary
construction is used, but water is injected into the vanes then act as a diffuser to convert the residual
compression chamber to act as a seal in internal velocity energy into pressure energy. This type of
clearances and to remove the heat of compression. compressor is restricted to very high flow capacities
This allows pressures in the 100 to 150 psig range to be and generally has a relatively high compression
accomplished with only one stage. The injected water, efficiency. Mixed flow compressors have impellers and
together with condensed moisture from the atmosphere, rotors which combine the characteristics of both axial
is removed from the discharged compressed air by a and centrifugal compressors.
conventional moisture separation device. Similar to
the lubricant-injected type, lubricant-free rotary screw Centrifugal Air Compressors
compressors generally are packaged with all necessary A centrifugal air compressor has a continuously
accessories. flowing air stream which has velocity energy, or kinetic
Lubrication. Lubricant-free rotary screw compressors energy, imparted to it by an impeller, or impellers, which
utilize lubricant for bearings and gears, which are rotate at speeds that can exceed 50,000 revolutions per
isolated from the compression chamber. The lubricant minute (rpm). Approximately one half of the pressure
also may be used for stator jacket cooling in air-cooled energy is developed in the impeller with the other half
units. Typically, a lubricant pump is directly driven achieved by converting the velocity energy to pressure
from a shaft in the gearbox, assuring lubricant flow energy as the air speed is reduced in a diffuser and
immediately at start-up and during run-down in the volute. The most common centrifugal air compressor
event of power failure. A lubricant filter, typically with is one with two to four stages for pressures in the
10 micron rating, protects bearings, gears, and the 100 to 150 psig range. A water-cooled intercooler and
lubricant pump from damage. separator between each stage returns the air
Cooling. The cooling system for the dry-type, temperature to approximately ambient temperature
lubricant-free rotary screw compressor normally and removes condensed moisture before entering the
consists of an air cooler after each stage and a lubricant next stage. An aftercooler cools the air from the final
cooler. These may be water-cooled or air-cooled, stage and a moisture separator removes the moisture
radiator-type. Some older two-stage designs also prior to air delivery to distribution.
employ an additional heat exchanger to cool a small The inherent characteristic of centrifugal air
portion of the compressed air for recycling to the compressors is that as system pressure decreases, the
compressor inlet during the unloaded period. compressor’s flow capacity increases. The steepness of
the pressure head/capacity curve is dependent upon
Dynamic Compressors the impeller design. The more the impeller blades lean
These compressors raise the pressure of air or gas backwards from the true radial position, the steeper
by imparting velocity energy and converting it to the curve.
pressure energy. Dynamic compressors include Most standard centrifugal air compressor packages
centrifugal and axial types. The centrifugal-type is the are designed for an ambient temperature of 95°F and
most common and is widely used for industrial near sea level barometer pressure. The dynamic nature
compressed air. Each impeller, rotating at high speed, of the centrifugal compressor results in the pressure
imparts primarily radial flow to the air or gas which head generated by each impeller increasing as the air
then passes through a volute or diffuser to convert the density increases. The compressor mass flow and actual
residual velocity energy to pressure energy. Some large cubic feet per minute (acfm) capacity at a given
manufacturing plants use centrifugal compressors for discharge pressure increases as the ambient temperature
general plant air, and in some cases, plants use other decreases. Typically, a capacity control system is

provided with the compressor to maintain the desired Compressor Prime Movers
capacity and to operate within the motor horsepower The prime mover is the main power source providing
limits. The control system regulates the air flow by energy to drive the compressor. The prime mover must
means of an inlet throttle valve or inlet guide vanes. provide enough power to start the compressor, accelerate
The amount of reduction in the flow rate is limited by it to full speed, and keep the unit operating under
a minimum point flow reversal phenomenon known various design conditions. This power can be provided
as surge. Control systems either unload the compressor by any one of the following sources: electric motors,
or blow off the excess air to atmosphere to avoid this diesel or natural gas engines, steam turbines and
occurrence, which could result in excessive vibration combustion turbines. Electric motors are by far the
and potential damage to the compressor. Given ade- most common type of prime mover.
quate storage, some manufacturers will operate the Electric motors are a widely available and economical
compressor controls in a load/unload mode at lower means of providing reliable and efficient power to
flow conditions. compressors. Most compressors use standard, polyphase
Centrifugal air compressors range from around induction motors. In many cases, either a standard- or
300 to more than 100,000 cfm but the more common a premium-efficient motor can be specified when
air compressors are from 1,200 to 5,000 cfm and with purchasing a compressor or replacement motor. The
discharge pressures up to 125 psig. These may have incremental cost of the premium efficient motor is
several impellers in line on a single shaft or with typically recovered in a very short time from the
separate impellers integrally geared. resulting energy savings. When replacing a standard
Centrifugal air compressors provide lubricant-free motor with a premium-efficient version, careful attention
air delivery as there is no lubricant in the compression should be paid to performance parameters, such as
chambers. Lubrication for speed increasing gears and full-load speed and torque. A replacement motor with
the special high-speed shaft bearings is kept away from performance as close as possible to the original motor
the compression chambers by means of shaft seals, should be used. When replacing a drive motor in a
which may also have air purge and vent connections. compressor that uses a variable frequency drive as part
Centrifugal air compressors are high-speed rotating of the control system, use an inverter-duty motor.
machines and as such, shaft vibration monitoring is Diesel or natural gas engines are common
mandated to record operational trends and protect the compressor power sources in the oil and gas industries.
equipment. Automatic control of the compressors is Considerations such as convenience, cost, and the
typical and has been greatly improved by the use of availability of liquid fuel and natural gas play a role in
microprocessors, which monitor the pressure/capacity/ selecting an engine to power a compressor. Although
temperature characteristics as well as main-drive motor the majority of industrial compressed air systems use
current draw. It is important that the manufacturer’s electric motors for prime movers, in recent years there
recommended maintenance procedures be followed has been renewed interest in using non-electric drives,
and that certain maintenance procedures be carried such as reciprocating engines powered by natural gas,
out by qualified staff. This is particularly true of particularly in regions with high electricity rates. Standby
attempts to remove an impeller from its shaft, since or emergency compressors may also be engine-driven
special procedures and tools may be involved. to allow operation in the event of a loss of electrical
Lubrication and Lubrication Systems. Centrifugal power. Maintenance costs for engine-driven systems are
compressors use a pressure lubrication system for significantly higher than those that use electric motors.
bearings and drive gears. The main lubricant pump The oldest method of driving compressors is through
may be driven from the gearbox input shaft with an the use of a steam engine or turbine. In general, how-
electric motor-driven auxiliary lubricant pump for ever, it is not economical to use a steam engine or
pre-lubrication prior to start-up and for post-lubrication turbine unless the steam is inexpensively and readily
during a cool down period. A water-cooled lubricant available within the plant for use as a power source.
cooler is also included.
Because of the high rotation speeds, some designs use Compressed Air System Controls
a high-pressure lubricant supply to the special bearings Compressed air system controls serve to match
involved. The manufacturer’s recommended lubricant compressor supply with system demand. Proper
should be used and changed at the specified intervals.

compressor control is essential to efficient operation separators, dryers, heat recovery equipment, lubricators,
and high performance. Because compressor systems are pressure regulators, air receivers, traps, and automatic
typically sized to meet a system’s maximum demand, drains.
a control system is almost always needed to reduce the Air Inlet Filters. An air inlet filter protects the
output of the compressor during times of lower compressor from atmospheric airborne particles.
demand. Compressor controls are typically included in Further filtration is typically needed to protect equip-
the compressor package, and many manufacturers offer ment downstream of the compressor.
more than one type of control technology. Systems with Compressor Cooling. Air or gas compression generates
multiple compressors use more sophisticated controls heat. As a result, industrial air compressors that operate
(network or system master controls) to orchestrate continuously generate substantial amounts of heat.
compressor operation and air delivery to the system. Compressor units are cooled with air, water, and/or
Network controls use the on-board compressor lubricant. Single-acting reciprocating compressors are
controls’ microprocessors linked together to form a typically air-cooled using a fan, which is an integral
chain of communication that makes decisions to part of the belt-drive flywheel. Cooling air blows across
stop/start, load/unload, modulate, vary displacement, finned surfaces on the outside of the compressor
and vary speed. Usually, one compressor assumes the cylinder’s cooler tubes. Larger, water-cooled, double-
lead with the others being subordinate to the acting reciprocating air compressors have built-in
commands from this compressor. cooling water jackets around the cylinders and in the
System master controls coordinate all of the cylinder heads. The temperature of the inlet water and
functions necessary to optimize compressed air as a the design and cleanliness of the cooler can affect
utility. System master controls have many functional overall system performance and efficiency. Centrifugal
capabilities, including the ability to monitor and compressors are generally water-cooled.
control all components in the system, as well as Lubricant-injected rotary compressors use the
trending data, to enhance maintenance functions and injected lubricant to remove most of the heat of
minimize costs of operation. Other system controllers, compression. In air-cooled compressors, a radiator-type
such as pressure/flow controllers, can also improve the lubricant cooler is used to cool the lubricant before it
performance of some systems. is reinjected. The cooling fan may be driven from the
The type of control system specified for a given main motor-drive shaft or by a small auxiliary electric
system is largely determined by the type of compressor motor. In plants where good quality water is available,
being used and the facility’s demand profile. If a shell and tube heat exchangers generally are used.
system has a single compressor with a very steady Intercooling. Most multi-stage compressors use
demand, a simple control system may be appropriate. intercoolers, which are heat exchangers that remove
On the other hand, a complex system with multiple the heat of compression between the stages of
compressors, varying demand, and many types of end compression. Intercooling affects the overall efficiency
uses will require a more sophisticated control strategy. of the machine.
In any case, careful consideration should be given to Aftercoolers. As mechanical energy is applied to a
compressor system control selection because it can be gas for compression, the temperature of the gas
the most important single factor affecting system increases. Aftercoolers are installed after the final stage
performance and efficiency. For information about of compression to reduce the air temperature. As the
efficiency and compressor controls, see the fact sheet air temperature is reduced, water vapor in the air is
titled Compressed Air System Controls in Section 2. condensed, separated, collected, and drained from the
system. Most of the condensate from a compressor with
Accessories intercooling is removed in the intercooler(s), and the
Accessories are the various types of equipment used remainder in the aftercooler. Almost all industrial systems,
to treat compressed air by removing contaminants except those that supply process air to heat-indifferent
such as dirt, lubricant, and water; to keep compressed operations require aftercooling. In some systems, after-
air systems running smoothly; and to deliver the proper coolers are an integral part of the compressor package,
pressure and quantity of air throughout the system. while in other systems the aftercooler is a separate
Accessories include compressor aftercoolers, filters, piece of equipment. Some systems have both.

Separators. Separators are devices that separate point suppression. Dryer ratings usually are based on
liquids entrained in the air or gas. A separator generally standard dryer inlet conditions, commonly referred
is installed following each intercooler or aftercooler to to as “the three 100s.” That is, 100 psig, 100°F (inlet
remove the condensed moisture. This involves changes compressed air temperature), and 100°F ambient
in direction and velocity and may include impinge- temperature. Deviations from these conditions will
ment baffles. Lubricant-injected rotary compressors affect the capacity of a dryer. An increase in inlet
have an air/lubricant coalescing separator immediately temperature or a decrease in inlet pressure will reduce
after the compressor discharge to separate the injected the dryer’s rated capacity. Most manufacturers provide
lubricant before it is cooled and recirculated to the correction factors for this.
compressor. This separation must take place before The most common types of dryers are discussed
cooling to prevent condensed moisture from being below.
entrained in the lubricant.
Dryers. When air leaves an aftercooler and moisture • The refrigerant dryer is the most commonly used
separator, it is typically saturated. Any further radiant dryer in the industry, having relatively low initial
cooling as it passes through the distribution piping, and operating costs. Refrigerant-type air dryers
which may be exposed to colder temperatures, will (cycling and non-cycling) are not recommended for
cause further condensation of moisture with detrimental operation in sub-freezing ambient temperatures.
effects, such as corrosion and contamination of point- The moisture in the compressed air can freeze and
of-use processes. This problem can be avoided by the damage the dryer. Most refrigerated dryers are
proper use of compressed air dryers. equipped with a precooler/reheater that reheats the
Atmospheric air contains moisture. The higher the dried compressed air with an air-to-air heat exchanger
air temperature, the more moisture the air is capable of using the hot incoming air. This lowers the
holding. The term “relative humidity” is commonly used temperature of the incoming air before it passes
to describe the moisture content although technically, through the refrigerant/thermal mass-to-air heat
the correct term is “relative vapor pressure,” the air and exchanger, reducing the heat load on the refrigerant
the water vapor being considered as gases. When the system. Reheating the dried air prevents condensation
air contains all the moisture possible under the pre- on the outside of the compressed air piping in
vailing conditions, it is called “saturated.” Air at warm humid environments. The refrigerated dryer
80 percent relative humidity would contain 80 percent lowers the dew point of the air to the approximate
of the maximum possible. temperature of the air exiting the refrigerant
When air is cooled, it will reach a temperature at evaporator. To avoid freezing, the evaporator
which the amount of moisture present can no longer temperature should not go below 32°F. Allowing for
be contained and some of the moisture will condense separator efficiency, an air pressure dew point of
and drop out. The temperature at which the moisture 35°F, or higher for air leaving the dryer, can usually
condenses is called the dew point. In general, reducing be obtained.
the temperature of saturated compressed air by 20°F Cycling dryers cool compressed air indirectly
will reduce the moisture content by approximately through a thermal storage medium (heat sink,
50 percent. thermal mass, chilled media, etc.) while non-cycling
When air is compressed and occupies a smaller dryers directly cool compressed air in a refrigerant
volume, it can no longer contain all of the moisture to air heat exchanger. Refrigerant-type cycling
possible at atmospheric conditions. Again, some of the dryers are controlled with one or two thermostats
moisture will drop out as liquid condensate. The result to shut off the refrigerant compressor when it is
of both of these situations is a difference between the not needed, and a thermal storage medium (some-
dew point at atmospheric conditions and the dew point times referred to as heat sink, chilled media or
at higher pressures. Drying compressed air beyond the thermal mass) prevents rapid cycling of the refrigerant
required pressure dew point will result in unnecessary compressor(s). Powdered metal, glycol and water,
energy and costs. sand, steel, and aluminum have all been used as
Different types of compressed air dryers have this thermal storage medium. The ideal characteristics
different operating characteristics and degrees of dew of this medium would be high specific heat (effective

storage), high coefficient of heat transfer (easy • Heat-of-compression dryers are regenerative-
transfer of stored cooling), freezing below 0°F, desiccant dryers that use the heat generated during
corrosion protected and low cost. The quantity of compression to accomplish desiccant regeneration,
medium required is determined by the temperature so they can be considered as heat reactivated. There
band of the controlling thermostat(s) and the are two types: the single-vessel and the twin-tower.
refrigerant capacity to be stored. The single-vessel, heat-of-compression dryer
Refrigerant-type, non-cycling dryers cool the air provides continuous drying with no cycling or
in a refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger. The cooling switching of towers. This is accomplished with a
effect is from the evaporation of a liquid refrigerant rotating desiccant drum in a single pressure vessel
causing moisture in the air to condense. The moisture divided into two separate air streams. One air
then is removed and drained by a separator and drain. stream is a portion of the hot air taken directly from
The temperature of the air leaving the refrigerant the air compressor at its discharge, prior to the
evaporator is controlled by a hot gas bypass valve. aftercooler, and is the source of heated purge air for
• Regenerative-desiccant-type dryers use a porous regeneration of the desiccant bed. The second air
desiccant that adsorbs the moisture by collecting it stream is the remainder of the air discharged from
in its myriad pores, allowing large quantities of the air compressor after it passes through the air
water to be retained by a relatively small quantity aftercooler. This air passes through the drying
of desiccant. Desiccant types include silica gel, section of the dryer’s rotating desiccant bed, where
activated alumina, and molecular sieves. Use only it is dried. The hot air, after being used for
the type specified by the manufacturer. In some regeneration, passes through a regeneration cooler
cases, more than one desiccant type can be used for before being combined with the main air stream by
special drying applications. In most of these cases, means of an ejector nozzle before entering the dryer.
a larger particle size (1/4 inch or more) is used as a The twin-tower, heat-of-compression dryer
buffer zone at the inlet, while a smaller particle size operation is similar to other twin-tower, heat-
desiccant (1/8 to 1/4 inch) is used for final drying. activated, regenerative-desiccant dryers. The
Where very low dewpoints are required, molecular difference is that the desiccant in the saturated
sieve desiccant is added as the final drying agent. tower is regenerated by means of the heat of
Normally, the desiccant is contained in two compression in all of the hot air leaving the
separate towers. Compressed air to be dried flows discharge of the air compressor. The total air flow
through one tower, while the desiccant in the other then passes through the air aftercooler before
is being regenerated. Regeneration is accomplished entering the drying tower. Towers are cycled as for
by reducing the pressure in the tower and passing other regenerative-desiccant dryers.
previously dried purge air through the desiccant The heat-of-compression dryers require air from
bed. The purge air may also be heated, either with the compressor at a sufficiently high temperature to
in the dryer or externally, to reduce the amount of accomplish regeneration. For this reason, it is used
purge air required. Purge air may also be supplied almost exclusively with centrifugal or lubricant-free
by a blower. Dryers of this type normally have a rotary screw compressors.
built-in regeneration cycle, which can be based • Membrane technology dryers have advanced
upon time, dew point, or a combination of the two. considerably in recent years. Membranes commonly
• Deliquescent-type dryers use a drying medium that are used for gas separation, such as in nitrogen
absorbs, rather than adsorbs, the moisture in the production for food storage and other applications.
compressed air. This means that the desiccant The structure of the membrane allows molecules
medium is used up as it changes from solid to liquid of certain gases (such as oxygen) to pass through
and cannot be regenerated. The most common (permeate) a semi-permeable membrane faster than
deliquescent chemicals for compressed air drying others (such as nitrogen), leaving a concentration of
are salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, and those the desired gas (nitrogen) at the outlet of the
with a urea base. Various compounds of these have generator. When used as a dryer in a compressed air
been developed and sold under a variety of trade system, specially designed membranes allow water
names. vapor (a gas) to pass through the membrane pores

faster than the other gases (air) reducing the amount Pressure/Flow Controllers. Pressure/flow controllers are
of water vapor in the air stream at the outlet of the optional system pressure controls used in conjunction
membrane dryer, suppressing the dew point. The with the individual compressor or system controls
dew point achieved is usually 40°F but lower dew described previously. Their primary function is to
points to –40°F can be achieved at the expense of stabilize system pressure separate from and more
additional purge air loss. precisely than compressor controls. A pressure/flow
Compressed Air Filters. Depending on the level of air controller does not directly control a compressor and is
purity required, different levels of filtration and types generally not included as part of a compressor package.
of filters are used. These include particulate filters to A pressure/flow controller is a device that serves to
remove solid particles, coalescing filters to remove separate the supply side of a compressor system from
lubricant and moisture, and adsorbent filters for tastes the demand side.
and odors. A particulate filter is recommended after a Air Receivers. Receivers are used to provide
desiccant-type dryer to remove desiccant “fines.” A compressed air storage capacity to meet peak demand
coalescing-type filter is recommended before a desiccant- events and help control system pressure by controlling
type dryer to prevent fouling of the desiccant bed. the rate of pressure change in a system. Receivers are
Additional filtration may also be needed to meet especially effective for systems with widely varying
requirements for specific end uses. compressed air flow requirements. Where peaks are
Compressed air filters downstream of the air intermittent, a large air receiver may allow a smaller
compressor are generally required for the removal of air compressor to be used and can allow the capacity
contaminants, such as particulates, condensate, and control system to operate more effectively and improve
lubricant. Filtration only to the level required by each system efficiency. An air receiver after a reciprocating
compressed air application will minimize pressure air compressor can provide dampening of pressure
drop and resultant energy consumption. Elements pulsations, radiant cooling, and collection of condensate.
should also be replaced as indicated by pressure Demand-side control will optimize the benefit of the
differential to minimize pressure drop and energy air receiver storage volume by stabilizing system header
consumption, and should be checked at least annually. pressure and “flattening” the load peaks. Air receivers
Heat Recovery. As noted earlier, compressing air also play a crucial role in orchestrating system controls,
generates heat. In fact, industrial-sized air compressors providing the time needed to start or avoid starting
generate a substantial amount of heat that can be standby air compressors.
recovered and put to useful work. More than 80 percent Traps and Drains. Traps (sometimes called drains)
of the electrical energy going to a compressor becomes allow the removal of condensate from the compressed
available heat. Heat can be recovered and used for air system. Automatic condensate traps are used to
producing hot water or hot air. See the fact sheet in conserve energy by preventing the loss of air through
Section 2 titled Heat Recovery with Compressed Air open petcocks and valves. Poorly maintained traps can
Systems for more information on this energy-saving waste a lot of compressed air.
opportunity. There are four methods to drain condensate.
Lubrication. In lubricant-injected rotary screw
compressors, lubricants are designed to cool, seal, and 1. Manual. Operators will manually open valves to
lubricate moving parts for enhanced performance and discharge condensate. However, this is not
longer wear. Important considerations for compressor automatic, and unfortunately, too often, manual
lubricants include proper application and compatibility valves are left open to drain condensate from
with downstream equipment, including piping, hoses, moisture separators, intercoolers, refrigerated
and seals. A lubricator may be installed near a point- dryers, and filters, allowing compressed air to
of-use to lubricate items such as pneumatic tools. The continually escape into the atmosphere.
lubricator may be combined with a filter and a 2. Level-operated mechanical traps. Float-type
pressure regulator to make up what is commonly called traps do not waste air when operating properly,
a FRL (filter-regulator-lubricator). The lubricant should but they often require a great deal of maintenance
be that specified by the point-of-use equipment and are prone to blockage from sediment in the
manufacturer. condensate. Inverted bucket traps may require

less maintenance but will waste compressed air Air Distribution Systems. The air distribution system
if the condensate rate is inadequate to maintain links the various components of the compressed air
the liquid level (or prime) in the trap. system to deliver air to the points-of-use with minimal
3. Electrically operated solenoid valves. The pressure loss. The specific configuration of a distribution
solenoid-operated drain valve has a timing device system depends on the needs of the individual plant,
that can be set to open for a specified time and but frequently consists of an extended network of
at preset adjustable intervals. There are two main lines, branch lines, valves, and air hoses. The
issues with using these valves. length of the network should be kept to a minimum
• The period during which the valve is open to reduce pressure drop. Air distribution piping should
may not be long enough for adequate be large enough in diameter to minimize pressure drop.
drainage of accumulated condensate. A loop system is generally recommended, with all
piping sloped to accessible drop legs and drain points.
• The valve will operate even if little or no
When designing an air distribution system layout,
condensate is present, resulting in the loss
it is best to place the air compressor and its related
of valuable compressed air. Level-operated
accessories where temperature inside the plant is the
and electrically operated solenoid valves
lowest (but not below freezing). A projection of future
should have strainers installed to reduce
demands and tie-ins to the existing distribution system
contaminants, which block the inlet and
should also be considered. Air leaks are an important
discharge ports of these automatic devices.
issue with distribution system and are addressed in the
Motorized ball valves are also used with fact sheet in Section 2 titled Compressed Air System
programmable timers. However, while fairly Leaks. It is important to note that the majority of
reliable, these valves can be even more wasteful system leakage will be at the point of use and not in
as the duration of the valve opening is the distribution piping.
dependent on the valve actuator and is not Headers should have a slight slope to allow drainage
adjustable. of condensate and drop legs from the bottom side of
4. Zero air-loss traps with reservoirs. There are the header should be provided to allow collection and
various types of zero air-loss traps. drainage of the condensate. The direction of the slope
• A float or level sensor operates an electric should be away from the compressor.
solenoid or ball valve and maintains the Piping from the header to points-of-use should con-
condensate level in the reservoir below the nect to the top or side of the header to avoid being filled
high-level point. with condensate. Drainage-drop legs from the bottom of
• A float activates a pneumatic signal to an the header should be installed to collect the condensate.
air cylinder to open a ball valve through a
linkage to expel the condensate in the Uses of Compressed Air
reservoir to the low-level point. Industrial facilities use compressed air for a
multitude of operations. Almost every industrial facility
Be sure to drain the reservoir often to prevent
has at least two compressors, and in a medium-sized
the accumulation of contaminants, which could
plant there may be hundreds of different uses of
foul the mechanisms of these traps.
compressed air.
The potential for freezing must be considered and Uses include powering pneumatic tools, packaging
provision made for heated drains where necessary. The and automation equipment, and conveyors. Pneumatic
relatively common practice of leaving a manual drain tools tend to be smaller, lighter, and more maneuverable
valve cracked open should not be tolerated because it than electric motor-driven tools. They also deliver
wastes costly compressed air. smooth power and are not damaged by overloading.
Contaminated condensate requires removal of Air-powered tools have the capability for infinitely
lubricant before the condensate is discharged to a sewer variable speed and torque control, and can reach a
system. It is recommended that the local sewage desired speed and torque very quickly. In addition,
authority be consulted for allowable contamination levels. they are often selected for safety reasons because they

do not produce sparks and have low heat build-up.

Although they have many advantages, pneumatic
tools are generally much less energy-efficient than
electric tools. Many manufacturing industries also use
compressed air and gas for combustion and process
operations such as oxidation, fractionation, cryogenics,
refrigeration, filtration, dehydration, and aeration.
Table 1.1 lists some major manufacturing industries
and the tools, conveying, and process operations
requiring compressed air. For some of these applications,
however, other sources of power may be more cost
effective (see the fact sheet titled Potentially Inappropriate
Uses of Compressed Air in Section 2).
Compressed air also plays a vital role in many
non-manufacturing sectors, including the transportation,
construction, mining, agriculture, recreation, and
service industries. Examples of some of these
applications are shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 Industrial Sector Uses of Compressed Air

Industry Example Compressed Air Uses
Apparel Conveying, clamping, tool powering, controls and actuators, automated equipment
Automotive Tool powering, stamping, control and actuators, forming, conveying
Chemicals Conveying, controls and actuators
Food Dehydration, bottling, controls and actuators, conveying, spraying coatings, cleaning, vacuum packing
Furniture Air piston powering, tool powering, clamping, spraying, controls and actuators
General Clamping, stamping, tool powering and cleaning, control and actuators
Manufacturing
Lumber and Wood Sawing, hoisting, clamping, pressure treatment, controls and actuators
Metals Fabrication Assembly station powering, tool powering, controls and actuators, injection molding, spraying
Petroleum Process gas compressing, controls and actuators
Primary Metals Vacuum melting, controls and actuators, hoisting
Pulp and Paper Conveying, controls and actuators
Rubber and Plastics Tool powering, clamping, controls and actuators, forming, mold press powering, injection molding
Stone, Clay, Conveying, blending, mixing, controls and actuators, glass blowing and molding, cooling
and Glass
Textiles Agitating liquids, clamping, conveying, automated equipment, controls and actuators, loom jet weaving, spinning,
texturizing

Table 1.2 Non-Manufacturing Sector Use of Compressed Air
Sector Example Compressed Air Uses

Agriculture Farm equipment, materials handling, spraying of crops, dairy machines
Mining Pneumatic tools, hoists, pumps, controls and actuators
Power Generation Starting gas turbines, automatic control, emissions controls
Recreation Amusement parks - air brakes
Golf courses - seeding, fertilizing, sprinkler systems
Hotels - elevators, sewage disposal
Ski resorts - snow making
Theaters - projector cleaning
Underwater exploration - air tanks
Service Industries Pneumatic tools, hoists, air brake systems, garment pressing machines, hospital respiration systems, climate control
Transportation Pneumatic tools, hoists, air brake systems
Wastewater Vacuum filters, conveying
Treatment

The Performance Opportunity Roadmap
Improving and maintaining peak compressed air The Fact Sheets

system performance requires not only addressing The remainder of the Performance Opportunity
individual components, but also analyzing both the Roadmap section of the sourcebook is a collection of
supply and demand sides of the system and how they 12 fact sheets that address both component and
interact. This practice is often referred to as taking a system issues. Each fact sheet details a specific
“systems approach” because the focus is shifted away opportunity for improving compressed air system
from components to total system performance. performance. Topics include:
Applying the systems approach usually involves the
following types of interrelated actions: 1–Analyzing Compressed Air Needs
2–Potentially Inappropriate Uses of Compressed
• Establishing current conditions and operating Air
parameters 3–Compressed Air System Leaks
• Determining present and future process production 4–Pressure Drop and Controlling System Pressure
needs 5—Compressed Air System Controls
• Gathering and analyzing operating data and 6–Compressed Air Storage
developing load duty cycles 7–Proven Opportunities at the Component Level
• Analyzing alternative system designs and improve- 8–Maintenance of Compressed Air Systems for
ments Peak Performance
• Determining the most technically and economically 9–Heat Recovery and Compressed Air Systems
sound options, taking into consideration all of the 10–Baselining Compressed Air Systems
sub-systems 11–Compressed Air System Assessments and
• Implementing those options Audits and Selecting a Service Provider
• Analyzing operations and energy consumption and 12–Compressed Air System Economics and
analyzing economics (i.e., validating performance) Selling Projects to Management
• Continuing to monitor and optimize the system
• Continuing to operate and maintain the system for The compressed air system diagram shown in
peak performance. Figure 2.1 shows the performance improvement
opportunities described in the fact sheets.
Most compressed air systems use considerably
more energy than is needed to support the demand.
Compressed air systems usually have a wire-to-work
efficiency of around 10 percent, which is very low. In
many cases, after a thorough review of a compressed
air system and after corrective actions are taken, one
or more of the compressors may be shut off and the
overall system efficiency improved.
Both systems performance improvement
opportunities and component efficiency improvement
opportunities are addressed in the series of fact sheets
that follow.

18

Keeping Equipment in Top Moisture Control and Air Treatment Sizing of Receiver Air Leaks
Condition see see see
see Proven Opportunities at the Component Level Compressed Air Storage Compressed Air System
Maintenance of Compressed Air and Assessing Compressed Air Needs Leaks
Systems for Peak Performance
Pressure/Flow Controller
Pressure Levels
see
see
Compressed Air System
Pressure Drop and Controlling
Controls
System Pressure
Use of Recoverable Heat

see
Heat Recovery with
Compressed Air Systems
Type of Control System

see
Controls
System-Wide Problems
see
Improving Compressed Air System Performance
Type of Control System Determining Your Compressed Air

see System Analysis Needs
Controls End Uses
see
Potentially Inappropriate Uses of
Baselining Your System Compressed Air
see
Baselining Compressed Air Systems
How Much Air At What Quality
Life Cycle Cost Operator Experiencing Low Pressure
and Pressure?
see see
see
Compressed Air System Economics and Pressure Drop and Controlling System
Selling Projects to Management Pressure
Figure 2.1 Performance Opportunities.

1–Analyzing Compressed Air Needs
Compressed air needs are defined by the air quality, lubricant-injected compressor, careful consideration
quantity, and level of pressure required by the end uses should be given to the specific end use for the lubricant-
in your plant. Analyzing needs carefully will ensure free air, including the risk and cost associated with
that a compressed air system is configured properly. product contamination.
Air Quality Air Quantity—Capacity

As illustrated in the table, compressed air quality Required compressed air system capacity can be
ranges from plant air to breathing air. determined by summing the requirements of the tools
and process operations (taking into account load
Quality Applications factors) at the site. The total air requirement is not the
sum of the maximum requirements for each tool and
Plant Air Air tools, general plant air
process, but the sum of the average air consumption of
Instrument Air Laboratories, paint spraying, powder each. High short-term demands should be met by air
coating, climate control stored in an air receiver. Systems may need more than
Process Air Food and pharmaceutical process air,
one air receiver. Strategically locating air receivers near
electronics sources of high demand can also be effective. In most
cases, a thorough evaluation of system demand may
Breathing Air Hospital air systems, diving tank refill result in a control strategy that will meet system
stations, respirators for cleaning and/or demand with reduced overall compressor capacity.
grit blasting
Oversized air compressors are extremely inefficient
because most compressors use more energy per unit
Industrial applications typically use one of the first volume of air produced when operating at part-load.
three air quality levels. Quality is determined by the In many cases, it makes sense to use multiple, smaller
dryness and contaminant level required by the end compressors with sequencing controls to allow for
uses, and is accomplished with filtering and drying efficient operation at times when demand is less than
equipment. The higher the quality, the more the air peak.
costs to produce. Higher quality air usually requires If a system is properly designed and maintained
additional equipment, which not only increases initial but is still experiencing capacity problems, an alternative
capital investment, but also makes the overall system to adding another compressor is to re-examine the use
more expensive to operate in terms of energy of compressed air for certain applications. For some
consumption and maintenance costs. tasks, blowers or electric tools may be more effective
One of the main factors in determining air quality or appropriate. See the fact sheet titled Potentially
is whether or not lubricant-free air is required. Lubricant- Inappropriate Uses of Compressed Air for more information
free air can be produced with either lubricant-free on this system improvement opportunity.
compressors, or with lubricant-injected compressors
that have additional separation and filtration equip- Load Profile
ment. Lubricant-free rotary screw and reciprocating Another key to properly designing and operating
compressors usually have higher first costs, lower a compressed air system is analyzing a plant’s
efficiency, and higher maintenance costs than compressed air requirements over time, or load profile.
lubricant-injected compressors. However, the additional The variation of demand for air over time is a major
separation and filtration equipment required by consideration in system design. Plants with wide
lubricant-injected compressors will cause some reduction variations in air demand need a system that operates
in efficiency, particularly if systems are not properly efficiently under part-load. Multiple compressors with
maintained. Before selecting a lubricant-free or sequencing controls may provide more economical

operation in such a case. Plants with a flatter load unregulated usage, including leaks, open blowing, etc.
profile can use simpler control strategies. Although it varies by plant, unregulated usage is
commonly as high as 30 to 50 percent of air demand. For
Artificial Demand systems in the 100 psig range with 30 to 50 percent
Artificial demand is defined as the excess volume unregulated usage, a 2 psi increase in header pressure
of air that is required by unregulated end uses as a will increase energy consumption by about another
result of supplying higher pressure than necessary for 0.6 to 1.0 percent because of the additional unregulated
applications. Pressure/flow controllers (see the fact air being consumed. The combined effect results in a
sheet titled Compressed Air System Controls) can help to total increase in energy consumption of about 1.6 to
minimize artificial demand. 2 percent for every 2 psi increase in discharge pressure
for a system in the 100 psig range with 30 to 50 percent
Pressure unregulated usage.
Different tools and process operations require See the fact sheet titled Pressure Drop and
different pressures. Pneumatic tool manufacturers rate Controlling System Pressure for information on ways to
tools for specific pressures, and process operation reduce system pressure and save energy while main-
pressure requirements should be specified by the taining high performance.
process engineers.
Required pressure levels must take into account Using Block Diagrams, Pressure Profiles, and
system losses from dryers, separators, filters, and piping. Demand Profiles
A rule of thumb for systems in the 100 pounds per Two simple tools that are available to help analyze
square inch gauge (psig) range is: for every 2 pounds compressed air systems are block diagrams and pressure
per square inch (psi) increase in discharge pressure, profiles. Block diagrams identify all the components in
energy consumption will increase by approximately the system. A sample diagram is shown in Figure 2.2.
1 percent at full output flow (check performance curves Another way to analyze a compressed air system is
for centrifugal and two-stage, lubricant-injected, rotary to draw a pressure profile. A pressure profile shows the
screw compressors). There is also another penalty for pressure drops through a system. These pressure
higher-than-needed pressure. Raising the compressor measurements give feedback for control adjustments,
discharge pressure increases the demand of every determine pressure drops across components, and help
Compressor End
#1 Use
Compressor End
#2 Filter Dryer Receiver
Use
Compressor
#3 End
Use
Figure 2.2 Compressed Air System Block Diagram.

determine system operating pressures. The tools Figure 2.3 shows an example of a pressure profile
required for measurement are matched, calibrated (in a system with excessive pressure drop).
pressure gauges or differential pressure gauges. The This method gives the pressure profile at a single
following pressure measurements should be taken: point in time. Taking data at a single point, or even
during various shifts, can provide some answers, but
• Inlet to compressor (to monitor inlet air filter) not the complete picture. The use of data loggers is
versus atmospheric pressure important in determining how a system operates over
• Differential across air/lubricant separator (if time. Data logging system pressures and flow can
applicable) indicate intermittent loads, system disruptions and
• Interstage on multi-stage compressors general system conditions. It can also indicate system
changes (e.g. production process changes or air leaks)
Consider pressure differentials, including: that can affect the compressed air system operation
and efficiency. These variations in pressure and flow
• Aftercooler
can be managed through system control strategies and
• Treatment equipment (dryers, filters, etc.) storage to minimize their impact on production. See
• Various points of the distribution system the fact sheet titled Compressed Air System Controls. An
• Check pressure differentials against manufacturers’ example of pressure and demand (airflow) over a
specifications, if available (high-pressure drops period of 30 minutes is shown in Figure 2.4.
indicate service is required).
Supply Demand
110 psig
Operating
Range of
Compressors
100 psig
Dryer and Filter

Pressure Drop
90 psig
Distribution
System Unregulated End Uses
Pressure
Drop
85 psig
FRL, Valve,
Hose, and Regulated End Uses
Disconnect
Pressure Drop
70 psig
Copyright 2003 by Compressed Air Challenge®
Figure 2.3 Pressure Profile at a Single Point in Time.

Plant Air Consumption

Plant Compressed Air Flow Rate and System Pressure
115 2200
114 2000
113 1800
Pressure
112 1600
111 1400
Flow to System (SCFM)

Pressure (psig)
110 1200
109 1000
108 800
107 600
106 400
Air Flow from Plant Air Compressor
105 200
15:30 15:35 15:40 15:45 15:50 15:55 16:00
Figure 2.4 Pressure Profile Over a Defined Time Period.

2–Potentially Inappropriate Uses of Compressed Air
Potentially Inappropriate Uses of Compressed Air
Compressed air is probably the most expensive form The alternatives to open blowing are vast. Some
of energy available in a plant. Compressed air is also are:
clean, readily available, and simple to use. As a result,
compressed air is often chosen for applications for • Brushes
which other energy sources are more economical. • Brooms
Users should always consider more cost-effective forms • Dust collection systems
of power before considering compressed air. • Non-air-loss auto drains
Many operations can be accomplished more • Blowers
economically using alternative energy sources. • Blowers with knives
Inappropriate uses of compressed air include any • Electric fans
application that can be done more effectively or more • Electric barrel pumps
efficiently by a method other than compressed air. • Mixers
Examples of potentially inappropriate uses of • Nozzles.
compressed air include:
Sparging
• Open blowing Sparging is aerating, agitating, oxygenating, or
• Sparging percolating liquid with compressed air. This is a
• Aspirating particularly inappropriate application because liquid
• Atomizing can be wicked into a dry gas, increasing the dew point.
• Padding The lower the dew point of the compressed air, the
• Dilute-phase transport more severe the wicking effect. This can occur with
• Dense-phase transport oil, caustics, water rinse materials, etc. Alternatives to
• Vacuum generation sparging include low-pressure blowers and mixers.
• Personnel cooling
• Open hand-held blowguns or lances Aspirating
• Diaphragm pumps Aspirating is using compressed air to induce the
• Cabinet cooling flow of another gas with compressed air such as flue
• Vacuum venturis. gas. An alternative is a low-pressure blower.
Each potentially inappropriate use and a suggested
alternative is described below. Atomizing
Atomizing is the use of compressed air to disperse
or deliver a liquid to a process as an aerosol. An
Open Blowing example is atomizing fuel into a boiler. Fluctuating
Open blowing is using compressed air applied pressure can affect combustion efficiency. An alternative
with an open, unregulated tube, hose, or pipe for one is a low-pressure blower.
of these applications:
• Cooling Padding
Padding is using compressed air to transport
• Bearing cooling
liquids and light solids. Air is dispensed over the
• Drying
material to be moved. The expansion of the air moves
• Clean-up
the material. The material is usually only moved short
• Draining compressed air lines
distances. An example is unloading tanks or tank cars.
• Clearing jams on conveyors.
Molecular diffusion and wicking are typical problems

with padding. An alternative is low- to medium- displacement blower (28 psig) or single-stage compressor
pressure blowers. (40 to 50 psig) for the transport air. Another alternative
is to use metered storage for both the pad air and
Dilute-Phase Transport transport cycle. This necessitates providing the entire
Dilute-phase transport is used in transporting requirement from storage and metered recovery per
solids, such as powdery material, in a diluted format cycle, with a metering adjustment to refill the vessel
with compressed air. Molecular diffusion and wicking just before the next transport cycle. The storage should
are typical problems with dilute phase transport. An be sized to displace the required air first for the pad
alternative is a low- or high-pressure blower or a low- and then for the transport cycles within an allowable
pressure air compressor designed for 35 psig. The pressure drop to terminate the transport cycle pressure
pressure required depends upon the moisture content at the required article pressure. This will flatten the
and size of the material being transported. volumetric load on the system, eliminate any impact
on other users, and reduce the peak energy required to
Dense-Phase Transport support the process.
Dense-phase transport is used to transport solids
in a batch format. This usually involves weighing a Vacuum Generation
batch in a transport vessel, padding the vessel with The term vacuum generation describes applications
compressed air, forcing the batch into a transport line, where compressed air is used in conjunction with a
and moving it in an initial plug with a boost of venturi, eductor, or ejector to generate a negative-
compressed air at the beginning of the transport pipe. pressure mass flow. Typical applications are hold-downs
Once the material is moving in a plug, the operation or 55-gallon, drum-mounted, compressed air vacuum
may fluidize the material in a semi-dense or moderate- cleaners. This is by far the most inefficient application
dilute-phase using fluidizers or booster nozzles along in industry with less than 4 percent total efficiency,
the transport path. The material is typically transported although for very intermittent use (less than 30 percent
to a holding vessel that dispenses it on an as-needed load factor), compressed air can be a reasonably
basis using pad air from the secondary transport vessel efficient solution. An alternative is a vacuum pump. If
to move it to the use location. A typical application a compressed-air-generated vacuum is required, install
would be the dense-phase transport of carbon black. a solenoid valve on the compressed air supply line to
There are typically four compressed air elements to shut this application off when it is not needed.
the transport. These elements are control air for the Vacuum generators are used throughout industry.
equipment, pad air for the initial transporter, transport Some applications for vacuum generators include:
air to move it in the piping, and fluidizers or booster
nozzles along the transport piping. Most dense-phase • Shop vacuums
manufacturers specify 80 to 90 psig with one single • Drum pumps
line supporting the entire process. The control air and • Palletizers
booster nozzles typically use pressures in the 60 to • Depalletizers
70 psig range. The actual article psig required for the • Box makers
pad air and the transport air is typically 30 to 45 psig. • Packaging equipment
Because of the lack of storage in most of these • Automatic die-cutting equipment.
applications and the high-volume, short-cycle transport
times, the original equipment manufacturers request Vacuum generators are selected for safety, ease of
80 to 90 psig and use the entire supply system as the installation, physical size of the generator, the fact
storage tank. As this usually has a negative impact on that no electricity is required at the point-of-use, and
the plant air system, separate compressors, filters, and low first cost. Vacuum generators are usually less
dryers are applied to this process at the elevated pres- economical to operate than central vacuum systems.
sure. As a rule, in a base load situation, if the vacuum
Alternatives include supporting the control air, generator is operating less than 30 percent of the time,
pad air, and boosters with regulated plant air plus it will be more economical to operate than a central
metered storage, and using a two-stage, positive- vacuum system. Otherwise, vacuum generators are, in

general, less effective at pulling a vacuum and cost as Personnel cooling is when operators direct
much as five times more to operate than a dedicated compressed air onto themselves for ventilation. This is
vacuum pump. Using vacuum generators for shop dangerous because it can shoot particulates into the
vacuums and drum pumps, which are typically peak skin. A 1/4-inch tube blowing air on an operator can
load applications, could cause another compressor to consume 15 to 25 brake horsepower (bhp) of compressed
turn on and stay on until it times out. Having to air. An alternative is fractional horsepower fans of
operate a second compressor because of the added 1/4 bhp or less.
demand associated with a vacuum generator eliminates
any apparent savings associated with a vacuum Open Hand-Held Blowguns or Lances
generator, even if it operates only once a day for a Unregulated hand-held blowing is not only a
short period of time. violation of most health and safety codes, but is also
A dedicated vacuum pump, or the use of central very dangerous. Hand-held blowguns that conform to
vacuum system will provide more suction force at a all occupational health and safety standards should be
fraction of the cost of vacuum produced by compressed used.
air. In this case, it is significantly more cost effective to There are different styles of blowguns that can
provide a system that is designed into the machine deliver various airflows, velocities, and concentrations.
from the beginning than to retrofit a piece of equip- The proper gun must be selected for each application.
ment. This can be accomplished by being proactive at Pipes installed in the end of hose and unregulated
the time the machine specifications are prepared and non-approved guns must not be used. Blowguns must
the purchase orders issued. Vacuum generators must have no more than 30 psig discharge nozzle pressure.
be applied properly and only after taking life cycle The nozzle should be constructed to relieve backpressure
costs into consideration. if the nozzle is plugged or blocked. The blowgun must
Vacuum venturis are a common form for vacuum also have a spring-operated throttle mechanism so it
generation with compressed air systems. In a venturi shuts off automatically if it is dropped.
system, compressed air is forced through a conical
nozzle. Its velocity increases and a decrease in pressure Diaphragm Pumps
occurs. This principle, discovered by 18th century A common error is to not size diaphragm pumps
physicist G. B. Venturi, can be used to generate for the maximum viscosity, highest pressure, and
vacuum without a single moving part. highest volume required. The result is poor performance
Multi-stage venturi devices provide a more and an increased supply pressure requirement.
efficient ratio of vacuum flow to compressed air Diaphragm pumps are commonly found installed
consumed than single-stage venturi devices. Where without regulators and speed control valves. Those
vacuum requirements vary significantly, or are cyclical diaphragm pumps that are installed with regulators
with a duty cycle of less than 30 percent, multi-stage, are found with the regulators adjusted higher than
venturi-type vacuum generators with pressure necessary. This is often because of undersized regulators
regulators and automatic shut-off controls on the and supply piping or hose. The higher-than-necessary
compressed air supply may be more efficient than setting of the regulator increases the demand on the
continuously operating mechanical-vacuum pump compressed air system and increases operating costs.
systems. These devices also can be equipped with a With a higher pressure setting, the amount of
vacuum switch that signals a solenoid valve to shut compressed air admitted into the diaphragm chamber
off the air supply when a set vacuum level is attained, is increased above that which is actually required to
thus reducing air consumption in non-porous move the product. The amount of product actually
applications. They may also be suitable where it is transferred remains the same, but the amount of air
impractical to have a central vacuum system, used increases with the increased pressure.
particularly where the uses may not be confined to The regulator should be adjusted to equal the
one area. maximum head that the pump is required to provide.
A flow control valve installed up stream of the regulator
will accomplish the required speed control. Operating
Personnel Cooling

the diaphragm pump without speed control increases a regulator, it uses full system pressure. This results in
the rate of compressed air consumption by increasing increased system air demand and energy use, since the
the strokes per minute of the diaphragm pump. The end use is using air at this higher pressure. High
speed control should be adjusted to pump product in pressure levels can also increase equipment wear,
the maximum allowable time. As a general rule, the resulting in higher maintenance costs and shorter end
regulator and flow control valve are not included with use equipment life.
the standard pump package. Also, when the pump has
no liquid or slurry to pump, it will rapid cycle, wearing Abandoned Equipment
out the diaphragm and wasting air. The pump controls Many plants undergo numerous equipment
must be configured to turn the pump off when there configuration changes over time. In some cases, plant
is nothing to pump. equipment is no longer used. Air flow to this unused
equipment should be stopped, preferably as far back in
Cabinet Cooling the distribution system as possible without affecting
Cabinet cooling should not be confused with operating equipment.
panel purging. The following are typical applications
where cabinet cooling is found. Using Compressed Air
As a general rule, compressed air should only be
• Programmable controllers used if safety enhancements, significant productivity
• Line control cabinets gains, or labor reductions will result. Typical overall
• Motor control centers efficiency is 10 to 15 percent. If compressed air is used
• Relay panels for an application, the amount of air used should be
• Numerical control systems the minimum necessary quantity and pressure and
• Modular control centers should be used for the shortest possible duration.
• Computer cabinets. Compressed air use should also be constantly
monitored and re-evaluated.
When first cost is the driving factor, open tubes,
air bars (copper tube with holes drilled long the length
of the tube) and vortex tube coolers are often used to
cool cabinets. When life-cycle costs are taken into
consideration, these choices prove to be expensive. It
is not uncommon to find an open tube or air bar
consuming 7-1/2 horsepower (hp) of compressed air to
cool a cabinet. Vortex tube coolers can be an improve-
ment over open tubes and air bars because they are
often cycled with a thermostat control, which reduces
air consumption. However, air to air, air to water and
refrigerated cabinet coolers are available that only use
1/3 hp to accomplish the same task.
Other Potentially Inappropriate Uses

Other improper uses of compressed air are
unregulated end uses and those that supply air to
abandoned equipment, both of which are described
below.
Unregulated End Uses

A pressure regulator is used to limit maximum end-
use pressure and is placed in the distribution system
just prior to the end use. If an end use operates without

3–Compressed Air System Leaks
Compressed Air System Leaks
Leaks can be a significant source of wasted energy in Estimating Amount of Leakage

an industrial compressed air system, sometimes wasting For compressors that have start/stop or load/unload
20 to 30 percent of a compressor’s output. A typical controls, there is an easy way to estimate the amount
plant that has not been well maintained will likely of leakage in the system. This method involves starting
have a leak rate equal to 20 percent of total com- the compressor when there are no demands on the
pressed air production capacity. On the other hand, system (when all the air-operated, end-use equipment
proactive leak detection and repair can reduce leaks to is turned off). A number of measurements are taken to
less than 10 percent of compressor output. determine the average time it takes to load and unload
In addition to being a source of wasted energy, the compressor. The compressor will load and unload
leaks can also contribute to other operating losses. because the air leaks will cause the compressor to cycle
Leaks cause a drop in system pressure, which can make on and off as the pressure drops from air escaping
air tools function less efficiently, adversely affecting through the leaks. Total leakage (percentage) can be
production. In addition, by forcing the equipment to calculated as follows:
run longer, leaks shorten the life of almost all system
equipment (including the compressor package itself). Leakage (%) = [(T x 100)/(T+t)]
Increased running time can also lead to additional
maintenance requirements and increased unscheduled where: T = on-load time (minutes)
downtime. Finally, leaks can lead to adding unnecessary t = off-load time (minutes)
compressor capacity.
While leakage can come from any part of the Leakage will be expressed in terms of the percentage
system, the most common problem areas are: of compressor capacity lost. The percentage lost to
leakage should be less than 10 percent in a well-
• Couplings, hoses, tubes, and fittings
maintained system. Poorly maintained systems can
• Pressure regulators have losses as high as 20 to 30 percent of air capacity
• Open condensate traps and shut-off valves and power.
• Pipe joints, disconnects, and thread sealants. Leakage can be estimated in systems with other
control strategies if there is a pressure gauge down-
stream of the receiver. This method requires an estimate
Size Cost per Year of total system volume, including any downstream
secondary air receivers, air mains, and piping (V, in
1/16” $523 cubic feet). The system is started and brought to the
normal operating pressure (P1). Measurements should
then be taken of the time (T) it takes for the system to
drop to a lower pressure (P2), which should be a point
1/8” $2,095 equal to about one-half the operating pressure.
Leakage can be calculated as follows:
1/4” $8,382 Leakage (cfm free air) = (V x (P1-P2)/T x 14.7) x 1.25
where: V is in cubic feet

Costs calculated using electricity rate of $0.05 per P1 and P2 are in psig
kilowatt-hour, assuming constant operation and an efficient T is in minutes
compressor.

The 1.25 multiplier corrects leakage to normal How To Fix Leaks

system pressure, allowing for reduced leakage with Leaks occur most often at joints and connections.
falling system pressure. Again, leakage of greater than Stopping leaks can be as simple as tightening a
10 percent indicates that the system can likely be connection or as complex as replacing faulty equipment,
improved. These tests should be carried out on a regular such as couplings, fittings, pipe sections, hoses, joints,
basis as part of a leak detection and repair program. drains, and traps. In many cases, leaks are caused by
failing to clean the threads or by bad or improperly
Leak Detection applied thread sealant. Select high quality fittings,
Since air leaks are almost impossible to see, other disconnects, hose, tubing, and install them properly
methods must be used to locate them. The best way to with appropriate thread sealant.
detect leaks is to use an ultrasonic acoustic detector, Non-operating equipment can be an additional
which can recognize the high-frequency hissing sounds source of leaks. Equipment no longer in use should be
associated with air leaks. These portable units consist isolated with a valve in the distribution system.
of directional microphones, amplifiers, and audio Another way to reduce leaks is to lower the air
filters, and usually have either visual indicators or ear- pressure of the system. The lower the pressure
phones to detect leaks. A simpler method is to apply differential across an orifice or leak, the lower the rate
soapy water with a paint brush to suspect areas. of flow, so reduced system pressure will result in
Although reliable, this method can be time consuming. reduced leakage rates. Stabilizing the system header
pressure at its lowest practical range will minimize the
Ultrasonic Leak Detection leakage rate for the system. Once leaks have been
Ultrasonic leak detection is probably the most repaired, the compressor control system must be
versatile form of leak detection. Because of its re-evaluated to realize the total savings potential.
capabilities, it is readily adapted to a variety of leak
detection situations. The principle behind ultrasonic Establishing a Leak Prevention Program
leak detection is simple. In a pressure or vacuum leak, There are two basic types of leak repair programs,
the leak flows from a high-pressure laminar flow to a the leak tag program and the seek and repair program.
low-pressure turbulence. The turbulence generates a The seek and repair is the simplest. As it states, you
white noise which contains a broad spectrum of sound simply find the leak and repair it immediately. With
ranging from audible to inaudible frequencies. An the leak tag program, the leak is identified with a tag
ultrasonic sensor focuses in on the ultrasonic elements and logged for repair at a later time. This is often a
in the noise. Because ultrasound is a short wave signal, two-part tag; one part stays on the leak and the other
the sound level will be loudest at the leak site. part is turned into the maintenance department,
Ultrasonic detectors are generally unaffected by back- identifying the location, size, and description of the
ground noises in the audible range because these leak to be repaired. The best approach depends on the
signals are filtered out. type, size, and the culture/work practices of the facility.
Ultrasonic detectors can find mid- to large-sized It is more likely that the best solution will be a
leaks. The advantages of ultrasonic leak detection combination of the two. In any case, there are several
include versatility, speed, ease of use, the ability to key elements for a successful leak program.
perform tests while equipment is running, and the
ability to find a wide variety of leaks. They require a • Baseline compressed air usage. Establish good grounds
minimum of training, and operators often become for comparison on the effectiveness of the
competent after 15 minutes of training. compressed air leak repair program. (See the fact
Because of its nature, ultrasound is directional in sheet titled “Baselining Your Compressed Air System.”)
transmission. For this reason, the signal is loudest at • Establish leak loss. See the section on estimating leak
its source. By generally scanning around a test area, it loss in this fact sheet.
is possible to very quickly hone it on a leak site and • Determine cost of air leaks. The cost of compressed air
pin point its location. For this reason, ultrasonic leak leaks is one of the most important aspects of the
detection is not only fast, it is also very accurate. program. It should be used as a baseline, not only
for the effectiveness and promotion of the program,

3-Compressed Air System Leaks
but also to illustrate the amount of resources that

can cost effectively be allocated to the program.
• Identify leaks. Survey the facility and identify the
leaks. Leaks can be identified by many methods.
The most common is using an ultrasonic acoustic
leak detector. There are many types and price ranges,
but for most applications, the inexpensive hand-
held meter will identify leaks and give an indication
of the size or intensity.
• Document the leaks. Document the location, type, size,
and the estimated cost of the leak. Any documenta-
tion should be compatible with the facility’s
predictive maintenance program. Leak tags can also
be used but should not take the place of a master
leak list. If you are using the seek and repair method,
leaks should still be documented so the number and
effectiveness of the program can be tracked.
• Prioritize leak repair. Fix the biggest leaks first to get
the biggest savings. This will ensure a good start to
the air leak program.
• Adjust controls. Once the leaks are fixed, adjust the
compressor controls.
• Document repairs. Showing the fixed leaks and the
cost savings shows the effectiveness of the program
and strengthens support for it. Documenting the
repairs and the type of leaks can also indicate
equipment that is a reoccurring problem. When this
occurs, look at the process for a root cause and
develop a permanent solution to stop the reoccurring
air leak.
• Compare baselines and publish results. By comparing
before and after results, the effectiveness of the
program and the savings can be determined. Then,
tell “the world” about the program and the results
that have been achieved. This is very important
because showing the savings will solidify support
for the program.
• Start over again. Air leaks continue to occur, so the
program must be ongoing. Periodic reviews should
be done on the system, and the process repeated as
necessary to maintain system efficiency.
A good compressed air system leak repair program

is very important to maintaining the efficiency,
reliability, stability, and cost effectiveness of any
compressed air system.


4–Pressure Drop and Controlling System Pressure
Pressure Drop and Controlling System Pressure
Pressure drop is a term used to characterize the must be recognized and precautionary measures taken.
reduction in air pressure from the compressor discharge The control range pressure setting must be reduced to
to the actual point-of-use. Pressure drop occurs as the allow for actual and potentially increasing pressure
compressed air travels through the treatment and drop across the dryers and filters. Provision also must
distribution system. A properly designed system should be made to prevent exceeding the maximum allowable
have a pressure loss of much less than 10 percent of discharge pressure and drive motor amps of each
the compressor’s discharge pressure, measured from compressor in the system.
the receiver tank output to the point-of-use. Pressure drop in the distribution system and in hoses
Excessive pressure drop will result in poor system and flexible connections at points-of-use results in lower
performance and excessive energy consumption. Flow operating pressure at the points-of-use. If the point-of-
restrictions of any type in a system require higher use operating pressure has to be increased, try reducing
operating pressures than are needed, resulting in higher the pressure drops in the system before adding capacity
energy consumption. Minimizing differentials in all or increasing the system pressure. Increasing the com-
parts of the system is an important part of efficient pressor discharge pressure or adding compressor capacity
operation. Pressure drop upstream of the compressor results in significant increases in energy consumption.
signal requires higher compression pressures to achieve Elevating system pressure increases unregulated
the control settings on the compressor. The most uses, such as leaks, open blowing, and production
typical problem areas include the aftercooler, lubricant applications, without regulators or with wide open
separators, and check valves. A rule of thumb for regulators. The added demand at elevated pressure is
systems in the 100 psig range is: for every 2 psi increase termed “artificial demand,” and substantially increases
in discharge pressure, energy consumption will increase energy consumption. Instead of increasing the
by approximately 1 percent at full output flow (check compressor discharge pressure or adding additional
performance curves for centrifugal and two-stage, compressor capacity, alternative solutions should be
lubricant-injected, rotary screw compressors). sought, such as reduced pressure drop and strategic
There is also another penalty for higher-than-needed compressed air storage. Equipment should be specified
pressure. Raising the compressor discharge pressure and operated at the lowest efficient operating pressure.
increases the demand of every unregulated usage,
including leaks, open blowing, etc. Although it varies What Causes Pressure Drop?
by plant, unregulated usage is commonly as high as Any type of obstruction, restriction, or roughness
30 to 50 percent of air demand. For systems in the in the system will cause resistance to air flow and
100 psig range with 30 to 50 percent unregulated cause pressure drop. In the distribution system, the
usage, a 2 psi increase in header pressure will increase highest pressure drops usually are found at the points-
energy consumption by about another 0.6 to of-use, including undersized or leaking hoses, tubes,
1.0 percent because of the additional unregulated air disconnects, filters, regulators and lubricators (FRLs).
being consumed. The combined effect results in a total On the supply side of the system, air/lubricant separators,
increase in energy consumption of about 1.6 to aftercoolers, moisture separators, dryers and filters can
2 percent for every 2 psi increase in discharge be the main items causing significant pressure drops.
pressure for a system in the 100 psig range with 30 The maximum pressure drop from the supply side
to 50 percent unregulated usage. to the points-of-use will occur when the compressed
An air compressor capacity control pressure signal air flow rate and temperature are highest. System
is normally located at the discharge of the compressor components should be selected based upon these
package. When the signal location is moved down- conditions and the manufacturer of each component
stream of the compressed air dryers and filters to achieve should be requested to supply pressure drop information
a common signal for all compressors, some dangers under these conditions. When selecting filters, remember

that they will get dirty. Dirt loading characteristics are Controlling System Pressure
also important selection criteria. Large end users who Many plant air compressors operate with a full-
purchase substantial quantities of components should load discharge pressure of 100 psig and an unload
work with their suppliers to ensure that products meet discharge pressure of 110 psig or higher. Many types
the desired specifications for differential pressure and of machinery and tools can operate efficiently with an
other characteristics. air supply at the point-of-use of 80 psig or lower. If the
The distribution piping system often is diagnosed air compressor discharge pressure can be reduced,
as having excess pressure drop because a point-of-use significant savings can be achieved. Check with the
pressure regulator cannot sustain the required down- compressor manufacturer for performance specifications
stream pressure. If such a regulator is set at 85 psig at different discharge pressures.
and the regulator and/or the upstream filter has a Reducing system pressure also can have a cascading
pressure drop of 20 psi, the system upstream of the effect in improving overall system performance,
filter and regulator would have to maintain at least reducing leakage rates, and helping with capacity and
105 psig. The 20 psi pressure drop may be blamed on other problems. Reduced pressure also reduces stress
the system piping rather than on the components at on components and operating equipment. However,
fault. The correct diagnosis requires pressure measure- a reduced system operating pressure may require
ments at different points in the system to identify the modifications to other components, including pressure
component(s) causing the excess pressure drop. In this regulators, filters, and the size and location of
case, the filter element should be replaced of the filter compressed air storage.
regulator size needs to be increased, not the piping. Lowering average system pressure requires caution
because large changes in demand can cause the
Minimizing Pressure Drop pressure at points-of-use to fall below minimum
Minimizing pressure drop requires a systems requirements, which can cause equipment to function
approach in design and maintenance of the system. Air improperly. These problems can be avoided with care-
treatment components, such as aftercoolers, moisture ful matching of system components, controls, and
separators, dryers, and filters, should be selected with the compressed air storage capacity and location. (See the
lowest possible pressure drop at specified maximum fact sheet titled Compressed Air System Controls.)
operating conditions. When installed, the recommended For applications using significant amounts of
maintenance procedures should be followed and compressed air, it is recommended that equipment be
documented. Additional ways to minimize pressure specified to operate at lower pressure levels. The added
drop are as follows: cost of components, such as larger air cylinders, usually
will be recouped from energy savings. Production
• Properly design the distribution system. engineers often specify end-use equipment to operate
• Operate and maintain air filtering and drying at an average system pressure. This results in higher
equipment to reduce the effects of moisture, such system operating costs. First, point-of-use installation
as pipe corrosion. components, such as hoses, pressure regulators, and
• Select aftercoolers, separators, dryers and filters filters, will be installed between the system pressure
having the lowest possible pressure drop for the and the end-use equipment pressure. Secondly, filters
rated conditions. will get dirty and leaks will occur. Both result in lower
• Reduce the distance the air travels through the end-use pressure, which should be anticipated in
distribution system. specifying the available end-use pressure.
• Specify pressure regulators, lubricators, hoses, and Pressure/flow controllers can also be used to
connections having the best performance control system pressure and are discussed in the fact
characteristics at the lowest pressure differential. sheet titled Compressed Air System Controls.
These components must be sized based upon the If an individual application requires higher
actual rate of flow and not the average rate of flow. pressure, it may be best to replace or modify this
application, instead of raising the operating pressure of
the whole system. It may be possible to have a larger
diameter cylinder, gear ratios may be changed,

mechanical advantage improved, or a larger air motor

may be used. The cost of improvements probably will
be insignificant compared to the energy reduction
achieved from operating the system at the lower
pressure.
It is also important to check if manufacturers are
including pressure drops in filters, pressure regulators,
and hoses in their pressure requirements for end-use
equipment, or if the pressure requirements as stated
are after those components. A typical pressure
differential for a filter, pressure regulator, and hose is
7 pounds per square inch differential (psid), but it
could be much higher in poorly designed and
maintained systems.
When demand pressure has been successfully
reduced and controlled, attention then should be
turned to the compressor control set points to obtain
more efficient operation, and also to possible unloading
or shutting off a compressor to further reduce energy
consumption.


5–Compressed Air System Controls
Compressed Air System Controls
Compressed air system controls match the compressed A rule of thumb for systems in the 100 psig range
air supply with system demand (although not always is: for every 2 psi increase in discharge pressure,
in real time) and are one of the most important energy consumption will increase by approximately
determinants of overall system energy efficiency. This 1 percent at full output flow (check performance curves
fact sheet discusses both individual compressor control for centrifugal and two-stage, lubricant-injected, rotary
and overall system control of plants with multiple screw compressors). There is also another penalty for
compressors. Proper control is essential to efficient higher-than-needed pressure. Raising the compressor
system operation and high performance. The objective discharge pressure increases the demand of every
of any control strategy is also to shut off unneeded unregulated usage, including leaks, open blowing, etc.
compressors or delay bringing on additional compressors Although it varies by plant, unregulated usage is
until needed. All units that are operating should be commonly as high as 30 to 50 percent of air demand.
run at full-load, except one unit for trimming. For systems in the 100 psig range with 30 to 50 percent
Compressor systems are typically comprised of unregulated usage, a 2 psi increase in header pressure
multiple compressors delivering air to a common will increase energy consumption by about another
plant air header. The combined capacity of these 0.6 to 1.0 percent because of the additional unregulated
machines is generally sized to meet the maximum air being consumed. The combined effect results in a
plant air demand. System controls are almost always total increase in energy consumption of about 1.6 to
needed to orchestrate a reduction in the output of the 2 percent for every 2 psi increase in discharge pressure
individual compressor(s) during times of lower demand. for a system in the 100 psig range with 30 to 50 percent
Compressed air systems are usually designed to operate unregulated usage.
within a fixed pressure range and to deliver a volume Caution must be taken when lowering average
of air that varies with system demand. System pressure system header pressure, because large, sudden changes
is monitored and the control system decreases in demand can cause the pressure to drop below
compressor output when the pressure reaches a minimum requirements, which can lead to improper
predetermined level. Compressor output is then functioning of equipment. With careful matching of
increased again when the pressure drops to a lower system controls and storage capacity, these problems
predetermined level. can be avoided.
The difference between these two pressure levels is
called the control range. Depending on air system Controls and System Performance
demand, the control range can be anywhere from 2 to Few air systems operate at full-load all of the time.
20 psi. In the past, individual compressor controls and Part-load performance is therefore critical, and is
non-supervised multiple machine systems were slow primarily influenced by compressor type and control
and imprecise. This resulted in wide control ranges strategy. The type of control specified for a given
and large pressure swings. As a result of these large system is largely determined by the type of compressor
swings, individual compressor pressure control set being used and the facility's demand profile. If a system
points were established to maintain pressures higher has a single compressor with a very steady demand, a
than needed. This ensured that swings would not go simple control system may be appropriate. On the other
below the minimum requirements for the system. hand, a complex system with multiple compressors,
Today, faster and more accurate microprocessor-based varying demand, and many types of end uses will
system controls and variable speed compressors with require a more sophisticated strategy. In any case, careful
tighter control ranges allow for a drop in the system consideration should be given to both compressor and
pressure set points. Precise control systems are able to system control selection because they can be the most
maintain lower average pressure without going below important factors affecting system performance and
minimum system requirements. efficiency.

Individual Compressor Control Strategies particularly with the use of inlet guide vanes, which
Over the years, compressor manufacturers have direct the air in the same direction as the impeller
developed a number of different types of control inlet. However, the amount of capacity reduction is
strategies. Controls, such as start/stop and load/unload, limited by the potential for surge and minimum
respond to reductions in air demand, increasing throttling capacity.
compressor discharge pressure by turning the Inlet-valve modulation used on lubricant-injected
compressor off or unloading it so that it does not rotary air compressors allows compressor capacity to be
deliver air for periods of time. Modulating inlet and adjusted to match demand. A regulating valve senses
multi-step controls allow the compressor to operate at system or discharge pressure over a prescribed range
part-load and deliver a reduced amount of air during (usually about 10 psi) and sends a proportional pressure
periods of reduced demand. to operate the inlet valve. Closing (or throttling) the
Start/Stop. Start/stop is the simplest control available inlet valve causes a pressure drop across it, reducing
and can be applied to either reciprocating or rotary the inlet pressure at the compressor and, hence, the
screw compressors. The motor driving the compressor mass flow of air. Since the pressure at the compressor
is turned on or off in response to the discharge inlet is reduced while discharge pressure is rising
pressure of the machine. Typically, a simple pressure slightly, the compression ratios are increased so that
switch provides the motor start/stop signal. This type energy savings are somewhat limited.
of control should not be used in an application that Inlet valve modulation is normally limited to a
has frequent cycling, because repeated starts will range of from 100 percent to about 40 percent of rated
cause the motor to overheat and other compressor capacity. When operating at 40 percent rated capacity
components to require more frequent maintenance. and when discharge pressure reaches full load pressure
This control scheme is typically only used for plus 10 psi, it is assumed demand is insufficient to
applications with very low-duty cycles for compressors in require continued air discharge to the system. At this
the 30 horsepower (hp) and under range. Its advantage point the compressor will operate fully unloaded, like
is that power is used only while the compressor is a compressor using load/unload controls.
running, but this is offset by having to compress to a Dual-Control/Auto-Dual. For small reciprocating
higher receiver pressure to allow air to be drawn from compressors, dual-control allows the selection of either
the receiver while the compressor is stopped. start/stop or load/unload. For lubricant-injected rotary
Load/Unload. Load/unload control, also known as screw compressors, auto-dual control provides
constant-speed control, allows the motor to run modulation to a preset reduced capacity followed by
continuously, but unloads the compressor when the unloading with the addition of an overrun timer to
discharge pressure is adequate. Compressor stop the compressor after running unloaded for a
manufacturers use different strategies for unloading a pre-set time.
compressor, but in most cases, an unloaded rotary screw Variable Displacement. Some compressors are
compressor will consume 15 to 35 percent of full-load designed to operate in two or more partially loaded
horsepower while delivering no useful work. As a result, conditions. With such a control scheme, output
some load/unload control schemes can be inefficient. pressure can be closely controlled without requiring
Modulating Controls. Modulating (throttling) inlet the compressor to start/stop or load/unload.
control allows the output of a compressor to be varied Reciprocating compressors are designed as two-step
to meet flow requirements. Throttling is usually (start/stop or load/unload), three-step (0, 50, 100 percent)
accomplished by closing the inlet valve, thereby or five-step (0, 25, 50, 75, 100 percent) control. These
restricting inlet air to the compressor. This control control schemes generally exhibit an almost direct
scheme is applied to centrifugal and lubricant-injected relationship between motor power consumption and
rotary screw compressors. This control method cannot loaded capacity.
be used on reciprocating or lubricant-free rotary screw Some lubricant-injected rotary screw compressors can
compressor and when applied to lubricant-injected vary their compression volumes (ratio) using sliding or
rotary screw compressors, is an inefficient means of turn valves. These are generally applied in conjunction
varying compressor output. When used on centrifugal with modulating inlet valves to provide more accurate
compressors, more efficient results are obtained, pressure control with improved part-load efficiency.

Variable Speed Drives. Variable speed is accepted as impeller inlet approaches the speed of sound and flow
an efficient means of rotary compressor capacity and head cannot be sustained. Choke, or stonewall, is
control, using integrated variable frequency AC or normally avoided by sensing drive motor amps and
switched reluctance DC drives. Compressor discharge using this signal to limit the flow rate.
pressure can be held to within +/- 1 psi over a wide The flow rate can be reduced by an inlet throttle
range of capacity, allowing additional system energy valve, which reduces the pressure at the inlet to the
savings. first stage impeller. This reduces the mass flow in
Rotary screw compressors with fixed-speed drives direct proportion to the absolute inlet pressure. The
can only be stopped and started a certain number of inlet air density also is reduced, resulting in reduced
times within a given time frame. Depending on the pressure head produced by the impeller.
control scheme used, instead of stopping the compressor, A variation of this uses inlet guide vanes, which
it will be unloaded, throttled, or the compressor also reduce the mass flow and the inlet air density, but
displacement will be varied in applications where the cause the air to be directed radially towards the
demand for air changes over time. In some cases, these impeller inlet in the same direction as the impeller
control methodologies can be an inefficient way to rotation. This improves the efficiency compared with
vary compressor output. Compressors equipped with simple throttling. In some cases, discharge bypass or
variable speed drive controls continuously adjust the blow-off control is used to limit flow delivered to the
drive motor speed to match variable demand compressed air system. Compressed air is discharged to
requirements. the atmosphere through a discharge silencer or cooled
In a positive-displacement rotary compressor, the and returned to the compressor inlet. This is a waste
displacement is directly proportional to the rotational of energy and should be used only where necessary.
speed of the input shaft of the air end. However, it is
important to note that with constant discharge Multiple Compressor Control
pressure, if efficiency remained constant over the Systems with multiple compressors use more
speed range, the input torque requirement would sophisticated controls to orchestrate compressor
remain constant, unlike the requirement of dynamic operation and air delivery to the system. Network
compressors, fans, or pumps. The actual efficiency also controls use the on-board compressor controls’
may fall at lower speeds, requiring an increase in microprocessors linked together to form a chain of
torque. Electric motors and controllers are currently communication that makes decisions to stop/start,
available to satisfy these needs, but their efficiency load/unload, modulate, vary displacement, and vary
and power factor at reduced speeds must be taken into speed. Usually, one compressor assumes the lead
consideration. Steam turbines and engines also are with the others being subordinate to the commands
variable speed drivers but are rarely used to power from this compressor. System master controls coordinate
industrial air compressors. all of the functions necessary to optimize compressed
Capacity Controls for Centrifugal Type Compressors. air as a utility. System master controls have many
Centrifugal compressors have complex characteristics functional capabilities, including the ability to monitor
affected by inlet air density and interstage cooling water and control all components in the system, as well as
temperature. The basic characteristic curve of head trending data to enhance maintenance functions and
(pressure) versus flow is determined by the design of minimize costs of operation. Other system controllers,
the impeller(s). Radial blades produce a very low rise such as pressure/flow controllers, can also substantially
in head as flow decreases. Backward leaning blades improve the performance of some systems.
produce a steeper curve. The greater the degree of The objective of an effective automatic system
backward leaning, the steeper the curve. control strategy is to match system demand with
Two potential occurrences must be avoided. The compressors operated at or near their maximum
first is surge, caused by a flow reversal, which can efficiency levels. This can be accomplished in a number
occur at low flow rates and can cause damage to the of ways, depending on fluctuations in demand, available
compressor. Surge is avoided by limiting the amount storage, and the characteristics of the equipment
of flow reduction. The second is choke at flow rates supplying and treating the compressed air.
above design, when the velocity of the air at the

Network Controls. Less sophisticated network with all brands and types of air compressors, and can
controls use the cascade set point scheme to operate coordinate the operation of satellite compressor rooms
the system as a whole. Those systems are capable of spread around the facility, or in different buildings
avoiding part load compressors but can still present across an industrial campus. The primary function of
the problem of approaching production’s minimum these controls, as with the network controls, is to
pressure requirement as more and more compressors operate a multiple compressor system in harmony.
are added and the range of compressor load and The least sophisticated have few if any of the features
unload set points increases. mentioned above and use cascading set-point logic to
The more sophisticated network control systems control compressors. The most sophisticated, state-of-
use single set-point logic to make their operational the-art system master controls use single-point control
decisions to start/stop, etc. In systems with positive- logic with rate-of-change dynamic analysis to make
displacement compressors (reciprocating, rotary screws, decisions regarding how the compressed air system
etc.) all compressors are kept fully loaded except for responds to changes. These changes can occur on the
one compressor that is operated in some part-load demand side, supply side, or in the ambient conditions.
fashion specific to the design of the machine. All affect the performance of the system and have a
Three major disadvantages of network system role in how the system should respond. Some of these
controls are: require short duration support, such as additional
storage. Others require additional compressor power to
• They are capable of controlling only air compressors. be brought online, and some will require a combination
• They cannot be networked with remote compressor of both.
rooms without a master control of some type. A properly configured system master control can
• Typically they only work with compressors of the determine the best and most energy-efficient response
same brand and configuration because of micro to events that occur in a system. The number of
processor compatibility issues. things a system master control can interface with is
governed by practicality and cost limitations. System
Expensive upgrades or retrofits may be required to master control layout has the capability to perform
make different brands of compressors or older versions these functions:
of the same brand work in the system. In some cases,
• Send/receive communications
retrofits are not available and a different brand or
outdated compressors cannot be used in the control • Communicate with a plant information system
scheme. • Monitor weather conditions to adjust operational
There are no network controls available that can parameters
coordinate the control of rotary screw, reciprocating, • Adjust pressure/flow controller set points
and centrifugal compressors as one system. To do this, • Monitor dryer dew point(s)
system master controls are required, particularly if • Monitor filter differential pressure
there is a desire to monitor and operate compressors, • Monitor condensate trap function
cooling systems, dryers, filters, traps, storage, pressure/ • Start/stop and load/unload compressors
flow controllers, and any other part of a compressed • Change base/trim duties
air system that a facility might want included in the • Select appropriate mix of compressors to optimize
control scheme. efficiency
System Master Controls. If complexity outpaces the • Select which compressor should be started/stopped
capabilities of local and network controls, a system relative to change in system demand.
master control is required to coordinate all of the
functions necessary to optimize compressed air as a Typically it will cost $300 to $1,500 in hardware
utility. System master controls have many functional per data collection point. Some of the latest system
capabilities, including the ability to monitor and master controls integrate the functions of real-time
control all components in the system, as well as to trend pricing systems, peak shaving with natural gas driven
data to enhance maintenance functions and minimize compressors, and aggregate system operation.
costs of operation. System master controls interface

Pressure/Flow Controllers storage replacement should utilize the minimum

Pressure/flow controllers are system pressure compressor horsepower to restore the primary pressure
controls used in conjunction with the individual to the required level.
compressor or system controls described previously. Each compressed air system differs in supply,
A pressure/flow controller does not directly control a distribution, and demand aspects, which require
compressor and is generally not included as part of a proper evaluation of the benefits to the system of a
compressor package. This is a device that serves to pressure/flow controller. Additional primary and/or
separate the supply side of a compressor system from secondary air receivers may also address intermittent
the demand side. This may require compressors to be loads, which can affect system pressure and reliability,
operated at an elevated pressure and therefore, and may allow operating the compressor at the lowest
increased horsepower (but possibly fewer compressors possible discharge pressure and input power.
and/or shorter periods of operation), while pressure on
the demand side can be reduced to a stable level to
minimize actual compressed air consumption.
Storage, sized to meet anticipated fluctuations in
demand, is an essential part of the control strategy.
Higher pressure supply air enters the primary storage
tanks from the air compressors and is available to
reliably meet fluctuations in demand at a constant
lower pressure level.
To function properly, pressure/flow controllers
require a properly sized primary air receiver located
upstream. The pressure swing caused by the multiple
compressor control band is relegated to the primary
receiver, while the pressure/flow controller controls
the plant header pressure in a lower, much narrower
pressure range. The primary air receiver shields the
compressors from severe load swings, which may keep
the next compressor from starting. Lowering and
controlling system pressure downstream of the primary
receiver can result in reducing energy consumption by
10 percent or more, if most of the end uses had not
been properly pressure regulated. This also presumes
that compressor controls efficiently handle the
decrease in demand.
A well designed and managed system should
include some or all of the following:
• Overall control strategy

• Demand control
• Good signal locations
• Compressor controls
• Storage.
The goal is to deliver compressed air at the lowest

stable pressure to the main plant distribution system
and to support transient events as much as possible
with stored higher pressure compressed air. Primary


6–Compressed Air Storage
Compressed Air Storage
Storage can be used to control demand events (peak usage, including leaks, open blowing, etc. Although it
demand periods) in a compressed air system by varies by plant, unregulated usage is commonly as
reducing both the amount of pressure drop and the high as 30 to 50 percent of air demand. For systems in
rate of decay. Storage can be used to protect critical the 100 psig range with 30 to 50 percent unregulated
pressure applications from other events in the system. usage, a 2 psi increase in header pressure will increase
Storage can also be used to control the rate of pressure energy consumption by about another 0.6 to 1.0 percent
drop to end uses. For some systems, it is important to because of the additional unregulated air being
provide a form of refill control, such as a flow control consumed. The combined effect results in a total
valve. Many systems have a compressor operating in increase in energy consumption of about 1.6 to 2 percent
modulation to support demand events, and sometimes for every 2 psi increase in discharge pressure for a
strategic storage solutions can allow for this compressor system in the 100 psig range with 30 to 50 percent
to be turned off. unregulated usage.
In industrial compressed air systems, the supply
Controls and System Performance side is generally considered to be the air compressors,
The basic purpose of an air receiver is to store a dryers and related filters, and a primary air receiver.
volume of compressed air for use when needed. The There are two differing points of view on the location
most common example is a small, air-cooled, piston- of a primary air receiver in a plant air system. If the
type compressor, mounted on a tank or air receiver. receiver is located soon after the compressor discharge
The compressor operates on a start/stop control system, and the compressor(s) is a piston-type, the receiver
usually controlled by a pressure switch having a fixed acts as a dampener for pressure pulsations. If the
differential. For automotive applications, the receiver is located before the compressed air dryer, the
compressor is normally stopped at a pressure of 175 psig. receiver will provide additional radiant cooling and
The compressor is restarted when the use of the drop out some of the condensate and entrained oil,
compressed air causes the pressure to fall to about benefiting the dryer. However, the receiver will be
145 psig (a differential of 30 psi). filled with saturated air, and if there is a sudden
On larger compressor sizes, the compressor may be demand that exceeds the capacity rating of the
loaded and unloaded in a range of 145 to 160 psig, compressor and matching dryer, the dryer can be
but it continues to run. The tank provides radiant overloaded, resulting in a higher pressure dew point.
cooling and requires an automatic drain to remove If the air receiver is located after the compressed
condensate. The problem from an energy standpoint air dryer, some of the above advantages are lost.
is that all of the air is being compressed to at least However, the receiver is filled with compressed air
145 psig and most of it to 160 psig, although most (which has been dried), and a sudden demand in
applications require a much lower pressure. Pneumatic excess of the compressor and dryer capacity rating will
tools are normally designed for operation at 90 psig, be met with dried air. The dryer is not overloaded,
so energy is being expended to compress the air well since it is seeing only the output of the compressor, so
beyond what is needed. A rule of thumb for systems the pressure dew point is not affected. One way to
in the 100 psig range is: for every 2 psi increase in resolve this dilemma is to install storage both upstream
discharge pressure, energy consumption will increase and downstream of the dryer, remembering that the
by approximately 1 percent at full output flow (check storage downstream of the dryer must be equal to or
performance curves for centrifugal and two-stage, larger than the storage upstream of the dryer. In any
lubricant-injected, rotary screw compressors). case, it should be recognized that the compressed air
There is also another penalty for higher-than- dryer and associated filters will add pressure drop. This
needed pressure. Raising the compressor discharge must be taken into account when determining the
pressure increases the demand of every unregulated compressor discharge pressure to achieve the desired

pressure that leaves the primary air receiver to the as increased pressure drop through the air/lubricant
system. separator before it is required to be changed.
The size of an air receiver can be calculated as If the discharge pressure is allowed to rise by an
follows: additional 10 psi without the capacity being reduced by
inlet valve modulation, the bhp will increase by 5 percent
V = T x C x Pa and the motor could be overloaded. A reduction in dis-
P1 - P2 charge pressure may be necessary to operate in this mode.
In addition, for lubricant-injected rotary screw
where: compressors it is falsely assumed that a straight line,
V = Receiver volume, cubic feet from full-load bhp to unloaded bhp, represents the
T = Time allowed (minutes) for pressure drop to actual power requirement in this mode of operation.
occur This presumes, for example, that if the average capacity
C = Air demand, cubic feet per minute (cfm) of is 50 percent, the compressor would run fully loaded
free air 50 percent of the time and fully unloaded 50 percent
Pa = Absolute atmospheric pressure, psia of the time. Unfortunately, the compressor is not fully
P1 = Initial receiver pressure, psig unloaded 50 percent of the time.
P2 = Final receiver pressure, psig When the compressor discharge pressure reaches the
unload set point, the inlet valve is closed to reduce the
The formula assumes the receiver volume to be mass flow through the compressor. Simultaneously, the
at ambient temperature and that no air is being lubricant sump/separator vessel pressure is gradually
supplied to the air receiver by the compressor(s). If the relieved. Typically, this takes about 40 seconds to
compressor(s) is running while air is being drawn from prevent foaming of the lubricant with the potential of
the receiver, the formula should be modified so that C excessive lubricant carryover. The rate at which blow-
is replaced by C - S, where S is the surplus compressor down occurs gradually slows as the pressure is reduced.
capacity, cfm of free air. The initial formula also can be The fully unloaded power is not realized until the
used with a known receiver size, to determine the time to pressure in the lubricant sump/separator is fully relieved.
restore the air receiver pressure. In this case, C is replaced In addition, a period of about 3 seconds is required to
by S, which is the compressor capacity, cfm of free air. repressurize the air/lubricant sump/separator vessel
In the past, mainly with reciprocating compressors, when the system calls for the compressor to reload.
the rule of thumb for sizing a primary air receiver, has In many cases, the system pressure will fall and
been from 1 gallon per cfm to 3 gallons per cfm of the compressor will reload before the fully unloaded
compressor capacity. This is no longer regarded as good power is realized. To overcome this, an adequately
practice and the recommended primary receiver size sized air receiver and/or system volume is essential.
will vary with the type of compressor and capacity Taking the above factors into account, Figure 2.5
control used. shows the effect of different sizes of air receiver/system
Some lubricant-injected rotary screw compressors volume. Some rules of thumb established many years
are sold with load/unload capacity control, which is ago for reciprocating air compressors are not adequate
claimed to be the most efficient. This can also be for a lubricant-injected rotary screw compressor.
misleading, because an adequate receiver volume is Most lubricant-injected rotary screw compressors
essential to obtain any real savings in energy. are equipped with capacity control by inlet valve
One solution sometimes proposed is to eliminate modulation designed to match the output from the air
modulation and have the compressors operate in a compressor with the demand from the points-of-use.
load/unload mode. Certain factors must be recognized On this basis, it has been stated that an air receiver is
before making such a change. The standard full- not needed. At best, this is misleading. An air receiver
capacity, full-load pressure, often has the compressor near the discharge of a rotary screw compressor will
running at around 110 percent of motor nameplate shield the compressor control system from pressure
rating, or using 10 percent of the available 15 percent fluctuations from the demand side downstream of the
continuous overload service factor. The remaining receiver, and can allow the compressor to be unloaded
5 percent is meant to cover tolerances and items such for a longer period of time, during periods of light

120
100
80
Percent kW Input
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Percent Capacity
1 gal/cfm 3 gal/cfm 5 gal/cfm 10 gal/cfm
Figure 2.5 Effect of Receiver Capacity on Lubricant-Injected, Rotary Compressor with Load/Unload Capacity
Control.
demand. The addition of an over-run timer (automatic Approximately 70 percent of full-load power
dual control) can stop the compressor if it runs would still be used when modulation had reduced
unloaded for a preset time, saving additional energy. compressor output to zero. The second line shows
The top line in Figure 2.6 shows what would inlet valve throttling to 40 percent capacity and
happen if inlet valve modulation was used without unloading at that point. Figure 2.7 shows variable
unloading the compressor. displacement (slide/turn/spiral/poppet valve)
120.0
100.0
Percent kW Input Power
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Percent Capacity Copyright 2003 by
Inlet modulation - no blowdown Inlet modulation with blowdown Compressed Air Challenge®
Figure 2.6 Lubricant-Injected Rotary Compressor with Inlet Valve Modulation.

120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Percent Capacity
Rotary Compressor Performance with Variable Displacement
Figure 2.7 Lubricant-Injected Rotary Compressor Performance with Variable Displacement.
capacity reduction to 50 percent capacity followed by of 10 to 15 percent. The appropriate amount of storage
throttling to 40 percent capacity and unloading at volume should be considered for each of these scenarios.
that point. Field conversion of an existing compressor to
Variable speed may be achieved by variable variable speed drive must consider the electric motor,
frequency AC drives, or by switched reluctance DC the proposed male rotor tip speed at 100 percent
drives. Each of these has its specific electrical charac- capacity and the reduction of air-end efficiency at
teristics, including inverter and other losses. Figure 2.8 reduced speeds and capacity. The potential impacts of
shows how input power varies by percent capacity harmonics on other end-use equipment must also be
output for a lubricant-injected rotary screw compressor considered.
with variable speed control. It should be noted that in systems with multiple
Air-end displacement is directly proportional to compressors and sequencing controls, it is possible to
rotor speed, but air-end efficiency depends upon male have most of the compressors running fully loaded on
rotor tip speed. Most variable speed drive (VSD) pack- base load with only one compressor modulating
age designs involve full capacity operation above the (operating as the “trim” compressor), providing the
optimum rotor tip speed, at reduced air-end efficiency most efficient mode for the system. In addition, it is
and increased input power, when compared with a not necessary to have the air receiver/system storage
constant speed compressor of the same capacity, capacity based upon the total capacity of all the
operating at or near its optimum rotor tip speed. compressors, provided they are not all on the same
Efficiency with VSD is generally improved at reduced load and unload pressure settings.
capacities. The best energy savings are realized in A primary air receiver allows the compressor(s) to
applications where the running hours are long, with a operate in a given discharge pressure range (usually
high proportion in the mid- to low-capacity range. 10 psi) from load to unload. Multiple compressors also
Some designs stop the compressor when a lower speed can be sequenced as needed and with all but one
of around 20 percent is reached, while others may operating in the most efficient, fully loaded mode.
unload at 40 to 50 percent, with an unloaded power The capacity of the one compressor is modulated or

120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0 Total kW input and/or specific

power over the full operating
40.0 range must be analyzed for a
proper comparison with other
20.0 types of capacity control.
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Percent Capacity
%kW input vs % capacity With unloading With stopping
Figure 2.8 Lubricant-Injected Rotary Compressor Performance with Variable Speed Control.
operated in load/unload control. This is also a good unfired pressure vessel requirements and have
application for variable displacement, or compressors appropriate pressure relief valves. An automatic drain
with variable displacement or VSD control to match device, with manual bypass for service, should also
system demand. be included. Condensate removed should be
decontaminated to meet appropriate federal, state and
Secondary Air Receivers local codes.
In many industrial plants, there will be one or Additional pressure/flow controls can be added
more applications with an intermittent demand of after the primary receiver to maintain a reduced and
relatively high volume. This can cause severe dynamic relatively constant system pressure and at points-of-use,
pressure fluctuations in the whole system, with some while allowing the compressor controls to function in
essential points-of-use being starved, impacting the the most efficient control mode and discharge pressure
quality of the end product. Usually, this can be relieved range, with significant energy savings.
by the correct sizing and location of a secondary air
receiver close to the point of high intermittent demand.
Such demand is often of short duration, and the time
between the demand events is such that there is ample
time to replenish the secondary receiver pressure with-
out adding compressor capacity. A check valve before
the secondary air receiver will prevent back flow to
the rest of the system and ensure that the required
volume is stored to meet the anticipated event(s).
Correctly sized and located air receivers can
provide major advantages in a compressed air system
and require little maintenance. They should meet the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)


7–Proven Opportunities at the Component Level
Proven Opportunities at the Component Level
In some cases, taking a systems approach to analyzing reduced vibration and noise; reduced floor space
compressed air systems can facilitate the analysis of an requirements; and the ability to be installed on a level
individual component as well as performance issues industrial plant floor. Rotary screw compressors provide
relating to individual system components. In general, continuous flow and do not have the type of pressure
compressed air systems contain five major sub-systems: pulsations typically associated with reciprocating
1) compressors; 2) prime mover; 3) controls; compressors. Two-stage rotary screw compressors are
4) air treatment equipment and other accessories; and generally more efficient than single-stage units.
5) the air distribution sub-system. Performance aspects Lubricant-injected rotary screw compressors are
of each of these sub-systems are discussed in detail typically less efficient than two-stage, double-acting
below. reciprocating compressors or three-stage centrifugal
compressors. In general, rotary screw compressors are also
Compressors less efficient at part-load than reciprocating compressors.
While there are many different types of compressors, A wide range of models is usually available from
all compressor types theoretically operate more different manufacturers for any given application. Users
efficiently if they are designed to include multiple stages. should try to select the most efficient model available.
With multiple stages, the final discharge pressure is (See Appendix B titled Packaged Compressor Efficiency
generated over several steps, thereby saving energy. Ratings.)
Many multi-stage compressors save energy by cooling Centrifugal Compressors. The use of centrifugal
the air between stages, reducing the volume and work compressors is usually limited to higher volume
required to compress the air. In spite of this, many industrial plant applications, such as chemical manu-
industrial compressors only have a single stage because facturing, textile plants, petroleum refining, or general
equipment manufacturing costs are lower. Performance plant air systems in larger manufacturing facilities.
and efficiency issues of the three most common types The compressors operate at high speeds and therefore
of compressors—single- and double-acting reciprocating use smaller, more compact equipment. In larger sizes,
compressors, rotary compressors, and centrifugal three-stage centrifugal compressors are generally more
compressors—are discussed below. efficient than rotary screw compressors and can
Single- and Double-Acting Reciprocating Compressors. approach the efficiency levels of double-acting
In the past, reciprocating air compressors were the reciprocating compressors. Centrifugal air compressors
most widely used in industrial plant air systems. typically have 100 to 125 psig discharge pressures and
Single-acting reciprocating compressors are generally are generally available from 150 hp or larger, with an
air-cooled, in the smaller hp sizes, and do not require increasing number of stages and improving efficiency
substantial foundations. However, these compressors as size increases. Centrifugal compressors are best suited
are less efficient than other types. Double-acting to applications where demand is relatively constant or
reciprocating air compressors are generally water- in industrial plants where they can be used primarily for
cooled and require substantial foundations. Multi-stage base-load operation, allowing other compressor types
versions are usually considered to be the most efficient to be as used as trim machines to meet peak demands.
air compressors but have high initial and installation Lubricant-Free Compressors. Lubricant-free versions
costs and higher maintenance requirements. of reciprocating and rotary air compressors are available.
Rotary Compressors. Today, lubricant-injected rotary Centrifugal air compressors are inherently lubricant-
screw compressors are used in most industrial plant free. Lubricant-free compressors may be appropriate
air applications and for large applications in the for specific applications or to meet specific environ-
service industries. They have some advantages over mental regulations. Lubricant-free rotary screw and
reciprocating compressors, including lower initial reciprocating compressors are generally less efficient
installation and maintenance costs; smaller size; than lubricant-injected machines.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Each • Relatively high vibrations require high foundation
Compressor Type costs
Advantages and disadvantages of any compressor are • Seldom sold as complete independent packages
based on its characteristics and application. Advantages • Require flywheel mass to overcome torque and
and disadvantages listed below are for a typical current pulsations in motor driver
compressed air system in an industrial plant. The • Repair procedures require some training and skills.
estimated full-load bhp requirement of each compressor Operating Efficiency: 15 to 16 kW/100 cfm*
type at 100 psig discharge pressure at the compressor, a
main drive motor typical efficiency of 92 percent and Lubricant-Injected Rotary Screw Compressors
0.746 kilowatts (kW)/bhp, the approximate operating Advantages include:
costs of operation are obtained. • Compact size and complete package
• Economic first cost
Single-Acting, Air-Cooled Reciprocating Air Compressors • Vibration-free operation does not require special
Advantages include: foundation
• Small size and weight • Part-load capacity control systems can match
• Generally can be located close to point-of-use system demand
avoiding lengthy piping runs and pressure drops • Routine maintenance includes lubricant and filter
• Do not require separate cooling systems changes.
• Simple maintenance procedures. Disadvantages include:
Disadvantages include: • Less efficient full- and part-load operation compared
• Lubricant carryover as piston rings wear, which with water-cooled reciprocating air compressors
should be avoided • Lubricant carryover into delivered air requires
• Relatively high noise proper maintenance of air/lubricant separator and
• Relatively high cost of compression the lubricant itself.
• Generally are designed to run not more than Operating Efficiency:
50 percent of the time, although some can be at 18 to 19 kW/100 cfm, single-stage*
80 percent 16 to 17 kW/100 cfm, two-stage*
• Generally compress and store the air in a receiver
at a pressure higher than required at the point-of- Lubricant-Free Rotary Screw Air Compressors
use. The pressure then is reduced to the required Advantages include:
operating pressure but without recovery of the • Completely packaged
energy used to compress to the higher pressure. • Designed to deliver lubricant-free air
Operating Efficiency: 22 to 24 kW/100 cfm* • Do not require any special foundations.
Disadvantages include:
Double-Acting, Water-Cooled Reciprocating Air Compressors • Significant premium over lubricant-injected type
Advantages include: • Less efficient than lubricant-injected type
• Efficient compression, particularly with multi-stage • Limited to load/unload capacity control and VSD
compressors • Higher maintenance costs than lubricant-injected
• Three-step (0-50-100 percent) or five-step (0-25-50- type over the life of the machine.
75-100 percent) capacity controls, allowing efficient Operating Efficiency: 18 to 22 kW/100 cfm*
part-load operation
• Relatively routine maintenance procedures. Centrifugal Air Compressors
Disadvantages include: Advantages include:
• Relatively high first cost compared with equivalent • Completely packaged for plant or instrument air
rotary air compressors up through 500 hp
• Relatively high space requirements • Relative first cost improves as size increases
• Lubricant carryover on lubricant cooled units • Designed to deliver lubricant-free air
* By taking the estimated full-load bhp requirement of each compressor type at 100 psig discharge pressure at the compressor, a main-drive
motor with a typical efficiency of 92 percent and 0.746 kW/bhp, the approximate efficiencies are obtained.

• Do not require any special foundations. sometimes have lower available starting torque than
Disadvantages include: standard motors and often have slightly higher operating
• Limited capacity control modulation, requiring speeds because of reduced slip. Match operating
unloading for reduced capacities speeds and torque requirement as closely as possible
• High rotational speeds require special bearings, when replacing a motor.
sophisticated monitoring of vibrations and
clearances Controls
• Specialized maintenance considerations. Compressor control mechanisms are used to match
Operating Efficiency: 16 to 20 kW/100 cfm* the compressed air volume and pressure delivered by
the compressor with facility demand. Compressor
Prime Movers controls are often the most important factor determining
The majority of industrial compressed air systems a compressor’s ability to perform efficiently at part-
use electric motors as the prime mover. Standard, load. Controls are frequently configured poorly, and
three-phase, squirrel-cage induction motors are used in proper control strategies can lead to substantial
90 percent of all industrial compressor applications reductions in energy consumption.
because of their reliability, level of efficiency (85 to For more information on controls and compressed
95 percent, depending on size), and excellent starting air system performance, see the fact sheet titled
torque, despite their high inrush current requirements Compressed Air System Controls.
when used with across-the-line magnetic starters. Inrush
current is the amount of current required to start the Air Treatment Equipment and Other Accessories
motor and motor-driven equipment, which will exceed Air treatment equipment must provide for both
6 times the running current. This inrush can be reduced contaminant removal and preparation of the air for
with the use of reduced voltage starters. Most major equipment use. The level of air conditioning and
manufacturers of industrial packaged compressed air accessories needed is often dependent on air quality
systems now offer both standard and energy-efficient requirements. For optimum performance, air treatment
motors. As of October 24, 1997, standard three-phase equipment should be operated as close to manufacturers’
induction motors between 1 and 200 hp are required design conditions as possible. A discussion of important
to meet minimum federal efficiency levels. This means compressor system accessory equipment and
that all general-purpose motors are at the efficiency performance follows.
levels of those formerly labeled “high efficiency” or Dryers. Compressed air system performance is
“energy-efficient.” Even with these new minimum typically enhanced by the use of dryers, but since they
efficiency levels, there is a range of efficiencies available require added capital and operating costs (including
for any given application, and manufacturers will likely energy), drying should only be performed to the degree
offer lines of premium-efficiency motors that have that it is needed for the proper functioning of the
higher efficiencies than standard-efficiency motors. equipment and the end use.
Motors can be flange-mounted, connected with a Single-tower, chemical deliquescent dryers use little
V-belt, or direct-coupled. Proper alignment is critical energy, but provide pressure dew point suppression of
for all applications. Direct coupling or flange mounting 15 to 50°F below the dryer inlet temperature, depending
results in the least loss of efficiency, while V-belt on the desiccant selected. They are not suitable for
applications may allow for more compact packaging. some systems that have high drying needs. The
V-belts should always be inspected and tensioned per approximate power requirement, including pressure
manufacturer’s specification to avoid increased power drop through the dryer and any associated filtration,
transmission losses. but excluding the cost of replacement desiccant, is
Because of the heavy-duty and load cycles on most approximately 0.2 kW/100 cfm.
compressors, it almost always makes sense to buy the Refrigerant-type dryers are the most common and
most efficient motor available. The incremental cost provide a pressure dew point of 35 to 39°F, which is
for a more efficient motor is typically paid back in less acceptable for many applications. In addition to the
than one year from the resulting energy savings. Users pressure drop across the dryer (usually 3 to 5 psid), the
should be aware that new energy-efficient motors energy to run the refrigerant compressor must be

considered. Some refrigerant-type dryers have the ability reduction of air capacity with this type of dryer, but
to cycle on and off based on air flow, which may save an entrainment-type nozzle has to be used for the
energy. The power requirement, including the effect of purge air.
pressure drop through the dryer, is 0.79 kW/100 cfm. The twin-tower, heat-of-compression dryer
Cylinder head unloading dryers are also available operation is similar to other twin-tower, heat-activated,
(single and two-step) and offer improved part-load regenerative desiccant dryers. The difference is that
performance over conventional refrigerated dryers. the desiccant in the saturated tower is regenerated by
Cylinder head unloaders allow discreet steps of control means of the heat of compression in all of the hot air
of the refrigerant compressor, just as unloaders allow leaving the discharge of the air compressor. The total
capacity control of reciprocating air compressors. air flow then passes through the air aftercooler before
Twin-tower, desiccant-type dryers are the most entering the drying tower. Towers are cycled as for
effective in the removal of moisture from the air and other regenerative desiccant-type dryers.
typically are rated at a pressure dew point of –40°F. The total power requirement, including pressure
In a pressure-swing regenerative dryer, the purge air drop and compressor operating cost, is approximately
requirement can range from 10 to 18 percent of the 0.8 kW/100 cfm.
dryer’s rating, depending on the type of dryer. This Membrane-type dryers can achieve dew points of
energy loss, in addition to the pressure drop across the 40°F but lower dew points to –40°F can be achieved at
dryer, must be considered. The heated-type requires the expense of additional purge air loss.
less purge air for regeneration, as heaters are used to Advantages of membrane dryers include:
heat the desiccant bed or the purge air. The heater • Low installation cost
energy must also be considered against the reduction in
the amount of purge air, in addition to the pressure drop. • Low operating cost
Approximate power requirement, including pressure • Can be installed outdoors
drop through the dryer, is 2.0 to 3.0 kW/100 cfm. • Can be used in hazardous atmospheres
Heat-of-compression dryers are regenerative-
desiccant dryers, which use the heat generated during • No moving parts.
compression to accomplish desiccant regeneration. Disadvantages of membrane dryers include:
One type has a rotating desiccant drum in a single
• Limited to low-capacity systems
pressure vessel divided into two separate air streams.
Most of the air discharged from the air compressor • High purge air loss (15 to 20 percent) to achieve
passes through an air aftercooler, where the air is required pressure dew points
cooled and condensed moisture is separated and • Membrane may be fouled by oil or other
drained. The cooled air stream, saturated with moisture, contaminants and a coalescing filter is
passes through the drying section of the desiccant recommended before the dryer.
bed, where it is dried and it exits from the dryer. A
portion of the hot air taken directly from the air The total power requirement, including pressure
compressor at its discharge, prior to the aftercooler, drop and compressor operating cost is approximately
flows through the opposite side of the dryer to 3 to 4 kW/100 cfm.
regenerate the desiccant bed. The hot air, after being Dryer Selection. The selection of a compressed air
used for regeneration, passes through a regeneration dryer should be based upon the required pressure dew
cooler before being combined with the main air point and the estimated cost of operation. Where a
stream by means of an ejector nozzle before entering pressure dew point of less than 35°F is required, a
the dryer. This means that there is no loss of purge air. refrigerant-type dryer cannot be used. The required
Drying and regeneration cycles are continuous as long pressure dew point for the application at each point-
as the air compressor is in operation. This type of of-use eliminates certain types of dryers. Because dryer
dryer requires air from the compressor at sufficiently ratings are based upon saturated air at inlet, the
high temperature to accomplish regeneration. For this geographical location is not a concern. The dryer has a
reason, it is used almost exclusively with centrifugal or lower load in areas of lower relative humidity, but the
lubricant-free rotary screw compressors. There is no pressure dew point is not affected. Typically, the pressure

drop through a compressed air dryer is 3 to 5 psi and Condensate/Lubricant Separators. It is no longer
should be taken into account in system requirements. acceptable to discharge condensate from a compressed
Compressed air should be dried only where necessary air system to sewer lines without treatment to remove
and only to the pressure dew point required. contaminants such as entrained lubricants (except for
Compressed Air Filters. These include particulate condensate from some lubricant-free compressor
filters to remove solid particles, coalescing filters to systems). Condensate/lubricant separators are available
remove lubricant and moisture, and adsorbent filters in the marketplace to achieve separation by means of
for removal of odors and taste. A particulate filter is settling tanks and/or permeable membranes. This
recommended after a desiccant-type dryer to remove equipment helps to avoid the potentially high costs of
desiccant “fines.” A coalescing-type filter is contaminated waste disposal.
recommended before a desiccant-type dryer to prevent Air/Lubricant Separators. The air/lubricant separator
fouling of the desiccant bed. A one micron after-filter in a lubricant-cooled, rotary screw compressor generally
is necessary to prevent desiccant fines from entering starts with a 2 to 3 psid pressure drop at full-load when
the distribution piping. Additional filtration may also new. Maintenance manuals usually suggest changing
be needed to meet requirements for specific end uses. them when there is a 10 to 12 psid pressure drop
Compressed air filters downstream of the air across the separator. In many cases it may make sense
compressor are generally required for the removal of to make an earlier separator replacement, especially if
contaminants, such as particulates, condensate, and electricity prices are high.
lubricant. Filtration only to the level required by each Heat Recovery Systems. Most systems do not employ
compressed air application will minimize pressure heat recovery, even though economics can be good,
drop and resultant energy consumption. Elements with typical paybacks of less than one year. Heat
should also be replaced as indicated by pressure recovery systems require electricity for fans or pumps,
differential, and at least annually, to minimize pressure but can decrease the need for fossil fuels usually used
drop and energy consumption. for heating. See the fact sheet titled Heat Recovery with
Air Receivers. Air receivers are designed to provide a Compressed Air Systems for more information on this
supply buffer to meet short-term demand spikes that energy saving opportunity.
can exceed the compressor capacity. They also serve to
dampen reciprocating compressor pulsations, separate The Air Distribution Sub-System
out particles and liquids, and make the compressed air The air distribution sub-system, which connects
system easier to control. In some cases, installing a the major components, is one of the most important
larger receiver tank to meet occasional peak demands parts of the compressed air system. It is made up of
can even allow for the use of a smaller compressor. main trunk lines, hoses and valves, drops to specific
In most systems, the receiver will be located just usage points, pressure regulators and lubricators,
after the dryer. In some cases, it makes sense to use additional filters and traps, and supplementary air
multiple receivers, one prior to the dryer and one treatment equipment. It is throughout this sub-system
closer to points of intermittent use. that most leaks occur, energy is lost, and maintenance
Storage. Storage can be used to control demand is required. Equipment should be chosen to avoid
events (peak demand periods) in the system by excessive pressure drops and leakage.
controlling both the amount of pressure drop and the In addition, consideration of appropriate sizing of
rate of decay. Storage can be used to protect critical equipment and layout will provide for proper air
pressure applications from other events in the system. supply, good tool performance, and optimal production.
Storage can also be used to control the rate of pressure The complete drying, filtration, and distribution
drop in demand while supporting the speed of system should be sized and arranged so that the total
transmission response from supply. Many systems have pressure drop from the air compressor to the points-
a compressor operating in modulation to support of-use is much less than 10 percent of the compressor
demand events, and sometimes, strategic storage discharge pressure.
solutions can allow for this compressor to be turned Some users bypass automatic condensate traps and
off. Storage can also help systems ride through a leave valves partially open at all times to allow for
compressor failure or short energy outages. constant draining. This practice wastes substantial

energy and should never be undertaken. If a float-

operated, automatic condensate drain is not functioning
properly, clean and repair it instead of bypassing it. If
maintenance of float-operated drain traps is a burden,
consider replacing them with more reliable demand-
type drain traps.
The efficiency of the entire system can be
enhanced by the proper selection, application,
installation, and maintenance of each component.

8–Maintenance of Compressed Air Systems for Peak Performance
Maintenance of Compressed Air Systems for Peak Performance
Like all electro-mechanical equipment, industrial combination of equipment control panel data,
compressed air systems require periodic maintenance frequent inspections, and log sheets are required to
to operate at peak efficiency and minimize unscheduled avoid unscheduled system shutdowns, and to utilize the
downtime. Inadequate maintenance can have a principles of preventive and predictive maintenance.
significant impact on energy consumption via lower Record the dates of all maintenance and repairs,
compression efficiency, air leakage, or pressure including a list of all parts that were replaced or
variability. It can also lead to high operating serviced.
temperatures, poor moisture control, and excessive The maintenance schedules provided in this
contamination. Most problems are minor and can be fact sheet are intended to be used only as a guide. For
corrected by simple adjustments, cleaning, part replace- more exact procedures, always refer to the
ment, or the elimination of adverse conditions. manufacturer’s manuals.
Compressed air system maintenance is similar to that
performed on cars; filters and fluids are replaced, Stopping for Maintenance
cooling water is inspected, belts are adjusted, and leaks The following procedures should be followed
are identified and repaired. when stopping the compressor for maintenance or
All equipment in the compressed air system should service.
be maintained in accordance with manufacturers’ Step 1. Per Occupational Safety & Health
specifications. Manufacturers provide inspection, Administration (OSHA) regulation 1910.147: The
maintenance, and service schedules that should be Control of Hazardous Energy Source (Lockout/Tagout),
followed strictly. In many cases, it makes sense, from disconnect and lockout the main power source. Display
efficiency and economic standpoints, to maintain a sign in clear view at the main power switch stating
equipment more frequently than the intervals that the compressor is being serviced.
recommended by manufacturers, which are primarily
designed to protect equipment. WARNING!
One way to tell if a system is well-maintained and
operating properly is to periodically baseline the Never assume a compressor is safe to work on just because it is
system by tracking power, pressure, flow, and not operating. It could restart at any time.
temperature. If power use at a given pressure and flow
rate goes up, the system’s efficiency is degrading. This
baselining will also indicate if the compressor is Step 2. Isolate the compressor from the compressed
operating at full capacity, and if the capacity is air supply by closing a manual shutoff valve down-
decreasing over time. On new systems, specifications stream (and upstream, if applicable in booster service)
should be recorded when the system is first set up and from the compressor. Display a sign in clear view at
operating properly. See the fact sheet titled Baselining the shutoff valve stating that the compressor is being
Compressed Air Systems for more information. serviced. Be certain that a pressure relief valve is
Proper maintenance is essential to compressed air installed upstream of any isolation valve.
system efficiency and reliability. The key to success Step 3. Lock open a pressure relief valve within the
requires compressor operators to determine the require- pressurized system to allow the system to be completely
ments for each piece of equipment, the necessary depressurized. NEVER remove a plug to relieve the
resources, and to schedule the maintenance based on pressure!
the manufacturer’s manuals and trend analysis of Step 4. Shut off the water cooling supply (water-
recorded data. All observations and meter readings cooled compressors).
should be recorded for compressors, dryers, filters, Step 5. Open all manual drain valves within the
and any components in the compressor plant. The area to be serviced.

Step 6. Wait for the unit to cool before starting to For lubricant-injected rotary compressors, the
service. (Temperatures of 125°F can burn skin. Some lubrication is provided to bearings, gears, and inter-
surface temperatures exceed 350°F when the compressor meshing rotor surfaces. The lubricant also acts as a
is operating, and just after it is shut down). seal and removes most of the heat of compression.
Step 7. Refer and give preference to the Only a lubricant meeting the manufacturer’s
manufacturer’s manuals over these typical maintenance specifications should be used.
procedures. Inlet filters and inlet piping should also be kept
clean. A dirty filter can reduce compressor capacity
Maintenance Schedules and efficiency. Filters should be maintained at least
To assure maximum performance and service life per manufacturer’s specifications, taking into account
of your compressor, a routine maintenance schedule the level of contaminants in the facility’s air.
should be developed. Sample schedules have been
included here to help you to develop a maintenance Compressor Drives
schedule designed for your particular application. If the electric motor driving a compressor is not
Time frames may need to be shortened in harsher properly maintained, it will not only consume more
environments. energy, but will be apt to fail before its expected life-
The documentation shipped with your compressor time. The two most important aspects of motor
should contain a maintenance schedule checklist. maintenance are lubrication and cleaning.
Make copies of this checklist and retain the master to Lubrication. Too much lubrication can be just as
make more copies as needed. On each copy of the harmful as too little and is a major cause of premature
checklist, enter dates and initials in the appropriate motor failure. Motors should be lubricated per the
spaces. Keep the checklist and this fact sheet readily manufacturer’s specification, which can be anywhere
available near the compressor. from every 2 months to every 18 months, depending
on annual hours of operation and motor speed. On
General Maintenance Discussion motors with bearing grease fittings, the first step in
Maintenance issues for specific system components lubrication is to clean the grease fitting and remove
are discussed below. the drain plug. High-quality new grease should be
added, and the motor should run for about an hour
Compressor Package before the drain plug is replaced. This allows excess
The main areas of the compressor package that grease to be purged from the motor without dripping
need maintenance are the compressor, heat exchanger on the windings and damaging them.
surfaces, air-lubricant separator, lubricant, lubricant Cleaning. Since motors need to dissipate heat, it is
filter, and air-inlet filter. The compressor and inter- important to keep all of the air passages clean and free of
cooling surfaces need to be kept clean and foul-free. If obstruction. For enclosed motors, it is vital that cooling
they are dirty, compressor efficiency will be adversely fins are kept free of debris. Poor motor cooling can in-
affected. Fans and water pumps should also be inspected crease motor temperature and winding resistance, which
to ensure that they are operating at peak performance. shortens motor life and increases energy consumption.
The air lubricant separator in a lubricant-cooled, Belts. Motor V-belt drives also require periodic
rotary screw compressor generally starts with a 2 to maintenance. Tight belts can lead to excessive bearing
3 psid pressure drop at full-load when new. Maintenance wear, and loose belts can slip and waste energy. Under
manuals usually suggest changing them when there is normal operation, belts stretch and wear and therefore,
about a 10 psid pressure drop across the separator. In require adjustment. A good rule of thumb is to
many cases it may make sense to make an earlier examine and adjust belts after every 400 hours of
separator replacement, particularly if electricity prices operation. Follow manufacturers recommended tension
are high. requirements.
The compressor lubricant and lubricant filter
should be changed per manufacturer’s specification. Air Treatment Equipment
Lubricant can become corrosive and degrade both the Fouled compressed air treatment equipment can
equipment and system efficiency. result in excessive energy consumption as well as

poor-quality air that can damage other equipment. Routine Maintenance for
All filters should be kept clean. Dryers, aftercoolers,
Air-Cooled Reciprocating Compressors
and separators should all be cleaned and maintained
per manufacturer’s specifications.
Automatic Traps. Most compressed air systems have Every 8 Hours (or Daily)
numerous moisture traps located throughout the • Maintain lubricant level between high- and low-level
system. Traps need to be inspected periodically to marks on bayonet gauge. (Discoloration or a higher
ensure that they are not stuck in either the open or lubricant level reading may indicate the presence of
closed position. An automatic trap stuck in the open condensed liquids). If lubricant is contaminated,
position will leak compressed air; a trap stuck in the drain and replace.
closed position will cause condensate to backup and • Drain receiver tank, drop legs and traps in the
be carried downstream where it can damage other distribution system.
system components. Traps stuck in the open position • Give compressor an overall visual inspection and be
can be a major source of wasted energy. sure safety guards are in place.
End-Use Filters, Regulators, and Lubricators. Point-of- • Check for any unusual noise or vibration.
use filters, regulators, and lubricators are needed to • Check lubricant pressure on pressure lubricated units.
ensure that a tool is receiving a clean, lubricated Maintain 18 to 20 psig when compressor is at
supply of air at the proper pressure. Filters should be operating pressure and temperature. High-pressure
inspected periodically because a clogged filter will rated compressors should maintain 22 to 25 psig of
increase pressure drop, which can either reduce lubricant pressure.
pressure at the point-of-use or increase the pressure • Check for lubricant leaks.
required from the compressor, thereby consuming
excessive energy. A filter that is not operating properly Every 40 Hours (or Weekly)
will also allow contaminants into a tool, causing it to • Be certain pressure relief valves are working.
wear out prematurely. The lubricant level should also • Clean the cooling surfaces of the intercooler and
be checked often enough to ensure that it does not compressor.
run dry. Tools that are not properly lubricated will • Check the compressor for air leaks.
wear prematurely and use excess energy. • Check the compressed air distribution system for
leaks.
Leaks • Inspect lubricant for contamination and change if
Leak detection and repair is an important part of necessary.
any maintenance program. For more information on • Clean or replace the air intake filter. Check more
finding and fixing leaks, see the fact sheet Compressed often under humid or dusty conditions.
Air System Leaks.
Every 160 Hours (or Monthly)
• Check belt tension.
Maintenance Schedules
Establishing a regular, well-organized maintenance
program and strictly following it is critical to main-
Every 500 Hours (or 3 Months)
taining the performance of a compressed air system. • Change lubricant (more frequently in harsher
One person should be given the responsibility of environments).
ensuring that all maintenance is performed properly, • Check lubricant filter on pressure lubricated units
on schedule, and is adequately documented. (more frequently in harsher environments).
The following are typical recommended minimum • Torque pulley-clamp screws or jam-nut.
maintenance procedures for air-cooled reciprocating
compressors; water-cooled, double-acting reciprocating Every 1,000 Hours (or 6 Months)
compressors; lubricant-injected rotary compressors; • When synthetic lubricant is used, lubricant change
lubricant-free rotary compressors; and centrifugal intervals may be extended to every 1,000 hours or
compressors. every 6 months, whichever occurs first (change
more frequently in harsher conditions).

• Inspect compressor valves for leakage and/or carbon • Check cylinder jacket cooling water temperatures.
build-up. The lubricant sump strainer screen inside • Check capacity control operation. Observe discharge
the crankcase of pressure-lubricated models should pressure gauge for proper LOAD and UNLOAD
be thoroughly cleaned with a safety solvent during pressures.
every lubricant change. If excessive sludge build-up • Drain control line strainer.
exists inside the crankcase, clean the inside of the • Check operation of automatic condensate drain trap
crankcase as well as the screen. Never use a flammable (intercooler and aftercooler).
or toxic solvent for cleaning. Always use a safety • Drain condensate from discharge piping as applicable
solvent and follow the directions provided. (dropleg and receiver).
• Check intercooler pressure on multi-stage machines,
Every 2,000 Hours (or 12 Months) and refer to manufacturer’s manual if pressure is not
• Inspect the pressure switch diaphragm and contacts. as specified.
Inspect the contact points in the motor starter.
Every 360 Hours (or Monthly)*
Lubrication • Check piston rod packing for leaks and for blow-by
Compressors may be shipped without lubricant in at gland. Repair or replace as necessary per manufac-
the crankcase. Before starting the compressor, add turer’s manual.
enough lubricant to the crankcase to register between • Inspect lubricant scraper rings for leakage. Replace as
the high and low marks on the dipstick or on bull’s necessary per manufacturer’s manual.
eye sight gauge. Use the specified lubricant or consult • Inspect air intake filter. Clean or replace as necessary.
the manufacturer for recommendations. • Drain lubricant strainer/filter sediment.
Certain synthetic lubricants have proven under • Lubricate unloader mechanism per manufacturer’s
extensive testing to minimize friction and wear, limit manual.
lubricant carryover, and reduce carbon and varnish • Check motor amperes (amps) at compressor full-
deposits. They will support the performance capacity and pressure.
characteristics and life and are highly recommended.
Refer to the manufacturer’s specifications to determine Every 3,000 Hours (or Semi-Annually)*
the correct amount of lubricant and viscosity to use • Perform valve inspection per manufacturer’s manual.
for your model and application. Use the supplier’s • Inspect cylinder or cylinder liner, through valve
lubricant analysis program. port, for scoring.
• Change crankcase lubricant, if required.
Routine Maintenance for • Clean crankcase breather, if provided.
• Change lubricant filter element.
Water-Cooled, Double-Acting
• Remove and clean control air filter/strainer element.
Reciprocating Compressors • Check all safety devices for proper operation.
• Perform piston ring inspection on non-lubricated
The following are typical minimum maintenance design. Replace as necessary per manufacturer’s
requirements for this type of compressor. manual.
Every 8 Hours (or Daily)* Every 6,000 Hours (or Annually)*

• Check compressor lubricant level in crankcase and • Remove and clean crankcase lubricant strainer.
cylinder lubricator and, if necessary, add to level • Check foundation bolts for tightness. Adjust as
indicated by sight gauge. necessary.
• Check cylinder lubrication feed rate and adjust, as • Perform piston ring inspection. Replace as necessary
necessary. per manufacturer’s manual.
• Check lubricant pressure and adjust as necessary to
meet specified operating pressure.
* Whichever interval is sooner. Experience gained from a well-kept maintenance log may allow the recommended times to be adjusted.

Routine Maintenance for relatively minimal. The microprocessor control panel

monitors the status of the air and lubricant filters.
Lubricant-Injected Rotary Compressor
When maintenance to either device is required, the
control panel may display the appropriate maintenance
The following are typical minimum maintenance message and flash the location on the display as a
requirements. visual remainder.
Do not remove caps, plugs, and/or other components
Periodically/Daily (8 Hours Maximum) when compressor is running or pressurized. Stop
• Monitor all gauges and indicators for normal compressor and relieve all internal pressure before
operation. doing so.
• Check lubricant level and top off as necessary.
• Check for lubricant leaks. Daily
• Check for unusual noise or vibration. Following a routine start, observe the various control
• Drain water from air/lubricant reservoir. panel displays and local gauges to check that normal
• Drain control line filter. readings are being displayed. Previous records are very
helpful in determining the normalcy of the measure-
Weekly ments. These observations should be made during all
• Check safety valve operation. expected modes of operation (i.e., full-load, no-load,
different line pressures, and cooling water temperatures).
Monthly
• Service air filter as needed (daily or weekly if After Initial 50 Hours of Operation
extremely dusty conditions exist). Upon completion of the first 50 hours of operation,
• Wipe down entire unit to maintain appearance. essential readings of operating conditions should be
• Check drive motor amps at compressor full capacity verified and any necessary adjustments made.
and design pressure.
• Check operation of all controls. Every 3,000 Hours of Operation
• Check operation of lubricant scavenger/return system. The following items should be checked every 3,000
Clean, as necessary. hours of operation, although service conditions, such as
relative cleanliness of process air or quality of cooling
6 Months Or Every 1,000 Hours water, may require shorter inspection intervals.
• Take lubricant sample.
• Check/change lubricant charge and filter element.
• Change lubricant filter.*
• Check/change air filter element.
Periodically/Annually • Check/change sump-breather filter element.
• Go over unit and check all bolts for tightness. • Check/clean control line filter element.
• Change air/lubricant separator. • Check/clean condensate drain valve.
• Change air filter. • Check condition of shaft coupling element and
• Lubricate motors per manufacturer’s instructions. tightness of fasteners.
• Check safety shutdown system. Contact authorized • Measure and record vibration signatures on
serviceperson. compressor, gearbox, and motor (optional).
• Annual rebuilding of the inlet valve is normally
Routine Maintenance for Lubricant-Free recommended.
Rotary Screw Compressor
Note: Please refer to the motor manufacturer’s
documentation for recommended maintenance. Keep
The following are typical minimum requirements in mind that the specified type and quantity of
for this type of compressor. Routine maintenance is lubricating grease for motor bearings is crucial.
* Manufacturers may recommend changing the lubricant filter within the first week of operation to rid the system of foreign matter which may
have collected during initial assembly and start-up.

Every 15,000 Hours of Operation • Check lubricant sump level and adjust as necessary.
In addition to those items covered in the 3,000-hour • Check drive motor for smooth operation and record
maintenance interval, the following items must also be amps.
checked every 15,000 hours of operation, depending
upon conditions of service. Every 3 Months
• Operate/test all safety devices. • Check lubricant filter differential pressure. Replace
element as necessary.
• Check/clean heat exchangers.
• Check lubricant sump venting system. Replace filter
• Check/clean blowdown valve. elements as necessary.
• Check operation of balancing switch/valve assembly. • Check operation of capacity control system.
• Check/clean water regulating valve. • Check operation of surge control system.
• Check/clean check valve. • Check main-drive motor amps at full-load operation.
• Check/clean galvanized interstage pipe work. • Check automatic drain traps and strainers. Clean
• Check condition of isolation mounts under and/or replace as necessary.
compressor unit and motor.
Every 6 Months
• Check/clean strainer and check valve included in
• Check air-inlet filter and replace element as
lubricant pump suction line, inside lubricant sump.
necessary.
Be aware that work on the compressor stages and • Take oil sample for analysis. Replace lubricant as
gearbox must be conducted by manufacturer’s necessary.
personnel only. Any work done by unauthorized
personnel can render the manufacturer’s equipment Annually
warranty null and void. • Inspect intercooler, aftercooler, and lubricant cooler.
Clean and/or replace as necessary.
Parts Replacement and Adjustment Procedures • Inspect main drive motor for loose mounting bolts,
Familiarize yourself with the safety guidelines offered frayed or worn electrical cables, and accumulated
in the safety section of the manufacturer’s manual dirt. Follow manufacturer’s recommendations,
before attempting any maintenance on the package. including lubrication.
• Inspect main drive coupling for alignment and
Routine Maintenance for required lubrication.
Centrifugal Air Compressors • Inspect gearbox for loose mounting bolts, vibration,
unusual noise or wear and axial clearances per
manufacturer’s manual.
The following are typical maintenance requirements • Check impeller inlets and diffusers for signs of wear,
for this type of compressor. rubbing or cracking.
• Check control panel for complete and proper
Daily operation.
• Record operating air inlet, interstage and discharge • Check all control valves for proper operation.
pressures and temperatures. • Check all safety devices for proper settings and
• Record cooling water inlet and outlet pressures and operation.
temperatures. • Inspect check valve; replace worn parts.
• Record lubricant pressure and temperatures.
• Record all vibration levels. Keep all components/accessories clean and follow all
• Check air-inlet filter differential pressure. recommended safety procedures.
• Check proper operation of drain traps.
• Drain control air filter.
• Check for leaks, air, water, and lubricant. Repair and
clean as necessary.

9–Heat Recovery and Compressed Air Systems
Heat Recovery and Compressed Air Systems
As much as 80 to 93 percent of the electrical energy Caution should be applied if the supply air for the
used by an industrial air compressor is converted into compressor is not from outside, and the recovered
heat. In many cases, a properly designed heat recovery heat is used in another space, because this can cause a
unit can recover anywhere from 50 to 90 percent of decrease in the static pressure in the cabinet and
this available thermal energy and put it to useful work reduce the efficiency of the compressor. If outside air
heating air or water. is used, some return air may be required to avoid
Typical uses for recovered heat include supplemental damaging the compressor with below freezing air.
space heating, industrial process heating, water heating, Heating Water. Using a heat exchanger, it is also pos-
makeup air heating, and boiler makeup water preheating. sible to extract waste heat from the lubricant coolers
Recoverable heat from a compressed air system however, found in packaged water-cooled, reciprocating or
is usually not hot enough to produce steam directly. rotary screw compressors and produce hot water.
Heat recovery systems are available for both air- Depending on design, heat exchangers can heat
and water-cooled compressors. non-potable (gray) or potable water. When hot water is
not required, the lubricant is routed to the standard
Heat Recovery with Air-Cooled, Rotary Screw lubricant cooler.
Compressors Hot water can be used in central heating or
Heating Air. Air-cooled, packaged, rotary screw boiler systems, industrial cleaning processes, plating
compressors are very amenable to heat recovery for space operations, heat pumps, laundries, or any other
heating or other hot air uses. Ambient atmospheric air application where hot water is required. Heat exchangers
is heated by passing it across the system’s aftercooler also offer an opportunity to produce hot air and hot
and lubricant cooler, where it extracts heat from both water, and allow the operator some ability to vary the
the compressed air and the lubricant that is used to hot air/hot water ratio.
lubricate and cool the compressor.
Because packaged compressors are typically enclosed Heat Recovery with Water-Cooled Compressors
in cabinets and already include heat exchangers and Heat recovery for space heating is not as common
fans, the only system modifications needed are the with water-cooled compressors because an extra stage
addition of ducting and possibly another fan to handle of heat exchange is required and the temperature of
the duct loading and to eliminate any back pressure the available heat is lower. Because many water-cooled
on the compressor cooling fan. These heat recovery compressors are quite large, however, heat recovery for
systems can be modulated with a simple, thermostatically space heating can be an attractive opportunity.
controlled hinged vent. When heating is not required Recovery efficiencies of 50 to 60 percent are typical.
—such as in the summer months—the hot air can be
ducted outside the building. The vent can also be Calculating Energy Savings
thermostatically regulated to provide a constant When calculating energy savings and payback
temperature for a heated area. periods for heat recovery units, it is important to
Hot air can be used for space heating, industrial compare heat recovery with the current source of
drying, preheating aspirated air for oil burners, or energy for generating thermal energy, which may be a
any other application requiring warm air. As a rule, low-price fossil fuel, such as natural gas. The equations
approximately 50,000 British thermal units (Btu) per in the text box on the next page illustrate the annual
hour of energy is available for each 100 cfm of capacity energy and costs savings available by recovering heat
(at full-load). Air temperatures of 30 to 40°F above the for space heating from an air-cooled, rotary screw
cooling air inlet temperature can be obtained. Recovery compressor. Applications where the existing heater is
efficiencies of 80 to 90 percent are common. less than 85 percent efficient will see proportionally
higher savings.

9–Heat Recovery and Compressed Air Systems
Energy Savings Calculations
Energy savings (Btu/yr) = 0.80 x compressor bhp x 2,545 Btu/bhp-hour x hours of operation
Example: A 100-hp compressor running two shifts, 5 days per week

(0.80) x (100 bhp) x (2,545 Btu/bhp-hour) x (4,160 hours per year) =
846,976,000 Btu per year
where: 0.80 is the recoverable heat as a percentage of the unit’s output

2,545 is a conversion factor
Cost savings ($/yr) = [(Energy savings in Btu/yr)/(Btu/unit of fuel) x ($/unit fuel)]/ Primary heater efficiency
Example: Waste heat will be displacing heat produced by a natural gas forced-air system with an efficiency of 85%
[(846,976,000 Btu per year)/(100,000 Btu/therm)x($0.60/therm)]/0.85 =
$5,979 per year
* Cost of operating an additional fan for duct loading has not been included.

10–Baselining Compressed Air Systems
Baselining Compressed Air Systems
The purpose of baselining or benchmarking is to • Ultrasonic leak detector—These portable units

establish current performance levels and costs of a consist of directional microphones, amplifiers, and
compressed air system, and to correlate the results audio filters, and usually have either visual indicators
with your plant’s present production levels. As you or earphones to detect leaks.
make improvements to your system, it will be possible • Flow meter—Factors to consider in selecting flow
to estimate the success by comparing the new meters include type (in-line or insertion), ease of
measurements with the original baseline. installation, life cycle cost (including possible
First, measurements of the system need to be pressure drop, such as orifice plates and maintenance),
taken. This requires the measurement of power, and accuracy (repeatability and turndown range).
pressure, flow, and temperature. These measurements
will be used in calculations to baseline system What To Measure
performance and energy consumption correlated to Baselining a system requires measurement of
the plant production levels. Correlation to plant power, pressure, flow, and temperature under different
production levels is required to normalize data and operating conditions, and also estimating leak load.
perform an “apples-to-apples” comparison. Each is discussed below. Please refer to all operation
Energy saving measures implemented on both the and safety instructions provided with measurement
supply and demand sides of the system, combined equipment before using it.
with proper compressor controls, will result in reduced
energy consumption. This should be documented Power
through continued measurements, again correlated to Energy is measured in order to estimate the annual
your plant’s production levels. electricity consumption of a compressed air system.
Some companies will also benchmark their A hook-on amp/volt meter or a wattmeter will be
compressed air systems against similar plants in their required. The current and voltage into the compressor
company, and sometimes even compare individual should be measured. Full-load and no-load input
compressors. power to the compressor should be measured.
For three-phase systems, power can be estimated
Tools You Will Need by the following equation.
Properly baselining and monitoring a compressed
air system requires the right tools. The following tools kW = 1.73 x volts x amps x power factor*
are required. 1,000
• Infrared gun—Infrared guns measure heat radiated
(*Assume 0.85 power factor at full-load for 1,800 rpm
from a piece of equipment in order to determine
motors, check with motor manufacturer for more
the surface temperature.
accurate calculations.)
• Matched, calibrated pressure gauges or differential
pressure gauges. Using a wattmeter provides a direct reading of kW
• Hook-on amp/volt meter (or kW meter). with no calculation or power factor adjustment.
• Data logger—Data loggers are used in conjunction
with other measurement devices to record multiple Pressure
readings over a period of time. Data loggers are Pressure is measured to give feedback for control
used to create plant pressure and energy consumption adjustments, and to determine pressure drops across
profiles, and can be important tools in developing a equipment. A calibrated pressure gauge is required.
control strategy for a compressed air system. The following pressure measurements should be taken
when baselining a system.

• Inlet to compressor (monitor inlet filter) Using Power, Pressure, and Flow to Baseline
• Differential across air/lubricant separator for a System Performance and Energy Consumption
lubricated rotary compressor Using the techniques described previously,
• Interstage on multistage machines determine both cfm at psig and energy consumption
• Pressure differentials, including, (kW x hours) per unit of production. Always correlate
– Aftercooler to production levels for a true measure of air compressor
– Treatment equipment (dryers, filters, etc.) system performance.
– Various points in the distribution system. Other parameters to monitor over time include:
Flow • cfm at psig per kW

Flow meters are necessary to measure total flow • psig
and to determine consumption. Flow should be • Pressure drop across various components.
measured:
The expectation is that energy use will go down,
• During various shifts assuming, of course, that production does not rise
• As energy saving measures are implemented with a corresponding increase in the compressed air
• For leaks during non-production periods. loads. If production does not rise, and the pressure
goes up, adjust controls appropriately.
Flow meters should be of the mass flow design to
compensate for pressure and temperature variations Estimating Leak Load
and, if practical, should be suitable to measure the For compressors that use start/stop controls, there
output of each individual compressor in the system. is an easy way to estimate the amount of leakage in
The mass flow is based upon standard reference the system. This method involves starting the
conditions, which should be checked for the compressor when there are no demands on the system
specific instrument used. (when all the air-operated, end-use equipment is turned
off). A number of measurements are taken to determine
Temperature the average time to load and unload the compressor.
Temperature measurements help to indicate if The compressor will load and unload because the air
equipment is operating at peak performance. Generally, leaks will cause the compressor to cycle on and off as
equipment that runs hotter than specified parameters the pressure drops from air escaping through the leaks.
is not performing at peak efficiency and requires Total leakage (percentage) can be calculated as follows:
service. The following temperature measurements
should be taken when baselining a system. Leakage (%) = [(T x 100)/(T+t)]
• Aftercooler and intercoolers cold temperature
where: T=on-load time (minutes)
difference or approach temperature of cold water
t=off-load time (minutes)
inlet to cooled air outlet. Because dryers are normally
designed at 100°F maximum inlet air temperature,
Leakage will be expressed in terms of the percentage
some remedial action may be required if aftercooler
of compressor capacity lost. The percentage lost to
outlet temperatures exceed 100°F.
leakage should be less than 10 percent in a well-
• For rotary-lubricated compressors, the air discharge maintained system. Poorly maintained systems can
temperatures must be maintained for reliable have losses as high as 20 to 30 percent of air capacity
compressor performance. Normal operation requires and power.
temperatures below 200°F. Leakage can be estimated in systems with other
• Inlet air temperature. control strategies if there is a pressure gauge down-
stream of the receiver. This method requires an
estimate of total system volume, including any down-
stream secondary air receivers, air mains, and piping
(V, in cubic feet). The system is then started and

brought to the normal operating pressure (P1).

Measurements should then be taken of the time (T) it
takes for the system to drop to a lower pressure (P2),
which should be a point equal to about one-half the
operating pressure.
Leakage can be calculated as follows:
Leakage (cfm free air ) =

(V x (P1-P2)/T x 14.7) x 1.25
where: V is in cubic feet

P1 and P2 are in psig
T is in minutes
The 1.25 multiplier corrects leakage to normal

system pressure, allowing for reduced leakage with
falling system pressure. Again, leakage of greater than
10 percent indicates that the system can likely be
improved. These tests should be carried out quarterly
as part of a regular leak detection and repair program.


11–Determining Your Compressed Air System Analysis Needs
Determining Your Compressed Air System Analysis Needs
A compressed air system analysis can highlight the This information is also taken from the CAC’s
true costs of compressed air and identify opportunities Guidelines for Selecting a Compressed Air Service Provider.
to improve efficiency and productivity. Familiarity with the Systems Approach. The CAC
Compressed air system users should consider using provides Fundamentals of Compressed Air Systems
an auditor to analyze their compressed air system. A and Advanced Management of Compressed Air Systems
number of firms specialize in compressed air system training to end users and service providers. One way
analysis. System analysis is also performed by electric to gauge a service provider’s commitment to the
utilities, equipment distributors and manufacturers, systems approach is whether they have staff who have
energy service companies, and engineering firms. An received CAC training. If they do, ask whether these
informed consumer should be aware that the quality individuals will be providing or supervising services
and comprehensiveness of system analysis can vary. for your facility. Providers who are familiar with using
Independent auditors should provide recommendations a systems approach are much more likely to address
that are systems-neutral and commercially impartial. situations, both inside and outside the compressor
Independent auditors should neither specify nor room, that affect the reliability of your compressed air
recommend any particular manufacturer’s products. supply.
A comprehensive compressed air system analysis Availability of Compressed Air System Analysis Services.
should include an examination of both air supply and Does the provider offer compressed air system analysis
usage and the interaction between the supply and services? If yes, how well do these services fit your
demand. Auditors typically measure the output of a needs? If no, can the provider outsource these services
compressed air system, calculate energy consumption to an experienced system specialist? How experienced
in kilowatt-hours, and determine the annual cost of are the individuals who will be providing these services?
operating the system. The auditor may also measure Once a walk-through, assessment, or audit is
total air losses caused by leaks and locate those that performed, what kind of follow-up services are available
are significant. All components of the compressed air to ensure that the recommendations are properly
system are inspected individually and problem areas implemented and produce the desired results? Ask for
are identified. Losses and poor performance caused by a sample of similar work that the provider has done
system leaks, inappropriate uses, demand events, poor for others, resumés of the personnel who will be
system design, system misuse, and total system performing the work, and client references. Please note
dynamics are calculated, and a written report with a that while leak detection is a useful element of a system
recommended course of action is provided. assessment, a true system assessment should include
The Compressed Air Challenge® (CAC) has devel- much more. See www.compressedairchallenge.org for
oped guidelines to define three levels of system analysis additional guidance.
services, independent of the type of firm offering these Important Note: Recommendations resulting from
services. These three levels of service include: a walk- system analysis activities should provide product-
through evaluation (1/2 to 2 days), a system assessment neutral solutions to system problems and include,
(2 to 5 days), and a fully-instrumented audit (3 to only if needed, performance-based rather than brand-
10 days). More information on these services can by based equipment recommendations.
found in the CAC’s Guidelines for Selecting a Compressed Compressor Knowledge and Expertise. Does the service
Air Service Provider. (See Appendix E.) provider have the expertise to work on your equip-
ment? Can the service provider work on all types of
Selecting a Service Provider compressors in your facility? How much experience do
In selecting a service provider, a compressed air the service technicians have? How are the service
user should consider the following outlined below. technicians trained? Is formal schooling involved?
Knowledgeable service technicians are worth the

premium price they may demand because of their System issues go beyond examining the performance
ability to troubleshoot and get equipment back on of an individual compressed air system component
line efficiently and effectively. and, instead, examine how components on both the
System Components and Controls Knowledge and supply and demand sides of the system interact.
Expertise. Auditors typically address a number of systems issues.
• Treatment, accessory, and ancillary equipment— These are discussed below, and many are addressed in
Does the service provider have the expertise to more detail in other compressed air systems fact
perform refrigeration and other work on dryers and sheets.
related equipment? Is the service provider capable of Level of Air Treatment. The auditor typically examines
servicing the types of filters, drains, distribution and the compressed air applications and determines the
point-of-use equipment found in your facility? appropriate level of air treatment required for proper
• System controls—Does the service provider have the operation of the equipment. Actual air quality levels are
diagnostic and technical controls capability to then measured. If the air is not being treated enough,
determine how to optimize your existing control alternative treatment strategies are recommended. If
configuration and make recommendations for the air is being overtreated (an indication of energy
improvements? Can they help network compressors being wasted), recommendations are made to modify
together or remotely monitor, if necessary? Advanced the system. In some cases, only certain end-use equip-
controls can save energy as well as improve reliability ment requires highly treated air, and the auditor may
through automatic start and stop, as well as turning recommend a system that allows for different treatment
compressors off that can then serve as back-ups. levels at different points in the system.
Advance warning through remote monitoring may Leaks. The auditor should identify and quantify
help identify a problem before it turns into a major leaks in the system and recommend a leak management
shutdown. program.
Company Capabilities. Ask about the standards of Pressure Levels. An auditor also typically determines
performance that the prospective service provider has the lowest possible pressure level required to operate
established for: production equipment effectively. In many cases,
system pressure can be lowered, thereby saving energy.
• Emergency service response
Most systems have one or more critical applications
• Parts shipments that determine the minimum acceptable pressure in
• Other factors which may influence your decision, the system. In some cases, the application of dedicated
such as: storage or differential reduction on the critical
– Installation capabilities internally or applications will allow a reduction in overall system
through a mechanical contractor pressure.
– Emergency rental fleet availability—electric Controls. The existing control system is evaluated
or portable diesel driven. to determine if it is appropriate for the system
• Your company may request information on the demand profile. Performance gains available from
service provider’s: operating the system in a different mode or using an
– Financial stability alternative control strategy should be estimated.
– Insurance coverage Heat Recovery. Auditors will identify potential
– Compliance with specific government applications for the use of heat recovery, if it is not
regulations or those of your company. already being used.
Service Facilities. Visit the facilities of two or three Demand-Side Issues

service providers under consideration to see first hand The demand side of the system refers to how
the type of repair shop and parts warehouse with compressed air is actually used in the plant.
which you will be dealing. Distribution System. The overall layout of the
Important aspects of a basic compressed air system distribution system (piping) is examined. Pressure
audit are discussed below. drop and efficiency are measured or estimated, and
System Issues the effectiveness of the condensate removal system is

evaluated. Simple changes that can enhance system cooling effectiveness, and condensate separation
performance are suggested if appropriate. effectiveness are all measured and evaluated, and
Load Profile. Auditors typically estimate the feasible modifications or alternative systems are
compressed air load profile in terms of how the recommended.
demand in cfm changes over time. A facility with a Dryer. Dryer appropriateness is assessed based on
varying load profile will likely benefit from advanced the facility’s end-use applications. Dryer size, pressure
control strategies. A facility with short periods of drop, and efficiency are measured and evaluated.
heavy demand may benefit from implementing Modifications and replacements are recommended if
storage options. needed.
To establish the load profile, an auditor will Automatic Drains. Location, application, and
measure system flow and pressure across the system effectiveness of both supply-side and demand-side
under different demand conditions, while observing drains are evaluated and alternatives recommended if
the loading effect on the existing compressors. This necessary.
may require a number of measurements over a Air Receiver/Storage. The effectiveness of the receiver
24-hour period (or even several days) if demand varies tank is evaluated in terms of location and size, and the
significantly over time. Auditors may use data logging receiver drain trap is examined to see if it is operating
equipment to obtain both demand and power properly. Storage solutions to control demand events
consumption profiles. should also be investigated.
End-Use Equipment. The equipment and processes
that use compressed air will also be examined. In More Comprehensive Evaluations
some cases, recommendations, such as specifying A comprehensive evaluation may also include
equipment that operates at a lower pressure, will be extensive measurements and analysis of supply and
made. An auditor may also recommend replacing demand interactions. Some auditors will also prepare a
existing compressed air-powered equipment with detailed systems flow diagram. A financial evaluation
equipment that uses a source of energy other than may also be performed, including current and
compressed air. (See the fact sheet titled Potentially proposed costs after retrofits are taken.
Inappropriate Uses of Compressed Air.) Critical pressure
applications are examined in detail. Local storage and
other modifications may be recommended.
Supply-Side Issues
The supply side refers to how the compressed air is
generated and treated.
Compressor Package. The compressors are evaluated
in terms of appropriateness for the application and
general appearance and condition. Compressor
efficiency is usually estimated based on manufacturer-
supplied data, corrected to site conditions. The
installation is also evaluated in terms of its location,
connection to cooling water, and ventilation. A
general appraisal and any recommendations for
alternative systems are also made.
Filters. Filters are examined for cleanliness and
suitability for the application. Pressure drop across the
filters is measured to estimate energy losses from the
filter. A maintenance schedule for changing the filters,
and possibly higher performance filters, may be
recommended.
Aftercooler. Aftercooler and separator efficiency,


12–Compressed Air System Economics and Selling Projects to Management
Compressed Air System Economics and Selling Projects to Management
Delivering compressed air to a manufacturing facility

Simple Calculation
is an expensive operation. Delivery requires costly
(100-hp Compressor)
equipment that consumes significant amounts of
electricity and needs frequent maintenance. In spite of Annual electricity costs =
this, many facilities have no idea how much their (Motor full-load bhp) x (0.746 kW/hp) x (1/0.90) x (Annual hours
compressed air systems cost on an annual basis, or of operation) x (Electricity cost in $/kWh)
how much money they could save by improving the
performance of these systems. For example:
Costs are by far the largest expense of owning and
Compressor full-load bhp = 100 hp
operating a compressed air system. The initial cost for
Annual hours of operation = 8,760 hours (3-shift, continuous
a 100-hp compressor is $30,000 to $50,000, depending operation)
on the type of compressor and manufacturer, while Cost of electricity = $0.05/kWh
annual electricity charges for the same system can
reach $50,000. Added to this are annual maintenance Annual electricity costs =
costs, which can be 10 percent or more of the initial (100 hp) x (0.746 hp/kW) x (1/0.9) x (8,760 hours) x ($0.05/kWh)
cost of the system. = $36,305
This fact sheet shows a simple calculation to
estimate annual electricity costs and a more accurate
calculation requiring electrical measurements. This equation assumes the electric motor driving
the compressor is 90 percent efficient (the 90 in the
Calculating Electricity Costs 1/0.90 factor). Newer energy-efficient motors have
Full-Load Operation. Even if an air compressor is not even higher efficiencies, especially since the Energy
separately metered, estimating annual electricity cost Policy Act minimum motor efficiency levels went into
is simple. For more analysis techniques, see the effect in late 1997. If the system uses an older motor
AIRMaster+ software referenced in the Resource and that has been rewound several times, or has a smaller
Tools section, and/or call the Compressed Air motor, 80 percent efficiency (or the motor nameplate
Challenge® number listed in the Directory section. efficiency rating) should be used. For a more accurate
A Simple Calculation. The following data is needed analysis, add the horsepower ratings for the parasitic
for a quick calculation of electricity costs for a loads from any auxiliary motors to the compressor
compressor operating at full-load. motor rating.
It should be noted that the common practice in
• Compressor motor nameplate rating (bhp) the industry is to apply motors having a 15 percent
• Motor nameplate efficiency (or an estimate of continuous service factor and to use about two-thirds
efficiency) of this service factor. This means that a motor having
• Annual hours of operation (hours/year) a nominal nameplate rating of 100 hp may, in fact,
• Cost of electricity in dollars per kilowatt-hour be loaded to 110 bhp at compressor full capacity and
($/kWh). pressure. This may not be expressed in the manufac-
turer’s sales literature, however, engineering data
Annual electricity costs can be calculated by sheets for the specific compressor should be consulted.
inserting this information into the equation as If the motor is running into the service factor, the
follows: higher horsepower estimate should be used instead of
the nameplate horsepower rating.

A Calculation with Measurements. A more accurate way “tiers” with the percentage of time running at different
to determine electricity consumption and costs involves percentages of load. Manufacturers’ data on energy
taking electrical measurements of both full-load amps consumption for the different percentages of load will
and volts. Motor full-load bhp and efficiency are not be needed.
required for this calculation, although full-load power The text box below shows an example calculation
factor, which can be obtained from motor manufacturers, taking into account unloaded operation.
is required. The calculation measures voltage and Remember, the calculations shown will only
full-load amps, converts to full-load kW, and then provide a good estimate of energy consumption, not
multiplies by hours of operation and electricity costs. an exact number.
A calculation is shown below.
Calculation With Part-Load Operation
More Detailed Calculation (100-hp Compressor)
(100-hp Compressor)
Annual electricity costs =
Annual electricity costs = [(Motor full-load brake horsepower) x (0.746 kW/hp) x (1/0.90) x
[(Full-load amps) x (volts) x (1.732) x (power factor)]/1000) x (Annual hours of operation) x (Electricity cost in $/kWh)] x
(Annual hours of operation) x (Electricity cost in $/kWh) [(Percent of time running fully loaded) + (0.30) x (Percent of
time running fully unloaded)]
For example:
For example:
Full-load amps = 115 amps
Voltage = 460 volts Motor full-load bhp = 100 hp
Full-load power factor = 0.85* Annual hours of operation = 8,760 hours (3-shift, continuous
Annual hours of operation = 8,760 hours (3-shift, continuous operation)
operation) Runs 65% of the time fully loaded, 35% of the time unloaded
Cost of electricity = $0.05/kWh Fully unloaded operation consumes 30 percent of the electricity
of fully loaded operation
Annual electricity costs = Cost of electricity = $0.05/kWh
[(115 amps) x (460 volts) x (1.732) x (0.85)]/1000) x
(8,760 hours) x ($0.05/kWh) Annual electricity costs =
= $34,111 [(100 hp) x (0.746 hp/kW) x (1/0.9) x (8,760 hours) x
($0.05/kWh)] x [0.65 + (0.30) x (0.35)]
*from motor manufacturer
= $27,410
Part-Load Operation. If the compressed air system

Energy and Demand Charges—Understanding Your
operates below full-load at times, and has a good
Electricity Bill. The calculations shown previously use
control system, electricity costs will be less than if
electricity rates stated in terms of $/kWh. Electric
the compressor ran at full-load during all hours of
utilities bill industrial customers using more complicated
operation. Estimate the percentage of time the
rate structures that typically include both energy
compressor is running at full-load, and add the
($/kWh) and demand charges ($/kW), and have
percentage as another multiplier in the equation shown
different rates depending on the level of consumption
previously. Repeat the calculation for the percentage of
or seasons. Demand charges are based on the peak
time the compressor is running unloaded (or at part-
demand for a given month or season and can have
load) and include a factor to compensate for the
significant impacts on electricity costs for some
reduced load on the motor (0.20 to 0.30 is a good
customers. When the economic impacts of efficiency
estimate for fully unloaded operation for rotary screw
measures are calculated, the actual marginal cost of
compressors and 0.10 to 0.15 for reciprocating com-
the electricity needs to be considered, taking into
pressors—0.30 is used in the equation in the next text
account energy and demand charges, seasonal rates,
box). Add the two results for total energy costs.
and different rates for different levels of consumption.
For a more accurate calculation of energy costs for
compressors running at part-load, create a number of

Pressure and Electricity Cost Too many decisions regarding compressed air
High-pressure air is more expensive to produce systems are made on a first-cost basis, or with an “if it
and deliver than low-pressure air. A rule of thumb for ain’t broke, don’t fix it” attitude. To achieve optimum
systems in the 100 psig range is: for every 2 psi increase compressed air system economics, compressed air
in discharge pressure, energy consumption will increase system users should select equipment based on life-
by approximately 1 percent at full output flow (check cycle economics, properly size components, operate
performance curves for centrifugal and two-stage, equipment at the lowest possible pressure, turn off
lubricant-injected, rotary screw compressors). There is unneeded compressors, use appropriate control and
also another penalty for higher-than-needed pressure. storage strategies, and operate and maintain the
Raising the compressor discharge pressure increases equipment for peak performance.
the demand of every unregulated usage, including
leaks, open blowing, etc. Although it varies by plant, Selling Projects to Management
unregulated usage is commonly as high as 30 to Once you have defined your project and potential
50 percent of air demand. For systems in the 100 psig benefits and are ready to start work, what do you do
range with 30 to 50 percent unregulated usage, a 2 psi next? If you are in the same situation as most plant
increase in header pressure will increase energy engineering personnel, you need to request funding
consumption by about another 0.6 to 1.0 percent for the project from your management. Few individuals
because of the additional unregulated air being have the ability to make a major expenditure of funds
consumed. The combined effect results in a total without approval. All of the work done to create a
increase in energy consumption of about 1.6 to block diagram, perform baselining, locate opportunities
2 percent for every 2 psi increase in discharge pressure to save money, and organize a plan of action to reduce
for a system in the 100 psig range with 30 to costs could be a waste of time if sufficient funding
50 percent unregulated usage. cannot be obtained from management to implement
Savings From Performance Improvements. Because of the the change. Factors to consider to secure funding will
relatively low initial cost of the compressor when be discussed. Topics will be covered in general, rather
compared to lifetime electricity expenses, users should than specifics, since each firm potentially requires a
utilize life-cycle cost analysis when making decisions different approval process.
about compressed air systems. In addition, a highly Financial management in any firm is focused on
efficient compressed air system is not merely a system maximizing profit in that firm’s or that plant’s
with an energy-efficient motor or efficient compressor operation. Any money spent to improve a process or
design. Overall system efficiency is the key to maximum system in the plant is an expenditure that erodes the
cost savings. Too often users are only concerned with short-term profitability of that operation. This does
initial cost and accept the lowest bid on a compressed not mean that management is opposed to spending
air system, ignoring system efficiency. money. It does mean that management will select to
Thorough analysis and design will be required to spend funds on projects that will increase profitability
obtain an efficient system. Many compressed air within a period of time that they set. If you offer
system users neglect these areas, thinking they are suggestions or recommendations for a project that will
saving money, but end up spending much more in save more money than it costs, you will get attention
energy and maintenance costs. from your management. For example, if you have a
Following the steps outlined in this sourcebook project in mind that will cost $100,000, and it will
can lead to substantial energy savings for most decrease energy consumption by $125,000 per year,
compressed air systems. A system that has undergone you are helping to improve profitability.
numerous modifications and has only been maintained The easiest way to look at a project is annual
enough to keep it running can frequently achieve savings and simple payback. Simple payback is simply
energy savings of 20 to 50 percent or more. For the the cost of the project divided by the projected annual
100-hp system described previously, this represents savings. Let’s look at this concept by using two
annual savings of $7,000 to $18,000. Larger systems examples.
will have correspondingly greater energy savings.

Example 1 requested. This will include all of the information in

Cost of the project: $100,000 the Expenditure Request, plus other information, such
Projected annual savings: $125,000 per year as photos and excerpts from articles and publications.
Payback period: 9.6 months (100,000/125,000 x 12) If your firm does not use a standard format, you will
have to create your written presentation from scratch.
Example 2 Creating your own presentation/request can be
Cost of the project: $100,000 done quite simply if you think and act logically. It
Projected annual savings: $10,000 per year most likely will include the following.
Payback period: 120 months (100,000/10,000 x 12)
1. An “executive overview” that states the problem,
These simple calculations demonstrate two ways the actions to be taken, the cost of the project, and
to measure the projected return of the cost of an the projected return. All of this should fit on one
improvement, annual savings, and simple payback page of paper.
period. These are usually used for smaller expenditures 2. Detailed information on current operating data and
or to determine if the project is feasible. In general, costs. This is where you use your baseline informa-
projects with short paybacks (such as Example 1 above) tion. You will want to describe the methodology
can easily be approved. that you used to establish your baseline.
Your financial management team will use the 3. A detailed list of the actions you plan to take, the
financial data that you submit to calculate other equipment you need to buy, and a detailed cost
financial views of the expense. They may calculate the summary. Make sure you include any internal costs
projected savings based on the net present value of for engineering, project management, and down-
the investment. Similarly, they may calculate the time. When possible, provide vendor quotes to
internal rate of return on the investment in a project. back up your cost data.
We will not go into discussion of these financial 4. A detailed summary of the projected savings.
calculations or tools, since each firm has a different What will change in operating cost, how did you
view and different requirements. If you have a project calculate it, and what you considered. The
that meets simple payback criteria, work with your presentation needs to be based on facts, and with
financial management to determine the methodology full calculations to support the projected savings.
and expected results that the firm utilizes. 5. A statement of risks that outlines what may not go
If your proposed project passes one of the simple exactly per the plan, and the contingencies you
tests, read on. If not, go back and look for other have included to quickly remove barriers that may
opportunities to save money. affect the project as it progresses.
You are now to the point that you have determined 6. A time schedule listing the start and end date of all
that your project will add to the operation’s profitability, actions.
at least in simple terms. What do you do next? You 7. Photos, diagrams, and drawings to demonstrate the
will most likely want to create a written presentation current state of operation, and what the end
to your management asking for the approval to spend product will look like upon completion.
the money you need. It must be concise, outline 8. A statement of results verification. In this section,
specific actions to be taken, list the expected return or you will outline the process and procedure that
cost saving, and provide documentation to support you will use to measure and document the actual
the conclusions you made. cost savings.
Many firms have a set format to use in a Capital 9. A list of references to articles, books, or presentations
Expenditure Request, to answer questions and supply that support the action that you plan to take. Case
information. If your company uses this method, your studies of similar actions that achieved the planned
job is easier. Simply complete the form, attach the results can be very useful.
requested information, and send it for approval. You 10. A summary, which will include a request for action
would be wise to have additional information and by your management.
possibly a formal presentation via slides or overheads to
use to present the project to management if you are so

11. A copy of the appropriate approval form that is

fully completed except for management signatures.
12. This documentation should be high-quality and
use color copies when and where appropriate, and
should be bound per the normal system used by
your firm. Anything less than first class will not
get the first-class reply, which is the approval for
the project.
13. Depending on your firm and the budget of the
project, you may want to have a formal slide show
or overheads in order to make a formal presentation
if your management requests that.
14. Finally, maintain complete and detailed records on
any action related to the project and plan to keep
them for a number of years after completion of the
project. Documentation of project results is
important.


Where To Find Help
Where To Find Help
This section of the sourcebook is a directory of roadmaps on how to achieve these visions over a
resources and information that can help compressed 20-year timeframe. This collaborative process aligns
air system users improve the performance of their industry goals with federal resources to accelerate
systems. It is organized into four sections. A brief research and development of advanced technologies
summary of each section is provided below. identified as priorities by industry.
The advancement of energy- and process-efficient
BestPractices technologies is complemented by ITP’s energy
This section describes the BestPractices, a national management best practices for immediate savings
effort sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy results. ITP’s BestPractices assists the eight Industries of
(DOE) aimed at improving the performance of the Future—aluminum, chemicals, forest products,
industrial systems. glass, metal casting, mining, petroleum, and steel—to
identify and realize their best energy efficiency and
Compressed Air Challenge® pollution prevention options from a system and life-
This section describes a national effort involving cycle cost perspective. Through activities, such as
all compressed air market stakeholders aimed at plant-wide energy assessments, implementation of
improving compressed air system performance. emerging technologies, and management of industrial
systems, BestPractices delivers solutions for industry
Directory of Contacts that result in significant energy and cost savings,
This section provides lists of associations and other waste reduction, pollution prevention, and enhanced
organizations involved in the compressed air system environmental performance.
market.
Information Sources
Resources and Tools DOE offers a variety of information resources to help
This section provides information on books and industry achieve increased energy and process efficiency,
reports, brochures, periodicals, software, videos, work- improved productivity, and greater competitiveness.
shops, and training courses that are currently available to Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse. The Industrial
help compressed air system users understand and im- Technologies Clearinghouse fields questions on the
prove the performance of their compressed air systems. program’s products and services. They can also answer
questions about industrial systems, such as compressed
air, motors, pumping, process heating, and steam. The
BestPractices Clearinghouse can be the first stop in finding out what
resources are available. Contact the Clearinghouse at
Industrial manufacturing consumes 36 percent of all (800) 862-2086 or clearinghouse@ee.doe.gov.
energy used in the United States. DOE’s Office of ITP and BestPractices Web Sites. The ITP and
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) has BestPractices Web sites offer a large array of information,
programs to assist industry in achieving significant products, and resources to assist manufacturers who
energy and process efficiencies. EERE’s Industrial are interested in increasing the efficiency of their
Technologies Program (ITP) develops and delivers industrial operations. Gain access to Web pages for the
advanced energy efficiency, renewable energy, and Industries of the Future, learn about upcoming events
pollution prevention technologies and practices for and solicitations, and more. Visit the ITP Web site at
industrial applications. Through an industry-driven www.eere.energy.gov/industry.
initiative called the Industries of the Future, ITP works The BestPractices site offers case studies of
with the nation’s most energy- and resource-intensive companies that have successfully implemented energy
industries to develop a vision of their future and efficiency technologies and practices, software tools,

Where To Find Help
tip sheets, training events, and solicitations for plant- improvement opportunities. Efficiency gains in
wide assessments. See these and other resources at compressed air, motor, process heating, pumping, and
www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices. steam systems can be significant and usually result in
Newsletters. See the Resources and Tools section to immediate energy and cost savings. ITP offers software
learn about the Energy Matters newsletter. tools and training in a variety of system areas to help
Tip Sheets. These two-page tip sheets provide industry become more energy and process efficient,
quick advice on how to keep your compressed air reduce waste, and improve environmental performance.
systems running at their maximum efficiency. See the
Resource and Tools section. Allied Partnerships
Case Studies. More than 20 case studies have been Allied Partners are manufacturers, associations,
developed, highlighting compressed air system improve- industrial service and equipment providers, utilities,
ment projects. See the Resource and Tools section. and other organizations that voluntarily work with
DOE. Allied Partners seek to increase energy efficiency
Plant Assessments and productivity for the Industries of the Future by
Depending on the industry, energy can account participating in, endorsing, and promoting DOE’s
for 10 percent or more of total operating costs. Energy industrial programs, products, and services. Allied
assessments identify opportunities for implementing Partnerships help DOE achieve industrial energy
new technologies and system improvements. Many efficiency goals by extending delivery channels
recommendations from energy assessments have pay- through the partners’ existing networks. In turn,
back periods of less than 18 months and can result in partners achieve their own corporate, institutional, or
significant energy savings. plant goals and objectives by expanding services to
• Plant-wide assessments help manufacturers develop customers and suppliers. Allied Partners also gain
comprehensive plant strategies to increase efficiency, access to technical resources, such as software, technical
reduce emissions, and boost productivity. Annual publications, and training, and can gain recognition as
competitive solicitations offer a 50 percent cost share leaders in the implementation of energy-efficient
of up to $100,000 in matching funds. technologies and practices. Allied Partners who
• Small- to medium-sized manufacturers can qualify successfully complete training and a qualifying exam
for free assessments from the university-based on the use of DOE software programs are recognized
Industrial Assessment Centers. as Qualified Specialists. For more on Allied Partnerships,
contact the Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse at
Emerging Technologies (800) 862-2086.
Emerging technologies are those that result from
research and development and are ready for full-scale Software Tools
demonstration in real-use applications. DOE ITP and its partners have developed several
recognizes that companies may be reluctant to invest software tools for systems improvements to help you
capital in these new technologies, even though they make decisions about implementing efficient practices
can provide significant energy and process improve- in your manufacturing facilities. The following soft-
ments. However, through technology implementation ware tools are available from DOE.
solicitations, DOE helps mitigate the risk associated • AirMaster+ provides comprehensive information on
with using new technologies. Solicitations provide assessing compressed air systems, including modeling,
cost-shared opportunities to verify performance data existing and future system upgrades, and evaluating
and document savings on technologies of interest to savings and effectiveness of energy efficiency measures.
the Industries of the Future to help ease the hurdles of AIRMaster+ is a stand-alone Windows-based soft-
new technology acceptance. ware tool used to analyze industrial compressed air
systems. AIRMaster+ is intended to enable auditors
Energy Management to model existing and future improved system
ITP encourages manufacturers to adopt a operation, and evaluate savings from energy
comprehensive approach to energy use that includes efficiency measures with relatively short payback
assessing industrial systems and evaluating potential periods. AIRMaster+ provides a systematic approach

Where To Find Help
to assessing compressed air systems, analyzing system operations and management. This tool will
collected data, and reporting results. Users include help you to evaluate your steam system operations
companies or distributors of compressed air equip- against identified best practices.
ment, compressor system auditors, industrial plant • Steam System Assessment Tool (SSAT) allows you to
personnel, and utility representatives. assess potential savings from individualized steam-
AIRMaster+ is but one tool in a large portfolio of system improvements. Input data about your plant’s
Compressed Air Challenge® (CAC) offerings designed conditions, and the tool generates results detailing
to assist the end user in improving the performance the potential energy, cost, and emissions savings
of compressed air systems. AIRMaster+ allows for from various improvements.
objective and repeatable compressed air system • With 3E Plus software you can easily determine
assessment results, and can be used to improve the whether boiler systems can be optimized through
performance and efficiency of operation. However, the insulation of boiler steam lines. The program
AIRMaster+ is not meant to replace an experienced calculates the most economical thickness of industrial
auditor in the evaluation of a compressed air system. insulation for a variety of operating conditions. You
AIRMaster+ is intended to model airflow and can make calculations using the built-in thermal
associated electrical demands as seen by the supply performance relationships of generic insulation
side of the system. AIRMaster+ does not model the materials or supply conductivity data for other
dynamic effects of the distribution and end uses. materials.
Such issues should be addressed through consultation
with an experienced auditor before implementing Training
efficiency recommendations. Training sessions in industrial systems improvements
• An energy-efficient motor selection and manage- using DOE software tools are offered periodically
ment tool, MotorMaster+ 4.0 software includes a through Allied Partners. Visit the BestPractices Web site
catalog of more than 20,000 AC motors. The tool for more information:
features motor inventory management tools, www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices.
maintenance log tracking, efficiency analysis,
savings evaluation, energy accounting, and DOE and CAC have developed a training program
environmental reporting capabilities. to prepare compressed air system professionals to use
• Process Heating Assessment and Survey Tool AIRMaster+ effectively in assessing compressed air
(PHAST) provides an introduction to process heating systems. Individuals who have successfully completed
methods and tools to improve thermal efficiency of the training and a rigorous qualifying exam are
heating equipment. Survey process heating equip- recognized as Qualified AIRMaster+ Specialists. Used
ment that uses fuel, steam, or electricity, and identify properly, AIRMaster+ is a powerful tool for modeling
the most energy-intensive equipment. Perform an “what if” scenarios for possible improvements to
energy (heat) balance on selected equipment (furnaces) compressed air systems. A Qualified Specialist can apply
to identify and reduce non-productive energy use. AIRMaster+ to assist industrial end users in identifying
Compare performance of the furnace under various compressed air system improvement opportunities. For
operating conditions and test “what-if” scenarios. a listing of Qualified AIRMaster+ Specialists, see the
• The Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT) helps BestPractices Web site at www.eere.energy.gov/industry/
industrial users assess the efficiency of pumping bestpractices.
system operations. PSAT uses achievable pump
performance data from Hydraulic Institute Standards Compressed Air System Background
and motor performance data from the MotorMaster+ DOE began compressed air system-focused activities
database to calculate potential energy and associated at its Roundtable on Market Transformation Strategies in
cost savings. April 1995. During the roundtable, a wide range of
• The Steam System Scoping Tool (SSST) is designed stakeholders participated in one of three breakout
to help steam system energy managers and groups, one of which was Air Compressor Systems.
operations personnel for large industrial plants. This The group discussed possible actions to accelerate the
spreadsheet program will profile and grade steam

Where To Find Help
transformation of the compressed air system market, Improving Compressed Air System Performance
reviewed key market deficiencies, and identified leading Sourcebook (1st Edition)
actions that could be taken to move the process forward. This document updates this effort.
Participants concluded that the DOE should emphasize
the benefits of efficient systems, such as increased Organization of and Participation in the New
productivity and reduced downtime, rather than energy Compressed Air Challenge®
efficiency, since end users generally make system This is a national effort involving all relevant
changes because it makes economic sense, not because stakeholders aimed at improving the performance of
it will improve energy efficiency. compressed air systems. This initiative is described in
The group identified the following actions to bring detail in the next subsection.
about transformation of the market for energy-efficient Further information on BestPractices is available from:
compressed air systems. Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse
• Develop Compressed Air and Gas Institute (CAGI) test P.O. Box 43171
procedure fact sheet and standardized reporting of Olympia, WA 98504-3171
performance data. Phone: (800) 862-2086
• Improve the consistency and availability of plant Fax: (206) 586-8303
energy audits. www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices
• Prepare a directory of market stakeholders.
• Develop a directory of services and information
The Compressed Air Challenge®
• Prepare in-plant air distribution guidelines and A national collaborative, the CAC was formed in
checklists. October of 1997 to assemble state-of-the-art
• Publish case studies of cost savings and performance information on compressed air system design,
improvements. performance, and assessment procedures. This
• Initiate customer awareness program to provide collaborative is delivering compressed air system
questions and talking points for use when purchasing best practices information to the plant floor, creating a
equipment. consistent national market message that supports the
• Develop standardized purchasing specification application of these best practices, providing a
boilerplate. technically sound and professionally delivered training
program for plant operating personnel, and will, through
DOE has worked in collaboration with others to
a certification program, recognize plant personnel’s
implement these ideas in three areas.
skills in operating compressed air systems. Participants
Collaboration with the Compressed Air include: large industrial users of compressed air,
and Gas Institute manufacturers and distributors of compressed air
CAGI formed an Energy Awareness Committee and equipment and their associations, facility engineers and
became an Allied Partner. Related projects being their associations, compressed air system consultants,
developed by CAGI include: state research and development agencies, energy
efficiency organizations, and utilities. The goals of the
• Standard performance reporting forms (data sheets) CAC are to:
that allow consumers to compare products more
• Increase the reliability and quality of industrial
easily (see Appendix B)
production processes
• A consumer fact sheet explaining compressor testing
• Reduce plant operating costs
methods and the importance of standard reporting forms
• Expand the market for high quality compressed air
• An Internet-accessible database containing information services
from the standard performance data sheets, and
participation in CAC. • Save energy: a 10 percent improvement over current
usage, resulting in annual savings of approximately
3 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity nationwide.

Where To Find Help
The purpose of the CAC is to initiate a national • Reduce energy and repair costs
collaborative that develops materials, a training • Improve system reliability
curriculum, a certification program, and other • Increase productivity
information that can be used by the project sponsors • Reduce unscheduled down time.
in cooperation with others to:
The manual begins with the considerations for
• Raise awareness of the importance of efficient, analyzing existing systems or designing new ones, and
effective plant air systems continues through the compressor supply to the
• Train industrial plant operating personnel on best auxiliary equipment and distribution system to the
practices for plant air systems end uses. Determine how to use measurements to audit
• Expand the market for expert plant air assessment his own system, calculate the cost of compressed air,
services and even how to interpret utility electric bills. Best
• Help build the local market infrastructure to deliver practice recommendations for selection, installation,
these services. maintenance, and operation of all the equipment and
components within the compressed air system are in
The CAC has developed two training workshops bold font and easily selected from each section.
that are being taught across the United States.
Organizational Structure
• Fundamentals of Compressed Air Systems, (Level 1), The CAC includes:
is a 1-day introductory course designed to teach
facility engineers, operators and maintenance staff • An Advisory Board comprised of the project sponsors
how to achieve 15 to 25 percent cost savings through • A Project Development Committee, which includes a
more effective production and use of compressed air. representative from each key stakeholder group and is
• Advanced Management of Compressed Air Systems, responsible for overall project coordination
(Level 2), is an intensive 2-day training that provides • Working Groups, which will provide essential
in-depth technical information on troubleshooting technical input to the project.
and making improvements to industrial compressed
air systems. Project Sponsors
See the Resources and Tools section for more Association of Ingersoll-Rand Distributors
information on these workshops. Compressed Air and Gas Institute
Compressor Distributors Association
The CAC has developed two documents: Guidelines Consortium for Energy Efficiency
for Selecting a Compressed Air System Service Provider (see Energy Center of Wisconsin
Appendix E) and Best Practices for Compressed Air Systems. Honeywell, Inc.
These are described in the Resources and Tools section. Illinois Department of Commerce and Economic
The Best Practices for Compressed Air Systems manual Development
was developed to provide the tools needed to reduce the Iowa Energy Center
operating costs associated with the use of compressed air National Grid USA
and improve the reliability of the entire system. This New York State Energy Research and Development
manual addresses the improvement opportunities from Authority
the air entering the compressor inlet filter to the end Northeast Utilities
uses, including hoses, quick couplers, air tools, cylinders Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance
and other devices. NSTAR Electric and Gas Corp.
The CAC created the Best Practices for Compressed Air Pacific Gas & Electric
Systems manual to provide “how to” information to U.S. Department of Energy
implement recommendations, which will achieve peak
performance and reliability of the system at the lowest
operating cost. Following these recommendations will:

Where To Find Help
For More Information CAGI continues to strive to increase the

The CAC is seeking additional participants satisfaction of compressed air system users. This is
interested in sponsorship or contributing to materials accomplished in a variety of ways, primarily through
development. For general information, call the CAC at education and training of users so that they better
(800) 862-2086. If you would like to join, see understand compressed air systems and through
www.compressedairchallenge.org. development of improved equipment and related
standards.
Directory of Contacts
Compressed Air Equipment Distributor Associations
The following organizations can provide more
Compressed air equipment distributor associations
information on improving the performance of
represent the companies that sell compressed air
compressed air systems.
equipment to end users. Compressor distributor
associations usually focus around one compressor
BestPractices manufacturer. Several of these associations coordinate
Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse their activities for the CAC through an umbrella group
P.O. Box 43171 named the Compressor Distributors Association. The
Olympia, WA 98504-3171 following is a listing of the individual associations.
Phone: (800) 862-2086 (Note: points of contact often change.)
Fax: (206) 586-8303
www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices
Atlas Copco Compressors, Inc.
Atlas Copco Industrial Compressor Association (ACIDA)
The Clearinghouse is a one-stop shop for resources
c/o Power Service Inc.
and information on improving electric motor systems,
5625 West Yellowstone Highway
including compressed air systems.
Casper, WY 82604
Attn: Tony Cercy
The Compressed Air Challenge® Phone: (307) 235-4700
www.compressedairchallenge.org Fax: (307) 472-7726
The CAC is a national collaborative formed in October
CompAir
of 1997 that assembles state-of-the-art information on
North American Association of Compressor
compressed air system design, performance, and assess-
Distributors (NAACD)
ment procedures. For additional information, contact
c/o Universal Air Products Corporation
Bruce Medaris, Executive Director, at (613) 673-0666.
1135 Lance Road
Norfolk, VA 23502-2429
The Compressed Air and Gas Institute Attn: Kurt Kondas, President
1300 Sumner Avenue Phone: (757) 461-0077
Cleveland, OH 44115-2861 Fax: (757) 461-0808
Phone: (216) 241-7333 kkondas@uapc.com
Fax: (216) 241-0105
cagi@cagi.org
Gardner Denver
www.cagi.org
Industrial Compressor Distributors Association (ICDA)
c/o Atlas Machine & Supply, Inc.
Since 1915, CAGI has been the leading organization
7000 Global Drive
representing manufacturers of compressed air system
Louisville, KY 40258
equipment, including air compressors, blowers,
Attn: Rich Gimmel, President
pneumatic tools and air and gas drying and filtration
Phone: (502) 584-7262
equipment. For more than 80 years, the Institute has
Fax: (502) 589-0310
been working to improve production and proper use
rfgimmel@atlasmachine.com
of equipment used in compressed air and gas systems.

Where To Find Help
Ingersoll-Rand The resources and tools presented here are not

Association of Ingersoll-Rand Distributors (AIRD) intended to represent all available information
632 West Avenue pertaining to compressed air systems. Instead, this list
Milford, CT 06460 presents the reference material and tools that would
Attn: Ed Fusco, Manager be of interest to those involved in energy-efficient
Phone: (203) 878-6531 compressed air systems. Neither DOE nor the CAC
Fax: (203) 874-3123 imply any endorsement of the information included in
this section.
Quincy
Association of Independent Compressor Distributors
Books and Reports
(AICD) The books and reports listed are grouped into one
16409 West Desert Wren Court of the following three categories.
Surprise, AZ 85374 • Documents on compressed air systems focusing on
Attn: Shirley McCoy, Administrator performance improvement
Phone and Fax: (602) 975-9100
• Specialty books on compressors (e.g., compressor
design)
Sullair
Sullair North American Distributor Council • Information on the compressed air market.
c/o Blake & Pendleton
269 North Street Documents Focusing on Performance Improvement
Macon, GA 31202
Attn: Allen King, President Air Compressors and the Compressed Air System
Phone: (912) 746-7645 Author: William Scales, P.E.
Fax: (912) 745-1452 Description: A comprehensive text on maintaining
blakepen@accucomm.net compressed air systems for peak
performance.
Compressor Distributors Association Available from: Scales Air Compressor Corporation
656 Southern Hills 110 Voice Road
Eureka, MO 63025 Carle Place, NY 11514
Attn: Margot Gravel Phone: (516) 248-9096 x 611
Phone: (636) 938-3957 Fax: (516) 248-3500
Fax: (636) 938-3965
Mjgilliam1@aol.com Assessing Processes For Compressed Air Efficiency
Author: Bill Howe, P.E. and William Scales, P.E.
Description: The report presents 11 questions
Resources and Tools managers should answer about their
A wide range of information is available on the compressed air applications to understand
application and use of compressed air systems. This whether compressed air is the right tool
section of the sourcebook focuses on resources and for the job, how compressed air is applied,
tools in the following categories. how it is delivered and controlled, and
how the compressed air system is
• Books and reports managed.
• Brochures Available from: E SOURCE Reprints Service
• DOE tip sheets 1033 Walnut Street
• DOE case studies Boulder, CO 80302-5114
• Periodicals Phone: (303) 440-8500
Fax: (303) 440-8502
• Software
• Videos
• Workshops and training courses

Where To Find Help
Best Practices for Compressed Air Systems performance with data measurement, and
Author: Compressed Air Challenge® with William system management strategies.
Scales, P.E., and David M. McCulloch, Available from: Data Power, Inc.
C. Eng., M.I. Mech E. 8417 Aswego Road
Description: A ‘how to’ volume, comprised of more PMB 213
than 300 pages of original text and Baldwinsville, NY 13027
reference appendices, photos and Phone: (315) 635-1895
performance data, for use to help Fax: (315) 635-1898
compressed air end users and service
providers to improve operating efficiencies Compressed Air Systems
and reliability of installed compressed air Author: H. P. Van Ormer
systems. Description: This handbook discusses compressed air
Available from: The Compressed Air Challenge® systems, including departmental and
c/o ORC Macro International, Inc. central air systems. It covers topics such as
Attn: Andrea Cole, Accounting compressor types; application, selection,
11785 Beltsville Drive, Suite 300 and installation of rotary and centrifugal
Calverton, MD 20705 air compressors; compressor capacity
Phone: (888) 260-0052 controls; compressor terminology;
determination of air requirements;
Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, Sixth Edition compressed air dryers; and optimization
Author: Various Compressed Air and Gas Institute of systems.
members with David McCulloch, editor Available from: Air Power USA, Inc.
Description: A comprehensive reference work on all P.O. Box 292
phases of compressed air and gas, this Pickerington, OH 43147
handbook covers reciprocating, rotary, Phone and Fax: (614) 862-4112
and dynamic compressors; pneumatic
tools; air quality and treatment; Compressed Air Systems Solution Series
construction equipment; pneumatic Author: Scot Foss
controls; materials handling equipment; Description: This comprehensive text discusses ways to
and many other topics. improve the performance of compressed
Available from: Compressed Air & Gas Institute air systems. It is published as a two-year,
1300 Sumner Avenue bi-monthly subscription series. It covers
Cleveland, OH 441155 topics such as design issues, troubleshoot
Phone: (216) 241-7333 ing, instrumentation, storage, piping,
Fax: (216) 241-0105 controls, demand issues, and supply issues.
cagi@cagi.org Available from: Bantra Publishing
www.cagi.org Phone: (704) 372-3400
Compressed Air Management, Energy Efficiency in Compressed Air Systems: A Guidebook on Energy and Cost
Compressed Air Systems Seminar Workbook Savings
Author: T. F. Taranto Author: E.M. Talbott
Description: Used in seminars, this workbook is a Description: This guidebook covers topics ranging from
resource for the industrial compressed air compressed air equipment and distribution
user. Topics include concepts of system layout to final application and
compressed air system management, system operation.
compressed air system investment, cost of Available from: Prentice-Hall Publishers
compressed air, system performance Englewood Cliffs, NJ
modeling, benchmarking system Phone: (800) 223-1360
Fax: (800) 445-6991

Where To Find Help
Compressed Air Technology Seminar Workbook: Compressors: Selection and Sizing, Second Edition
Opportunities and Solutions Author: Royce N. Brown
Author: H. P. Van Ormer Description: This reference text provides information
Description: Used in Mr. Van Ormer’s compressed air on compression principles, equipment,
seminars, this workbook serves as a good applications, selection, sizing, installation,
resource for those looking to improve the and maintenance, allowing proper
efficiency of their compressed air systems. estimation of compressor capabilities and
Topics discussed include compressed air selection of designs. Updated with new
basics, supply equipment, regulation and American Petroleum Institute standards
controls, system design, receiver demand and current technology in areas of
flow regulation, maintenance and efficiency, 3-D geometry, electronics, and
reliability, power savings, leak surveys, plant computer use, this guide covers
and flow meters. reciprocating, rotary, and centrifugal
Available from: Air Power USA, Inc. compressors and compares their reliability.
P.O. Box 292 Available from: Gulf Publishing Company
Pickerington, OH 43147 P.O. Box 2608
Phone and Fax: (614) 862-4112 Houston, TX 07675
Phone: (713) 520-4444
Compressor Engineering Data Fax: (713) 520-4433
Author: William Scales, P.E.
Description: A handbook of reference material on Guidelines for Selecting a Compressed Air System Service
compressed air systems. Provider
Available from: Scales Air Compressor Corporation Author: Compressed Air Challenge®
110 Voice Road Description: This document offers guidance for select
Carle Place, NY 11514 ing a firm that offers integrated services to
Phone: (516) 248-9096 improve compressed air system perform
Fax: (516) 248-9639 ance. It also explains the different levels of
system analysis service.
Compressors and Expanders: Selection and Application for Available from: Compressed Air Challenge®
the Process Industry www.compressedairchallenge.org
Author: Heinz P. Bloch
Description: This book identifies preferred equipment Plant Engineer’s Guide to Specifying a Compressed Air
types for specific uses, provides easy-to- System Audit
understand explanations and examples, Author: T.F. Taranto
examines the limitations of the machinery, Description: A reference book designed to help the
and compiles data that is scattered plant engineer focus on the information
throughout the literature. The potential to be gained from the audit process. Key
audience includes engineers interested in informational objectives, the degree of
gas separation, cryogenic processes, and detail, and study methods for a
compression stations; manufacturers and compressed air system audit are described.
purchasers of compressors and turbo- The book also includes suggestions for the
expanders; and contractors involved in type of measurements to be made, key
plant design and machinery selection. locations to measure, and suggested
Available from: Marcel Dekker, Inc. measurement techniques.
270 Madison Avenue Available from: Data Power, Inc.
New York, NY 10016 8417 Aswego Road
Phone: (212) 696-9000 PMB 213
Fax: (212) 685-4540 Baldwinsville, NY 13027
Phone: (315) 635-1895
Fax: (315) 635-1898

Where To Find Help
Pumps/Compressors/Fans: Pocket Handbook Compressor Performance, Aerodynamics for the User

Author: Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff and Paul N. Author: Pe Gresh and Theodore Gresh
Cheremisinoff Description: This book covers the full spectrum of
Description: This handbook provides a concise information needed for an individual to
presentation of the fundamentals—design, select, operate, test and maintain axial or
function, and applications—of pumps, centrifugal compressors. It includes some
compressors, and fans. It is organized for basic aerodynamic theory to provide the
easy reference and illustrated with more user with the “how’s” and “why’s” of
than 80 photographs, diagrams, and other compressor design. Maintenance Engineers
schematics. This text will help engineers especially will appreciate the troubleshoot-
and other plant operations personnel in ing guidelines offered.
their selection and utilization of pump, Available from: Newnes
fan, and compressor equipment. Elsevier Science/Harcourt
Available from: Technomic Publishing Company, Inc. 200 Wheeler Road, 6th floor
851 New Holland Avenue Burlington, MA 01803
P.O. Box 3535 Phone: (781) 221 2212
Lancaster, PA 17604 Fax: (781) 221 1615
Phone: (800) 233-9936 www.bhusa.com/newnes
Fax: (717) 295-4538
Compressor Performance: Selection, Operation, and Testing of
Specialty Books Axial and Centrifugal Compressors
Author: Theodore Gresh
Centrifugal Compressor Design and Performance Description: This book is divided into two main
Author: David Japikse sections. In the theory section of the book,
Description: This publication is both a state-of-the-art the author introduces aerodynamics,
review of the technology base of centrifugal thermodynamics, aerodynamic
compressors and a practical guide to components, and compressor character-
designers. istics. In the application section, the
Available from: Concepts ETI, Inc. author discusses equipment selection,
4 Billings Farm Road operation, field performance testing,
White River Junction, VT 05001 troubleshooting, and flow meters.
Phone: (802) 296-2321 Available from: Butterworth Heinemann
Fax: (802) 296-2325 225 Wildwood Avenue
Woburn, MA 01801
Compressor Handbook Phone: (617) 928-2500 or (800) 366-2665
Author: Paul C. Hanlon (editor) Fax: (617) 933-6333
Description: Provides information on design www.bh.com
procedures, practical application, and
maintenance of compressors—from top Compressor Surge and Rotating Stall: Modeling and Control
experts on these widely used machines. (Advances in Industrial Control)
Details on everything from fundamentals Author: Jan Tommy Gravdahl and Olav Egeland
and theory to advanced applications and Description: This book gives a comprehensive overview
techniques, including sought-after data on of the achievements in the field of
compressors that inflate tires, spray paint, modeling and active control of instabilities
and increase the density of natural gas. in compressions systems over the last
Available from: McGraw-Hill decade. Models of unstable compression
1221 Avenue of the Americas systems are usually restricted to constant
New York, NY 10020 speed compressors. But here, two models
Phone: (800) 352-3566 are derived that take time varying
www.bookstore.mcgraw-hill.com rotational speed into account—one for

Where To Find Help
centrifugal compressors and one for axial Available from: McGraw-Hill

compressors. P. O. Box 546
Available from: Springer-Verlag Blacklick, OH 43004-0546
Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. Phone: (800) 722-4726
175 Fifth Avenue Fax: (614) 755-5654
New York, NY 10010 www.bookstore.mcgraw-hill.com
Phone: (212) 460 1500
Fax: (212) 473 6272 Leak-Free Pumps and Compressors, 1st Edition
Author: Gerhard Vetter
Compressor Surge and Stall Description: As environmental regulations concerning
Author: Ronald C. Pampreen leaks and emissions become more
Description: This text discusses the stability, surge and stringent, this practical reference manual
stall of axial and centrifugal compressors. targets those concerned with systems
Both theory and applications are using leak-free pumps or compressors.
discussed. The book includes multi-stage This handbook explains the various designs
compressor designs and various methods and properties of leak-free pumps and
for extending stable operation. helps you select the right pump or
Available from: Concepts ETI/NREC compressor to ensure leak-free systems,
Product Center whatever the application.
39 Olympia Avenue Available from: Elsevier Advanced Technology
Woburn, MA 01801-2073 Mayfield House
Phone: (781) 935 9052 256 Banbury Road
Fax: (781) 935 9052 Oxford OX2 7DH England
www.conceptseti.com Phone: 01865-512242
Fax: 01865-310981
Control of Centrifugal Compressors www.elsevier.nl
Author: Ralph L. Moore
Description: This text provides comprehensive Optimization of Industrial Unit Processes: Boilers, Chemical
information on the techniques for Reactors, Chillers, Clean Rooms, Compressors, Condensers,
controlling centrifugal compressors. In Heat Exchangers, HVAC Systems, Pumping Stations,
addition to compressor control issues, Reboilers, and Vaporizers
optimization of compressor operation and Author: Bela G. Liptak
multiple compressor systems are topics Description: The optimization of various processes is
also discussed. discussed in detail. Describes real-world
Available from: Instrument Society of America occurrences—where pipes leak, sensors
67 Alexander Drive plug, and pumps cavitate—offering
P.O. Box 12277 practical solutions to real problems.
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 Available from: Krause Publications
Phone: (919) 549-8411 700 E. State Street
Fax: (919) 549-8288 Iola, WI 54990
www.isa.org Phone: (888) 457-2873
Fax: (715) 445-4087
Fluid Movers, Second Edition www.krause.com
Author: Nicholas P. Chopey and Chemical
Engineering Magazine Editors
Description: This text is a compilation of current
articles on the movement of fluids with
pumps, compressors, fans, and blowers
from Chemical Engineering Magazine.

Where To Find Help
Optimization of Unit Operations: Boilers, Chemical Reactors,

Chillers, Clean Rooms, Compressors, Condensers, Heat Information on the Compressor Marketplace
Exchangers, HVAC Systems, Pumping Stations, Reboilers, and
Vaporizers Assessment of the Market for Compressed Air Efficiency
Author: Bela G. Liptak Services
Description: This text examines the technical and Author: U.S. DOE
practical applications of plant multivariable Description: The U.S. DOE, with technical support
development control. Optimization of furnished by the CAC published the
various systems is discussed in detail. Assessment of the Market for Compressed
Available from: Krause Publications Air Efficiency Services. The assessment
700 E. State Street provides a comprehensive view of the
Iola, WI 54990 market for engineering and consulting
Phone: (888) 457-2873 services to improve the energy efficiency
Fax: (715) 445-4087 of plant compressed air systems. These
www.krause.com services include plant assessments to
identify improvement opportunities for
Reciprocating Compressors: Operation and Maintenance compressed air systems, preventive
Author: Heinz P. Bloch and John J. Hoefner maintenance services, and redesign of
Description: This book discusses the theory of system components to reduce energy use.
operation and describes methods of proper Available from: www.eere.energy.gov/industry/
installation, troubleshooting, overhauling, bestpractices
and repairing of all types of reciprocating
compressors. Engineers and maintenance Compressors—Air & Gas Wholesale
personnel in the process industries such as Description: This annual directory features information
mining, food processing, pharmaceuticals, on 4,180 wholesalers of air and gas
and petrochemicals will find this text compressors.
useful. Available from: American Business Information, Inc.
Available from: Gulf Publishing Company 5711 South 86th Circle
P.O. Box 2608 P.O. Box 27347
Houston, TX 77252-2608 Omaha, NE 68127-0347
Phone: (713) 520-4444 Phone: (402) 593-4500
Fax: (713) 520-4433 Fax: (402) 331-5481
www.gulfpub.com
Compressors, Vacuum Pumps, and Industrial Spraying
Rotary Screw Air Compressors Equipment
Author: H. P. Van Ormer Author: Specialists in Business Information, Inc.
Description: This guide provides a close look at the Description: The U.S. market for air and gas compres-
lubricant-cooled rotary compressor and its sors, vacuum pumps, and industrial
role in construction and industrial spraying equipment strengthened in
applications. It discusses the history, 1995 and 1996. Specialists in Business
development, basic technology, applica- Information (SBI) has compiled and
tion, selection, installation, and general analyzed data on U.S. factory shipments,
maintenance of rotary screw air imports, exports, industry costs structure,
compressors. and the competitive environment to
Available from: Air Power USA, Inc. uncover strategies that will allow manu-
P.O. Box 292 facturers and marketers to penetrate
Pickerington, OH 43147 growing markets in this $4 billion industry.
Phone and Fax: (614) 862-4112 SBI has also profiled worldwide manufac-
www.airpowerusainc.com turers and reviewed their recent develop-

Where To Find Help
ments as part of an exhaustive effort to The 2000-2005 World Outlook for Pumps, Valves and
provide competitor intelligence. In Compressors (Strategic Planning Series)
addition, SBI has extracted sales and profit Author: The Research Group, Valves and
trends for 16 manufacturers in order to Compressors and the Pumps, Compressors
compare company performance with Research Group
industry averages. Some of the major Description: Worldwide market potential for pumps,
producers profiled include Dresser-Rand, valves and compressors, broken down by
Gardner Denver, Nordson, and Sunstrand. country. Timely and reliable market
Available from: Specialists in Business Information, Inc. information as a complement to strategic
3375 Park Avenue planning processes.
Wantagh, NY 11793 Available from: Icon Group International, Inc.
4 Stamford Plaza, 15th Floor
Pumps and Compressors 107 Elm Street
Author: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Stamford, CT 06902
the Census Phone: (203) 328-2300
Description: This annual Current Industrial Report Fax: (203) 328-2333
provides statistics on the quantity and www.icon-intl.com
value of manufacturers’ shipments, number
of producers by product type and industry, Educational Brochures
exports, and imports. These statistics reflect The following educational brochures are available
market trends in the pump and compressor from the CAGI at:
industry. 1300 Sumner Avenue
Available from: U.S. Department of Commerce Cleveland, OH 44115-2851
Bureau of the Census Phone: (216) 241-7333
Gaithersburg, MD Fax: (216) 241-0105
Phone: (301) 457-4100 cagi@cagi.org
Fax: (301) 457-4794 www.cagi.org
Download from www.census.gov
Air Compressor Selection and Application:
The U.S. Pump and Compressor Industry 1/4 HP through 30 HP
Author: Business Trend Analysts, Inc. Description: This publication provides a detailed
Description: This market research report assesses the summary of the types of compressors
market for pumps and compressors, available, their intended application, and
including reciprocating, rotary, and selection criteria for a variety of industries.
centrifugal air compressors, by gathering
data and conducting analyses. The report Compressed Air and Gas Drying
presents data on U.S. manufacturers’ sales Description: This brochure explains the need for air
and analysis of end-use demand by and gas drying. It includes a step-by-step
industry for pumps and compressors. dryer specifying guide, technical
Additional information includes pump illustrations, and appropriate technical
and compressor industry statistics, trade, appendices.
corporate profiles, and a directory of
manufacturers. Rotary Air Compressor Selection Guide
Available from: Business Trend Analysts, Inc. Description: This publication covers the complete
2171 Jericho Turnpike range of rotary air compressors and
Commack, NY 11725-2900 discusses selection criteria, capacity
Phone: (516) 462-5454 control, compressor accessories, and
Fax: (516) 462-1842 examples of applications.
www.businesstrendanalysts.com

Where To Find Help
CAGI/HACA 100: Safety and Performance Standards for Home ANSI/CAGI ADF 200 Dual-Tower, Regenerative Desiccant
Air Compressors Compressed Air Dryers—Methods for Testing and Rating
Description: This standard provides a defined uniform Description: This standard provides a uniform basis for
method for checking safety and measuring measuring the performance of dual-tower
performance of small air compressors. regenerative-desiccant, compressed air
dryers. It also provides a uniform basis on
B186.1 Safety Code for Portable Air Tools which to rate the performance of these
Description: This illustrated publication prescribes dryers.
minimum safety standards for air tool
manufacturers and users. ANSI/CAGI ADF 300 Single-Tower, (Non-Regenerative)
Desiccant, Compressed Air Dryers—Methods for Testing and
CAGI-PNEUROP PN2CPTC1 Acceptance Test Code for Bare Rating
Displacement Compressors Description: This standard provides a uniform basis of
Description: This publication defines and describes measuring the performance of single-
acceptance tests for bare displacement air tower, (non-regenerative) desiccant
compressors, which are constructed to compressed air dryers and their
specifications determined by the corresponding desiccants. It also provides
manufacturer and which are sold against a uniform basis on which to rate the
performance data published in the performance of these dryers.
manufacturer’s sales documentation.
ANSI/CAGI ADF 400 Standards for Testing and Rating
CAGI-PNEUROP PN2CPTC2 Acceptance Test Code for Coalescing Filters
Electrically Driven Packaged Displacement Compressors Description: This standard provides a uniform basis for
Description: This publication defines and describes measuring the performance of coalescing
acceptance tests for electrically driven filters. It also provides a uniform basis on
packaged air compressors of standard which to rate the performance of these
types, which are constructed to filters.
specifications determined by the
manufacturer and which are sold against ANSI/CAGI ADF 500 Standards for Measuring the Adsorption
performance data published in the Capacity of Oil Vapor Removal Adsorbent Filters
manufacturer’s sales documentation. Description: This standard provides a uniform basis of
measuring the adsorption capacity of oil
CAGI-PNEUROP PN2CPTC3 Acceptance Test Code for I.C. vapor removal adsorbent filters.
Engine Driven Package Displacement Air Compressors
Description: This publication defines and describes ANSI/CAGI ADF 700 Membrane Compressed Air Dryers –
acceptance tests for engine driven pack Methods for Testing and Rating
aged air compressors of standard types, Description: This standard provides a uniform basis of
which are constructed to specifications measuring the performance of membrane
determined by the manufacturer and compressed air dryers. It also provides a
which are sold against performance data uniform basis on which to rate the
published in the manufacturer’s sales performance of these dryers.
documentation.
DOE Tip Sheets
ANSI/CAGI ADF 100 Refrigerated Compressed Air Dryers-
These two-page tip sheets provide quick advice on how
Methods for Testing and Rating
to keep your systems running at their maximum
Description: This standard provides a uniform
efficiency.
procedure to measure and rate the
performance of refrigerated compressed
air dryers.

Where To Find Help
For a complete list of available tip sheets, see the • Motor Assembly Plant Saves $85,000 with Compressed
publications section at www.eere.energy.gov/industry/ Air System Improvements
bestpractices. A number of additional tip sheets are • Compressed Air System Optimization Improves
being developed. Production and Saves Energy at a Satellite Manufacturer
• Compressed Air Project Improves Efficiency and
DOE Case Studies Production at Harland Publishing Facility
The following case studies have been developed. • Compressed Air System Improvement Project Saves
Foundry Energy and Increases Production
• Implementing a Compressed Air Leak Management
Program at an Automotive Plant These case studies highlight projects where
• Compressed Air System Modifications Improve industrial plants have improved the performance of
Efficiency at a Plastics Blow Molding Plant their compressed air systems. Copies of the case
• Compressed Air System Upgrade Results in Substantial studies can be downloaded from www.eere.energy.gov/
Energy Savings industry/bestpractices
• Compressed Air System Renovation Project Improves
Production at a Food Processing Facility Periodicals
• Upgrade of Compressed Air Control System Reduces
Energy Costs at Michelin Tire Plant The following periodicals often contain articles about
• Compressed Air System Retrofitting Project Improves improving compressed air systems, and can be very good
Productivity at a Foundry sources of state-of-the-art information.
• Compressed Air System Retrofit Improves Productivity
at a Petroleum Packaging Facility AFE Facilities Engineering Journal
• Compressed Air System Improvements Increase Description: This technical journal provides practical, in-
Production at a Tin Mill depth information on key on-the-job issues,
• Compressed Air System Upgrade Improves Production covering the topics of maintenance, man-
at a Steel Mill agment, safety, compliance, and
• Compressed Air System Enhancement Increases professional development for facility
Efficiency and Provides Energy Savings at a Circuit operations.
Board Manufacturer Available from: Association for Facilities Engineering
• Compressed Air System Optimization Saves Energy 8160 Corporate Drive, Suite 125
and Improves Production at a Textile Manufacturing Mill Cincinnati, OH 45242
• Compressed Air System Project Improves Production at Phone: (513) 489-2473
a Candy-Making Facility www.afe.org
• Compressed Air System Redesign Results in Increased
Production at a Fuel System Plant Energy Engineering
• Compressed Air System Optimization Saves Energy Description: A professional journal that chronicles the
and Improves Production at Synthetic Textile Plant latest advancements in energy engineering,
• Compressed Air System Improvements at an Auto now available online through
Plant www.aeecenter.org.
• Consolidated Compressed Air System Reduces Power Available from: Association of Energy Engineers
Consumption and Energy Costs Lilburn, GA
• Compressed Air System Overhaul Improves Production Phone: (770) 447-5083 ext. 210
at a Powdered Metal Manufacturing Plant Fax: (770) 446-3939
• Compressed Air System Optimization Project Improves www.aeecenter.org
Production at a Metal Forging Plant
• Compressed Air System Upgrade Generates Significant Energy Matters
Energy Savings at a Steel Mill Description: Energy Matters is a quarterly newsletter
• Compressed Air System Retrofit Reduces Energy Costs produced by DOE’s Industrial Technologies
at a Newspaper Printing Facility program. The newsletter informs industrial

Where To Find Help
end users of energy efficiency opportuni- performance, maintenance, and operation.

ties, technical issues, new products and Plant Services also publishes a Buyer’s
services, and events related to motor, steam, Guide for plant systems and equipment.
and compressed air systems, and DOE’s Available from: Putnam Media
Industrial Assessment Centers. 555 West Pierce Road, Suite 301
Available from: www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices Itasca, IL 60143
Phone: (630) 467-1300
Industrial Maintenance & Plant Operation www.putnam.net
Description: A periodical chronicling the latest
industrial maintenance and power plant Software
operation strategies, techniques, and
equipment. AIRMaster+: Compressed Air System Assessment Software
Available from: Cahners Publishing Company Description: AIRMaster+ is a Windows-based software
275 Washington Street tool used to analyze industrial compressed
Newton, MA 02158-1630 air systems. AIRMaster+ enables auditors
Phone: (617) 964-3030 to model existing and future improved
www.cahners.com system operation, and evaluate savings
from energy efficiency measures with
Maintenance Technology relatively short payback periods.
Description: A business and technical information AIRMaster+ provides a systematic
source for managers, engineers and super- approach to assessing compressed air
visors responsible for plant equipment systems, analyzing collected data, and
maintenance, reliability, and asset reporting results. Users include companies
management. Maintenance Technology is or distributors of compressed air equip-
published monthly except for a combined ment, compressor system auditors,
July/August issue. industrial plant personnel, and utility
Available from: Applied Technology Publication, Inc. representatives. More information on
1300 South Grove Avenue, Suite 105 AIRMaster+ can be found in the
Barrington, IL 60010 BestPractices section of this document.
Phone: (847) 382-8100 Available from: Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse
www.mt-online.com P.O. Box 43171
Olympia, WA 98504-3171
Phone: (800) 862-2086
Plant Engineering
Fax: (206) 586-8303
Description: Plant Engineering provides unique informa-
clearinghouse@ee.doe.gov
tion for men and women who operate
and maintain industrial plants. It bridges Compressed Air Analysis Tool (CAAT)
the information gap between engineering Description: This tool performs an analysis of potential
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Available from: Reed Business Information air compressors and compressed air
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New York, NY 10014 energy and cost savings for various types
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Plant Services manufacturers. A free limited copy of this
Description: Information for successful plant systems tool is available at
and management, including equipment www.baseco.com/software.shtml

Where To Find Help
Available from: BASE Energy, Inc. Phone: (800) 231-6275 or (713) 520-4448
5 Third Street, Suite 530 Fax: (713) 520-4433
San Francisco, CA 94103 www.gulfpub.com
Phone: (415) 543-1600
Fax: (415) 543-1601 Videos
www.baseco.com
The following videos are available from CAGI at:
C-MAX Engineering Software The Compressed Air and Gas Institute
Description: C-MAX™ software’s compressor module is 1300 Sumner Avenue
designed for systems analysis of centrifugal Cleveland, OH 44115-2851
compressors, reciprocating compressors, Phone: (216) 241-7333
and rotary screw compressors. Multiple Fax: (216) 241-0105
compressors and “what if” case studies cagi@cagi.org
can be modeled for pure gases or gaseous www.cagi.org
mixtures, such as dry or wet air, hydrogen,
nitrogen, refinery gas mixture, fuel gas, Compressed Air: Industry’s Fourth Utility
and natural gas. The software allows users Description: This video presents a broad overview of
to perform “offline” modeling of air compression, distribution, and treat-
compressor performance, energy, and flow ment. It describes key considerations in
capacity calculations, and to create case designing and specifying a compressed air
studies by changing process, mechanical, system, including compressor selection,
or load variables. An evaluation copy is distribution considerations, air dryers, and
available on the Unicade Web site. filters. (Running time: 13 minutes)
Available from: UNICADE INC.
13219 NE 20th Street, Suite 211 Performance Under Pressure
Bellevue, WA 98005-2020 Description: This video discusses the role of compressed
Phone: (425) 747-0353 air and gas in various applications ranging
Fax: (425) 747-0316 from residential to industrial.
unicade@unicade.com (Running time: 16 minutes)
www.unicade.com
Principles of Air Compression
CHEMCALC 15: Centrifugal Compressor Design and Rating Description: This video explains in non-technical
Description: Based on the theories of Elliott and terms, the theory and principles involved
Ingersoll-Rand, CHEMCALC 15 will: in air compression. It illustrates the
1) design a compressor and analyze a operation of both positive-displacement
multi-stage compressor with up to four and dynamic-type compressors and
stages of compression; 2) analyze the introduces key terms, such as PSIG, SCFM,
performance of an existing compressor by relative humidity, and dew point.
calculating new operating conditions (Running time: 14 minutes)
based on design operating conditions and
curve and actual process conditions; and How to Select an Air Compressor
3) calculate the thermodynamic properties Description: This video focuses beyond the compressor
of a gas mixture, including molecular and encourages buyers to look at their
weight, critical temperature, critical complete air system. The video provides
pressure, specific heat ratio, and gas answers to some key questions that should
constant. be considered before making a compressor
Available from: Gulf Publishing Company Software purchase. The video is accompanied by
P.O. Box 2608 datasheets that provide a standardized
Houston, TX 77252-2608 format for manufacturers to use to

Where To Find Help
provide basic information about engineers, operators and maintenance staff how to
compressor and dryer performance and achieve 15 to 25 percent cost savings through more
efficiency. effective production and use of compressed air.
(Running time: 18 minutes) Participants will learn how to:
• Calculate the energy cost of compressed air in their
Air Treatment
facility
Description: This video provides an excellent overview
of compressed air treatment. It introduces • Improve compressed air system efficiency and
the viewer to the different ISO air quality reliability
classes. The video is divided into three • Identify inappropriate uses of compressed air
major sections: cooling, drying and • Establish a baseline by which they can measure
cleaning. Descriptions of the components improvements in compressed air performance and
and equipment used to treat the air are efficiency
provided. • Match system supply to actual production
(Running time: 17 minutes) requirements for pressure and flow;
• Find and fix leaks
Other videos available:
• Establish a leak prevention program
• Better control compressed air to improve productivity
Safety and Use of Air Compressors
and profitability.
Description: This video program shows how to operate
an air compressor system safely and Advanced Management of Compressed Air Systems, (Level 2),
efficiently. Topics include moving the air is an intensive 2-day training seminar that provides in-
compressor, compressor parts, lubrication, depth technical information on trouble-shooting and
and maintenance. This video was not making improvements to industrial compressed air
developed by CAGI. systems. This training is designed to help end users as
(Running time: 13 minutes) well as industry solution providers learn how to:
Available from: SafetyCare Inc.
26161 La Paz Road, Suite A • Collect and use data and tools to assess the efficiency
Mission Viejo, CA 92691 and cost-effectiveness of a compressed air system
Phone: (714) 452-1555 • Develop and use a system profile
Fax: (714) 452-1556 • Implement a system maintenance program
www.safetycare.com.au • Address air quality, highest pressure requirements and
high-volume intermittent applications
Workshops and Training Courses • Understand complex control system strategies
Workshops focusing on energy efficiency and • Align the supply side to demand side operation
performance improvement in compressed air systems are • Explain the value of heat recovery
developed and presented by independent consultants, • Successfully sell compressed air improvement projects
equipment manufacturers, distributors, and others. to management.
Many compressed air system consultants offer workshops
and training courses on improving the performance of For more information, see
compressed air systems. In addition, some equipment www.compressedairchallenge.org.
manufacturers and distributors offer training to their
customers. Workshops are sometimes sponsored by
electric utilities, universities, and state energy offices.
CAC has developed two courses.
Fundamentals of Compressed Air Systems, (Level 1), is a

1-day introductory course designed to teach facility

Appendices
Appendices
The following five appendices have been included in

the sourcebook:
Appendix A
This appendix is a glossary defining terms used in
the compressed air industry.
Appendix B
This appendix contains information on packaged
compressor efficiency ratings.
Appendix C
This appendix contains Data Sheets outlining a
common format for reporting compressor and dryer
performance.
Appendix D
This section presents an overview of the
compressed air systems marketplace, including market
size and dynamics, and a description of the stakeholders.
Appendix E
This section offers guidance for selecting a firm
that offers integrated services to improve compressed
air system performance. It also explains the different
levels of system analysis service.

Appendices

Appendix A: Glossary of Basic Compressed Air System Terminology
Absolute Pressure—Total pressure measured from zero. Capacity, Actual—See Actual Capacity.
Absolute Temperature—See Temperature, Absolute. Capacity Gauge—A gauge that measures air flow as a
percentage of capacity, used in rotary screw compressors
Absorption—The chemical process by which a
hygroscopic desiccant, having a high affinity with Check Valve—A valve which permits flow in only one
water, melts and becomes a liquid by absorbing the direction.
condensed moisture.
Clearance—The maximum cylinder volume on the
Actual Capacity—Quantity of gas actually compressed working side of the piston minus the displacement
and delivered to the discharge system at rated speed volume per stroke. Normally it is expressed as a
and under rated conditions. Also called Free Air percentage of the displacement volume.
Delivered (FAD).
Clearance Pocket—An auxiliary volume that may
Adiabatic Compression—See Compression, Adiabatic. be opened to the clearance space, to increase the
clearance, usually temporarily, to reduce the volumetric
Adsorption—The process by which a desiccant with efficiency of a reciprocating compressor.
a highly porous surface attracts and removes the
moisture from compressed air. The desiccant is capable Compressibility—A factor expressing the deviation of
of being regenerated. a gas from the laws of thermodynamics.
Air Receiver—See Receiver. Compression, Adiabatic—Compression in which no

heat is transferred to or from the gas during the
Air Bearings—See Gas Bearings. compression process.
Aftercooler—A heat exchanger used for cooling air Compression, Isothermal—Compression is which the
discharged from a compressor. Resulting condensate temperature of the gas remains constant.
may be removed by a moisture separator following the
aftercooler. Compression, Polytropic—Compression in which the
relationship between the pressure and the volume is
Atmospheric Pressure—The measured ambient expressed by the equation PVn is a constant.
pressure for a specific location and altitude.
Compression Ratio—The ratio of the absolute
Automatic Sequencer—A device that operates discharge pressure to the absolute inlet pressure.
compressors in sequence according to a programmed
schedule. Constant Speed Control—A system in which the
compressor is run continuously and matches air
Brake Horsepower (bhp)—See Horsepower, Brake. supply to air demand by varying compressor load.
Capacity—The amount of air flow delivered under Critical Pressure—The limiting value of saturation
specific conditions, usually expressed in cubic feet per pressure as the saturation temperature approaches the
minute (cfm). critical temperature.

Critical Temperature—The highest temperature at constant pressure. At this point the relative humidity
which well-defined liquid and vapor states exist. is 100 percent.
Sometimes it is defined as the highest temperature at
which it is possible to liquefy a gas by pressure alone. Demand—Flow of air at specific conditions required
at a point or by the overall facility.
Cubic Feet Per Minute (cfm)—Volumetric air flow rate.
Diaphragm—A stationary element between the stages
cfm, free air—cfm of air delivered to a certain point of a multi-stage centrifugal compressor. It may include
at a certain condition, converted back to ambient guide vanes for directing the flowing medium to the
conditions. impeller of the succeeding stage. In conjunction with
an adjacent diaphragm, it forms the diffuser surrounding
Actual cfm (acfm)—Flow rate of air at a certain point the impeller.
at a certain condition at that point.
Diaphragm Cooling—A method of removing heat
Inlet cfm (icfm)—cfm flowing through the from the flowing medium by circulation of a coolant
compressor inlet filter or inlet valve under rated in passages built into the diaphragm.
conditions.
Diffuser—A stationary passage surrounding an
Standard cfm—Flow of free air measured and converted impeller, in which velocity pressure imparted to the
to a standard set of reference conditions (14.5 psia, 68°F, flowing medium by the impeller is converted into
and 0 percent relative humidity). static pressure.
Cut-In/Cut-Out Pressure—Respectively, the minimum Digital Controls—See Logic Controls.

and maximum discharge pressures at which the
compressor will switch from unload to load operation Discharge Pressure—Air pressure produced at a
(cut-in) or from load to unload (cut-out). particular point in the system under specific conditions.
Cycle—The series of steps that a compressor with Discharge Temperature—The temperature at the
unloading performs 1) fully loaded; 2) modulating (for discharge flange of the compressor.
compressors with modulating control); 3) unloaded;
and 4) idle. Displacement—The volume swept out by the piston
or rotor(s) per unit of time, normally expressed in cfm.
Cycle Time—Amount of time for a compressor to
complete one cycle. Droop—The drop in pressure at the outlet of a
pressure regulator, when a demand for air occurs.
Degree of Intercooling—The difference in air or gas
temperature between the outlet of the intercooler and Dynamic Type Compressors—Compressors in which
the inlet of the compressor. air or gas is compressed by the mechanical action of
rotating impellers imparting velocity and pressure to a
Deliquescent—Melting and becoming a liquid by continuously flowing medium (can be centrifugal or
absorbing moisture. axial design).
Desiccant—A material having a large proportion of Efficiency—Any reference to efficiency must be

surface pores, capable of attracting and removing water accompanied by a qualifying statement which
vapor from the air. identifies the efficiency under consideration, as in the
following definitions of efficiency:
Dew Point—The temperature at which moisture in
the air will begin to condense if the air is cooled at

Efficiency, Compression—Ratio of theoretical Gas—One of the three basic phases of matter. While
power to power actually imparted to the air or gas air is a gas, in pneumatics the term gas normally is
delivered by the compressor. applied to gases other than air.
Efficiency, Isothermal—Ratio of the theoretical Gas Bearings—Load carrying machine elements

work (as calculated on a isothermal basis) to the permitting some degree of motion in which the
actual work transferred to a gas during compression. lubricant is air or some other gas.
Efficiency, Mechanical—Ratio of power imparted Gauge Pressure—The pressure determined by most

to the air or gas to brake horsepower (bhp). instruments and gauges, usually expressed in psig.
Barometric pressure must be considered to obtain true
Efficiency, Polytropic—Ratio of the polytropic or absolute pressure.
compression energy transferred to the gas, to the
actual energy transferred to the gas. Guide Vane—A stationary element that may be
adjustable and which directs the flowing medium
Efficiency, Volumetric—Ratio of actual capacity to approaching the inlet of an impeller.
piston displacement.
Head, Adiabatic—The energy, in foot pounds, required
Exhauster—A term sometimes applied to a to compress adiabatically to deliver one pound of a
compressor in which the inlet pressure is less than given gas from one pressure level to another.
atmospheric pressure.
Head, Polytropic—The energy, in foot pounds, required
Expanders—Turbines or engines in which a gas to compress polytropically to deliver one pound of a
expands, doing work, and undergoing a drop in given gas from one pressure level to another.
temperature. Use of the term usually implies that the
drop in temperature is the principle objective. The Horsepower, Brake—Horsepower delivered to the
orifice in a refrigeration system also performs this output shaft of a motor or engine, or the horsepower
function, but the expander performs it more nearly required at the compressor shaft to perform work.
isentropically, and thus is more effective in cryogenic
systems. Horsepower, Indicated—The horsepower calculated
from compressor indicator diagrams. The term applies
Filters—Devices for separating and removing particulate only to displacement type compressors.
matter, moisture or entrained lubricant from air.
Horsepower, Theoretical or Ideal—The horsepower
Flange Connection—The means of connecting required to isothermally compress the air or gas
a compressor inlet or discharge connection to piping delivered by the compressor at specified conditions.
by means of bolted rims (flanges).
Humidity, Relative—The relative humidity of a gas
Fluidics—The general subject of instruments and (or air) vapor mixture is the ratio of the partial
controls dependent upon low rate of flow of air or gas pressure of the vapor to the vapor saturation pressure
at low pressure as the operating medium. These usually at the dry bulb temperature of the mixture.
have no moving parts.
Humidity, Specific—The weight of water vapor in an
Free Air—Air at atmospheric conditions at any air vapor mixture per pound of dry air.
specified location, unaffected by the compressor.
Hysteresis—The time lag in responding to a demand
Full-Load—Air compressor operation at full speed for air from a pressure regulator.
with a fully open inlet and discharge delivering
maximum air flow.

Impeller—The part of the rotating element of a Load/Unload Control—Control method that allows
dynamic compressor which imparts energy to the the compressor to run at full-load or at no-load while
flowing medium by means of centrifugal force. It the driver remains at a constant speed.
consists of a number of blades which rotate with the
shaft. Modulating Control—System which adapts to varying
demand by throttling the compressor inlet
Indicated Power—Power as calculated from compressor- proportionally to the demand.
indicator diagrams.
Multi-Casing Compressor—Two or more compressors,
Indicator Card—A pressure-volume diagram for a each with a separate casing, driven by a single driver,
compressor or engine cylinder, produced by direct forming a single unit.
measurement by a device called an indicator.
Multi-Stage Axial Compressor—A dynamic compressor
Inducer—A curved inlet section of an impeller. having two or more rows of rotating elements operating
in series on a single rotor and in a single casing.
Inlet Pressure—The actual pressure at the inlet flange
of the compressor. Multi-Stage Centrifugal Compressor—A dynamic
compressor having two or more impellers operating in
Intercooling—The removal of heat from air or gas series in a single casing.
between compressor stages.
Multi-Stage Compressors—Compressors having two
Intercooling, Degree of—The difference in air or gas or more stages operating in series.
temperatures between the inlet of the compressor and
the outlet of the intercooler. Perfect Intercooling—The condition when the
temperature of air leaving the intercooler equals the
Intercooling, Perfect—When the temperature of the temperature of air at the compressor intake.
air or gas leaving the intercooler is equal to the
temperature of the air or gas entering the inlet of the Performance Curve—Usually a plot of discharge
compressor. pressure versus inlet capacity and shaft horsepower
versus inlet capacity.
Isentropic Compression—See Compression, Isentropic.
Piston Displacement—The volume swept by the
Isothermal Compression—See Compression, Isothermal. piston; for multistage compressors, the piston
displacement of the first stage is the overall piston
Leak—An unintended loss of compressed air to displacement of the entire unit.
ambient conditions.
Pneumatic Tools—Tools that operate by air pressure.
Liquid Piston Compressor—A compressor in which a
vaned rotor revolves in an elliptical stator, with the Polytropic Compression—See Compression, Polytropic.
spaces between the rotor and stator sealed by a ring of
liquid rotating with the impeller. Polytropic Head—See Head, Polytropic.
Load Factor—Ratio of average compressor load to the Positive Displacement Compressors—Compressors in

maximum rated compressor load over a given period which successive volumes of air or gas are confined
of time. within a closed space and the space mechanically
reduced, resulting in compression. These may be
Load Time—Time period from when a compressor loads reciprocating or rotating.
until it unloads.

Power, Theoretical (Polytropic)—The mechanical Rated Capacity—Volume rate of air flow at rated
power required to compress polytropically and to pressure at a specific point.
deliver, through the specified range of pressures, the
gas delivered by the compressor. Rated Pressure—The operating pressure at which
compressor performance is measured.
Pressure—Force per unit area, measured in pounds per
square inch (psi). Required Capacity—Cubic feet per minute (cfm) of
air required at the inlet to the distribution system.
Pressure, Absolute—The total pressure measured from
absolute zero (i.e. from an absolute vacuum). Receiver—A vessel or tank used for storage of gas
under pressure. In a large compressed air system there
Pressure, Critical—See Critical Pressure. may be primary and secondary receivers.
Pressure Dew Point—For a given pressure, the Reciprocating Compressor—Compressor in which

temperature at which water will begin to condense out the compressing element is a piston having a
of air. reciprocating motion in a cylinder.
Pressure, Discharge—The pressure at the discharge Relative Humidity—see Humidity, Relative.

connection of a compressor. (In the case of compressor
packages, this should be at the discharge connection Reynolds Number—A dimensionless flow parameter
of the package.) (η<∆/:), in which η is a significant dimension, often a
diameter, < is the fluid velocity, ∆ is the mass density,
Pressure Drop—Loss of pressure in a compressed air and : is the dynamic viscosity, all in consistent units.
system or component due to friction or restriction.
Rotor—The rotating element of a compressor. In a
Pressure, Intake—The absolute total pressure at the dynamic compressor, it is composed of the impeller(s)
inlet connection of a compressor. and shaft, and may include shaft sleeves and a thrust
balancing device.
Pressure Range—Difference between minimum and
maximum pressures for an air compressor. Also called Seals—Devices used to separate and minimize leakage
cut-in/cut-out or load/no-load pressure range. between areas of unequal pressure.
Pressure Ratio—See Compression Ratio. Sequence—The order in which compressors are

brought online.
Pressure Rise—The difference between discharge
pressure and intake pressure. Shaft—The part by which energy is transmitted from
the prime mover through the elements mounted on it,
Pressure, Static—The pressure measured in a flowing to the air or gas being compressed.
stream in such a manner that the velocity of the stream
has no effect on the measurement. Sole Plate—A pad, usually metallic and embedded in
concrete, on which the compressor and driver are
Pressure, Total—The pressure that would be produced mounted.
by stopping a moving stream of liquid or gas. It is the
pressure measured by an impact tube. Specific Gravity—The ratio of the specific weight of
air or gas to that of dry air at the same pressure and
Pressure, Velocity—The total pressure minus the static temperature.
pressure in an air or gas stream.
Specific Humidity—The weight of water vapor in an
air-vapor mixture per pound of dry air.

Specific Power—A measure of air compressor Temperature, Static—The actual temperature of a

efficiency, usually in the form of bhp/100 acfm. moving gas stream. It is the temperature indicated by
a thermometer moving in the stream and at the same
Specific Weight—Weight of air or gas per unit volume. velocity.
Speed—The speed of a compressor refers to the number Temperature, Total—The temperature which would be
of revolutions per minute (rpm) of the compressor measured at the stagnation point if a gas stream were
drive shaft or rotor shaft. stopped, with adiabatic compression from the flow
condition to the stagnation pressure.
Stages—A series of steps in the compression of air or a
gas. Theoretical Power—The power required to compress
a gas isothermally through a specified range of
Standard Air—The Compressed Air & Gas Institute and pressures.
PNEUROP have adopted the definition used in ISO
standards. This is air at 14.5 psia (1 bar); 68°F (20°C) Torque—A torsional moment or couple. This term
and dry (0 percent relative humidity). typically refers to the driving couple of a machine or
motor.
Start/Stop Control—A system in which air supply is
matched to demand by the starting and stopping of Total Package Input Power—The total electrical power
the unit. input to a compressor, including drive motor, belt
losses, cooling fan motors, VSD or other controls, etc.
Surge—A phenomenon in centrifugal compressors
where a reduced flow rate results in a flow reversal and Unit Type Compressors—Compressors of 30 bhp or
unstable operation. less, generally combined with all components required
for operation.
Surge Limit—The capacity in a dynamic compressor
below which operation becomes unstable. Unload—(No-load) compressor operation in which no
air is delivered because the intake is closed or modified
Temperature, Absolute—The temperature of air or gas not to allow inlet air to be trapped.
measured from absolute zero. It is the Fahrenheit
temperature plus 459.6 and is known as the Rankin Vacuum Pumps—Compressors which operate with an
temperature. In the metric system, the absolute intake pressure below atmospheric pressure and which
temperature is the Centigrade temperature plus 273 discharge to atmospheric pressure or slightly higher.
and is known as the Kelvin temperature.
Valves—Devices with passages for directing flow into
Temperature, Critical—See Critical Temperature. alternate paths or to prevent flow.
Temperature, Discharge—The total temperature at Volute—A stationary, spiral shaped passage which
the discharge connection of the compressor. converts velocity head to pressure in a flowing stream
of air or gas.
Temperature, Inlet—The total temperature at the
inlet connection of the compressor. Water-Cooled Compressor—Compressors cooled by
water circulated through jackets surrounding cylinders
Temperature Rise Ratio—The ratio of the computed or casings and/or heat exchangers between and after
isentropic temperature rise to the measured total stages.
temperature rise during compression. For a perfect gas,
this is equal to the ratio of the isentropic enthalpy rise
to the actual enthalpy rise.

Appendix B: Packaged Compressor Efficiency Ratings
Evaluating and comparing industrial air compressor • International Standards Organization (ISO)—ISO 1217,
capacities and efficiencies can be a daunting task. Displacement Compressors Acceptance Tests
Standards exist for testing the performance of a [distributed in the United States by the American
compressor, but they have not always been applied in National Standards Institute (ANSI)]
a consistent manner, and performance test results and
efficiency ratings are not always published in consistent, The revised ISO 1217 with Simplified Test Codes
standard formats. The result is that purchasers of air will likely be the most commonly used standard in the
compressors can find it difficult to compare the future. CAGI has also developed data sheets outlining
equipment performance. a common format and style for reporting compressor
The Compressed Air and Gas Institute (CAGI), the performance, including efficiency. For more informa-
primary compressed air industry trade association in tion on CAGI Data Sheets, see Appendix C.
the United States, has developed performance testing The industry norm for comparison of compressor
standards. CAGI, in conjunction with its European efficiency is given in terms of brake horsepower per
counterpart PNEUROP, has developed simplified actual cubic feet per minute (bhp/100 acfm) at a
performance testing standards which have been compressor discharge pressure of 100 pounds per
incorporated as addenda in International Standards square inch gauge (psig). A typical single-stage,
Organization (ISO) Standard ISO 1217, Displacement lubricant-injected, rotary screw compressor will have a
Compressors Acceptance Tests. These Simplified Test rating of approximately 22 bhp/100 acfm (referenced
Codes were adopted by the membership of CAGI and to standard inlet conditions). Users should remember
will be reflected in performance data published in that performance at site conditions will be different
manufacturers’ literature. Some CAGI members also from test data because of differences in factors such as
have ISO 9001 Certification which requires ambient temperature, pressure, and humidity.
documentation of compliance with published Even when accurate, consistent efficiency
performance and procedures. information is available, it may only be specified for
Compressed air system users should be aware that full-load operation (i.e., full capacity and specified
not all manufacturers marketing compressors in the full-load discharge pressure). Since most systems
United States are members of CAGI, and some may operate at part-load much of the time, it is also
test their compressors using different standards. important to compare part-load efficiencies when
The following standards have been developed for evaluating the performance of different compressors.
measuring air compressor performance. The variety of control methods can, however, make
this difficult.
• CAGI/PNEUROP—Acceptance Test Code for Bare When gathering information on compressor
Displacement Air Compressors (PN2CPTC1) performance and comparing different models, users
• CAGI/PNEUROP—Acceptance Test Code for should make sure the compressors have been tested
Electrically-Driven Packaged Displacement Air using the same standard, at the same conditions, and
Compressors (PN2CPTC2) that the data is being reported in a consistent manner.
• CAGI/PNEUROP—Acceptance Test Code for I.C. Some situations can lead to “apples-and-oranges”
Engine-Driven Packaged Displacement Air comparisons. For example:
Compressors (PN2CPTC3)
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)— • Manufacturers may test their compressors under
Power Test Code 9, Displacement Compressors, different “standard” conditions. Standard conditions
Vacuum Pumps, and Blowers should be at 14.5 psia (1 bar); 68°F (20°C) and dry
(0 percent relative humidity).

• The actual full-load power required by a typical air

compressor package might exceed the nominal
nameplate rating of the main-drive electric motor.
Such motors have a continuous service factor,
usually 15 percent, which allows continuous
operation at 15 percent above the nominal rating.
Most manufacturers use up to two-thirds of the
available service factor, so that full-load power will
be 10 percent above the nominal motor rating. It is
therefore important to use the bhp rating, not the
motor nameplate horsepower (hp) rating, when
comparing efficiency ratings in hp/acfm. To include
the motor efficiency and all package accessories and
losses, use a rating in total kilowatt input per acfm
to provide more precise data.
• Manufacturers may use a flange-to-flange rating
that does not include inlet, discharge, and other
package losses. This can affect overall efficiency by
5 percent or more.
• Energy consumption for accessory components,
such as cooling fan motors, may not be treated
consistently.
• Manufacturers may apply ranges or tolerances to
performance data.
• Performance is usually based on perfect intercooling,
which may not be realized under actual operating
conditions. Perfect intercooling requires the air
inlet temperature at each stage to be the same,
requiring a cooling water temperature approximately
15°F below the ambient air temperature. Poor
intercooling will adversely affect compressor
performance.
As the revised ISO standard and CAGI Compressor

Data Sheets become more commonly used, these
equipment comparison problems should become less
significant.

Appendix C: CAGI’s Data Sheets
Appendix C: CAGI’s Compressor and Dryer Data Sheets
These data sheets have been developed by the CAGI and PNEUROP developed Simplified Test Codes
Compressed Air & Gas Institute (CAGI) as an aid to which have been incorporated as appendices to ISO 1217.
the end user/customer in the selection of pneumatic CAGI members agreed that published performance of
equipment for the planned operating conditions. The their products would be based upon the Simplified
data sheets can be used to compare like equipment Test Codes, and Performance Data Sheets were devel-
under equal operating parameters. Data sheets for rotary oped to provide a standardized method of presenting
screw compressors, refrigerant dryers, and regenerative the performance data. The attached data sheets allow
desiccant type dryers are included in this appendix. a common basis for comparison of rotary screw
The members of the Compressed Air & Gas compressors, a type of displacement compressor.
Institute (CAGI) have long been involved in standards CAGI has also developed similar Performance Data
for the equipment manufactured by the industry. CAGI Sheets for Refrigerant Type, Regenerative Desiccant
has worked closely with the European Committee of Type, and Membrane Type Compressed Air Dryers to
Compressors, Vacuum Pumps and Pneumatic Tools allow a common basis for performance comparison.
(PNEUROP), the International Organization for As a sponsor of the Compressed Air Challenge®, CAGI
Standardization (ISO), and other standards development agreed to include these Performance Data Sheets in
bodies to develop appropriate standards for compressed the sourcebook for use by those involved with the
air and gas equipment. performance characteristics of compressors and dryers.
For displacement type compressors, including Additional Performance Data Sheets will be added for
rotary screw compressors, American Society of centrifugal air compressors and other compressed air
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Power Test Code 9 has equipment as they become available. CAGI is also
been the recognized performance standard in the preparing a consumer fact sheet that will assist
United States and ISO 1217 in Europe. These are too consumers in using the Performance Data Sheets.
complex for performance testing in volume production.

Compressor Data Sheet

Rotary Screw Compressor
Model Data
1 Manufacturer
2 Model Number # of stages
Air-cooled Water-cooled
Oil-injected Oil-free VALUE UNIT
3 Rated Capacity at Full-Load Operating Pressurea, e acfma, e
4 Full-Load Operating Pressureb psigb
5 Maximum Full Flow Operating Pressurec psigc
6 Drive Motor Nameplate Rating hp
7 Drive Motor Nameplate Nominal Efficiency percent
8 Fan Motor Nameplate Rating (if applicable) hp
9 Fan Motor Nameplate Nominal Efficiency (if applicable) percent
d
10 Total Package Power Input at Rated Capacity and Full-Load Operating Pressure kWd
11 Specific Package Input Power at Rated Capacity and Full-Load Operating Pressuref kW/100 cfmf
NOTES:
a. Measured at the discharge terminal point of the compressor package in accordance with the CAGI/PNEUROP PN2CPTC2 Test Code (Annex C to ISO 1217).
ACFM is actual cubic feet per minute at inlet conditions.
b. The operating pressure at which the Capacity (Item 3) and Electrical Consumption (Item 10) were measured for this data sheet.
c. Maximum pressure attainable at full flow, usually the unload pressure setting for load/no-load control or the maximum pressure attainable before capacity
control begins. May require additional power.
d. Total package input power at other than reported operating points will vary with control strategy.
e, f.Tolerance is specified in the CAGI/PNEUROP PN2CPTC2 Test Code (Annex C to ISO 1217) as follows:
Volume Flow Rate

at specified conditions Volume Flow Ratee Specific Energy Consumptionf
m3/min ft3/min % %
Below 0.5 Below 15 +/- 7 +/- 8
0.5 to 1.5 15 to 50 +/- 6 +/- 7
1.5 to 15 50 to 500 +/- 5 +/- 6
Above 15 Above 500 +/- 4 +/- 5
Member of
This form was developed by the Compressed Air and Gas Institute for the use of its members.
CAGI has not independently verified the reported data.

Dryer Data Sheet

Refrigerant Dryers
Model Data
1 Manufacturer
2 Model Number
3 Cycling/Non-Cycling
4 Refrigerant Type psig
Description Full Flow 60% Flow Units

5 Tested Flow* scfm**
6 Outlet Pressure Dewpoint °F
7 Pressure Drop psi(d)
8 Total Dryer Input Power kW
9 Specific Package Power*** kW/100 scfm
* Dryer ratings at the following inlet conditions to the dryer (as per adopted CAGI Standard ADF 100):
• Inlet Compressed Air Temperature:100°F (37.78°C)
• Inlet Compressed Air Pressure: 100 psig (6.9 Bar)
• Max. Ambient Air Temperature: 100°F (37.78°C)
• Inlet Compressed Air Relative Humidity 100% (Saturated)
** SCFM defined as the volume of free air in cubic feet per minute measured at 14.5 psia (1.0 Bar), 68°F (20°C)
temperature and 0% R.H. (0 WVP).
*** (Total Dryer Input Power/tested flow) x 100
Member of

Dryer Data Sheet

Regenerative Desiccant-Type Dryers
Model Data
1 Manufacturer
2 Model Number
3 Unit Type
4 Desiccant Type psig
Description Full Flow Units

5 Maximum Design Flow* scfm**
6 Outlet Pressure Dewpoint °F
7 Pressure Drop psi(d)
8 Purge Flow (average) scfm
Calculated Power-Purge kW
9 Total Dryer Input Power*** kW
10 Specific Package Power**** kW/100 scfm
* Dryer ratings at the following inlet conditions to the dryer (as per adopted CAGI Standard ADF 200):
• Inlet Compressed Air Temperature:100°F (37.78°C)
• Inlet Compressed Air Pressure: 100 psig (6.9 Bar)
• Inlet Compressed Air Relative Humidity 100% (Saturated)
** SCFM defined as the volume of free air in cubic feet per minute measured at 14.5 psia (1.0 Bar), 68°F (20°C)
temperature and 0% R.H. (0 WVP).
*** This total includes Calculated Power-Purge, Input Power for Blower and/or Heater (if any), and Control Power
****(Total Dryer Input Power/Max. Design Flow) x 100

Assumptions:
1. Average purge flow power calculation: (Purge Flow/4.2) x .746
2. Blower run time is average over one half a cycle.
3. Heater run time is average over one half a cycle.
Member of

Dryer Data Sheet

Membrane-Type Dryers
Model Data—For Compressed Air

1 Manufacturer
2 Model Number
Air-cooled Water-cooled # of stages
Oil-injected Oil-free VALUE UNIT
3 Rated Capacity at Full-Load Operating Pressurea,e acfma,e
4 Full-Load Operating Pressureb psigb
5 Maximum Full Flow Operating Pressurec psigc
6 Drive Motor Nameplate Rating hp
7 Drive Motor Nameplate Efficiency percent
8 Fan Motor Nameplate Rating (if applicable) hp
9 Fan Motor Nameplate Efficiency (if applicable) percent
10 Total Package Power Input at Rated Capacity and Full-Load Operating Pressured kWd
11 Specific Package Input Power at Rated Capacity and Full-Load Operating Pressuree,f kW/100 cfme,f
a. Measured at the discharge terminal point of the compressor package in accordance with the CAGI/PNEUROP
PN2CPTC2 Test Code (Annex C to ISO 1217). ACFM is actual cubic feet per minute at inlet conditions.
b. The operating pressure at which the Capacity (Item 3) and Electrical Consumption (Item 10) were measured for this
data sheet.
c. Maximum pressure attainable at full flow, usually the unload pressure setting for load/no-load control or the maximum
pressure attainable before capacity control begins. May require additional power.
d. Total package input power at other than reported operating points will vary with control strategy.
e, f. Tolerance is specified in the CAGI/PNEUROP PN2CPTC2 Test Code (Annex C to ISO 1217) as follows:
Volume Flow Rate

at specified conditions Volume Flow Ratee Specific Energy Consumptionf
m3/min ft3/min % %
Below 0.5 Below 15 +/- 7 +/- 8
0.5 to 1.5 15 to 50 +/- 6 +/- 7
1.5 to 15 50 to 500 +/- 5 +/- 6
Above 15 Above 500 +/- 4 +/- 5
Member of


Appendix D: The Compressed Air System Marketplace
Compressed air is used in a wide variety of commercial processing, pharmaceuticals, and electronics. Lubricant-
and industrial applications. It is used to lift, hold, and injected, rotary screw air compressors are the dominant
position pneumatic and hydraulic devices; to operate type used in applications above 25 hp, accounting for
air cylinder devices such as rivet guns and chipping 75 percent of unit sales. The popularity of the rotary
hammers; to pressurize and atomize paint in spray screw air compressor is because of its low initial and
guns; to operate air motors on grinders and drills; and maintenance costs and lower noise and vibration.
to agitate liquids. In these applications, compressed air Although tools driven by compressed air can
offers the advantages of being flexible, versatile, safe, consume 10 times as much energy as comparable
and lightweight. electric tools, they are used because of their ability to
provide high torque in a small, light, and safe package,
Market Size and Energy Consumption and because they usually have significantly lower
maintenance costs than electric tools in manufacturing
environments. The primary benefits of using
More than 1 million air compressors are sold in
compressed air in applications instead of alternative
the United States each year, the majority of which are
approaches include flexibility, versatility, and safety.
powered by small motors of 5 horsepower (hp) or less.
These small compressors are sold primarily to the
commercial and residential markets to operate Compressed Air System
portable tools, air pumps, and pneumatic heating, Marketplace
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) controls.
Although these small compressors account for
The air compressor marketplace (see Figure D-1.1)
approximately 98 percent of all air compressors sold,
is somewhat complex, with at least five key players or
they account for only 12 percent of annual electricity
stakeholders.
consumption. Larger air compressors (25 hp or above)
on the other hand, are sold primarily to the industrial • Air compressor manufacturers
and institutional sector. Although they account for less • Air compressor auxiliary equipment manufacturers
than 1 percent of annual sales, they represent an esti-
• Air compressor and auxiliary equipment distributors
mated 80 percent of the annual electricity consumption.
Industrial sector air compressors are typically plant • Contractors and architect-engineering (A&E) firms
air compressors in the range of 10 to 350 hp. • Compressed air system users.
Compressors larger than 350 hp are typically used to
In addition to influencing each other, these stake-
supply air for large process applications or plant air for
holders are affected by trade associations, auditors,
very large manufacturing facilities. According to a
governmental entities, and electric utilities.
recent analysis by Easton Consultants, Inc., energy
Each of the stakeholder groups is discussed below.
consumption by these two populations of air
compressors is approximately 27 to 32 terawatt hours
per year, equivalent to about 6 percent of all motor- Air Compressor Manufacturers
driven electricity consumption in the industrial sector. Rotary compressor or “air-end” manufacturers play
There are three basic types of (plant) air compressors: a primary role in the air compressor industry. Since
reciprocating, rotary screw, and centrifugal. Within they are involved in component design and
the compressor types, options such as lubricated and manufacturing, packaging, and assembly, they
lubricant-free designs are available. For example, determine the effort applied to compressor engineering
lubricant-free rotary screw compressors are used in and the overall level of efficiency of compressor pack-
applications that require clean air, such as food ages. A standard air compressor package consists of an
electric motor, motor starter, compressor, controls,

Very high-volume purchases

Auxiliary
Equipment
Manufacturers
Distributors and Compressed
Manufacturers’ Air System
Representatives Users
Contractors
and Architect- • Management
Air Engineering • Engineering
Compressor Firms • Purchasing
Manufacturers • Operations
• Maintenance
• Centrifugal
Very high-volume purchases
• Reciprocating
• Rotary Screw
• Rebuilders
Market Influencers: Auditors, Consultants,

Trade Associations, Government, and Utilities
Figure D-1.1 The Compressed Air System Marketplace.

filter, lubricant and air coolers, and lubricant/air Auxiliary Equipment Manufacturers
separator. An air-end accounts for a significant portion Auxiliary equipment manufacturers produce
of a packaged air compressor’s initial cost. components such as filters, dryers, aftercoolers, receiver
The market structure for plant air compressors tanks, pneumatic tools, lubricant separators, and
is a mature market that has, in recent years, made distribution system components. There are thousands
the transformation from reciprocating to rotary screw of different equipment manufacturers, ranging in size
compressors. A number of factors led to this from small, family-owned businesses to large,
transformation, including the lower first cost, lower multi-national corporations.
maintenance requirements, and ease of installation of
rotary screw units compared with reciprocating Air Compressor Distributors
compressors. The market is fairly well concentrated A group of 500 to 600 distributors dominate the
and competitive, and the number of companies that plant air compressor market, representing 85 to
manufacture industrial compressors continues to 90 percent of sales. The remainder are sold directly
decline. Single-stage, lubricant-injected, rotary screw from the manufacturer to the compressed air system
type compressors account for about 70 percent of the user, specifying engineer, or design-build contractor.
market. The industrial compressor market is dominated Sales to other original equipment manufacturers are
by a handful of manufacturers. Most domestic rare.
manufacturers are members of the Compressed Air Distributors provide many useful services to
and Gas Institute (CAGI). In addition, a few non- compressed air system users and specifying engineers
domestic companies also market compressors in the by offering information on new products, responding
United States. Since compressor equipment is to requests for bids, supplying sample specifications,
perceived as a commodity, competition is high. providing compressed air system design
Taking inflation into account, industrial compressor recommendations, and offering parts and service.
prices have fallen over the past 5 years. Although many distributors furnish detailed
technical proposals with sound engineering design,

they are often not able to convince the user to offered by different manufacturers, consulting
purchase a higher-cost compressed air system design engineers may oversize equipment by using high-safety
based on energy efficiency, even though total life-cycle factors.
costs are lower on the energy efficient system. This is
in part because of the way requests-for-proposals are Compressed Air System Users
issued by compressed air system users. Often decisions Industrial users of compressed air systems possess
are made purely on the lowest initial cost. Depending a wide range of expertise. While a small number of
on customer specifications, distributors may offer a large, sophisticated firms have compressed air specialists
high-cost, energy-efficient compressed air system, in-house and proactively manage and control their
along with a low-cost, less efficient system. plant’s compressed air systems, many manufacturers
There are three types of distributors who provide do not, although the situation is improving.
different levels of service to the market: compressed Compressed air system users often misdiagnose
air specialists, general industrial distributors, and problems in air systems and do not recognize the
warehouse distributors. amount of energy wasted due to poor compressed air
Compressed Air Specialists. Compressed air specialists system design, equipment selection, and operation and
work with complete compressed air systems, including maintenance (O&M) practices. In addition, users are
the compressor and all ancillary components. These not represented by an industry or professional
firms typically offer assistance with layout, specification, organization that emphasizes compressed air system
and sizing of components, storage, and controls. issues.
They offer a wide variety of maintenance programs, Compressed air system users often do not consider
complete parts and service facilities, and locally energy costs when buying new air compressors. Because
stocked parts inventories. Compressed air specialists of a focus on lowest first cost, which is driven by
may also test, audit, and redesign systems, or install the separate budgeting and accounting for operating and
complete system including the distribution network. capital costs, energy-efficient options (such as premium
General Industrial Distributors. General industrial efficiency motors, the best microprocessor and part-
distributors offer limited assistance in system design; load controls, and the most efficient equipment type or
most of their business is responding to bids or model for the applications) are usually not purchased.
specifications. These distributors also depend on parts
and service business, but they do not generally service Rebuilders
or install complete compressed air systems or offer Compressor rebuilders are a rather minor force in
consulting services on existing systems like distributors the air compressor market with less than 5 percent of
that specialize in compressed air systems or professional unit sales. Rebuilders were a larger influence 2 decades
compressed air system auditors. ago when reciprocating compressors dominated the
Warehouse Distributors. Warehouse distributors offer plant air market and rebuilt equipment accounted for
little or no technical support services, and do not 25 percent of sales. Today, users are more likely to
provide repair, maintenance, or other services. Their replace their defunct reciprocating compressor with a
sales tend to lean toward smaller equipment. low-cost rotary compressor instead of rebuilding it.
Remanufacturing is performed by some manufacturers
Contractors and Architect-Engineering Firms and distributors and by a few independent rebuilders.
Contractors and architect-engineering (A&E) firms
are typically concerned with designing and specifying Compressed Air System Audit Firms
systems for reliability, ease of maintenance, and low Compressed air system audit firms audit, analyze
noise, but not for efficiency. Other than a small and troubleshoot a plant’s compressed air systems and
number of national firms, regional and local consulting then recommend improvements to equipment, systems,
engineering firms generally lack an air compressor and O&M practices. Audits can frequently decrease
system department or specialist. Contractors and A&E energy consumption by 20 to 50 percent or more with
firms often do, however, play an important role in actions such as revised operation and maintenance
writing equipment bid specifications. Since it is often plans, leak programs, equipment downsizing, and
difficult to compare the performance of equipment

other efficiency upgrades. Auditors may be independent Awareness, Educational and Promotional, Standards,
consultants or affiliated with manufacturers of controls, Statistical Coordinating, and Technical.
compressors, or auxiliary equipment. More information on CAGI can be found in the
sections of this sourcebook on BestPractices and the
Other Stakeholders Compressed Air Challenge® (CAC), and in the fact
The other stakeholders that play a major role in sheet titled Packaged Compressor Efficiency Ratings.
the compressed air system marketplace by influencing CAGI contact information can be found in the section
it include trade associations, crosscutting organizations, titled Directory of Contacts.
government entities, and electric utilities. Each is Compressor Distributor Associations—Another
discussed below. important group of trade associations serves compressed
Trade Associations. air equipment distributors. Compressor distributor
CAGI—The most important trade association in associations usually focus around one compressor
the compressed air industry is the Compressed Air and manufacturer. Several associations coordinate their
Gas Institute (CAGI). CAGI is a nonprofit organization activities for the CAC through an umbrella group
of 45 companies that manufacture air and gas named the Compressor Distributors Association
compressors, pneumatic machinery and air and gas (CDA). Distributor association contact information
drying equipment; products which have a myriad of can be found in the section titled Directory of Contacts.
applications worldwide in construction, manufacturing, Crosscutting Organizations. The CAC is a national
mining, and the process and natural gas industries. effort involving all compressed air system stakeholders
The principal objectives of the CAGI are: aimed at improving compressed air system performance.
This collaborative will: deliver best-practice compressed
• To promote cooperation among its members for the
air system information to the plant floor; create a
improved production, proper use and increased
consistent national market message that supports the
distribution of air and gas compressors and related
application of these best practices; provide a technically
equipment
sound and professionally delivered training program
• To develop and publish standards and engineering for plant operating personnel; and through a
data for air and gas compressors and related certification program, recognize plant personnel’s skills
equipment in operating compressed air systems. Participants
• To increase the amount, and improve the quality of include large industrial users of compressed air;
service of air and gas compressors and related manufacturers and distributors of compressed air
equipment to the general public equipment and their associations; facility engineers
• To collect and distribute information of value to and their associations; compressed air system
CAGI members and to the general public consultants; state research and development agencies;
• To engage in cooperative educational and research energy efficiency organizations; and utility companies.
activities The CAC is described in detail in the Where To Find
Help section of this sourcebook.
• To cooperate with governmental departments and Government Entities. The major governmental
agencies and other bodies in matters affecting the influence on the compressed air systems marketplace
industry. is the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) BestPractices
Many of CAGI’s activities are carried out in its program, which is an industry/government partnership
separate sections, which are categorized by product designed to help industry improve the performance of
scope. Individual member companies may affiliate their systems (including compressed air systems).
with one or more of these sections, depending upon BestPractices activities are described in the Where To
their product lines. Find Help section of this sourcebook.
In addition, important work of the Institute is Electric Utilities. During the past 10 to 15 years,
carried out by committees, whose membership is electric utilities have influenced the compressed air
composed of one representative from each section. system marketplace primarily through their demand-
These ongoing committees include the Energy side management programs, largely under the influence

of state utility regulatory boards. Many electric utilities • To what extent are customers in key end-use sectors
offered programs, such as compressor rebates that paid aware of compressed air usage, costs, and savings
the incremental cost difference between a high- opportunities?
performance compressor and one of an an average • What practices do these customers follow to monitor,
efficiency, or offered free or reduced-priced audits of maintain, and enhance the efficiency of compressed
compressed air systems. Most of these programs have air systems?
now been discontinued, however. • What, if any, services do these customers purchase
As the electric utilities industry continues to to maintain or enhance the efficiency of compressed
deregulate and evolve, many utilities are interested in air systems?
providing value-added energy services to their industrial
• What barriers do customers experience in purchasing
customers. Compressed air systems offer a good
such services?
opportunity for such services. Under the unregulated
environment, utilities may offer anything from The key research questions on the supply-side of
assistance with audits to complete outsourcing of a the market were:
customer’s compressed air operations.
• What efficiency services do compressed air distributors,
installers, and consultants currently offer?
The Market for Compressed Air System • What is the current volume of sales for these services
Efficiency Services (number of customers, number of projects, dollar
volumes)? How has volume changed over the past
The Assessment of the Market for Compressed Air few years? What are vendors’ expectations regarding
Efficiency Services1 is a report commissioned by DOE growth?
with technical support provided by CAC. The • What role do these services play in the overall
objective of this report is to provide a comprehensive business strategy of manufacturers, distributors, and
and balanced view of the market for engineering and consultants?
consulting services to improve the energy efficiency of • What barriers do these businesses face in developing
plant compressed air systems. These services include and selling compressed air system efficiency services?
plant assessments or audits to identify opportunities
to improve compressed air system operations, preventive Key Findings
maintenance services, such as leak detection and repair Demand-Side Findings
that are aimed at reducing energy use, and redesign of • Customer awareness of and concern for compressed
controls and other system components to reduce energy air efficiency is low. Only 9 percent of customers
use. The report is intended for use by the CAC and interviewed for the program identified controlling
other industrial energy efficiency program operators in energy costs as the primary objective in compressed
developing strategies to encourage the growth of the air system maintenance and management. Only
compressed air system efficiency industry and enhance 17 percent mentioned efficiency at all as a system
the quality of the services it offers. Compressed air management objective. This low level of interest and
system vendors and designers may also find it useful knowledge was echoed in findings from the regional
in charting their own approach to providing energy studies and interviews with compressed air system
efficiency services. efficiency consultants.
The project was designed to answer a number of
key questions concerning the demand and supply • Maintenance of consistent, reliable compressed air
sides of the market for compressed air efficiency supply is the principal objective of system manage
services. Among the key research questions to be ment. Seventy-one percent of customers reported
addressed on the demand side of the market were: that ensuring adequate air supply is their primary
objective in system management. According to
1 XENERGY, Inc. (June 2001) Assessment of the Market for Compressed Air Efficiency Services, U.S. DOE in cooperation with Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

consultants interviewed for this project, concern of the audits included estimates of energy use and
about operating consistency provides an effective identified potential energy-saving measures, fewer
route to selling efficiency-oriented services. than half included estimated savings and costs for
• A large portion of customers report serious problems recommended measures. Two-thirds of the customers
in compressed air system operation and maintenance. who conducted system audits reported that they had
Thirty-five percent of those interviewed reported implemented at least one of the recommended
that they had experienced unscheduled shutdowns measures.
of their compressed air systems during the previous • One-third of the customers reported that vendors
12 months. For 60 percent of these establishments, selling “services specifically designed to reduce energy
or 21 percent of all establishments, the shutdown costs in compressed air systems” had approached
had lasted 2 days or more. Two-thirds of the them. The nature of these services varied widely. The
customers reported experiencing potentially serious most frequently mentioned were preventive mainte-
operating problems in their compressed air systems. nance for compressors, assessment of control strategies,
Excess moisture and inadequate air pressure were the and identification of energy-saving measures. No
most frequently reported problems. one service was mentioned by more than 46 percent
• A significant portion of customers report having of those interviewed. This result reflects the formative
service contracts for their compressed air systems, state of the market for compressed air system
but few of these contracts address system efficiency. efficiency services. Vendors have not defined the
Thirty percent of customers reported that they had nature of such services consistently. Only 3 percent
service contracts for their compressed air systems. of customers reported that they had purchased
However, only one-third of these (or 10 percent of compressed air efficiency services in response to
all participants) reported that efficiency-oriented these sales approaches. The most frequent objections
services such as leak detection, energy-use monitor to these services were high cost and the customers’
ing, or assessment of control strategies were included view that they could undertake such activities with
in the service contract. There was no difference in in-house staff.
the incidence of unscheduled system shutdowns or
operating problems between customers with service Supply-Side Findings
contracts and those without such contracts. • A large portion of distributors report that they offer
• Thirty-five percent of customers interviewed reported compressed air efficiency services. Over three-quarters
that they conducted leak prevention programs. offer system-efficiency measures, while over one-half
• Reported implementation of compressed air efficiency offer end-use analyses and leak services.
measures is very low. The United States Industrial • Over one-half of vendors feel that the demand for
Electrical Motor Market Opportunities Assessment2 efficiency services has increased in the last year.
Assessment found that 57 percent of manufacturing • Most distributors that offer efficiency-related services
plants had taken no action to improve compressed have entered the market within the past 10 years;
air system efficiency—including repairing leaks— one-third have entered in the past 4 years.
in the 2 years prior to the survey. A 1999 survey of • Most distributors interviewed consider efficiency
270 large industrial users served by Pacific Gas & services essential to their competitive positions.
Electric obtained a similar finding. Sixty-seven percent of distributors rate efficiency
• Seventy-five percent of operators of the systems services as being important to their competitive
installed had had no formal training in compressed position. Their major motivation to enter the market
air system efficiency. is customer retention. With the number of firms
• Seventeen percent of customers reported that they that offer efficiency services increasing, vendors
had undertaken a compressed air system audit over believed that they needed to reply in kind to main-
the past 7 years. Most of the audits had been tain satisfaction among their equipment purchasers.
conducted in the past 6 years; and six audits were Access to additional revenue streams from consulting
underway at the time of the interview. While most was not mentioned at all as a motivating factor.
2 XENERGY, Inc. (1998) United States Industrial Electrical Motor Market Opportunities Assessment, U.S. DOE and Oak Ridge National
Laboratory.

• Most distributors identified customers’ lack of under-

standing of the benefits of compressed air efficiency
measures as the major barrier to their increased sale.
These findings mirror the experience of compressed
air efficiency consultants. Forty-five percent of the
vendors identified customer perceptions that
compressed air efficiency services were already being
provided by in-house staff as an objection to sales
efforts. This finding, combined with the reported
low incidence of specific measure implementation,
further reinforces the consultants’ observation that
customers are largely in the dark about the nature of
compressed air system efficiency measures and
maintenance practices.


Appendix E: Guidelines for Selecting a Compressed Air System Provider
Appendix E: Guidelines for Selecting a Compressed Air System

Provider
Compressed air is one of the most important utility the type of firm offering these services. These three
requirements of the typical industrial manufacturer. levels of service include: a walk-through evaluation, a
Compressed air is used throughout many processes, system assessment, and a fully instrumented system
such as pneumatic tools, pneumatic controls, audit. More information on analysis services guidelines
compressed air operated cylinders for machine can be found under the CAC Levels of Analysis of
actuation, product cleansing, and blow-offs. Without Compressed Air Systems in this Guidelines
a consistent supply of quality compressed air, a manu- document, or you can visit the CAC Web site at
facturing process can stop functioning. www.compressedairchallenge.org. In selecting a service
The Compressed Air Challenge® (CAC) is a national provider, a compressed air user should consider the
collaboration that was created to assist industrial guidelines that follow.
facilities in achieving greater reliability, improved
quality control, and lower operating costs for their
compressed air systems. The CAC encourages facilities
to take a systems approach to optimizing compressed
air operation. Taking a systems approach means looking
beyond individual components to assess how well
your compressed air system meets actual production
needs. This is known as “matching supply with
demand.” It also means identifying the root causes of
system problems, rather than treating the symptoms.
For most industrial facilities, this approach will
require specialized knowledge and equipment, both to
assess system needs and to continue to service those
needs over time. Outside assistance frequently is
required. System assessment services and ongoing
system maintenance may require the use of separate
firms, although there is a growing market trend
toward more fully integrated services. The process of
selecting the right mix of services can be confusing.
The CAC is working with the compressed air industry
to help industrial compressed air users become
informed consumers. Guidelines for Selecting a
Compressed Air System Service Provider offers guidance to
assist you in selecting a firm that offers integrated
services. Independent compressed air system specialists
typically provide comprehensive system assessment
services as their principal business; many are not
involved in sales of equipment, other products, or
maintenance.
The CAC also is developing guidelines to define
three levels of system analysis services, independent of

WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHEN SELECTING

A SERVICE PROVIDER
In selecting a service provider, a compressed air user should because of their ability to troubleshoot and get equipment
consider the following guidelines. back on line efficiently and effectively.
I. Familiarity with the Systems Approach IV. System Components and Controls Knowledge
and Expertise
The Compressed Air Challenge® (CAC) provides Fundamentals
of Compressed Air Systems and Advanced Management of Treatment, accessory, and ancillary equipment–Does the
Compressed Air Systems training to end users and service service provider have the expertise to perform refrigeration
providers. One way to gauge a service provider’s commit- and other work on dryers and related equipment? Is the
ment to the systems approach is whether they have staff service provider capable of servicing the types of filters,
who have received CAC training. If they do, ask whether drains, distribution and point of use equipment found in your
these individuals will be providing or supervising services facility?
for your facility. Providers who are familiar with using a
systems approach are much more likely to address situations, System controls–Does the service provider have the
both inside and outside the compressor room, that are having diagnostic and technical controls capability to determine
an effect on the reliability of your compressed air supply. how to optimize your existing control configuration and
make recommendations for improvements? Can they help
II. Availability of Compressed Air System network compressors together or remotely monitor, if
Assessment Services necessary? Advanced controls can save energy and improve
reliability through automatic start and stop, as well as
Does the provider offer compressed air system analysis turning compressors off that can then serve as back-ups.
services? If yes, how well do these services fit your needs? Advance warning through remote monitoring may help
If no, can the provider outsource these services to an identify a problem before it turns into a major shutdown.
experienced system specialist? How experienced are the
individuals who will be providing these services? Once a V. Company Capabilities
walk-through, assessment, or audit is performed, what kind
of follow-up services are available to ensure that the Ask about the standards of performance that the prospective
recommendations are properly implemented and produce service provider has established for:
the desired results? Ask for a sample of similar work that
the provider has done for others, resumés of the personnel • Emergency service response
who will be performing the work, and client references. • Parts shipments
Please note that while leak detection is a useful element of • Other factors which may influence your decision, such
a system assessment, a true system assessment should as:
include much more. See www.compressedairchallenge.org – Installation capabilities internally or through a
for additional guidance. mechanical contractor
– Emergency rental fleet availability—electric or
Important Note: recommendations resulting from system portable diesel-driven
analysis activities should provide product-neutral solutions • Your company may request information on the service
to system problems and include, only if needed, performance- provider’s
based rather than brand-based equipment recommendations. – Financial stability
– Insurance coverage
III. Compressor Knowledge and Expertise – Compliance with specific government regulations or
those of your company.
Does the servce provider have the expertise to work on your
equipment? Can the service provider work on all types of VI. Service Facilities
compressors in your facility? How much experience do the
service technicians have? How are the service technicians Visit the facilities of two or three service providers under
trained? Is formal schooling involved? Knowledgeable service consideration to see first hand the type of repair shop and
technicians are worth the premium price they may demand parts warehouse with which you will be dealing.

COMPRESSED AIR CHALLENGE®

LEVELS OF ANALYSIS OF COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
OVERVIEW
The Levels of Analysis of Compressed Air Systems listed below
an experienced compressed air system services provider. A
have been developed in an effort to provide commonality of
walk-through evaluation is not intended to provide the level of
terminology, methods, and procedures to be used by service
detail found in a system assessment or a system audit but
providers and the results to be expected by end users. This
significant reductions in energy (25 percent or more) and
overview is essentially brief. More detailed versions of these
lower maintenance costs frequently have resulted from a
Levels of Analysis are under development, at this time, and will
walk-through evaluation alone. Once initial opportunities have
be available through the CAC Web site at
been identified, a decision should be made concerning
www.compressedairchallenge.org.
whether additional analysis services are required to further
Energy utilities are actively involved in these efforts and some define system dnamics and corresponding system improve-
provide incentives to use these analyses to improve the energy ment opportunities. This decision will depend, in part, on the
efficiency of compressed air systems. size and complexity of the system being examined (both
supply and demand) and whether critical issues surfaced
Conducting a walk-through evaluation is the first step in during the Evaluation that require further investigation to
analyzing a compressed air system. Depending on individual understand the root cause and suggest potential remedies.
needs, this can be conducted either by plant personnel or by
LEVELS OF ANALYSIS
Walk-through Evaluation (1/2 to 2 days)
A walk-through evaluation is an overview of a plant compressed air system by identifying the types, needs, and appropriateness of
end uses, pressures and air quality requirements.
• The distribution system is analyzed for any apparent problems of size, pressure drops, storage, leaks, and drains.
• The supply side is analyzed for types of compressors, and the types, suitability and settings of capacity controls.
• A simple block diagram of the system is drawn.
• Maintenance procedures and training are also analyzed.
• Written report of findings and proposed solutions is submitted.
• Solution and product neutrality should be maintained with any recommendations.
System Assessment (2 to 5 days)
A system assessment is more detailed than a walk-through evaluation of a plant compressed air system.
• In addition to identifying the items and problems of the walk-through evaluation, readings are taken at appropriate locations to
identify the dynamics of the system.
• A simple block diagram of the system is drawn, also a pressure profile and a demand profile, to help identify potential
problems and how they could be resolved.
• Again, maintenance procedures and training are reviewed.
• A written report of findings and recommendations is submitted.
System Audit (3 to 10 days)
A system audit is similar to a system assessment but in more depth and detail.
• Data logging of readings throughout the system is conducted for more in-depth analysis of the dynamics of the system and
resulting problems.
• Again, maintenance procedures and training are reviewed.
• The objective is a proper alignment of the supply side and the demand side for optimum efficiency, energy savings, and
reliability. A baseline is established, against which the results of any proposed changes are measured.
• A comprehensive written report of all findings, recommendations, and results is submitted.

Notes

Notes

Notes
122
About Compressed Air Challenge® and the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
About Compressed Air Challenge®

A national collaborative, the Compressed Air Challenge®, curriculum, a certification program, and other information
was formed in October of 1997 to assemble state-of-the-art that can be used by the project sponsors in cooperation with
information on compressed air system design, performance, others to:
and assessment procedures. This collaborative is delivering
best-practice compressed air system information to the plant • Raise awareness of the importance of efficient, effective
floor, creating a consistent national market message that plant air systems
supports the application of these best practices, providing a • Train industrial plant operating personnel on best practices
technically sound and professionally delivered training program for plant air systems
for plant operating personnel, and will, through a certification • Expand the market for expert plant air assessment services
program, recognize plant personnel’s skills in operating
compressed air systems. Participants include: large industrial • Help build the local market infrastructure to deliver these
users of compressed air, manufacturers and distributors of services.
compressed air equipment and their associations, facility
engineers and their associations, compressed air system The Compressed Air Challenge® includes:
consultants, state research and development agencies, energy
efficiency organizations, and utilities. The goals of the • A Board of Directors comprised of the project sponsors
Compressed Air Challenge® are to: • A Project Development Committee, which includes a
• Increase the reliability and quality of industrial production representative from each key stakeholder group and is
processes responsible for overall project coordination
• Reduce plant operating costs • Working Groups, which provide essential technical input to
• Expand the market for high quality compressed air services the project.
• Save energy; a 10 percent improvement over current usage,
resulting in annual savings of approximately 3 billion The Compressed Air Challenge® is seeking additional
kilowatt hours of electricity nationwide. participants interested in sponsorship or contributing to
materials development. For general information, call the
The purpose of the Compressed Air Challenge® is to initiate Compressed Air Challenge® at (800) 862-2086. If you would like
a national collaborative that develops materials, a training to join the Challenge, see www.compressedairchallenge.org.
About the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

A Strong Energy Portfolio for a Strong America Federal Energy Management Program
Leading by example, saving energy and taxpayer dollars in
federal facilities
Energy efficiency and clean, renewable energy will mean a
stronger economy, a cleaner environment, and greater energy FreedomCAR & Vehicle Technologies Program
independence for America. By investing in technology break- Less dependence on foreign oil, and eventual transition to an
throughs today, our nation can look forward to a more resilient emisions-free, petroleum-free vehicle
economy and secure future.
Geothermal Technologies Program
Far-reaching technology changes will be essential to America’s Tapping the earth’s energy to meet our heat and power needs
energy future. Working with a wide array of state, community,
industry, and university partners, the U.S. Department of Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program
Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Paving the way toward a hydrogen economy and net-zero
invests in a diverse portfolio of energy technologies that will: carbon energy future
• Conserve energy in the residential, commercial, industrial, Industrial Technologies Program
government, and transportation sectors Boosting the productivity and competitiveness of U.S. industry
• Increase and diversify energy supply, with a focus on through improvements in energy and environmental
renewable domestic sources performance
• Upgrade our national energy infrastructure
• Facilitate the emergence of hydrogen technologies as a Solar Energy Technology Program
vital new “energy carrier.” Utilizing the sun’s natural energy to generate electricity and
provide water and space heating
The opportunities
Weatherization & Intergovernmental Program
Biomass Program Accelerating the use of today’s best energy-efficient and
Using domestic, plant-derived resources to meet our fuel, renewable technologies in homes, communities, and businesses
power, and chemical needs
Wind & Hydropower Technologies Program
Building Technologies Program Harnessing America’s abundant natural resources for clean
Homes, schools, and businesses that use less energy, cost less to power generation
operate, and ultimately, generate as much power as they use
To learn more, visit www.eere.energy.gov.
Distributed Energy & Electric Reliability Program
A more reliable energy infrastructure and reduced need for
new power plants
123
Contact Information: Prepared for:
Compressed Air Challenge® and
The United States Department of Energy
Compressed Air Challenge®
www.compressedairchallenge.org Prepared by:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Washington, D.C.
U.S. Department of Energy Resource Dynamics Corporation

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Vienna, VA
Industrial Technologies Program
www.eere.energy.gov/industry
Industrial Technologies Program
To order additional copies of

this sourcebook, please contact:
Industrial Technologies
Clearinghouse
(800) 862-2086
U.S. Department of Energy

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Washington, D.C. 20585
Cover photos, from top to bottom:

Top and bottom photos: Dryer and desiccant dryer,
courtesy American Water Heaters,
Johnson City, TN
Middle photo: Compressors in centralized location,
courtesy Visteon Corporation, DOE/GO-102003-1822
Nashville, TN
November 2003
COMPRESSED
AIR
COMPEDIUM
Table of contents
Contents Chapter Page
Part 1 1.1 The history of compressed air ............................................... 1

Fundamentals of 1.1.1 The origin of compressed air ................................................ 1
compressed air 1.1.2 The first applications of compressed air ............................... 2
1.2 Units and formula symbols .................................................... 6
1.2.1 Basic units ............................................................................ 6
1.2.2 Compressed air units ........................................................... 6
1.3 What is compressed air ? ....................................................... 7
1.3.1 The composition of air .......................................................... 7
1.3.2 The properties of compressed air ........................................ 7
1.3.3 How does compressed air behave? ..................................... 7
1.4 Physical fundamentals ........................................................... 8
1.4.1 Temperature ......................................................................... 9
1.4.2 Volume ................................................................................. 9
1.4.3 Pressure ............................................................................. 10
1.4.3 Volume flow ........................................................................ 11
1.5 Compressed air in motion .................................................... 13
1.5.1 Flow behaviour ................................................................... 13
1.5.2 Types of flow ...................................................................... 13
Part 2 2.1 The advantages of compressed air ..................................... 14

Applications for 2.2 Pressure ranges .................................................................... 17
pneumatics 2.3 Possible applications for compressed air ........................... 18
2.3.1 Tensioning and clamping with compressed air ................... 18
2.3.2 Conveyance by compressed air ......................................... 18
2.3.3 Pneumatic drive systems ................................................... 19
2.3.4 Spraying with compressed air ............................................ 19
2.3.5 Blowing and flushing with compressed air .......................... 19
2.3.6 Testing and inspection with compressed air ....................... 20
2.3.7 Using compressed air for process control .......................... 20
2.4 Examples of specialised applications ................................. 21
Part 3 3.1 Compressors (Compactors) ................................................. 24

Compressed air 3.1.1 Dynamic compressors ( Turbo-compressors ) .................... 24
3.1.2 Displacement compressors ................................................ 24
generators
3.2 Types of compressor ............................................................ 25
3.2.1 Standard compressors ....................................................... 26
3.2.2 Piston (reciprocating) compressor ...................................... 27
3.2.3 Diaphragme compressor .................................................... 29
3.2.4 Free piston compressor ...................................................... 30
3.2.5 Rotary vane compressor .................................................... 31
3.2.6 Liquid ring compressor ....................................................... 32
3.2.7 Screw compressor ............................................................. 33
3.2.8 Roots compressor .............................................................. 34
3.2.9 Axial compressor ................................................................ 35
3.2.10 Radial compressor ............................................................. 36
I
Table of contents
Chapter Page
3.3 Piston compressors .............................................................. 37

3.3.1 General .............................................................................. 37
3.3.2 Suction capacity - Output ................................................... 38
3.3.3 Cooling ............................................................................... 39
3.3.4 Coolant ............................................................................... 40
3.3.5 Control of reciprocating piston compressors ...................... 40
3.3.6 Advantages of reciprocating piston compressors ............... 40
3.3.7 Components of a piston compressor .................................. 41
3.4 Screw compressors .............................................................. 42
3.4.1 General .............................................................................. 42
3.4.2 Compression process ........................................................ 42
3.4.2 Method of operation ........................................................... 43
3.4.3 Oil circuit ............................................................................ 44
3.4.4 Pneumatic circuit ................................................................ 45
3.4.5 Heat reclamation ................................................................ 46
3.4.6 Intake control ...................................................................... 46
3.4.7 Advantages of screw compressors ..................................... 46
3.4.8 Components of a screw compressor .................................. 47
3.5 Components .......................................................................... 48
3.5.1 Drive motor ......................................................................... 48
3.5.2 Drive belts .......................................................................... 48
3.5.3 Belt tensioning .................................................................... 48
3.5.4 Inlet and pressure valves ................................................... 49
3.5.5 Safety valve ........................................................................ 49
3.5.6 Intake filter .......................................................................... 49
3.6 Compressor lubricants and coolants .................................. 50
Part 4 4.1 Pressure definitions .............................................................. 51

Control of compressors 4.2 Operating status .................................................................... 52
4.2.1 Stopped ( L0 ) ..................................................................... 52
4.2.2 Idle ( L1 ) ............................................................................. 52
4.2.3 Part-load ............................................................................ 53
4.2.4 Operating load ( L2 ) .......................................................... 53
4.3 Controlling individual compressors .................................... 54
4.3.1 Intermittent control ............................................................. 54
4.3.2 Idle mode control ................................................................ 54
4.3.3 Delayed intermittent control ................................................ 55
4.3.4 Part-load control ................................................................. 56
4.3.4.1 Infinite output control .......................................................... 56
4.3.4.2 Frequency control ............................................................... 56
4.4. The ARS control concept ..................................................... 57
4.4.1 Automatic ........................................................................... 58
4.4.2 Autotronic ........................................................................... 58
4.4.3 Ratiotronic .......................................................................... 59
4.4.4 Supertronic ......................................................................... 59
II
Table of contents
Chapter Page
4.5 Control of several compressors .......................................... 60

4.5.1 MCS 1 and MCS 2 ............................................................. 60
4.5.2 MCS 3 ................................................................................ 61
4.5.3 MCS 4 ................................................................................ 62
4.5.4 MCS 5 ................................................................................ 63
4.5.5 MCS 6 ................................................................................ 64
4.5.6 MCS 7 ................................................................................ 65
Part 5 5.1 Why treatment ? .................................................................... 66

Compressed air treatment 5.1.2 Planning information .......................................................... 67
5.1.3 Consequences of poor treatment ....................................... 68
5.1.3 Impurities in the air ............................................................. 69
5.2 Water in the compressed air ................................................ 70
5.2.1 Atmospheric humidity ......................................................... 70
5.2.2 Dew points ......................................................................... 71
5.2.3 Air moisture content ........................................................... 71
5.2.4 Quantity of condensate during compression ...................... 72
5.2.5 Example for calculating quantities of condensate .............. 73
5.2.6 Quantity of condensate on a humid summer day ............... 74
5.2.7 Determining the pressure dew point ................................... 75
5.2.8 Pressure dew point after removal of pressure .................... 76
5.3 Compressed air quality ......................................................... 77
5.3.1 Quality classes defined in DIN ISO 8573-1 ....................... 77
5.4 Methods of drying ................................................................. 78
5.4.1 Operating conditions .......................................................... 79
5.4.2 Condensation by over-compression ................................... 80
5.4.3 Condensation by refrigeration drying ................................ 81
5.4.4 Diffusion by membrane drying ............................................ 82
5.4.5 Sorption by Absorption ....................................................... 83
5.4.6 Sorption by Adsorption ....................................................... 84
5.4.6.1 Cold regeneration ............................................................... 85
5.4.6.2 Internal hot regeneration .................................................... 86
5.4.6.3 External hot regeneration ................................................... 87
5.4.6.4 Vacuum regeneration ......................................................... 88
5.4.7 Arrangement of the refrigeration compressed air dryer ...... 89
5.4.7.1 Dryer before the compressed air receiver .......................... 89
5.4.7.2 Dryer behind the compressed air receiver .......................... 90
5.5 Compressed air filters .......................................................... 91
5.5.1 Basic terminology of filters ................................................. 91
5.5.1.1 Filter separation rate η [ % ] ............................................... 91
5.5.1.2 Pressure drop ∆p ............................................................... 92
5.5.1.3 Operating pressure ............................................................ 92
5.5.2 Dust separators .................................................................. 93
5.5.3 Pre-filters ............................................................................ 94
5.5.4 Microfilters .......................................................................... 95
5.5.5 Active carbon filters ............................................................ 97
5.5.6 Active carbon adsorbers ..................................................... 98
5.5.7 Sterile filters ....................................................................... 99
III
Table of contents
Chapter Page
Part 6 6.1 Condensate .......................................................................... 100

Disposal of condensate 6.2 Condensate drains .............................................................. 101
6.2.1 Condensate drains with manual valves ............................ 102
6.2.2 Condensate drains with float control ............................... 102
6.2.3 Condensate drains with
time-dependent magnetic valves ...................................... 103
6.2.4 Condensate drains with
electronic volume measurement ...................................... 104
6.2.5 Condensate drains with level floats
for measuring the level ..................................................... 105
6.3 Condensate treatment ........................................................ 106
6.3.1 Oil-water separators ......................................................... 107
Part 7 7.1 Consumption of compressed air by pneumatic devices . 108

Compressed air 7.1.1 Consumption of nozzles ................................................... 108
7.1.1.1 Compressed air consumption of cylindrical nozzles ......... 109
requirement
7.1.1.2 Compressed air consumption of paint spray guns ........... 110
7.1.1.3 Compressed air consumption of jet nozzles ..................... 111
7.1.2 Compressed air consumption of cylinders ....................... 112
7.1.3 Compressed air consumption of tools .............................. 113
7.2 Determining compressed air requirement ........................ 115
7.2.1 Average operation time .................................................... 115
7.2.2 Simultaneity factor ............................................................ 116
7.2.3 Defining compressed air requirement .............................. 117
7.2.3.1 Automatic consumer devices ............................................ 117
7.2.3.2 General consumer devices ............................................... 118
7.2.3.3 Total compressed air consumption ................................... 118
7.2.4 Allowances for losses and reserves ................................. 119
7.2.5 FAD required LB ............................................................... 119
7.3 Compressed air loss ........................................................... 120
7.3.1 Costs of compressed air loss ........................................... 120
7.3.2 Quantifying leakage ......................................................... 121
7.3.2.1 Quantifying leakage by emptying the receiver .................. 121
7.3.2.2 Quantifying leakage by measuring working time .............. 122
7.3.3 Limits for leakage ............................................................. 123
7.3.4 Measures for minimising compressed air loss .................. 123
7.3.5 Reconstructing a pneumatic network ............................... 124
Part 8 8.1 The type of compressor ...................................................... 125

Determining the size of the 8.1.1 Screw compressors .......................................................... 125
compressor station 8.1.2 Piston compressors .......................................................... 125
8.2 Maximum pressure Pmax ..................................................... 126
8.2.1 Factors influencing cutout pressure Pmax ......................... 126
IV
Table of contents
Chapter Page
8.3 Determining the volume of a compressed air receiver ... 127

8.3.1 Recommendations for the volume of compr. air receivers 127
8.3.2 Norm series and operating pressures
for sizes of compressed air receivers ............................... 127
8.3.3 Volumes of compressed air receivers for compressors .... 128
8.4 Compressor cycle intervals ................................................ 129
8.4.1 Compressor idle times ..................................................... 129
8.4.2 Compressor running times ............................................... 129
8.4.3 Determining the number of motor switch cycles ............... 130
8.5 Examples for compressor configuration ........................... 131
8.5.1 Samples calculation for piston compressors .................... 131
8.5.1.1 Determining the maximum pressure Pmax ........................ 131
8.5.1.2 Determining compressor size ........................................... 132
8.5.1.3 Volume of the compressed air receiver ............................ 132
8.5.1.4 Compressor cycle interval ................................................ 133
8.5.1.5 Motor cycling rate of compressor ..................................... 134
8.5.2 Samples calculation for screw compressors .................... 135
8.5.2.1 Example for determining the maximum pressure Pmax .... 135
8.5.2.2 Determining compressor size ........................................... 135
8.5.2.3 Dimensioning the compressed air receiver ...................... 136
8.5.2.4 Compressor cycle interval ................................................ 136
8.5.3 Summary on compressor selection .................................. 137
8.6 Information on compressor configuration ........................ 138
8.6.1 Performance and working pressure .................................. 138
8.6.2 Varying working pressure of consumer devices ............... 139
8.6.3 Combined compressor systems ....................................... 139
Part 9 9.1 The compressor air receiver .............................................. 140

The pneumatic system 9.1.1 Storing compressed air .................................................... 140
9.1.2 Pulsation damping ............................................................ 140
9.1.3 Condensate collection ...................................................... 141
9.1.4 Operation of compressed air receivers ............................. 141
9.1.5 Installation of compressed air receivers ........................... 141
9.1.6 Safety rules for compressed air receivers ........................ 142
9.1.6.1 Division into test groups ................................................... 142
9.1.6.2 The manufacture of compressed air receivers ................. 143
9.1.6.3 Registration and inspection obligations ............................ 143
9.1.6.4 Expert and proficient persons as defined in § 31 and
§ 32 of the German Directive for pressure receivers ........ 143
9.1.6.5 Inspection of compressed air receivers ............................ 144

9.1.6.6 Types of inspection ........................................................... 146
9.1.6.7 Addtional excerpts from the directive for
compressed air receivers ................................................. 146
9.1.7 Fittings on the compressed air receivers .......................... 147
V
Table of contents
Chapter Page
9.1.7.1 Safety valve ...................................................................... 148

9.2 The compressed air circuit ................................................. 149
9.2.1 The structure of a compressed air circuit ......................... 149
9.2.1.1 The main line .................................................................... 149
9.2.1.2 The distribution line-ring line ............................................ 150
9.2.1.3 The distribution line-stub line ............................................ 151
9.2.1.4 The connection line .......................................................... 151
9.2.1.5 Connecting to a collective line with multiple systems ....... 152
9.3 Tips for planning pipe systems .......................................... 153
9.3.1 General planning tips ....................................................... 153
9.3.2 Pipeline without compressed air dryer ............................. 154
9.3.3 Pipeline system with compressed air dryer ...................... 155
9.4 Pressure loss ∆ p ................................................................. 156
9.4.1 Type of flow ...................................................................... 156
9.4.2 The Reynolds number Re ................................................ 156
9.4.3 Pressure loss in the pipe system ...................................... 157
9.5 Dimensioning pipelines ...................................................... 158
9.5.1 Maximum pressure drop ∆p ............................................. 158
9.5.2 Nominal width of pipelines
Comparison [ DN – Inch ] ................................................. 159
9.5.3 Equivalent pipe length ...................................................... 160
9.5.4 Determining the inside diameter di
of pipe by calculation ........................................................ 161
of pipe by graphics ........................................................... 162
of the pipe with the aid of a bar graph .............................. 163
9.6 Choosing the material for pipelines .................................. 164
9.6.1 Threaded pipes ................................................................ 164
9.6.2 Seamless steel pipes ....................................................... 165
9.6.3 Stainless steel pipes ........................................................ 165
9.6.4 Copper pipes .................................................................... 166
9.6.5 Plastic pipes ..................................................................... 167
9.7 Marking pipelines ................................................................ 168
Part 10 10.1 Cooling the compressor ..................................................... 169

The installation room 10.2 Compressor installation ..................................................... 170
10.2.1 General information regarding the installation room ......... 170
10.2.2 Admissible ambient temperature ...................................... 170
10.2.3 Fire safety rules for installation rooms .............................. 171
10.2.4 Disposal of condensate .................................................... 171
10.2.5 Compressor installation instructions ................................. 172
10.2.6 The space requirement of a compressor .......................... 172
10.2.7 Conditions for installing compressed air receivers ........... 173
VI
Table of contents
Chapter Page
10.3 Ventilation of a compressor station .................................. 174

10.3.1 Factors influencing the flow of

cooling air of a Vc of a compressors ................................. 174
10.3.2 Definition of the factors influencing the flow

of cooling air Vc to and from a compressor ..................... 175
10.3.3 General information for ventilation of compressor rooms . 176
10.3.4 Natural ventilation ............................................................ 177
10.3.4.1 Outlet air aperture required for natural ventilation ............ 177
10.3.5 Artificial ventilation ........................................................... 178
10.3.5.1 Required ventilator output with artificial ventilation ........... 178
10.3.5.2 Required inlet air aperture with artificial ventilation .......... 179
10.3.5.3 Example of artificial ventilation of a compressor station ... 180
10.3.6 Circulation of cooling-air with inlet and outlet ducts .......... 181
10.3.6.1 Air inlet ducts .................................................................... 181
10.3.6.2 Extraction of air through a cool-air duct ............................ 182

10.3.6.3 Required flow of cooling-air Vd and cross-section
of duct Ad when using a cool-air ducting ......................... 182
10.3.6.4 Information concerning ventilation by duct ....................... 183
10.3.6.5 Dimensioning the air inlet aperture
when using an outlet duct ................................................ 184
10.3.6.6 Variations of duct-type ventilation ..................................... 185
10.4 Example installation plans ................................................. 186
10.4.1 Installation of a screw compressor: an example ............... 186
10.4.2 Installation of piston compressor: an example ................. 187
Part 11 11.1 The heat balance of a compressor station ........................ 188

Heat reclamation 11.2 Room heating ...................................................................... 189
11.2.1 Room heating through ducting ......................................... 189
11.2.2 Operation of room heating ................................................ 190
11.2.3 Economy of room heating ................................................ 190
11.3 The Duotherm heat exchanger ........................................... 191
11.3.1 Duotherm BPT ................................................................. 191
11.3.2 Duotherm BSW ................................................................ 192
11.3.3 How much energy is it possible to save ? ......................... 193
11.4 Closing remarks concerning heat reclamation ................. 194
Part 12 12.1 The nature of sound ............................................................ 195

Sound 12.1.1 Sound perception ............................................................. 195
12.2 Important terminology in acoustics .................................. 196
12.2.1 Sound pressure ................................................................ 196
12.2.2 Sound level ....................................................................... 196
12.2.3 Sound intensity ................................................................. 196
VII
Table of contents
Chapter Page
12.3 Human perception of sound ............................................... 197

12.3.1 The sound intensity level .................................................. 197
12.3.2 Assessed sound level dB ( A ) .......................................... 197
12.3.3 Loudness in comparison .................................................. 198
12.4 Behaviour of sound ............................................................. 199
12.4.1 Distance from the sound source ....................................... 199
12.4.2 Reflection and Absorption ................................................ 199
12.4.3 Damping sound ................................................................ 200
12.4.5 Dessemination of sound in pipes and ducts ..................... 200
12.4.6 Sound pressure level from many sound sources .............. 201
12.4.6.1 Several sound sources with the same level ...................... 201
12.4.6.2 Two sound sources with different levels ........................... 201
12.5 The effects of noise ............................................................ 202
12.6 Noise protection directives ................................................ 203
12.6.1 Safety rules for noise generating operations, Date 12/74 ... 203
12.6.2 Safety rules for compressors ( VBG 16 ), Date 4/87 .......... 203
12.6.3 National workplace directive, Date 4/75 ........................... 203
12.6.4 National general administrative rules concerning
noise, Date 7/84 ............................................................... 204
12.7 Noise measurement ............................................................ 205
12.8 Silencing on compressors ................................................. 205
Part 13 13.1 Composition of compressed air costs .............................. 206

Costs of compressed air 13.1.1 Cost factor ratios .............................................................. 206
13.2 Cost-effectiveness calculation for energy costs .............. 207
Part 14 14.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 208

CE-Certification 14.1.1 EC Machinery Directive .................................................... 208
14.1.2 Areas of application .......................................................... 208
14.2 Putting machinery into circulation .................................... 209
14.2.1 CE-symbol ........................................................................ 209
14.2.2 EC Declaration of Conformity ........................................... 210
14.2.3 EC Maker's Declaration .................................................... 212
Part 15 A.1 Symbols ............................................................................... 214

Appendix A.1.1 Picture symbols defined by DIN 28004 ............................ 214
A.1.2 Symbols for contact units and switching devices
as per ISO 1219 .............................................................. 216
VIII
Fundamentals of compressed air
1. Fundamentals of
compressed air
1.1 The history of compressed Compressed air, together with electricity, is the most fre-
air quently used carrier of energy in industry and the crafts today.
But whereas we learn to use electricity and electrical appli-
ances from a very early age, the possibilities, advantages and
essentials of compressed air are far less understood.
People’s comprehension of compressed air grew parallel to

their understanding in other technical fields. Its development
was only furthered where it was seen to have advantages over
other technologies. But compressed air was always being
used, and so clever people were always thinking about how to
put it to better use.
1.1.1 The origin of compressed air The first compressor - the lung
Many technical applications originate from the earliest days of

mankind. The first use of compressed air was blowing on tinder
to fan a flame. The air used for blowing was compressed in the
lungs. Indeed, the lung could be called a kind of natural
compressor. The capacity and performance of this compres-
sor is extremely impressive. The human lung can process
100 l/min or 6 m3 of air per hour. In doing so it generates a
pressure of 0,02 - 0,08 bar. In a healthy condition, the reliabil-
ity of the human compressor is unsurpassed and it costs
nothing to service.
The further development of the „lung“
However, the lung proved to be wholly inadequate when

people began to smelt pure metals such as gold, copper, tin
and lead more than 5000 years ago. And when they started
to make high grade metals, such as iron from ore, further
development of compressed air technology was essential.
More powerful aids than the lung were needed to generate
temperatures of over 1000° C. At first they used the high winds
Fig. 1.1: on uplands and the crests of hills. Later, Egyptian and Sumerian
The first compressor - the lung goldsmiths made use of the blast pipe. This brought air directly
into the embers, which increased the temperature decisively.
Even today, goldsmiths all over the world use a similar device.
However, this is only useful for melting small quantities of
metal.
1
The first mechanical compressor - the bellows
The first mechanical compressor, the hand-powered bellows,

was developed in the middle of the third millennium BC. The
much more powerful foot-powered bellows was invented around
1500 BC. This progress was necessary when the alloying of
copper and tin to make bronze developed into a stable manu-
facturing process. The development can be seen in a wall-
painting of an ancient Egyptian grave. It was the birth of
compressed air as we know it today.
Fig. 1.2:
Picture of the foot-powered bellows in ancient Egypt
1.1.2 The first applications of com- Hydraulic organ

pressed air Storage and suppression of pulsation
Recognising the properties of compressed
air The first deliberate exploitation of energy in the air is handed
down to us by the Greek Ktesibios ( ca. 285 to 222 BC ). He
built a hydraulic organ and used compressed air for the
storage and reduction of vibration.
Catapult
Storage of energy
Ktesibios used another property of compressed air, stored

energy, for his catapult. With the aid of air compressed in a
cylinder, the Greek’s catapult generated enough tension to
propel missiles.
Fig. 1.3:
The catapult of Ktesibios
Temple doors
Expansion and the performance of work
Heron, an engineer living in Alexandria in the first century BC,

found a way to open the doors of a temple automatically by
keeping the flame at the altar inside the building permanently
alight. The secret was to use the expansion of hot air to force
water out of one container and into another. Heron recognised,
even if unwittingly, that it was possible to perform work by
changing the condition of air.
Fig.1.4:
The temple doors of Heron
2
Pascal’s law
Increasing energy
It was only in the 17th century that a series of learned people

began to study the physical laws applicable to compressed air.
In 1663 Blaise Pascal published an essay on increasing
energy by using liquids( hydraulics ), that was also valid for the
technology of compressed air. He found that the energy
exerted by one man at one end of a closed container of water
was equivalent to the energy exerted by 100 men at another
Fig. 1.5 :
Compressed air to increase energy end.
Transporting objects through pipes

Pneumatic conveyance
Taking up where Heron left off, the French physicist Denis

p1 p2 Papin described in 1667 a method of transporting objects
through pipes. He exploited the slight difference in pressure
inside a pipe. In doing so he found out that energy was
Fig. 1.6 : generated at an object inside the pipe. This was recognition of
Compressed air as a means of transport the advantage of the high work speeds obtainable by using air.
Papin thus laid the foundation stone for pneumatic convey-
ance.
Pneumatic brakes
Power transmission
As early as around 1810, trains were being powered by

compressed air. In 1869 Westinghouse introduced his pneu-
matic brake. His brake motor followed three years later. In this
system the brakes were applied by over-pressure i.e., the full
braking effect is obtained if there is a drop in pressure e.g., by
the bursting of a hose.
This was the first use of a fail-safe system. Brake systems

Fig. 1.7 : based on this principle are still used in HGVs today.
Pneumatic brakes in a train ca. 1870
3
Pneumatic post
Conveyance by compressed air
The idea of trains powered by compressed air was not forgot-

ten. In 1863, Latimer Clark together with an engineer named
Rammel built a pneumatic conveyance system in London. It
featured small trolleys moving completely inside conveyor
tubes and was designed to transport postal bags and parcels.
This system was much more flexible than the heavy, atmos-
pheric railways of 1810, and led eventually to the introduction
of pneumatic post.
Pneumatic post networks soon sprung up in Berlin, New York

and Paris. The Paris network reached its peak length of 437 km
in 1934. Even today, pneumatic post systems are still used in
large industrial operations.
Pneumatic tools
Transporting energy
When the tunnel through Mont Cenis was being built in 1857,
the new technology was used in a pneumatically-powered
hammer drill to cut through the rock. From 1861 they used
pneumatically-powered percussion drills, these being sup-
plied with compressed air from compressors at both ends of
the tunnel. In both cases the compressed air was transported
over long distances.
When in 1871 the breakthrough in the tunnel was achieved,

there were over 7 000 m of pipelines on both sides. Thus, for
the first time, the transportability of energy was demon-
Fig. 1.8 : strated and made known to a wide public as one of the
Pneumatic drills in tunnel construction advantages of compressed air. And from here on, pneumatic
tools of even greater performance and versatility were devel-
oped.
Pneumatic networks
Central generation of compressed air and signal transmission
The experience gained using networks of pneumatic lines and

the development of more powerful compressors led to a
pneumatic network being installed in the sewage canals of
Paris. It was put into commission in 1888 with a central
compressor output of 1 500 kW. By 1891 its output rating had
already reached 18 000 kW.
The all-round success of the pneumatic network was under-

lined by the invention of a clock, the minute hand of which was
moved on every sixty seconds by an impulse from the com-
Fig. 1.9 :
pressor station. People had not only seen the possibility of
Compressed air station in Paris 1888
transporting energy, but also of moving signals over great
distances through a pneumatic network.
The pneumatic network in Paris is unique to this day, and is still

in use.
4
Signal processing
Compressed air for the transmission and processing of signals
In the 1950s in the USA the high flow speed of compressed air
was first used for the transmission and processing of signals.
Low-pressure pneumatics, also known as fluidics or
pneumonics ( pneumatic logic ), allow the integration of
logical switching functions in the form of fluidic elements in a
very small area at pressures of 1.001 to 1.1 bar.
The high operating precision of the fluidic logic elements under
extreme conditions allowed them to be used in the space and
defence programmes of the USA and the USSR. Immunity to
Fig. 1.10 : electromagnetic radiation from exploding nuclear weapons
Four-stage adding device with wall radiation ele- gives fluidics a special advantage in several sensitive areas.
ments
Even so, over the course of time fluidics has largely been
superseded by electrical and microelectronic technology in the
fields of signal and information processing.
5
1.2 Units and formula symbols The SI-units ( Système International d'Unités ) were agreed
at the 14th General Conference for Weights and Measures.
They have been generally prescribed since 16.10.1971.
1.2.1 Basic units The basic units are defined independent units of measure
and form the basis of the SI-system.
Basic unit Formula symbol Symbol Name
Length l [m] Metre
Mass m [ kg ] Kilogramme
Time t [s] Second
Strength of current I [A] Ampere
Temperature T [K] Kelvin
Strength of light I [ cd ] Candela
Qty of substance n [ mol ] Mol
1.2.2 Compressed air units Engineering uses measures derived from the basic units. The
following table shows the most frequently used units of meas-
ure for compressed air.
Unit Formula symbol Symbol Name
Force F [N] Newton
Pressure p [ Pa ] Pascal
[ bar ] Bar 1 bar = 100 000 Pa
Area A [ m2 ] Square metre
Volume V [ m3 ] Cubic metre

[l] Litre 1 m3 = 1 000 l
Speed v [m/s] Metre per Second
Mass m [ kg ] Kilogramme
[t] Tonne 1 t = 1 000 kg
Density ρ [ kg / m3 ] Kilogramme per cubic metre
Temperature T [ °C ] Degree Celsius
Work W [J] Joule
Energy P [W] Watt
Tension U [V] Volt
Frequency f [ Hz ] Hertz
6
1.3 What is compressed air ?
1.3.1 The composition of air The air in our environment, the atmosphere, consists of:
Nitrogen 78 % Nitrogen
78 %
21 % Oxygen
1 % other gases
Oxygen ( e.g.. carbon-dioxide and argon )
21 %
other gases
1%
Fig. 1.11:
The composition of air
1.3.2 The properties of compressed air Compressed air is compressed atmospheric air.
Compressed air is a carrier of heat energy.

Compressed air Compressed air can bridge certain distances ( in pipelines ),
be stored ( in compressed air receivers ) and perform work
Pressure energy ( decompress ).
Heat
Fig. 1.12:
Air compression
1.3.3 How does compressed air behave? As with all gases, the air consists of molecules. The molecules
are held together by molecular force. If the air is enclosed in a
tank ( constant volume ), then these molecules bounce off the
walls of the tank and generate pressure p.
p p The higher the temperature, the greater the movement of air
p p
molecules, and the higher the pressure generated.
p p
V Volume ( V ) = constant
p p
p p Temperature ( T ) = is increased
p p
Pressure ( p ) = rises
Boyle and Mariotte carried out experiments with enclosed
volumes of gas independently of each other and found the
following interrelationship:
T
The volume of gas is inversely proportional to pressure.
Fig. 1.13:
( Boyle-Mariotte’s Law )
Air in a closed container
7
1.4 Physical fundamentals The condition of compressed air is determined by the 3

measures of thermal state:
T = Temperature
V = Volume
p = Pressure
p × V
———— = constant
T
This means:
Heat Volume constant ( isochore )

Pressure and temperature variable
p0 , T0 When the temperature is increased and the volume remains

p1 , T1 constant, the pressure rises.
p0 T0
—— = ——
constant volume p1 T1
isochore compression
Temperature constant ( isotherm )

Pressure and volume variable
p0 , V0
When the volume is reduced and the temperature remains
p1 , V1
constant, the pressure rises.
constant temperature
p0 × V 0 = p1 × V1 = constant
isotherm compression
Heat Pressure constant ( isobar )

Volume and temperature variable
V0 , T 0 When the temperature is increased and the pressure

V1 , T 1 remains constant, the volume increases.
V0 T0
—— = ——
constant pressure V1 T1
isobar compression
8
1.4.1 Temperature The temperature indicates the heat of a body and is read in ° C
on thermometers or converted to Kelvin ( K ).
T [K] = t [ °C ] + 273,15
0°C
Fig.1.14:
Showing temperature
1.4.2 Volume Volume V [ l, m3 ]

Compressed air in expanded state, open air
The volume is determined, for example, by the size of a cylin-

der. It is measured in l or m 3 and relative to 20 ° C and
1 bar.
The numbers in our documentation always refers to com-

pressed air in its expanded state.
d2 × π
VCyl = ———— × h
Volume (V) 4
VCyl = Volume [m3]

d = Diameter [m]
h = Height [m]
Normal volume VNorm [ Nl, Nm3 ]

Compressed air in expanded state under normal conditions
The normal volume refers to the physical normal state as speci-

fied in DIN 1343. It is 8 % less than the volume at 20 ° C.
760 Torr = 1,01325 barabs = 101 325 Pa

273,15 K = 0 ° C
Norm volume + 8% = Volume

0° C 20 ° C
Operating volume Voperat [ Bl, Bm3 ]

Compressed air in compressed state
The volume in operating state refers to the actual condition.

The temperature, air pressure and air humidity must be taken
into account as reference points.
When specifying the operating volume the pressure must

always be given, e.g., 1 m 3 at 7 bar means that 1 m 3 ex-
0 barabs 8 barabs panded (relaxed) air at 7 bar = 8 bar abs. compressed and
only occupies 1/8 of the original volume.
9
1.4.3 Pressure Atmospheric pressure pamb [ bar ]
Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the air that

surrounds us. It is independent of the density and height of
the atmosphere.
At sea level, 1 013 mbar = 1,01325 bar

= 760 mm/Hg [ Torr ]
= 101 325 Pa
Under constant conditions atmospheric pressure decreases

the higher the measuring location is.
Fig.1.15:
Atmospheric pressure
Over-pressure pop [ barop ]
Over-pressure is the pressure above atmospheric pressure.

In compressed air technology, pressure is usually specified
as over-pressure, and in bar without the index „ op“.
Over-
Absolute pressure pabs [ bar ]
pop
pressure
The absolute pressure pabs is the sum of the atmospheric
pressure pamb and the over-pressure pop.
barometric
air pressure
pabs
pabs = pamb + pop

pvac
Partial
vacuum
According to the SI-System pressure is given in Pascal [ Pa ].
pamb
In practice, however, it is still mostly given in „ bar “. The old

measure atm ( 1 atm = 0,981 bar-op ) is no longer used.
Force F
100 % Vacuum Pressure = ———— p = ——
Area A
pamb = Atmospheric pressure

pop = Over-pressure
pvac = Partial vacuum 1 Newton 1N
pabs = Absolute pressure 1 Pascal = ———— 1 Pa = ——
1 m2 1 m2
Fig.1.16: 1 bar = 10195 mmWH [ mm water head ]

Illlustration of different pressures
10
•
1.4.3 Volume flow Volume flow V [ l/min, m³/min., m³/h ]
The volume flow describes the volume ( l or m³ ) per unit of

time ( minute or hour ).
Working volume flow A distinction is made between the working volume flow ( in-
Induction rate duction rate ) and the volume flow ( output rate ) of a com-
pressor.
Þ •
Working volume flow VWor [ l/min, m³/min., m³/h ]
Volume flow Induction rate
Output rate
The working volume flow is a calculable quantity on piston
Û compressors. It is the product of the cylinder size ( piston ca-
pacity ), compressor speed ( number of strokes ) and the
number of cylinders working. The working volume flow is given
in l/min, m³/min or m³/h.
•
VWor = A × s × n × c
Fig. 1.17:
Working volume flow and volume flow
•
VWor = Working volume flow [ l / min ]
A = Cylinder area [ dm2]
s = Stroke [ dm]
n = Number of strokes [ 1/ min ]
(compressor speed)
c = Number of working cylinders
•
Volume flow V [ l/min, m³/min, m³/h ]
TDC Output rate
The output rate of a compressor is normally declared as the

volume flow.
BDC
In contrast to the working volume flow, the volume flow is not
a calculated value, but one measured at the pressure joint of
a compressor and calculated back to the induction state. The
volume flow is dependent on the final pressure relative to the
induction conditions of pressure and temperature. This is why
when calculating the induction state the measured volume flow
to induction pressure must be „ relaxed“ and to induction tem-
TDC = Top dead centre perature it must be „ re-cooled“.
BDC = Bottom dead centre
The volume flow is measured according to VDMA 4362,
DIN 1945, ISO 1217 or PN2 CPTC2 and given in l/min, m3/min
Fig. 1.18: or m3/h. The effective volume flow, i.e., the output that can
Cylinder movement actually be used, is an important consideration for the design
of a compressor. Volume flows can only usefully be compared
when measured under the same conditions. This means that
the induction temperature, pressure, relative air humidity and
measured pressure must match.
11
•
Norm volume flow VNorm [ Nl/min, Nm3/min, Nm3/h ]
As with the volume flow, the norm volume flow is also meas-
ured.
However, it does not refer to the induction state, but to a theo-

retical comparative value. With the physical norm state the
theoretical values are:
Volume flow + 8% = Norm volume flow
20° C 0° C Temperature= 273,15 K ( 0 °C )
Pressure = 1,01325 bar ( 760 mm HG )
Fig. 1.19: Air density = 1,294 kg/m3 ( dry air )
Norm volume flow
•
Operating volume flow VOperat [ Ol/min, Om3/min, Om3/h ]
The operating volume flow gives the effective volume flow of

compressed air.
To be able to compare the operating volume flow with the other

volume flows, the pressure of he compressed air must always
be given in addition to the dimension Ol/min, Om3/min or
0 barabs 8 barabs
Om3/h.
Fig. 1.20:
Operating volume flow
12
1.5 Compressed air in motion Different laws apply to compressed air in motion than to sta-
tionary compressed air.
1.5.1 Flow behaviour The volume flow is calculated from area and speed.
•
V = A1 × v 1 = A2 × v2
A1 A2
A1 v2
—— = ——
A2 v1
v1 v2 •
V = Volume flow
A 1, A 2 = Cross section
v 1, v 2 = Speed
Fig. 1.21:
Flow behaviour The result of the formula is that:
The speed of flow is inversely proportional to

the cross section.
1.5.2 Types of flow Flow can be laminar or even (Ideal), or

turbulent ( with backflow and whirling ).
Laminar flow ( even flow )
low drop in pressure

slight heat transition
Fig. 1.22:
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow ( whirl flow )
high drop in pressure

great heat transition
Fig. 1.23:
Turbulent flow
13
Applications for pneumatics
2. Applications for pneumatics
2.1 The advantages of Pneumatics faces increasing competition from mechanical,

compressed air hydraulic and electrical appliances on all fronts. But pneumatic
devices have fundamental advantages over the other tech-
nologies:
Easily transported
Air is available everywhere, and there is plenty of it. Since

outlet air escapes into the open, there is no need for return
lines. Electrical and hydraulic systems need a return line to
the source.
Compressed air can be transported over great distances in

pipelines. This allows the installation of central generation sta-
tions that can supply points of consumption via ring mains
with a constant working pressure. The energy stored in com-
pressed air can be widely distributed in this way.
Easily stored
It is easy to store compressed air in purpose-built tanks. If

there is a storage tank integrated in a pneumatic network, the
compressor only needs to work when the pressure drops
below a critical level. And because there is always a cushion
of pressure, a work cycle can completed even if the power
network fails.
Transportable compressed air bottles can also be used at

locations where there is no pipe system (e.g., under water).
Clean and dry
Compressed air does not cause soiling or leave drops of oil if

the lines are defective. Cleanliness in fitting and operation are
extremely important factors in many sectors of industry, e.g.,
food, leather, textiles, and packing.
Lightweight
Pneumatic devices are usually much lighter than comparable

equipment and machinery with electrical power units. This
makes a big difference with manual and percussion tools
( pneumatic screwdrivers and hammers).
14
Safe to use
Compressed air works perfectly even when there are great

temperature fluctuations and the temperatures are extreme. It
can also be used where there are very high temperatures,
e.g., for operating forge presses and blast furnace doors.
Pneumatic devices and lines that are untight are no risk to the
safety and serviceability of the system.
Pneumatic systems and components in general wear very

little. They therefore have a long working life and a low failure
rate.
Accident-proof
Pneumatic elements are very safe with regard to fire, explo-

sion and electrical hazards. Even in areas where there is a
risk of fire, explosion and extreme weather conditions, pneu-
matic elements can be used without large and expensive safety
apparatus. In damp-rooms or outdoors too, there is no danger
with pneumatic equipment.
Rational and economical
Pneumatics is 40 - 50 times more economical than muscle

power. This is a major point, particularly in mechanisation and
automation.
Pneumatic components are cheaper than the equivalent hy-

draulic components.
There is no need for regular medium changes, as with hy-

draulic equipment, for instance. This reduces costs and the
servicing requirement, and increases operating times.
Simple
The design and operation of pneumatic equipment is very

simple. For this reason it is very robust and not susceptible
to malfunctioning. Pneumatic components are easy to install
and can be re-used later without difficulty. Installation times
are short because of the simple design. The fitters require no
expensive special training.
Straight-line movements can be executed without extra me-

chanical parts such as levers, cams, eccentric disks, screw
spindles and the like..
15
Overload-proof
Compressed air equipment and pneumatic working parts can

be loaded until they stop without being damaged. This is why
they are considered to be overload-proof.
In contrast to electrical systems, the output of a pneumatic

network can be overloaded without risk of danger. If the pres-
sure drops too much, the work can not be done, but there will
be no damage to the network or its working elements.
Fast work medium
The very high flow speeds allow rapid completion of work

cycles. This provides short cut-in times and fast conversion of
energy into work.
Compressed air can achieve flow speeds of over 20 m/s.

Hydraulic applications only manage 5 m/s.
The pneumatic cylinders reach linear piston speeds of 15 m/s.
Maximum control speeds in signal processing lie between 30

and 70 m/s at operating pressures of between 6 and 8 bar.
With pressures of less than 1 bar it is even possible to obtain
signal speeds of 200 to 300 m/s.
Fully adjustable
Travel speeds and exerted force are fully and easily adjust-
able. Both with linear and rotary movement, force, torque and
speeds can be fully adjusted without difficulty by using throt-
tles.
16
2.2 Pressure ranges
Low pressure range to 10 bar
Most pneumatic applications in industry and the crafts lie in

the low pressure range of 10 bar and below.
Compressors used :
– one and two-stage piston compressors
– one-stage screw compressors with oil-injection cooling
– two-stage compressors
– rotary compressors
Compaction pressure in bar
Medium pressure range to 15 bar

High pressure range
HGV and other heavy vehicle tyres are filled with compressed
air from 15 bar compressors. There are also other special
machines that operate with such pressures.
High pressure range Compressors used :

– two-stage piston compressors
Medium pressure range – one-stage screw compressors ( up to 14 bar )
with oil-injection cooling
Low pressure range

High pressure range to 40 bar
The compressors in this pressure range are generally used

for starting large diesel engines, testing pipelines and flushing
plastic tanks.
Compressors used :
Fig 2.1 :
Pressure ranges – two and three-stage piston compressors
– multi-stage screw compressors
High pressure range to 400 bar
One example of the use of compressed air in the high pres-

sure range is the storage of breathing air in diving bottles.
High pressure compressors are used in power stations, roll-
ing mills and steel works and for leak testing. Compressors of
this type are also used for compressing utility gases, such as
oxygen.
Compressors used:
– three and four-stage piston compressors
17
2.3 Possible applications for Compressed air is used intensively in all sectors of industry,
compressed air the crafts, and everyday life. The range of possible applica-
tions is diverse and all-embracing. Some of the technical uses
are mentioned and explained briefly below.
In view of the versatility of this medium it is only possible to

outline a few of the possible applications. The arrangement of
the chapter can not be unambiguous since the criteria for
assessment and differentiation are too varied.
2.3.1 Tensioning and clamping with Tensioning and clamping with compressed air is mainly used
compressed air in applications involving mechanisation and automation. Pneu-
matic cylinders or motors fix and position the tools needed for
work processes. This can be done by linear and rotary move-
ment, and also by swivel movement. The energy in the com-
pressed air is converted directly into force and movement
through the exertion of pressure. The amount of tensioning
force required must be dispensed with precision.
Fig. 2.2:
Pneumatic-mechanical clamp
2.3.2 Conveyance by compressed air Conveyance by compressed air is found in mechanisation

and automation. In these applications, motors and cylinders
are used for timed or untimed conveyance, or according to
work processes. Automated storage and receipt also belongs
in this category, as does the turn-around of tools and other
items on longer conveyor belts.
Another variation of pneumatic transport is the conveyance of

bulk material and liquids through pipes. With this method,
granulates, corn, powder and small parts can be quickly and
comfortably conveyed over relatively long distances. The pneu-
matic post concept also belongs in this category.
Fig. 2.3:
Bridging the heights with a pneumatically powered
elevator
18
2.3.3 Pneumatic drive systems Pneumatic drive systems are found in all areas of industry
and the crafts. These can perform rotary and linear move-
ments. Linear movement with the aid of cylinders in particular
is seen as a highly economical and rational application. The
utility work is performed by dropping the pressure and chang-
ing the volume of the compressed air.
Pneumatic percussion machinery and tools (e.g., pneumatic

hammers) are of great importance in this category. The en-
ergy in the compressed air is converted into kinetic energy for
a moving piston. Vibrators and jolting devices belong to this
category.
Fig. 2.4:
Valveless pneumatic hammer Pneumatic power is also used by a multitude of valves and
slides, tools, adjustment devices, feed systems and vehicles.
2.3.4 Spraying with compressed air With Spraying applications, the energy of the expanding com-
pressed air is used to force materials or liquids through a spray
nozzle. This procedure is used to apply or atomise various
substances.
Surface treatment processes, such as sand and gravel blast-

ing, shot peening and painting with spray-guns belong to this
category. Concrete and mortar are also applied using this
method.
If high temperatures are also used, compressed air can be

utilised for applying liquid metals. Arc-type spraying is an ex-
Fig. 2.5:
ample worthy of mention here..
Arc-type metal spraying system
Another application is the atomisation of liquids through spray
nozzles, e.g., for spraying weedkillers and insecticides.
2.3.5 Blowing and flushing with When blowing and flushing the compressed air itself is the
compressed air work medium and tool. The flow speed generated by dropping
pressure and/or the expanding volume performs the utility work.
Examples of this type of work are blowing out glass bottles,

blowing out and cleaning tools and moulds, fixing light tools
for processing or conveyance and flushing out metal chips
and residue. Compressed air in this form can also be used to
let off heat.
Fig. 2.6:
Air gun with spiral hose
19
2.3.6 Testing and inspection with In pneumatic testing and inspection procedures, the
compressed air changes in pressure at the measuring point are used to deter-
mine spacings, weights and changes in shape. This allows
passing articles to be counted, correct positioning to be
checked and the presence of workpieces to be ascertained.
This process is an integral part of many sorting, positioning

and processing systems.
Fig. 2.7:
Reflex nozzle with impulse emitter
2.3.7 Using compressed air for process All pneumatic applications must be controlled by some means.
control They must receive instructions.
In general this is done by press-switches, direction valves and

so forth. These control mechanisms are in turn actuated in
many different ways, e.g., by mechanical switches, cams, or
by hand. Electrical and magnetic switches are also in wide-
spread use. The results determined by pneumatic process
control systems can be used directly by direction valves or
press-switches.
Pneumatics is of great importance for checking flow processes

with liquids and gases. It is used for the remote control of
valves, slides, and flaps in large industrial installations.
Pneumatics (fluidics) is also used for information processing

and logical switching. These logic plans are comparable with
integrated electronic circuits. They require much more space,
but are characterised by high operating precision in certain
applications. If the demands on the logic elements are not too
Fig. 2.8: high, fluidics can offer an alternative.
Flow diagram of a BOGE screw compressor, air-
cooled version with fully-adjustable output control
20
2.4 Examples of specialised The following list will give the reader an idea of the many ap-
applications plications of compressed air in industry, the crafts and every-
day life. Obviously, it is not possible to list all the possibilities
for pneumatics since new areas appear and old ones become
disused in the course of development and progress. This can
therefore only be an incomplete summary of typical applica-
tions to be found in the various sectors of the economy.
A list of the typical applications in general mechanical engi-
neering has not been included, since pneumatics touches prac-
tically every area, and mentioning all would be beyond the
scope of this manual.
Construction trade
– Drill and demolition hammers ( hand rams )

– Concrete compactors
– Conveyor systems for brickworks and artificial stone
factories
– Conveyor systems for concrete and mortar
Mining
– Rock drilling hammers and carriage systems

– Loading machinery, shuttle and demolition cars
– Pneumatic hammers and chisels
– Ventilation systems
Chemicals industry
– Raw material for oxidation processes

– Process control
– Remote-controlled valves, and slides in process circuits
Energy industry
– Inserting and withdrawing reactor rods

– Remote-controlled valves and slides in steam and
coolant circuits
– Ventilation systems for boiler houses
21
Health system
– Power packs for dentists’ drills

– Air for respiration systems
– Extraction of anaesthetic gases
The crafts
– Staplers and nail guns

– Paint spray-guns
– Drills and screwdrivers
– Angle grinders
Wood processing industry
– Roller adjustment for frame saws

– Drill feed systems
– Frame, glue and veneer presses
– Contact and transport control of wooden boards
– Removal of chips and sawdust from work areas
– Automatic pallet nailing
Steel mills and foundries
– Carbon reduction in steel production

– Jolt squeeze turnover machines
– Bundling machinery for semi-finished products
– Coolants for hot tools and systems
Plastics industry
– Transport of granulate in pipes

– Cutting and welding equipment
– Blowing workpieces from production moulds
– Locking mechanisms for casting moulds
– Shaping and adhesive stations
Agriculture and forestry
– Plant protection and weed control

– Transport of feed and grain to and from silos
– Dispensing equipment
– Ventilation systems in glasshouses
22
Food and semi-luxury food industry
– Filling equipment for drinks

– Closing and checking devices
– Bulk packing and palleting machinery
– Labelling machines
– Weighing equipment
Paper-processing industry
– Roller adjustment and feed machinery

– Cutting, embossing and pressing machinery
– Monitoring of paper reels
Textiles industry
– Thread detectors
– Clamping and positioning equipment in sewing machines
– Sewing needle and system cooling
– Stacking devices
– Blowing out residual material and dust from sewing
Environmental technology
– Forming oil barriers in the water

– Enriching water with oxygen
– Keeping lock gates free of ice
– Slide actuation in sewage plants
– Increasing pressure in the drinking water supply
– Mammoth pump for submarine applications
Traffic and communications
– Air brakes in HGVs and rail vehicles

– Setting signals, points and barriers
– Road-marking equipment
– Starting aids for large diesel engines
– Blowing out ballast tanks in submarines
23
Compressed air generators
3. Compressed air Compressors (compactors)
generators are engines used for pumping and compressing gases to any
pressure.
Ventilators
are flow machines that pump nearly atmospheric air.
With ventilators only slight changes to density and tempera-

ture occur.
Vacuum pumps
are machines that induct gases and steam in order to create a

vacuum.
3.1 Compressors ( compactors )
3.1.1 Dynamic compressors Dynamic compressors are for instance turbo-compressors, by

( Turbo-compressors ) which running wheels equipped with blades accelerate the
gas to be compressed. Fixed direction gear on the blades
converts speed energy into pressure energy.
Dynamic compressors are to be preferred for

large quantities of medium and low medium
pressures.
3.1.2 Displacement compressors On displacement compressors the compression chamber

closes completely after taking in the air. The volume is re-
duced and the air compressed by force.
Displacement compressors are to be preferred

for small quantities of medium and high me-
dium pressures.
24
3.2 Types of compressor The summary shows the compressors divided according to
their operating principle.
With all compressors, a distinction is drawn between non-oil-

lubricated and oil-lubricated compressors.
Compressors ( compactors )
displacement compressors Turbo-compressors
Axial compressor Radial compressor
oscillatory rotary
without multiple-
with crank drive single-shaft
crank drive shaft
piston
compressor
Rotary vane Screw

compressor compressor
Plunger Diaphragm Free-piston

compressor compressor compressor
Crosshead Liquid ring Roots-

compressor compressor compressor
25
3.2.1 Standard compressors The table shows the typical areas of work for various standard
types of compressor.
Type Symbol Op. diagram Pressure range Volume flow

[ bar ] [ m3 / h ]
Plunger 10 ( 1-stage ) 120

compressor 35 ( 2-stage ) 600
Crosshead 10 ( 1-stage ) 120

compressor 35 ( 2-stage ) 600
Diaphragm low low

compressor
Free piston limited use as

compressor gas generator
Rotary vane 16 4 500

compressor
Liquid ring 10
compressor
Screw 22 750
compressor
Root 1,6 1 200

compressor
Axial- 10 200 000

compressor
Radial- 10 200 000

compressor
26
3.2.2 Piston (reciprocating) compressor Piston compressors draw in air by way of pistons moving up
and down, compress it and then push it out. The processes
control induction and pressure valves.
By arranging several compression stages in series it is possi-

ble to generate various pressures, and differing quantities
of air can be generated by using several cylinders.
Fig. 3.1:
Symbol for piston compressor
Plunger compressor
On plunger compressors, the piston is connected directly to

the crankshaft via the con-rod.
Fig. 3.2:
Op. diagram of plunger compressor
Crosshead compressor
The piston is powered by a piston rod and that by the cross-

head.
Crosshead
Properties of piston compressors:
– Highly efficient.
– High pressures.
Fig. 3.3:
Op. diagram of crosshead compressor
27
The piston compressors are differentiated according to the

arrangement of their cylinders:
– Vertical cylinders.
No stress on the piston or piston ring through the weight
of the piston.
Small base area.
Fig. 3.4:
V-type plunger compressor – Horizontal cylinders.
Only as multi-cylinder compressor in Boxer construction.
Low forces of gravity. This benefit is only noticeable when
output is greater.
– V-, W- or L-type compressors.

Good mechanical balance.
Low space requirement.
Fig. 3.5:
W-type plunger compressor
Fig. 3.6:
Crosshead compressors
Horizontal, L-type, V-type, W-type
28
3.2.3 Diaphragm compressors The diaphragm compressor belongs to the family of displace-
ment compressors.
An elastic diaphragm causes the compression. Instead of a

piston moving linear between two end positions, the diaphragm
is moved in non-linear vibrations. The diaphragm is attached
to the side and is moved by a con-rod. The stroke of the con-
rod depends on the elasticity of the diaphragm.
Fig. 3.7:
Symbol for diaphragm compressor
Features:
– Large cylinder diameter.
– Small stroke.
– Economical with low output quantities, low pressures,

and when generating a vacuum.
Fig. 3.8:
Op. diagram of diaphragm compressor
29
3.2.4 Free piston compressor The free piston compressor belongs to the family of displace-
ment compressors.
It is a compressor with an integrated two-stroke diesel engine.
Compressed air acts on the raised pistons and pushes them

back inside, thereby starting the compressor. The combustion
air thus compressed in the engine cylinder drives the pistons
apart again upon combustion of the injected fuel. The enclosed
air is compressed. After letting out the necessary scavenging
air the greater part of the compacted air is pushed out through
a pressure holding valve. Any remaining air is pushed back in
by the piston for the new cycle. The induction valves draw in
new air again.
Features:
a
– Highly efficient.
b b
c – Smooth-running.
d – Simple principle, but seldom used.
a = Pneum. outlet aperture In practice, the piston movements need to be synchro-
b = Inlet aperture nised and extensive control equipment fitted.
c = Fuel injection nozzle
d = Exhaust aperture
Fig. 3.9:
Op. diagram of free piston compressor
30
3.2.5 Rotary vane compressor The rotary vane compressor ( lamellar or rotary multi-vane com-
pressor) is one of the rotary displacement compressors.
The housing and rotary pistons moving inside form the cham-
ber for inducting and compressing the medium.
A cylindrical rotor on eccentric bearings turns inside a closed

housing.The rotor ( drum) has radial slots along its entire length.
Inside the slots, slides move in a radial direction.
When the rotor reaches a certain speed, the working slide is

Fig. 3.10:
Symbol for rotary vane compressor
pressed outwards against the inner walls of the housing by
centrifugal force. The compression chamber between the ro-
tor and the housing is divided by slides into individual cells
( work chambers).
As a result of the eccentric arrangement of the rotor, the vol-

ume increases or decreases during a rotation.
The pressure chambers are lubricated by loss lubrication or

oil injection.
By injecting larger quantities of oil into the compression cham-

ber one achieves, in addition to lubrication, a cooling effect
and a sealing of the slides against the inner wall of the hous-
ing. The injected oil can be separated from the compound of
oil and air after compression and directed back to the oil cir-
Fig. 3.11: cuit.
Op. diagram of rotary vane compressor
Features:
– Very quiet running.
– Pulse-free and even output of air.
– Low space requirement and easy to service.
– Low efficiency.
– High maintenance costs due to wear on the slides.
31
3.2.6 Liquid ring compressor The liquid ring compressor belongs to the category of rotary
displacement compressors.
The eccentrically borne shaft in the housing with fixed radial

paddle displaces the sealing liquid during rotation. This forms
the liquid ring that seals the spaces between the paddles
against the housing.
The content of the chamber is changed by the rotation of the

shaft, causing air to be inducted, compressed and transported.
Fig. 3.12:
Symbol for liquid ring compressor
The liquid generally used is water.
Features:
– Oil-free air ( through oil-free transport medium).
– Low sensitivity to soiling and chemicals.
– Liquid disperser required because auxiliary liquid is

forced continually into the pressure chamber.
– Low degree of efficiency.
a = Paddle wheel
b = Housing
c = Inlet aperture
d = Outlet aperture
e = Liquid
Fig. 3.13:
Op. diagram of liquid ring compressor
32
3.2.7 Screw compressor The screw compressor is a rotary displacement compressor.
Two parallel rotors with differing profiles work in opposite di-

rections inside a housing.
The intake air is compressed in chambers, which continuously

decrease in size due to the rotation of the rotors until the final
pressure is reached, and is then forced out of the discharge
outlet. The chambers are formed by the casing walls and the
Fig. 3.14: meshing helical gears of the rotors.
Symbol of screw compressor
Oil-free screw compressors
On screw compressors that seal without oil, and with which

the air in the compression chamber does not come into con-
tact with oil, the two rotors are connected by a synchronised
transmission so that the surface profiles do not touch.
Screw compressors with oil-injection cooling
On screw compressors with oil-injection cooling only the main

Fig. 3.15: rotor is under power. The secondary rotor turns without con-
Op. diagram of screw compressor tact.
Features:
– Small size.
– Continuous air production.
– Low final compression temperature.

( with oil-injection cooling)
Fig. 3.16:
Section through screw compressor stage
33
3.2.8 Roots compressor The Roots compressor belongs to the displacement family of
compressors.
Two symmetrically shaped rotary pistons turn in opposite di-

rections inside a cylindrical chamber. They are connected by
a synchronised transmission and operate without contact.
The air to be compressed is directed from the intake side into

the compressor case. It is enclosed in the chamber between
the wing and case. At the moment in which the piston releases
Fig. 3.17: the edge to the pressure side the gas flows into the discharge
Symbol of Roots compressor outlet and fills the pressure chamber. When the wing turns
further, the content of the transport chamber is pressed out
against the full counter pressure. Constant compression takes
place. The compressor must always work against the full dy-
namic pressure.
Features:
– No wear on the rotary piston, and therefore no lubrication

is required.
– Air contains no oil.
– Sensitive to dust and sand.
Fig. 3.18:
Op. diagram of Roots compressor
34
3.2.9 Axial compressor Axial compressors are flow devices by which the air flows in
alternatingly in an axial direction through a series of rotating
and stationary paddles.
The air is first accelerated and then compressed. The paddle

ducts form randomly expanded channels in which the kinetic
energy generated by circulation of the air delays and is con-
verted into pressure energy.
Fig. 3.19:
Symbol of turbo-compressor
Features:
– Uniform output.
– No oil content in air.
– Sensitive to changes in load and stress.
– Minimum output quantities required.
Fig. 3.20:
Op. diagram of axial compressor
35
3.2.10 Radial compressor Radial compressors are flow devices in which the air is di-
rected to the centre of the rotating running wheel.
The air is moved by centrifugal force against the periphery.

The rise in pressure is caused by the accelerated air being
directed through a diffusor before it reaches the next running
wheel. The kinetic energy (speed energy) converts into static
pressure during this process.
Fig. 3.21:
Symbol of turbo-compressor
Features:
– Uniform output.
– No oil content in air.
– Sensitive to changes in load and stress.
– Minimum output quantities required.
Fig. 3.22:
Op. diagram of radial compressor
36
3.3 Piston compressors Piston compressors operate according to the displacement

principle. The piston intakes air through the intake valve dur-
ing the downwards stroke. It closes at the start of the down-
3.3.1 General wards stroke. The air is compressed and forced out of the
pressure valve. The piston is driven by a crank drive with crank-
shaft and conrods.
Piston compressors are available with one and several cylin-

ders, and in one and multiple-stage versions.
Multi-cylinder compressors are used for higher outputs, multi-

stage compressors for higher pressures.
Single stage compression

Compression to the final pressure in one piston stroke.
Two stage compression

The air compressed in the cylinder in the first stage ( low pres-
sure stage ) is cooled in the intermediate cooler and then com-
pressed to the final pressure in the second stage ( high pres-
sure cylinder ).
Single action compressors

Fig. 3.23: One compression action with one rotation of the crankshaft.
BOGE piston compressor
Double action compressors
Two compression actions with one rotation of the crankshaft.
Piston speeds
With compression the compression speed or even the motor

speed is of secondary importance. The most important factor
in assessing wear is the piston speed. So a compressor with
a low speed and large stroke can have a high piston speed.
In contrast, compressors with high speeds and a small stroke
can have low piston speeds. The piston speed, measured in
m/s, is extremely low with BOGE piston compressors. This
means minimal wear.
Intake Compression
Fig. 3.24:
Principles
37
3.3.2 Suction capacity - output Suction rate - Output

Stroke volume flow - Volume flow
Suction rate The suction rate (stroke volume flow) is a calculated size for
Suction rate piston compressors. It is the product of cylinder capacity, com-
pressor speed (number of strokes ) and the number of intake
Þ cylinders. The stroke volume flow is given in l/min, m3/min and

m3/h.
Volume flow
The output ( free air delivered FAD ) is measured according to
Output
VDMA Unit Sheet 4362, DIN 1945, ISO 1217 or PN2 CPTC2.
Û The ratio of output to induction rate is the volumetric efficiency
rate.
Fig. 3.25:
Suction rate and free air delivered
C
Clearance area
R
The clearance area is a specific dimension located between

the top dead centre of the piston and the bottom edge of the
S
valve.
The clearance area includes:
— Design tolerances
— Cavities in the valves and valve seats
— Individual design considerations
During the down stroke of the piston the air in the compres-
sion expands to atmospheric pressure. Only at this stage and
during the continued downstroke of the piston is air sucked in
C = Clearance area from outside.
S = Stroke
R = Re-expansion
The difference between the suction rate and the output oc-
Fig. 3.26: curs because during suction the pressure of the air already
Clearance area drops in the inlet filter, leakages also occur, the air sucked in
heats up and re-expansion occurs in the compression space.
38
3.3.3 Cooling Heat is generated in all compression processes. The degree

of heating depends on the final pressure of the compressor.
The higher the final pressure, the higher the compression tem-
perature.
According to safety rules, the final compression temperature

on compressors with oil-lubricated pressure chambers and
single stage compression, a maximum 20 kW motor rating
and maximum 10 bar may be up to 220 °C.
With higher pressures and motor ratings a maximum tempera-

ture of 200 °C is allowed. With multiple stage compression and
pressures of over 10 bar the maximum final compression tem-
perature is 160 °C.
The greatest part of compression heat must therefore be ex-

pelled. High compressed air temperatures can be dangerous
as a small amount of lubrication oil is absorbed into the com-
pressed air during compression, this could be flammable. A
fire in the line or the compressor would be the least danger,
but with higher temperatures the danger of compressed air
explosion is potentially greater because the ratio of oxygen
Fig. 3.27: contained is far greater than atmospheric air.
Direction of cooling air on a piston compressor
Each compressor stage therefore has an intercooler and
aftercooler installed in order to cool the compressed air.
The quantity of heat to be removed by cooling depends on the

free air delivered and the pressure. Higher pressure compres-
sors have two, three, or more cylinders. The cylinders are
located in the best position in the air flow of the cooling venti-
lator wherever possible. In order to intensify heat extraction,
the surfaces of the cylinders and cylinder heads are produced
with generous ribbing. However, the intensive cooling and rib-
bing of the compressor is not enough to obtain a minimum
compressed air temperature. The compressed air must also
be cooled by an intercooler between the first and second stages
and an the aftercooler behind the second stage. If this cooling
is not sufficient, multi-stage compression is necessary.
Safety regulation VGB 16 § 9 for oil-lubricated reciprocating

compressors stipulates that the cooling air temperature must
fall to between 60 °C and 80 °C after the last compression stage.
It is also beneficial for the consumer to have a low compressor
air outlet temperature, because the cooler compressed air con-
tains less moisture. Apart from this, downstream equipment,
such as the compressor receiver and air treatment compo-
nents can be designed for low compressed air temperatures
Fig. 3.28: and thus be purchased at less cost. The air outlet temperature
After-cooler as turbulence lamellar cooler
on air-cooled piston compressors is approx. 10 - 15°C above
ambient temperature, depending on the quality of the com-
pressor.
39
3.3.4 Coolant Piston compressors are mainly of the air-cooled variety.

Cold air has the advantage that it is almost everywhere in
unlimited quantities.
The cold air is generated by a ventilator. The ventilator forces

the cold air over the intercooler and aftercooler and over the
compressor.
During compression and cooling stage of the compressed air,

condensate forms inside the cooler. Because of the flow speed
of the compressed air, the condensate is taken out of the
aftercooler by the air, and into the pipe network and com-
pressed air tank.
3.3.5 Control of reciprocating piston Piston compressors are normally controlled by pressure
compressors switches. The pressure switches must be located in a calm
area of the compressed air. This is in the compressed air re-
ceiver, for example, and not in the pipeline between the com-
pressor and the receiver.
The pressure switch stops the compressor at maximum pres-

sure and switches it back on at 20 % below maximum pres-
sure. The actuation is therefore 8 :10 bar and 12 :15 bar.
A smaller differential is not recommended because the com-

pressor will then cycle too often and the wear on the compres-
sor and the motor increases. The cut-in pressure can be low-
ered with the cut-out pressure remaining constant. This has
the advantage that the compressor has longer running times
but longer stationary times too. The cut-in pressure may not
be lower than the minimum pressure of the pneumatic net-
work.
Piston compressors do not continue running (running-on) but

switch off immediately after the maximum pressure is reached
(intermittent operation).
Fig. 3.29:
Pressure switch Piston compressors are particularly suitable as peak load ma-
chines. The compressor only switches on when there is an
increased demand for compressed air and switches off with-
out run-on time when the maximum pressure is reached, i.e.,
saving approx. 30 % energy consumption in idling mode.
3.3.6 Advantages of reciprocating piston — Compression of nearly all technical gases possible
compressors
— Economical compression of pressures up to 40 bar
— Can be used as a booster compressor
— Easy control
— Economical start-stop-operation ( no idle running time )
40
3.3.7 Components of a piston

compressor
Crank case Inlet filter
Cooler
Drive motor
Pressure
switch
Safety valve
Condensate
drain
Compressed
air connection
Fig. 3.30:
Layout of a piston compressor
41
3.4 Screw compressors
3.4.1 General In contrast to the piston compressor, the screw compressor is

a relatively new construction. Although the principle was de-
veloped as early as 1878 by Heinrich Krigar in Hannover, the
construction was only perfected after the second world war.
The Swedish company "Svenska Rotor Maskiner" ( SRM ) de-
veloped the screw compressor technically to series standard.
Screw compressors operate on the displacement principle.

Two parallel rotors with different profiles work in opposite di-
rections inside a housing.
Fig. 3.31:
Section through a screw compressor stage
3.4.2 Compression process The intake air is compressed to final pressure in chambers
which continuously decrease in size through the rotation of
the screw rotors. When the final pressure is reached the air is
Suction side
forced out through the discharge outlet. The compression
chambers are formed by the casing walls and the meshing
helical profiles of the rotors.
Pressure side
Intake ( 1 )
Suction side
The air enters through the inlet aperture into the open screw
profiles of the rotors on the intake side.
Pressure side
Compression ( 2 ) + ( 3 )
Suction side
The air inlet aperture is closed by the continued rotation of the
rotors, the volume reduces and the pressure increases.
Oil is injected during this process.

Pressure side
Suction side Discharge ( 4 )
The compression process is completed. The final pressure is

reached and the discharge begins.
Pressure side
Fig. 3.32:
The compression process in a screw compressor
stage
42
3.4.2 Method of operation 9 8 1
11
10
12
3
7
Fig. 3.33:
Sectional diagram of a
BOGE S-series screw compressor
BOGE screw compressors draw in atmospheric air through

1 = Intake filter with paper microfilter insert the cyclonic suction filter 1 fitted with a paper microfilter car-
tridge and with soiled filter facility. After passing through the
2 = Multifunction suction controller
multi-function suction controller 2 the air enters the compres-
3 = Oil injection sor stage and is compressed 4. Continuously cooled BOGE
long life S46 oil is injected 3 into the compressor stage. The
4 = Compressor stage oil absorbs and removes the heat generated during the com-
5 = Oil separator tank pression process which increases in temperature to approx.
85 °C. According to EC machinery guidelines the final maxi-
6 = Spin-on oil separator cartridge mum compression temperature may not exceed 110 °C.
7 = Minimum pressure valve A large proportion of the oil is separated from the compressed
air in the combined air/oil separation vessel 5. The residual oil
8 = Oil cooler is removed by the spin-on fine oil separator 6, which removes
9 = Aftercooler parallel to flow of cool air the residual oil in the compressed air down to only approx.
1-3 mg/m3.
10 = Oil microfilter The compressed air then passes through a minimum pres-
sure valve 7 into the compressed air aftercooler 9 where it is
11 = Thermostat valve
cooled down to a temperature of only 8 °C above ambient and
12 = Cleaning aperture is then directed through the standard BOGE stop valve into
the compressed air system.
The oil in the oil separator is cooled from 85 °C to 55 °C in the
amply dimensioned oil cooler 8. It then passes through a re-
placeable spin-on oil filter 10. A thermostatic valve 11 in the oil
circuit ensures that the oil temperature is ideal in every oper-
ating phase.
43
3.4.3 Oil circuit The oil injected into the compressor stage performs the fol-
lowing functions:
– Extraction of compression heat (cooling)

5 6 – Sealing the gap between the rotors and their housing
– Lubricating the bearings
1 = Compressed air/oil separator vessel

1 The oil is separated from the compressed air by reducing the
air flow velocity in the separator vessel in which the oil collects
System pressure forces this oil out of the separator vessel

into the compressor stage.
2 2 = Thermal bypass valve

The thermal bypass valve directs the oil through the oil cooler
or through a bypass (e.g., in the warm-up stage).The oil is
thus always at its optimum operating temperature.
3 = Oil cooler (air or water)

The oil cooler reduces the oil temperature to optimum condi-
4 3 tions prior to injection into the compressor stage.
4 = Oil filter
The oil filter retains impurities from the oil and prevents prob-
Fig. 3.34: lems of contamination in the oil circulation system.
Components of the oil circuit
5 = Compressor stage
The oil injected in the compressed air is directed back into the
compressed air/oil vessel, where it is separated by gravita-
tional forces.
6 = Scavenging line
The compressor stage draws any residual oil that has collected
in the separator back into the oil circuit via the scavenging
line.
44
3.4.4 Pneumatic circuit The air sucked into the compressor stage is compressed to
final pressure by the rotors.
1 2
1 = Intake filter
The intake filter cleans the air drawn in by the compressor
stage.
3 4 5 2 = Suction controller
The suction controller opens (operation mode) or closes (idling
mode and stopped) the intake line, depending on the operat-
ing status of the compressor.
The compressor stage compresses the intake air.
4 = Compressed air/oil vessel

Inside the compressed air/oil vessel the compressed air and
oil are separated by gravity.
5 = Oil separator
The oil separator removes the residual oil from the compressed
air.
6 = Minimum pressure valve MPV

8 7 6 This valve opens only when the system pressure has risen to
3.5 bar, which causes a fast build-up of system pressure and
assures lubrication in the start-up and pressure phase of the
Fig. 3.35: compressor. When the compressor is switched off the mini-
Components of the pneumatic circuit mum pressure valve prevents compressed air from flowing
out of the compressor.
7 = Compressed air aftercooler (air cooled)

The compressed air is cooled in the aftercooler. During this
phase, a large proportion of the moisture in the air condenses
out.
8 = Stop valve
The screw compressor can be isolated from the system via
the stop valve located at the outlet of the compressor.
45
3.4.5 Heat reclamation The oil removes approx 85% of compression heat from screw
compressors with oil injected cooling. When using a heat ex-
changer the heat can be extracted from the oil and used for
utility or water heating.
The water in the backflow passing through the heat exchanger

is heated to +70° C. The quantity of water heated depends on
the temperature difference.
Fig. 3.36:
Heat exchanger BOGE-DUOTHERM
3.4.6 Intake control The suction controller controls the intake line of the screw
compressor.
— Fully unloaded start-up through closed controllers.
— Seals hermetically on idling, stopped and emergency cut-

out.
Fig. 3.37:
Intake control with ventilation/control valve
3.4.7 Advantages of screw compressors — when compressed air is required on a continuous basis
— ideal as a base load machine
— economical with 100 % operating availability
46
3.4.8 Components of a screw compressor
Control panel Intake filter Oil filter
Compressed air/oil
combi-cooler
Suction controller
Oil separator
Compressor stage
Cabinet air Drive motor Compressed air/oil

inlet filter separator vessel
Fig. 3.38:
Layout of a screw compressor
47
3.5 Components
3.5.1 Drive motor Drive motors are normally AC motors and mainly operate at a
a speed of 3.000 min-1. The appropriate compressor speed is
obtained by drive belt transmission.
Normal drive motor supply is TEFV (totally enclosed fan vented)

IP 55 class F insulation.
Fig. 3.39:
Drive motor with belt and tensioner
3.5.2 Drive belts The compressor is driven via drive belt transmission.
Using the BOGE patented GM-drive system on screw com-

pressors, drive belts are practically maintenance-free and have
a calculated design life of up to 25,000 hours.
3.5.3 Belt tensioning Motors on piston compressors are normally located on a slid-
ing plate for belt tensioning. The plate is fitted with a threaded
central spindle which together with parallel guides ensure ac-
curate alignment of the drive belts across the pulleys.
BOGE screw compressors are equipped with the patented

BOGE-GM-drive system. This take account of different belt
tension forces caused by motor weight, start-up torque and
running torque, and ensures that compressors have constant
belt tension in every operating stage, without the need for
retensioning and alignment on belt change.
Fig. 3.40:
BOGE-GM-drive system
48
3.5.4 Inlet and pressure valves The tongue valve controls the inlet and outlet of air in the cyl-
inder chamber of the piston compressor.
BOGE-ferax ® -tongue valves have fewer components than

conventional valves, with friction-free operation, minimal dead
space flow resistance. This means more FAD, higher valve
working life expectancy and practically no carbonised oil de-
posits on the valves, which can be produced by high compres-
sion temperatures.
Fig. 3.41:
BOGE-ferax ® -Tongue valve
3.5.5 Safety valve The safety valve must blow off the full output of the compres-
sor at 1.1 times the nominal pressure of the compressed air
tank.
Fig. 3.42:
Safety valve on screw compressor
3.5.6 Intake filter Screw compressors draw in atmospheric air through the air
inlet filter inside the compressor cabinet and through the suc-
Dust separator Paper filter insert tion filter with paper microfilter cartridge. The inlet filter sepa-
rates solid impurities such as dust particles from the intake
air, minimising wear in the compressor and providing the cus-
tomer with clean compressed air.
In dusty conditions ( e.g., cement works ) paper insert filters

are used. These have a higher separation rate than standard
wet air or foam filtration.
The filter inserts can be cleaned on larger compressors. There

is a possibility to monitor the intake filter for pressure differen-
tial, allowing soiled filters to be recognised at an early stage.
Automatic dust extraction
Fig. 3.43:
Intake filter with paper insert
49
3.6 Compressor lubricants and Compressor oils are standardised to DIN 51506. No HD (high
coolants density) oils may be used to lubricate compressors. HD oils
tend to emulsify and thus quickly lose their lubricating proper-
ties.
Mineral and synthetic oils are allowed. Mineral oils have a useful
life of around 2,000 operating hours under normal operating
conditions. Synthetic oils can be changed at longer intervals.
The oil level of the compressor must be checked regularly.
The first oil change is made after the running-in period (approx.
300 to 500 operating hours).
Compressors must not be operated with too little oil. Even a

short trial run without oil (e.g., to check the direction of rota-
tion) can lead to damage.
The oil filter must be cleaned each time the oil is changed. The
oil filter must be replaced after it has been cleaned for the
second time.
Compressor oils and the condensate from oil-lubricated com-

Fir. 3.44: pressors may not be discharged into the public drains. They
Oil level check with a dipstick must be disposed of in an environmentally acceptable man-
ner.
Piston compressors
Synthetic-base oils allow compressor running times of up to

8.000 operating hours.
Screw compressors
Semi-synthetic-base oils allow compressor running times of

up to 9.000 operating hours.
USDA – H1 oils must be used if the compressed air comes

into contact with foodstuffs.
50
Control of compressors
4. Control of compressors
The aim of control is to minimise energy consumption and

wear and maximise availability.
There are various types of control, depending on the con-

struction type, size and area of application:
– the final pressure ( network pressure ).

– the inlet pressure.
– the generated volume flow.
– the absorbed power of the compressor motor.
– the climatic conditions of compressor humidity after the
compressor stage.
Controlling the final pressure is the most important of all con-
trol tasks.
4.1 Pressure definitions Network pressure pN [ bar op ]
The network pressure pN is the pressure at the compressor

outlet behind the outlet valve. This is the pressure in the pipe-
line network.
The network target pressure pNs [ bar op ]
The network target pressure pNs is the minimum pressure that

must be available in the network.
System pressure pS [ bar op ]
The system pressure pS is the pressure inside a screw com-

pressor up to the minimum pressure non-return valve.
Cut-in pressure pmin [ bar op ]
The cut-in pressure pmin is the pressure below which the com-
pressor will cut-in.
The cut-in pressure pmin should be at least 0.5 bar above the
network target pressure pN.
Cut-out pressure pmax [ bar op ]
The cut-out pressure pmax is the pressure above which the

compressor switches off.
The cutout pressure pmax for piston compressors should be
approx. 20 % more than the cut-in pressure ( e.g., cut-in pres-
sure 8 bar, cut-out pressure 10 bar ).
On screw compressors the cut-out pressure pmax should be
0.5 to 1 bar over the cut-in pressure ( e.g., cut-in pressure
9 bar, cut-out pressure 10 bar ).
51
4.2 Operating status The operating status is the current operating mode of a com-
pressor. The operating status is the basis for compressor con-
trol.
4.2.1 Stopped ( L0 ) The compressor is stopped but ready for operation. If com-
pressed air is needed it switches on automatically.
4.2.2 Idle ( L1 ) The compressor is running off load and no air is being com-
pressed (Energy used for compression is saved). If compressed
air is needed it switches to operating mode without delay.
Idle operating mode reduces the motor cycles, thus reducing

wear.
Various techniques are used to control the idle mode:
Circulation switching
The intake line is connected directly to the pressure line. High

pressure losses occur and it is essential that a non-return valve
be installed.
Flowback switching
The intake valves of the compressor are open during the com-
pression process. The air does not compress, it flows back to
the intake side.
The flowback method is suitable for start-up relief, because

the first working stroke is already completely relieved.
Intake line closure
A valve closes the intake line of the compressor. The intake

volume is reduced to zero and there is no air available for
compression. The pressure losses are low.
Pressure line closure
A valve closes the pressure line of the compressor. The com-

pressed air can not be emitted. No volume flow can occur.
52
4.2.3 Part-load The output of the compressor is adjusted to the relevant com-
pressed air requirement.The energy consumption falls slightly
if the output is lower. The network pressure pN is constant.
There are several methods of varying volume flow. These can

also be combined if necessary:
Speed control
Changing the motor speed also varies the output of the com-
pressor. This occurs mainly with engine-driven compressors.
With electrically-powered compressors speed control is usu-
ally accomplished with the aid of a frequency converter.
The output is continuously controlled from 40-100 %.
Emergency chamber control ( piston compressors only )
By increasing the dead space there is a stronger reverse ex-

pansion of the compressed air. If several emergency cham-
bers are opened one after the other the output can be re-
duced in steps. There are also variations by which an emer-
gency chamber can be continuously expanded.
Flowback control ( piston compressors only )
The output of the compressors is reduced by opening the in-

take valves during the compression stroke. The opening time
of the intake valves determines the amount by which com-
pressed volume flow is reduced.
A part-load control of approx. 25 - 100 % of output is possible.

When the intake valve is open for the full compression stroke
the output drops back to zero.
Intake throttle control
An adjustable throttle in the intake line reduces the intake vol-

ume. A pressure servo valve is used for automatic control,
and this is operated at the relevant system pressure. When
the system pressure drops, the valve opens accordingly, the
compressor takes in more air, and the output rises. As soon
as system pressure becomes constant the throttle valve closes
and the compressor operates in idling mode.
The output varies between 0 - 100 %. The electrical power

requirement does not fall below 70 % during this time.
4.2.4 Operating load ( L2 ) The compressor delivers its maximum output and consumes
the maximum energy.
53
4.3 Controlling individual Compressor control has two objectives:

compressors Energy-saving and minimisation of wear.
To meet these objectives, the 4 operating modes of compres-

sors are combined in various control methods. The method
used depends on marginal conditions.
4.3.1 Intermittent control With intermittent control a pressure switch or contact manom-
eter actuates the compressor, depending on network pres-
sure.
The compressor has two operating modes, Operating mode

( L2 ) and Stopped ( L 0 ).
This arrangement has the best energy consumption of all types

of control. It is recommended when there is a large compressed
air receiver. A large storage volume also reduces the number
Behaviour of pressure of motor cycles.
– The network pressure pN rises to the cut-out pressure pmax.

The compressor switches to Stopped ( L0 ).
– The network pressure pN drops to cut-in pressure pmin.
The compressor switches Operating mode ( L2 ).
Behaviour of electrical intake
Fig. 4.1 :
Op. diagram of cutout control
4.3.2 Idle mode control A pressure switch or contact manometer switches the com-
pressor to operating load or idle mode depending on network
pressure.
In Idle mode ( L1 ) the drive motor continues to run, but the

compressor does not produce any compressed air. The elec-
trical power demand falls to approx. 30 % of the operating mode
requirement.
Continuous operation of the drive minimises the number of

motor cycles, which especially with large motors causes in-
Behaviour of pressure
creased wear.
Idle operating mode is used in pneumatic systems with rela-

tively small storage volumes, in order not to exceed the maxi-
mum switch cycles of the drive motor.
– The system pressure pN rises to cut-out pressure pmax.

Behaviour of electrical intake The compressor switches to idle mode ( L1 ).
Fig. 4.2 : – The network pressure pN drops to cut-in pressure pmin.
Op. diagram of idle mode control The compressor switches to operating mode ( L2 ).
54
4.3.3 Delayed intermittent control
A pressure switch or contact manometer works in conjunction

with a timer and controls the compressor independently of
system pressure.
The compressor goes through the modes of Operating mode

( L2 ), Idle mode ( L1 ) and Stopped ( L0 ). The modes are
linked with each other via the timer tV .
Behaviour of pressure The delayed intermittent control combines the benefits of in-
termittent control and idling control. It is a middle path with
1. 2. lower energy consumption than the idling control method.
The delayed intermittent control operates with two switching

variants:
1st Variant
The compressor switches to idle mode ( L1 ).
Fig. 4.3
Op. diagram of delayed intermittent control – The system pressure pN has not reached cut-in pressure
pmin after expiry of the time tV.
The compressor switches to stopped ( L0 ).
– System pressure pN drops below cut-in pressure pmin.
The compressor switches to operating mode ( L2 ).
2nd Variant

The compressor switches to idle mode ( L1 ).
– System pressure pN reaches cut-in pressure pmin before
expiry of the time tV .
The compressor switches to operating mode ( L2 ).
There are 2 possibilities to activate the timer tV :
1. Switching on the compressors ( pmin ) starts the timer tV.

This provides shorter idling times and therefore lower
energy costs as with 2.
2. On reaching the cut-out pressure ( pmax ) the timer tV starts.
55
4.3.4 Part-load control The volume control of the compressor is adjusted to the re-
spective requirement for compressed air.
The network pressure pN is largely constant due to the vari-

able output control. The fluctuations of pN vary depending on
the method of part-load control used.
The part-load control method is used with systems with small

storage capacities and / or heavy consumption fluctuations. The
Behaviour of pressure number of cycles drops.
Fig. 4.4
Op. diagram of part-load control
4.3.4.1 Infinite output control In addition to the ARS control unit, BOGE offers an optional
infinite output control for screw compressors with oil injec-
Characteristic control line for
Infinite output control tion cooling. This control intervenes in the processes of the
100%
suction control and operates according to the suction throttle
90% principle.
80%
The infinite output control from BOGE is set at the factory to
70%
Economical
zone
Ideal a production rate of between 50 and 100 % of FAD. If FAD
characte-
drops to below 50 %, the compressor is working uneconomi-
Power intake[ % ]
60% ristic line

Uneconomical cally. Depending on the switching cycle the compressor either
50% zone
switches off or continues on idle mode.
40%
Idling
30% absorbed
power
20%
10%
0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Output[ % ] FAD
Fig. 4.5 :
Correlation between FAD and absorbed power when
using infinite output control.
4.3.4.2 Frequency control The frequency control allows FAD control of between 0%
(idling) and the control range of 40 to 100 % with absorbed
power of between 35 and 110 %. The part-load control is
accomplished by changing the speed of the drive motor, which
is controlled by a frequency converter.
If FAD drops to less than 40 % the compressor is working

uneconomically. Depending on the switching cycle the com-
pressor either switches off or continues in idle mode. The fre-
quency control works most economically with oil-free screw
compressors.
56
4.4. The ARS control concept
BOGE screw-type compressors and supersilenced piston com-

pressors are equipped with the modern ARS -control concept
( Autotronic, Ratiotronic, Supertronic ).
The ARS-control differs in features and control functions.
ARS is an integrated control and monitoring concept with two

objectives:
– Energy-saving and thus a reduction of running costs.

– Extending the lifetime of the compressor by allowing only
as little wear as possible.
The ARS-control on screw compressors uses a microcontroller

to obtain the cheapest intermittent operation while taking into
account the max. permissible motor cycles. Piston compres-
sors only use economical intermittent operation.
All programmed data are stored in an EEPROM storage mod-

ule that can be electronically written to and erased. The stored
information is thus still available in the event of a power failure.
Modular design
The ARS-control comprises standard components that are in-

dividually obtainable. Components can also easily be added
at a later date. The controls can therefore be ideally configured
for the individual requirements of the customer. The controls
can be rapidly replaced in the event of failure, thus increasing
the availability of the compressors. There is therefore no need
for time-consuming and costly examination by specialists.
57
4.4.1 Automatic
The Automatic is the control unit for all supersilenced piston

compressors. It offers:
– Energy-saving intermittent control via a pressure switch.

– Operating status display: Operating mode.
– Indicator for op/hrs.
– Indicator for NW/pr.
Fig. 4.6 :
– Automatic load-free restart after power failure.
The BOGE Automatic for piston compressors – Possibility for connection to a hierarchial control for
several compressors MCS.
4.4.2 Autotronic The Autotronic is an intelligent control and monitoring unit for
screw and piston compressors. In addition to the features of
Automatic it offers for piston compressors:
– convenient and well-arranged operating panel with

7-Segment-display, LEDs and flow plan.
– operating mode display.
– programmable control.
– protection of important program-parameter
by code request.
– integrated test mode for all inlets and outlets.
– display of the most important malfunction and warning
Fig. 4.7 : messages (partially optional ).
The BOGE Autotronic for piston compressors – Idling mode ( optional ).
– Idling mode hours display ( optional ).
For screw compressors the Autotronic offer the following

additional features :
– dynamic full-load/idling control

( delayed intermittent switching ).
– automatic selection of the best operating mode.
– automatic optimization of motor cycles.
– Standard display of the most important malfunction and
Fig. 4.8 :
warning messages.
The BOGE Autotronic for screw compressors
– Display and monitoring of final compression temperature.
58
4.4.3 Ratiotronic
The Ratiotronic is an extension of the Autotronic for screw or

piston compressors. It offers the following additional features:
– Display of additional malfunction or warning messages

( partially optional ).
– Local or remote operation.
– External indication of operating data and messages.
Fig. 4.9 :
The BOGE Ratiotronic for piston compressors
Fig. 4.10 :
The BOGE Ratiotronic for screw compressors
4.4.4 Supertronic The Supertronic is a complex operating and monitoring unit

for screw compressors. In comparison to the other control units
it has comprehensive additional functions:
– Well-arranged LCD-display with 4 x 20 characters (digits)

and clear text.
– Adjustment of network pressure by keyboard.
– Comprehensive display and monitoring of major operating
data.
– Comprehensive compressor monitoring
Malfunction and warning messages shown on the
LCD - display.
Fig. 4.11 :
The BOGE Supertronic for screw compressors – Integrated electronic real-time clock for switching on and
off. Operated via keyboard.
– All operating parameters can be adjusted via the key-
board.
– Access to all functions with a few additional keystrokes.
59
1.1
4.5 Control of several For users of compressed air with high, much fluctuating con-
compressors sumption a single, large compressor is not the best solution.
In these cases, a combined compressor system consisting of
several compressors is much the better alternative. Greater
operating reliability and economy are the aguments in favour
of this.
Organisations that are very dependent on compressed air can

guarantee their supply at all times by a combined compressor
system. If one compressor fails or servicing work is neces-
sary, the other compressors continue the supply.
Several small compressors can be adjusted more easily to

compressed air consumption than one large compressor. The
idling costs of a large compressor are moreover higher than
those of small, stand-by compressors. These facts provide the
greater economy.
A combined compressor is operated economically and low on

wear by a master control system.
4.5.1 MCS 1 and MCS 2 MCS 1 controls 2 compressors of the same size as basic load
and peak load. The compressors are cyclically changed and
switched on and off via their own pressure switches. The con-
trol unit offers:
– Cyclic change via a timer.

– Time lag cycling of the compressors by the control unit
through pressure graduation.
– Even use of compressors.
– Constant pressure in the pressure range.
– Minimal cycle difference ∆p = 0,8 bar
MCS 2 controls up to 3 compressors of the same size as

Fig. 4.12 :
The BOGE Master Control System 2
basic load, medium load and peak load. The compressors are
cyclically changed and switched on and off via their own pres-
sure switches. The upgrade to 3 compressors and the greater
cycle difference is the only difference to the MCS 1. The fea-
tures are otherwise the same.
– Minimal cycle difference ∆p = 1,1 bar
Fig. 4.13 :
The circuit diagram of the BOGE MCS 2
60
4.5.2 MCS 3 MCS 3 controls a maximum of 4, 8, or 12 compressors of the

same and/or different size and type in a system. All compres-
sors are controlled by a common pressure sensor on the com-
pressed air receiver.
The MCS 3 has at 0.5 bar a very small cut-in difference. The
individual compressors are not given fixed cut-out and cut-in
pressures. All compressors work in the same pressure range
( ∆ p = 0.5 bar ). The compressors cut-in dynamically accord-
ing to requirement via set intermediate pressure values. The
speed of pressure rise and fall is measured. The compres-
sors switch on and off dynamically.
Fig. 4.14 :
The control offers:
– Dynamic pressure control by microcontroller in connec-

tion with electronic pressure controllers for a minimum
cut-in difference of 0.5 bar.
( no over-compression → energy saving )
Cut-in Cycle
– Time dependent allotment of compressors in rank
pressure
[bar]
difference stages for shift operation with differing compressed air
requirement.
– Individual assignment of individual compressors to load
range groups, uniform usage of compressors.
– Adjustable basic load changeover cycle.
– Independent rotation of compressors into the load range
groups.
Fig. 4.15 : – Time offset allocation of compressors if demanded by
Circuit diagram of the BOGE MCS 3 the control unit.
– Well arranged LCD-display with 4 x 20 characters and
clear text.
– Possibility of checking all inlets and outlets via a test-
menu.
– Automatic reverting to pressure switches of individual
compressors in the event of voltage loss.
– The individual compressors work independently without
the MCS 3. They are then controlled from their own
pressure switches.
61
4.5.3 MCS 4 MCS 4 controls a maximum of 4 or 8 compressors of the same

and/or different sizes and types in a system. All compressors
are controlled by a common pressure sensor at the com-
pressed air receiver.
The basic load with this control unit is normally covered by the
largest compressor or combination of compressors. The small-
est compressor takes the peak load. Compressors of the same
size change over in providing the basic load.
The MCS 4 computes compressed air consumption continu-

ally from programmed compressor performance data and in-
Fig. 4.16 : formation from the pressure sensor. It selects the compressor
The BOGE Master Control System 4 that most closely matches the requirement.
The control offers:

Cut-in Cycle
pressure difference
[bar]
– need-oriented use of the various compressors and
compressor combinations.
– ideal use of the benefits of screw and piston compressors.
– minimal cut-in difference of 0.5 bar.
( no over-compression → energy-saving )
– three different pressure profiles per day by a timer
programme to adapt the control to differing compressed
Fig. 4.17 : air requirement.
Op. diagram of the BOGE MCS 4
– Time adjusted use of compressors on demand by the
control unit.
– Well-organised LCD-display with 2 x 20 characters and
clear text output.
– Possibility to check all inlets and outlets via a test menu.
– Automatic switchover to pressure switches in the event of
voltage loss.
– The individual compressors operate independently
without the MCS 4. They are then controlled by their own
pressure switches.
– Two potential-free timer contacts for control of additional
components.
62
4.5.4 MCS 5 MCS 5 controls a maximum of 4, 8, or 12 compressors with

infinite output control of the same and/or different size and
construction in a system. All compressors are controlled by a
common pressure sensor on the compressed air receiver. The
peak load compressor controls accordingly the requirement
of compressed air via its infinite output control.
If the compressed air demand drops this compressor switches

off and the medium load compressor takes over via its infinite
output control,dependng on the level of priority.
Fig. 4.18 : Up to their use of infinite control the MCS 3 and MCS 5 are
The BOGE Master Control System 5 similar.
The control unit offers:
– Adaptation of FAD to the compressed air demand by

infinite output control by the peak load compressor.
Cut-in Cycle – Minimal pressure fluctuations in the pneumatic network.

pressure difference
– Dynamic pressure control by microcontroller in conjunc-
tion with the electronic pressure control for a minimum
( no over-compression → energy savings )
– Time-independent allocation of compressors in level of
priority for shift operation with differing compressed air
demand.
– Individual allocation of compressors in the load range
Fig. 4.19 : groups with even usage of compressors.
Op. diagram for the BOGE MCS 5
– Adjustable basic load change cycle.
– Independent rotation of compressors in the load range
groups.
control unit.
– Well arranged LCD-display with 4 x 20 characters and
clear text output.
– Automatic change to pressure switches of individual
compressors in the event of voltage loss.
– The individual compressors operate independently
without the MCS 5. They are then controlled by their own
pressure switches.
63
4.5.5 MCS 6 MCS 6 Controls a maximum of 4, 8, or 12 compressors with

speed frequency control of the same, and/or different size and
design/type in a system. All compressors in the system are
controlled through a common pressure sensor on the com-
pressed air receiver. The peak load compressor controls the
compressed air demand via its speed frequency control.
When the compressed air demand falls this compressor

switches off and the medium load compressor takes over the
control through its speed frequency control.
Fig. 4.20 : Apart from the speed frequency control the MCS 3 and the
The BOGE Master Control System 6 MCS 6 systems are similar.
The control system offers:
– Adaptation of the FAD to the compressed air demand

through speed frequency control of the peak load com-
pressor.
Cut-in Cycle
pressure
[bar]
difference
– Minimum pressure fluctuations in the pneumatic system.
– Dynamic pressure control by microcontroller in conjunc-
tion with the electronic pressure controller for a minimum
( no over-compression → energy saving )
– Time-dependent allocation of compressors in priorities
for shift operation with differing compressed air demand.
Fig. 4.21 : – Individual allocation of individual compressors in the load

Op. diagram for the BOGE MCS 6 range groups with even work rates among the compres-
sors.
– Adjustable basic load change cycle.
– Independent rotation of compressors in the load range
groups.
control unit.
– Well-arranged LCD-display with 4 x 20 characters
and clear text output.
– Automatic switchover to the pressure switches of indi-
vidual compressors in the event of power failure.
– The individual compressors work independently without
the MCS 6. They are then controlled by their own pres-
sure switches.
64
4.5.6 MCS 7 MCS 7 controls, regulates and monitors a complete pneumatic

station with the Siemens-control S 5 ( S7 ) and the operator
terminal OP 15.
The basic features include:
– 8 Compressors.
– 2 Refrigeration compressed air dryers.
– 2 Adsorption dryers.
– 10 Bekomats.
– 2 Potentional-free switch channels for control of addi-
tional devices.
The MCS 7 is available in three versions:

Fig. 4.22 :
Version 1
Version 1 offers an extended software program of MCS 3. It
uses pressure-dependent control of up to 8 or 12 compres-
sors of the same and/or different size by priorities and timer
Cut-in Cycle
pressure difference programmes.
[bar]
Version 2
Version 2 offers an extended software program of MCS 5. It

sors of the same and/or different size with infinite output con-
trol.
Version 3
Fig. 4.23 :
Op. diagram for the BOGE MCS 7 Version 3 offers an extended software program of MCS 6. It
sors of the same and/or different size with speed frequency
control.
In addition to the basic individual software functions the con-

trol offers:
– Recording of the operating status of the compressors

and additional components of the compressor station.
– Storage of operating, warning and malfunction mes-
sages. This makes servicing and repair of the compres-
sor system much simpler.
– Control and monitoring of the compressed air treatment
components and the pneumatic system.
– BUS-coupling with Profibus ( optional )
This allows connection to a central control facility.
– System visualisation in master control equipment (optional)
Comprehensive information can be obtained about the
entire compressed supply.
65
Compressed air treatment
5. Compressed air treatment
5.1 Why treatment ? Modern production equipment needs compressed air. The
many conditions in which it is used range from untreated blow-
ing air to absolutely dry, oil-free and sterile compressed air.
The impurities in our atmosphere are usually invisible to the

naked eye. But they can seriously impede the reliable opera-
tion of a pneumatic system and consumer devices, and have
an adverse effect on the quality of products.
1 m3 of atmospheric air contains many impurities such as
– Up to 180 million particles of dirt.

These are between 0.01 and 100 µm in size.
– 5 - 40 g/m³ Water in the form of atmospheric humidity.
– 0.01 to 0.03 mg/m3 Oil in the form of mineral oil aerosols
and unburnt hydrocarbons
– Traces of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury,
iron.
Compressors draw in atmospheric air and the impurities they

contain and concentrate them many times. At compression
of 10 bar-op ( 10 bar over-pressure = 11 bar absolute ) the con-
centration of impurities rises by 11 times. In 1 m3 compressed
air there will then be up to 2 billion particles of dirt. Lubrication
oil and scuff also passes from the compressor in the com-
pressed air.
Correct treatment of compressed air brings benefits :
– Increased working life of consumer devices.

– Improved and consistent product quality.
– Pneumatic lines free of condensate and rust.
– Fewer malfunctions.
– Pipelines without condensate collectors.
– Lower servicing outlay.
Fig. 5.1 :
Concentration of impurities in the air during com- – Lower pressure loss from leakage and flow resistance.
pression – Lower energy consumption due to lower pressure loss.
66
5.1.2 Planing information BOGE recommends the processing described on this page
for the various applications of compressed air.
Refrigeration dryer
*)
Active carbon filter

Area of application Quality
Adsorption dryer
Membrane dryer
of compressed air classes
Dust separator
Active carbon
Compressor
Sterile filter
DIN ISO 8573-1
Microfilter
absorber
Prefilter
prefilter
Particle
Water
Oil
General air — — —
Blowing air — — —
Sand blasting — 3 —
Simple varnishing work — 3 —
General works air 5 3 4

Conveyance air 5 3 4
BOGE screw and piston compressors
Simple spray painting 5 3 4

Sandblasting with higher
quality requirements 5 3 4
Pneumatic tools 1 1 4
Control air 1 1 4
Process control eqpt. 1 1 4
Spray painting 1 1 4
Conditioning 1 1 4
Fluid elements 1 1 4
Dental laboratories 1 1 4
Photo laboratories 1 1 4
Breathing air 1 1 1-3

Instrument. air 1 1 1-3
Pneumatics 1 1 1-3
Spray painting with higher
quality requirements 1 1 1-3
Surface treatment 1 1 1-3
Medical equipment 1 1 3-4

Conveyance air with higher
quality requirements 1 1 3-4
Food and luxury
food industry 1 1 3-4
Breweries 1 1 1-3
Dairies 1 1 1-3
Pharmaceuticals industry 1 1 1-3
*) The dust separator is not required under certain circumstances.

The quality classes are explained on page 5.12 .
67
5.1.3 Consequences of poor treatment If the impurities and water from atmospheric air remain in the
compressed air the consequences can be unpleasant. This
applies to the pipeline and the consumer devices, and prod-
ucts can also suffer if the quality of compressed air is poor. In
some applications the use of compressed air without adequate
treatment is dangerous and a health hazard.
Solid matter particles in compressed air
– Wear on pneumatic systems.

Dust and other particles cause scuff. This effect is increased
if the particles combine with lubricating oil or grease to form
a grinding paste.
– Particles that are hazardous to health.
– Chemically aggressive particles.
Oil in the compressed air
– Old and different oil in the pneumatic system.

Resinified oil can reduce pipe diameters and cause block-
ages. This increases flow resistance.
– Oil-free compressed air.

With pneumatic conveyance, oil can stick to the product
being conveyed and thus cause blockages.
In the food and pharmaceutical industries compressed air
must be free of oil for health reasons.
Water in the compressed air
– Corrosion in the pneumatic system.

Rust forms in the pipelines and operating elements and
causes leaks.
– Gaps in lubricant films.

Gaps in lubricant films lead to mechanical defects.
– Formation of electrical elements.

Electrical elements can form when some metals come in
contact with water.
– Formation of ice in the pneumatic network.

In low temperatures water in the network can freeze and
cause frost damage, reduce pipe diameter and block pipes.
68
5.1.3 Impurities in the air In our atmosphere there are particles of dirt that are not vis-
ible to the naked eye. This chapter contains a general sum-
mary of the type, size and concentration of these particles.
Concentration of particles Limits Average values

3
in atmospheric air [ mg/ m ] [ mg/ m3 ]
In the country 5 - 50 15
In the town 10 - 100 30
In an industrial area 20 - 500 100
In large factory plants 50 - 900 200
Particle diameter [ µm ]
69
5.2 Water in the compressed air
5.2.1 Atmospheric humidity There is always a certain amount of moisture in the atmos-
phere. This is known as atmospheric humidity and its content
varies depending on the time and place. At any temperature
a certain volume of air can only contain a maximum quantity
of moisture. However, atmospheric air usually contains less
than this maximum amount.
Maximum humidity humax [ g/m3 ]
Maximum humidity hu max ( saturation quantity ) means the

maximum quantity of moisture that 1 m³ air can hold at a cer-
Maximum humidity humax [ g /m3 ]
tain temperature. The maximum humidity does not depend on

pressure.
Absolute humidity hu [ g/m3 ]
Absolute humidity hu means the actual quantity of moisture

held by 1 m³ air.
Relative humidity ϕ [ % ]
Relative humidity ϕ means the ratio of absolute to maximum

humidity.
hu
ϕ = ——— × 100 %
hu max
ϕ = relative humidity [%]

Dew point[ °C ] hu = absolute humidity [ g/m 3 ]
humax = maximale humidity [ g/m 3 ]
Fig. 5.2 :
Maximum humidity
depending on dew point
Since maximum humidity humax depends on the temperature
the relative humidity changes with the temperature, even if
the absolute humidity remains constant. On cooling to dew
point, the relative humidity rises to 100 %.
70
5.2.2 Dew points Atmospheric dew point [ °C ]
Atmospheric dew point means the temperature to which at-

mospheric air ( 1 bar abs ) can be cooled without precipita-
tion.
The atmospheric dew point is of minor importance for pneu-

matic systems.
Pressure dew point [ °C ]
The pressure dew point means the temperature to which com-

pressed air can be cooled without precipitation of conden-
sate. The pressure dew point depends on the final compres-
sion pressure. If pressure drops, the pressure dew point drops
with it.
5.2.3 Air moisture content The following table shows the maximum air humidities at cer-
tain dew points:
dew max. dew max. dew max. dew max. dew max. dew max. dew max.
point humidity point humidity point humidity point humidity point humidity point humidity point humidity
[ °C ] [ g/ m3 ] [ °C ] [ g/m3 ] [ °C ] [ g/m3] [ °C ] [ g/m3] [ °C ] [ g/m3 ] [ °C ] [ g/m3] [ °C ] [ g/m3]
+100° 588,208 +76° 248,840 +52° 90,247 +28° 26,970 +4° 6,359 -19° 0,960 -43° 0,083
+99° 569,071 +75° 239,351 +51° 86,173 +27° 25,524 +3° 5,953 -20° 0,880 -44° 0,075
+98° 550,375 +74° 230,142 +50° 82,257 +26° 24,143 +2° 5,570 -21° 0,800 -45° 0,067
+97° 532,125 +73° 221,212 +49° 78,491 +25° 22,830 +1° 5,209 -22° 0,730 -46° 0,060
+96° 514,401 +72° 212,648 +48° 74,871 +24° 21,578 -23° 0,660 -47° 0,054
0° 4,868
+95° 497,209 +71° 204,286 +47° 71,395 +23° 20,386 -24° 0,600 -48° 0,048
+94° 480,394 +70° 196,213 +46° 68,056 +22° 19,252 -1° 4,487 -25° 0,550 -49° 0,043
+93° 464,119 +69° 188,429 +45° 64,848 +21° 18,191 -2° 4,135 -26° 0,510 -50° 0,038
+92° 448,308 +68° 180,855 +44° 61,772 +20° 17,148 -3° 3,889 -27° 0,460 -51° 0,034
+91° 432,885 +67° 173,575 +43° 58,820 +19° 16,172 -4° 3,513 -28° 0,410 -52° 0,030
+90° 417,935 +66° 166,507 +42° 55,989 +18° 15,246 -5° 3,238 -29° 0,370 -53° 0,027
+89° 403,380 +65° 159,654 +41° 53,274 +17° 14,367 -6° 2,984 -30° 0,330 -54° 0,024
+88° 389,225 +64° 153,103 +40° 50,672 +16° 13,531 -7° 2,751 -31° 0,301 -55° 0,021
+87° 375,471 +63° 146,771 +39° 48,181 +15° 12,739 -8° 2,537 -32° 0,271 -56° 0,019
+86° 362,124 +62° 140,659 +38° 45,593 +14° 11,987 -9° 2,339 -33° 0,244 -57° 0,017
+85° 340,186 +61° 134,684 +37° 43,508 +13° 11,276 -10° 2,156 -34° 0,220 -58° 0,015
+84° 336,660 +60° 129,020 +36° 41,322 +12° 10,600 -11° 1,960 -35° 0,198 -59° 0,013
+83° 324,469 +59° 123,495 +35° 39,286 +11° 9,961 -12° 1,800 -36° 0,178 -60° 0,110
+82° 311,616 +58° 118,199 +34° 37,229 +10° 9,356 -13° 1,650 -37° 0,160 -65° 0,00640
+81° 301,186 +57° 113,130 +33° 35,317 +9° 8,784 -14° 1,510 -38° 0,144 -70° 0,00330
+80° 290,017 +56° 108,200 +32° 33,490 +8° 8,234 -15° 1,380 -39° 0,130 -75° 0,00130
+79° 279,278 +55° 103,453 +31° 31,744 +7° 7,732 -16° 1,270 -40° 0,117 -80° 0,00060
+78° 268,806 +54° 98,883 +30° 30,078 +6° 7,246 -17° 1,150 -41° 0,104 -85° 0,00025
+77° 258,827 +53° 94,483 +29° 28,488 +5° 6,790 -18° 1,050 -42° 0,093 -90° 0,00010
71
5.2.4 Quantity of condensate Air contains water in the form of moisture. Since air can be
during compression compressed and water can not, when air is compressed the
water precipitates in the form of condensate. The maximum
humidity of the air depends on temperature and volume. It
does not depend on quantity.
Atmospheric air can be imagined as a moist sponge. It can

take in a certain amount of water when it is relaxed. But if it is
squeezed, part of the water runs out. Some of the water will
always stay in the sponge regardless of how hard it is squeezed.
Compressed air is very similar.
The following examples illustrate the quantity of condensate

to be expected qc when air is compressed. The example as-
Fig. 5.3 :
sumes a humid Summer day with 35° C and 80 % atmospheric
A wet sponge being squeezed humidity.
V1 × humax 1 × ϕ1 V2 × humax 1 × ϕ2
qc = —————— - ————————
100 100
6,5 × 39,286 × 80 0,59 × 39,286 × 100

qc = ————–———– - ————–————–
100 100
m³ × g / m³ × % m³ × g / m³ × %
qc = ———————– - ————————–
% %
qC qc = 181,108 g
V1 = 6,5 m3 V2 = 0,59 m3
p1 = 0 bar-op = 1 bar abs p2 = 10 bar-op = 11 bar abs
T = 35° C T = 35° C qc = precipitated condensate [g]
ϕ1 = 80 % ϕ2 = 100 % V1 = Volume at 0 bar-op [ m3 ]
hu max = 39,286 g/ m3 V2 = Volume at 10 bar-op [ m 3]
humax 1 = max. humidity at 35° C [ g/m3 ]

Fig. 5.4 :
Precipitation of condensate during compression ϕ1 = relative humidity of V 1 [%]
ϕ2 = relative humidity of V 2 [%]
Because the water that comes out of the compressed air is

the part the air can not store, the humidity ϕ of the compressed
air rises to 100 %.
When compressing 6,5 m 3 air to 10 bar pressure, at a con-

stant temperature 181,108 g water will precipitate in the
form of condensate.
72
5.2.5 Example An example shows the amount of condensate qc that actually

for calculating quantities of occurs when air is compressed. It is to be noted that the con-
condensate densate occurs at several points of the compressor station
and at different times.
The task here is to calculate the occurrence of condensate on

•
a screw compressor with an output of V = 2 720 m³/h and a
final compression pressure of pop = 10,5 bar. Connected in
series to the compressor are a compressed air tank and a
refrigeration compressed air dryer.
Ambient air The atmospheric air contains a certain amount of water under
• these conditions:
V 1 = 2 720 m³/h
p1 =1 bar abs
T1 = 33° C •
qw = V 1 × humax 1 × ϕ1 /100
ϕ1 = 80 %
humax 1 = 35,317 g/m³ g/h = m³/h × g/m³ × %/%
qw = 2 720 × 35,317 × 80/100

^ 76,85 l/h
qW = 76 849,79 g/h =
Compressor During the compression process, the temperature rises above

the pressure dew point of the compressed air, and therefore
p2 = 11,5 bar abs no moisture will precipitate. In the aftercooler of the compres-
T2 = 40° C sor the compressed air is cooled down to T 2 = 40° C. The first
ϕ2 = 100 % condensate occurs and is taken with the air into the com-
pressed air receiver. The volume flow calms down and the
humax 2 = 50,672 g/m³
droplets of water precipitate. A considerable amount of con-
• densate collects there:
• V1
V 2 = –––––– = 236,5 Bm3/h
P2
•
qc1 = qW – ( V 2 × humax 2 × ϕ2 /100 )
qc1 = 76 849,79 – ( 236,5 × 50,672 × 100/100 )
qc1 = 64 865,86 g/h ^

= 64,87 l/h
•
V = 236,5 m3/h qc1
Refrigeration compressed After this the compressed air is cooled down in the refrigera-
air dryer tion compressed air dryer to a temperature corresponding
to a pressure dew point of 3° C. The condensate precipitates
p3 = 11,5 bar abs in the dryer and is drained off.
T3 = 3° C
ϕ3 = 100 % • •
qc2 = ( V 2 × humax 2 ) – ( V 2 × humax 3 )
qc2
humax 3 = 5,953 g/m³
qc2 = ( 236,5 × 50,672 ) – ( 236,5 × 5,953 )
•
V 2 = 236,5 Bm3/h qc2 = 10 576,04 g/h ^
= 10,58 l/h
Fig. 5.5 :
Condensate precipitation when compressing with a
dryer
73
In addition to the individual flows of condensate, there is also

the quantity of condensate that needs to be dealt with by the
condensate treatment equipment.
Condensate quantity qc = qc1 + qc2
Condensate quantity qc = 75441,9 g/h

= 75,4 l/h
With 3-shift operation working at 100 % efficiency the com-

pressor is running 24 hrs. per day. This means, with the basic
Fig. 5.6 : assumptions unchanged:
Approx. 8 10 l buckets of condensate precipitate in
24 hours Condensate quantity qcD = 1810605,6 g/D
= 1810,6 l/D
The following quantity of condensate will then occur in one

year:
Condensate quantity qcY = 659 060 438 g/Y

= 659 060 l/Y
5.2.6 Quantity of condensate on a humid The quality of compressed air must always remain the same if
Summer day the surrounding conditions are unchanged. i.e., the pres-
sure dew point of the compressed air must be 3°C even on a
humid Summer day with an air temperature of 40° C and 90 %
atmospheric humidity.
•
FAD V 1 = 2 720 m³/h
Inlet pressure p1 = 1 bar abs
Inlet temperature T1 = 40° C
Relative humidity ϕ1 = 90 %
Pressure dew point T3 = 2° C
Under these conditions the quality of compressed air remains

constant but the quantity of condensate is much higher.
Condensate quantity qc = 122,6 l/h
With 3-shift operation working at 100 % efficiency the com-

pressor is running 24 hrs. per day. This means, with the basic
assumptions unchanged:
Condensate quantity qcD = 2 943,3 l/D
The following quantity of condensate will then occur in one

year:
Condensate quantity qcY = 1 071 358 l/Y
74
5.2.7 Determining the pressure dew The pressure dew point means the temperature to which the
point compressed air can be cooled without condensate precipi-
tating. The pressure dew point depends on the final compres-
sion pressure. If the pressure drops, the pressure dew point
drops with it.
The following diagrams are used to determine the pressure

dew point of the compressed air after compression:
sure
pres
sion
re
pres
tu
ra
lcom
pe
m
Example2
Fina
te
let
In
Example1
Relative humidity ϕ [ % ] Pressure dew point [ °C ]
Example 1 Example 2
Intake air Intake air

– relative atmospheric humidity ϕ = 70 % – relative atmospheric humidity ϕ = 80 %
– inlet temperature T = 35 °C – inlet temperature T = 35 °C
Compressed air Compressed air
– Final compression pressure pop = 8 bar – Final compression pressure pop = 10 bar
⇒ The pressure dew point is approx. 73° C ⇒ The pressure dew point is approx. 82° C
75
5.2.8 Pressure dew point after removal When compressed air relaxes (pressure released) the pres-
of pressure sure dew point drops. The following table is used to determine
the new pressure dew point and atmospheric dew point after
relaxation:
max. humidity [ g/m3 ]
]
op
ar-
[b
Pressure dew point [ °C ]
Example1
op
p
re
su
res
erp
Ov
Example 2
Atmospheric dew point [ °C ]
Example 1 Example 2
Compressed air Compressed air

– pop = 35 bar air pressure – pop = 7 bar air pressure
– Pressure dew point 10° C – Pressure dew point 20° C
relaxed compressed air relaxed compressed air
– pop = 4 bar air pressure – atmospheric air pressure pop = 0 bar
⇒ The new pressure dew point is approx. -23° C ⇒ The atmospheric dew point is approx. -8° C
76
5.3 Compressed air quality
5.3.1 Quality classes defined in The quality classes for compressed air defined in DIN ISO
DIN ISO 8573-1 8573-1 make it easier for the user to set his requirements and
choose the equipment he needs to treat the air. The norm is
based on maker’s specifications giving defined limits for their
equipment and machinery pertaining to purity of compressed
air.
The DIN ISO 8573-1 norm defines quality classes for com-
pressed air according to:
Oil content
Definition of the residual quantity of aerosols and hydrocar-
bons contained in the compressed air.
Particle size and density

Definition of the size and concentration of solid matter parti-
cles that may remain in the compressed air.
Pressure dew point

Definition of the temperature to which the compressed air
can be cooled without condensation of the moisture it con-
tains. The pressure dew point changes with the air pressure.
Class max. oil content max. residual dust content max. residual water content
particle size particle density res. water press. dew point
[ mg/ m3] [ µm ] [ mg/ m3] [ g/ m3 ] [ °C ]
1 0,01 0,1 0,1 0,003 -70

2 0,1 1 1 0,117 -40
3 1 5 5 0,88 -20
4 5 15 8 5,953 +3
5 25 40 10 7,732 +7
6 — — — 9,356 +10
77
5.4 Methods of drying The summary presents the methods of drying compressed
air according to their principle of operation. A distinction is
always made between condensation, sorption and diffusion.
Condensation is the separation of water by going below the

dew point.
Sorption is drying by removal of moisture.
Diffusion is drying by molecular transfer.
Process of drying compressed air
Over-compression
Condensation
Refrigeration drying
Diffusion Membrane drying
Solid dryers
Absorption Soluble dryers
Liquid dryers
Sorption
Cold regeneration
Int. heat regeneration
Adsorption
Ext. heat regeneration
Vacuum regeneration
78
5.4.1 Operating conditions The through-flow rate of a dryer refers to the intake rate of
air during compression by a compressor according to PN2
CPTC2, ISO 1217 ( DIN 1945 Part 1 ).
– Intake pressure p = 0 barop ^ 1 barabs

=
– Intake temperature T0 = 293 K ^ 20° C
=
Drying equipment is designed according to DIN ISO 7183 for

certain operating conditions. The performance data given for
the equipment is only correct under these conditions:
– Operating pressure p = 7 barop ^ 8 barabs

=
– Ambient temperature tA = 298 K ^ 25° C
=
– Entry temperature tEn = 308 K ^ 35° C
=
If a dryer is used under different operating conditions, appro-

priate conversion factors must be taken into account. These
factors differ in the various drying processes.
Example for the layout of a refrigeration compressed air

dryer
Conversion factors for operating conditions and ambient tem-

perature:
Op. pressure p [ barop ] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 16
Factor f 0,62 0,72 0,81 0,89 0,94 1 1,04 1,06 1,09 1,1 1,12 1,15 1,17
Ambient temperature tA [ °C ] 25 30 35 40 43
Factor t 1,00 0,92 0,85 0,79 0,75
A BOGE refrigeration compressed air dryer, model D8, has a

through-flow rate R of 45 m3/h. It is operated at an average
ambient temperature of t A = 40° C and an operating pressure
of p = 10 barop.
R = 45 m3/h
RAd = R × f × t
p = 10 barop ⇒ f = 1,09
RAd = 45 m3/h × 1,09 × 0,79
tA = 40° C ⇒ t = 0,79
RAd = 38,75 m3/h
RAd = Adjusted through-flow rate [ m3/h ]
R = Through-flow rate [ m3/h ]
f = Conversion factor for p = 10 barop
t = Conversion factor for t A = 40° C
With changed operating conditions the dryer has through-flow

rate of 38,75 m 3/h.
79
5.4.2 Condensation With over-compression the air is compressed far beyond the
by over-compression necessary pressure, and afterwards cooled and relaxed to
operating pressure.
Pressure Operating Volume Entry

dew point pressure flow temperature Operating principle
[°C] [ barop ] [ m3/h ] [°C]
With rising pressure and thus reduced volume the air is able
approx. -70° Depends on Depends on – to hold less water. During pre-compression at high pressure
C compressor compressor a large amount of condensate precipitates. The absolute
humidity of the air goes down. If the compressed air is now
relaxed, the relative humidity drops and with it the dew point.
Example:
Compressed air is pre-compressed to 36 bar. The dew point

is 10° C. The condensate precipitates. After relaxation to 4 bar
the compressed air has a new pressure dew point of approx.
- 23° C.
( see chapter 5.2.7 example 1 )
mK
Features
p = 1 bar p = 36 bar p = 4 bar
– Simple process with continuous volume flow.
Fig. 5.7 : – No expensive refrigeration and drying equipment.
Over-compression with subsequent relaxation
– Only economical for small output quantities.
– Very high energy consumption.
80
5.4.3 Condensation When the temperature falls, air loses its ability to hold water.
by refrigeration drying To reduce the moisture content, compressed air can be cooled
down in a refrigeration dryer.
Pressure Operating Through- Entry tem- Refrigeration drying is a process by which compressed air is
dew point pressure flow rate perature cooled down by a dryer in a heat exchanger. The moisture
[°C] [ barop ] [m3/h ] [°C] contained in the air precipitates in the form of condensate.
The quantity of condensate that precipitates rises with the
to - 2 °C to 210 11-35 000 to +50° C difference between the entry and exit temperature of the com-
pressed air.
Dry compressed air Operating principle
Moist compressed air Refrigeration drying runs in two phases. This is done to im-
3
prove effectiveness and to obtain maximum use of the refrig-
1
erant.
2 1st Phase
Inside an air/air heat exchanger the compressed air already

cooled by the refrigeration dryer cools new air flowing in. 70 %
of the moisture contained in the air precipitates here in the
form of condensate.
4
2nd Phase
The compressed air flows through a refrigerant/air heat ex-

changer and cools down almost to freezing point. The precipi-
tated condensate is directed off before re-heating in the first
cooling phase.
Features:
6 4 – Highly economical.
Refrigeration drying is the most economical process in
5 approx. 90 % of all applications.
– Separation of impurities.
1 = Air/Air heat exchanger Almost 100 % of all solid particles and water droplets
2 = Air/refrigerant heat exchanger larger than 3 µm are separated.
3 = Refrigerant/air heat exchanger – Lower pressure loss in the dryer.
4 = Condensate drain The pressure loss ∆p from the dryer is approx. 0,2 bar.
5 = Refrigerant compressor
6 = Vapour outlet
Fig. 5.8 :
Op. diagram of a refrigeration compressed air dryer
81
5.4.4 Diffusion The principle of the membrane dryer is based on the fact that
by membrane drying water penetrates a specially coated hollow fibre 20 000 times
faster than air.
Pressure Operating Through- Entry tem- The membrane dryer consists of a bundle of thousands of
dew point pressure flow rate perature coated hollow fibre membranes. These hollow fibres are made
[°C] [ barop ] [ m3/h ] [°C] of a solid, temperature and pressure-resistant plastic. Their
inside surface is coated with an ultra-thin (less than the length
0 to -20 °C 5 -12,5 11 - 130 2° to 60° C
of a light wave) coating of a second plastic. The hollow fibres
( membranes ) are installed in a pipe where the inner channel
of the fibres is open at the end.
Moist air
Operating principle
The moist compressed air flows through the inside of the hol-
low fibres ( internal flow ). The moisture contained in the air
penetrates through the layer of coating on the hollow fibres
Moist towards the outside. To do this a concentration gradient of
flushing air moisture is required between the inside and outside of the
hollow fibres.
Inside flow
A quantity of air for flushing is taken from the main volume
Water flow of the compressors and relaxed (decompressed). Since
the maximum air humidity depends on volume, the relative air
humidity drops. The flushing air becomes very dry. The flush-
ing air flows around the hollow fibres and provides the neces-
sary concentration gradient of moisture. The flushing air can
escape unfiltered into the open.
Dry flushing
air
Features
– Low level of particles in the air.

A filter must always be connected upstream of the mem-
brane dryer, in order to filter out particles up to a size of
0.01 µm. If installed directly downstream of the compres-
Dry air sor, the filter should be connected to dust separator.
– Low pressure loss in the dryer.
Fig. 5.9 : The pressure loss ∆p from the dryer is max. 0.2 bar.
The principle of a membrane dryer
– Compact construction.
The dryer can be installed as a component of the pipeline.
– No servicing.
There are no moving parts in the dryer.
– No precipitation of condensate during drying
– No additional energy costs.
– Silent.
– No fluorocarbons.
– No moving parts.
– No motor.
82
5.4.5 Sorption by Absorption With absorption drying the moisture is separated by a chemi-
cal reaction with a hygroscopic drying agent. Since the ab-
sorption properties of the drying agent diminish over time, pe-
riodic renewal is necessary.
There are 3 different types of drying agent. The soluble agents

Pressure Operating Through- Entry tem-
liquify with increased absorption. The solid and liquid agents
dew point pressure flow rate perature
react with the moisture without changing their aggregate sta-
[°C] [ bar op ] [ m3 /h ] [°C]
tus.
Depends on – – to 30 °C
entry
temperature
Drying agent
Solid Soluble Liquid
1 Dehydrated Lithium chloride Sulphuric acid

chalk
oversour Calcium chloride Phosphoric acid
2 magnesium salt
Glycerine
Triethylene glycol
Operating principle
1
During absorption the compressed air flows upwards through
4 a drying middle bed. During this it gives up some of its mois-
3 ture to the drying agent. A drain directs the condensate to a
floor tank. The pressure dew point is lowered by 8 - 12 %.
Example
1 = Screen
Compressed air enters a dryer operating with calcium chlo-
2 = Solid drying agent
ride at a temperature of + 30 °C. The pressure dew point
3 = Cover
achieved here is between 18 and 22 °C.
4 = Condensate drain
Fig. 5.10 :
Absorption dryer with solid drying agent Features
– Low entry temperature.

High temperatures soften the drying agent and bake it
together.
– Very corrosive drying agents.
The dried compressed air can take drying agent with it
into the pneumatic system. This can cause considerable
damage.
– No input of outside energy.
Due to its properties, absorption drying has only become

established in fringe applications of pneumatic engineering.
One example of this is its use for compressed treatment air in
laboratories.
83
5.4.6 Sorption by Adsorption Drying compressed air by adsorption is a purely physical proc-
ess. The moisture is bound to the drying agent by force of
adhesion ( unbalanced molecular attraction ). The moisture stays
on the inner and outer surfaces of the adsorption material with-
out a chemical reaction taking place.
The adsorption material has an open porous structure and a

large inner surface. The most common adsorption materials
are aluminium oxide, silicagel, active carbon and molecular
screens. Different adsorption materials are used for the vari-
ous regeneration processes.
Adsorption material Properties of Adsorption material *)
Obtainable Entry Regeneration Surface

press. dew point temperature temperature
[°C] [°C] [°C] [ m2/g ]
Silicagel ( SiO2 ), raw - 50 + 50 120 - 180 500 - 800
Silicagel ( SiO2 ), spherical -50 + 50 120 - 180 200 - 300
Activated - 60 + 40 175 - 315 230 - 380

Aluminium oxide ( Al2O3 )
Molecular screens - 90 + 140 200 - 350 750 - 800

( Na, AlO2, SiO2 )
*) The properties of the adsorption material change with the pressure and temperature of the gas to be dried
Operating principle
During the drying process the moist compressed air flows

through an adsorption tank. The moisture is bound, which dries
the compressed air. This process generates heat. The adsorp-
tion material must be regenerated when the adhesive forces
are balanced by water deposits. This means that the water
must be removed from the adsorption material. For this rea-
son there must be two parallel drying tanks with continual
operation. The active tank A dries the compressed air, while
the inactive tank B regenerates without pressure.
The following processes are mainly used to regenerate the

A B adsorption material :
– cold regeneration
– internal hot regeneration
– external hot regeneration
– vacuum regeneration
84
5.4.6.1 Cold regeneration With cold regeneration the drying and regeneration time is
around 5 min. For this reason the moisture only deposits on
the outer surface of the drying agent.
dew point pressure flow rate perature Cold regeneration adsorption dryers operate according to the
[°C] [ barop ] [ m³/h ] [°C] pressure alternation process. With this method the desorption
( regeneration ) takes place without additional input of heat. A
to - 70° C 4 - 16 4 - 5600 to + 60° C part of the dried volume flow is branched off. This part-flow
relaxes to a pressure of just over 1 bar and is thus extremely
dry. This dry air then flows through the regeneration drying
tank B. In this process it takes on the moisture stored in the
drying agent and directs it out into the open through an outlet
valve.
Features
Fig. 5.11 :
Adsorption material after 5 min. drying time – Economical on smaller systems with low volume
flows.
– Simple dryer construction.
2 3 2 Dry compressed air – Can be used at high ambient temperatures.
– Low volume of drying agent.
Drying and regeneration times approx. 5 min.
– High operating costs.
The regeneration air is taken from the pneumatic system
6 and can not be used further .
– Regeneration without outside energy.
– The percentage ratio of regeneration air to the output of
the compressor falls with a higher final compression pres-
sure.
A B
Final comp. Ratio of regeneration air [ % ]
Regeneration
pressure Press. dew point Press. dew point
air
[ barabs ] -25° to - 40° C - 40° to -100° C
5 25,83 27,14
5 7 17,22 18,1
10 11,49 12,07
15 7,39 7,77
20 5,46 5,47
4 1 These values are physically fixed and it is not possible to

Moist compressed air go below them. They are taken from the correlation be-
tween air moisture and compressed air pressure relief.
1 = Valve block – Prefiltration of intake air.
2 = Non-return valve A prefilter removes most of the oil, water droplets and par-
3 = Perforated cover ticles of dirt.
4 = Outlet valve
– Postfiltration of dried compressed air.
5 = Pre-filter
Drying material taken with the compressed air from the
6 = After-filter
drying tank must be filtered out.
Fig. 5.12 :
Op. diagram of an adsorption dryer,
cold regeneration
85
5.4.6.2 Internal hot regeneration With hot regeneration the drying and regeneration times are
around 6 - 8 hrs. During the long drying time the moisture
deposits on the inner and outer surfaces of the adsorption
Pressure Operating Through- Entry tem- material. To reverse this process heat must be brought from
dew point pressure flow rate perature outside. If the regeneration temperature of the drying material
[°C] [ barop ] [ m3/h ] [°C] is exceeded by heat from outside, the surface energies that
occur outweigh the adhesive forces in the drying material and
to - 40° C 2 - 16 200 - 5600 to + 50° C the water evaporates. A small flow of regeneration air drains
off the moisture.
The regeneration temperature depends on the pressure dew

point of the regeneration air. The lower it is, the lower the re-
generation temperature of the dryer.
Fig. 5.13 :
Adsorption material after 6 - 8 hrs drying time With internal regeneration the heat is transmitted directly
from a heater in the drying tank to the adsorption material.
This happens in two phases:
Dry compressed air
1st Phase
4
Drying tank B is slowly heated by the internal heating to the
2 necessary regeneration temperature. If the regeneration tem-
3 perature is exceeded, the moisture releases itself from the
adsorption material. Approx. 2 - 3 % of the dried flow of com-
5 pressed air from the compressor relaxes and at slight pres-
9
sure is directed through a diversion line through drying tank B.
This flow of regeneration air absorbs the moisture and directs
it out into the open through an outlet valve.
2nd Phase
A B In a cooling phase the operating pressure drops back to the
temperature of the drying bed. A second diversion line opens
for this purpose. Approx. 5 % of the compressor FAD is directed
through drying tank B. The internal heating is no longer oper-
ating at this point.
1
8
Features
6
7 – Economical with high volume flows.
Regeneration
air – Little dried compressed air is required to regenerate the
Moist compressed air dryer.
– Prefiltration of intake air.
1 = Valve block A pre-filter removes most of the oil, water droplets and dirt
2 = Non-return valve particles from the compressed air.
3 = Diversion line with perf. cover 1st Phase – Postfiltration of dried compressed air.
4 = Diversion line with perf. cover 2nd Phase Drying materials taken with the compressed air from the
5 = Heating drying tank must be filtered out of the compressed air.
6 = Stop valve
7 = Outlet valve
8 = Prefilter
9 = After-filter
Fig. 5.14 :
internal hot regeneration
86
5.4.6.3 External hot regeneration With hot regeneration the drying and regeneration times are
Pressure Operating Though Entry tem- material. To reverse this process heat must be brought from
off the moisture.

With external regeneration air is drawn in from the atmos-

phere by a fan and heated in a heating register. This happens
Fig. 5.15 :
in three phases:
Adsorption material after 6 - 8 hrs drying time
1st Phase
The drying tank B is slowly heated to the necessary rege-
2 3 Dry compressed air neration temperature by the flow of hot air. Once the rege-
7 neration temperature is reached, the water releases itself from
the Adsorption material. The fan continues to supply hot rege-
4 neration air through drying tank B. This flow of regeneration
5 air takes on the moisture and transports it into the open through
an outlet valve.
9 2nd Phase
In a cooling phase the operating temperature drops back to
the temperature of drying tank B. For this purpose the heating
register of the fan is switched off and cold air from the atmos-
phere is directed through the drying tank.
A B
3rd Phase
At the end of cooling, dry, relaxed compressed air flows from
the compressor and through the drying tank, in order that the
atmospheric does not bring moisture back into the dryer.
8
Regeneration Features
air
– Economical with high volume flows
1 6 – Higher regeneration temperatures allow a lower pressure
Moist compressed air dew point.
1 = Bottom valve block – Low additional consumption of compressed air.
2 = Top valve block Only a small part of the regeneration air is taken from
3 = Diversion line with perf. cover 3rd Phase the pneumatic system.
4 = Heating register – Prefiltration of inlet air.
5 = Fan A pre-filter removes most of the oil, water droplets and dirt
6 = Stop valve particles from the compressed air.
7 = Non-return valve
8 = Prefilter
Drying materials taken with the compressed air from the
9 = After-filter
drying tank must be filtered out of the compressed air.
Fig. 5.16 :
external hot regeneration
87
5.4.6.4 Vacuum regeneration Vacuum regeneration is a variation of external hot regeneration.

As with hot regeneration the drying and regeneration times
are around 6 - 8 hrs. During the long drying time the moisture
Pressure Operating Through- Entry tem- deposits on the inner and outer surfaces of the adsorption
dew point pressure flow rate perature material. To reverse this process heat must be brought from
[°C] [ barop ] [ m3/h ] [°C] outside. If the regeneration temperature of the drying material
is exceeded by heat from outside, the surface energies that
to - 80° C 4 - 16 bar 400 - 7400 to + 40° C occur outweigh the adhesive forces in the drying material and
the water evaporates. A small flow of regeneration air drains
off the moisture.

Fig. 5.17 : With vacuum regeneration atmospheric air is drawn with a

Adsorption material after 6 - 8 hrs drying time partial vacuum into the drying tank. This flow of air heats ex-
ternally. Vacuum regeneration occurs in two phases.
3 2 Dry compressed air 1st Phase

A vacuum pump draws in air from the outside. This flow of air
5 is heated by a heating register and drawn through the drying
tank. Once the regeneration temperature is reached, the wa-
6 ter releases itself from the Adsorption material. The flow of
regeneration air takes on the moisture and transports it into
the open through an outlet valve.
8
2nd Phase
the temperature of the drying tank. For this purpose the heat-
A B ing register is switched off and cold air from the atmosphere is
directed through the drying tank.
Features

7 – No additional compressed air consumption.
Regeneration No compressed air is taken from the system for regen-
air eration.
– Long utility time of drying agent.
1 4 Thermal stress on the drying agent is low.
– Energy savings through lower regeneration temperature.
Moist compressed air
– Prefiltration of inlet air.
1 = Bottom valve block A pre-filter removes most of the oil, water droplets and dirt
2 = Top valve block particles from the compressed air.
4 = Heating register
5 = Fan
6 = Silencer
7 = Prefilter
8 = After-filter
Fig. 5.18 :
Vacuum regeneration
88
5.4.7 Arrangement of the refrigeration There are two basic possibilities for arranging a refrigeration
compressed air dryer compressed air dryer in a compressor station. It can either be
installed before or after the compressed air receiver. No gen-
eral decision on this matter is possible because there are
advantages and disadvantages with both constellations.
5.4.7.1 Dryer before the compressed air Advantages:

receiver
– Dried air in the compressed air receiver.
No precipitation of condensate in the compressed air
receiver.
– Consistent compressed air quality.
Even with abrupt, heavy withdrawal of compressed air
the pressure dew point of the compressed air remains
unchanged.
Disadvantages:
– Large size dryer.

Fig. 5.19 : The dryer must be designed for the entire effective output
Dryer before the compressed air receiver of installed compressor. The dryer is often over-dimen-
sioned if consumption is low.
– Drying of pulsating compressed air.
As a result of their construction, piston compressors in
particular deliver a pulsating flow of air. This puts stress
on the dryer.
– High entry temperature of compressed air.
The compressed air comes directly from the after-cooler
of the compressor.
– Drying of a partial air flow is not possible.
– Large quantity of condensate.
The entire quantity of condensate precipitates in the dryer.
– With systems containing several compressors, each
compressor must have a dryer connected.
Conclusion
Installing a dryer before the compressed air receiver can sel-

dom be recommended. However, an arrangement of this type
makes good sense when sudden peaks of requirement are
anticipated and the quality of the compressed air must not
deteriorate.
89
5.4.7.2 Dryer behind the compressed air Advantages:

receiver
– Favourable dryer size.
The dryer can be sized according to the actual consump-
tion of compressed air, or for a partial flow of compressed
air that needs to be dried.
– Drying of a non-turbulent volume flow.
– Low compressed air entry temperature.
The compressed air has the opportunity to cool down
further in the compressed air receiver.
– Low quantities of condensate.
The droplets of condensate collect in the compressed air
receiver and do not burden the rest of the system.
Fig. 5.20 :
Dryer behind the compressed air receiver
Disadvantages:
– Condensate in the compressed air receiver.

Moisture in the compressed air receiver leads to corrosion.
– Overload of the Dryer.
The dryer is overloaded if there is any abrupt, heavy
withdrawal of compressed air. The pressure dew point of
the compressed air rises.
Conclusion
In most cases, BOGE recommends installing the dryer be-

hind the compressed air receiver. The argument of economy
is in favour of it. A smaller dryer can normally be chosen. Its
efficiency rate is better.
90
5.4 Methods of drying The summary presents the methods of drying compressed
air according to their principle of operation. A distinction is
always made between condensation, sorption and diffusion.
Condensation is the separation of water by going below the

dew point.
Sorption is drying by removal of moisture.
Diffusion is drying by molecular transfer.
Process of drying compressed air
Over-compression
Condensation
Refrigeration drying
Diffusion Membrane drying
Solid dryers
Absorption Soluble dryers
Liquid dryers
Sorption
Cold regeneration
Int. heat regeneration
Adsorption
Ext. heat regeneration
Vacuum regeneration
78
5.4.1 Operating conditions The through-flow rate of a dryer refers to the intake rate of
air during compression by a compressor according to PN2
CPTC2, ISO 1217 ( DIN 1945 Part 1 ).
– Intake pressure p = 0 barop ^ 1 barabs

=
– Intake temperature T0 = 293 K ^ 20° C
=
Drying equipment is designed according to DIN ISO 7183 for

certain operating conditions. The performance data given for
the equipment is only correct under these conditions:
– Operating pressure p = 7 barop ^ 8 barabs

=
– Ambient temperature tA = 298 K ^ 25° C
=
– Entry temperature tEn = 308 K ^ 35° C
=
If a dryer is used under different operating conditions, appro-

priate conversion factors must be taken into account. These
factors differ in the various drying processes.
Example for the layout of a refrigeration compressed air

dryer
Conversion factors for operating conditions and ambient tem-

perature:
Op. pressure p [ barop ] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 16
Factor f 0,62 0,72 0,81 0,89 0,94 1 1,04 1,06 1,09 1,1 1,12 1,15 1,17
Ambient temperature tA [ °C ] 25 30 35 40 43
Factor t 1,00 0,92 0,85 0,79 0,75
A BOGE refrigeration compressed air dryer, model D8, has a

through-flow rate R of 45 m3/h. It is operated at an average
ambient temperature of t A = 40° C and an operating pressure
of p = 10 barop.
R = 45 m3/h
RAd = R × f × t
p = 10 barop ⇒ f = 1,09
RAd = 45 m3/h × 1,09 × 0,79
tA = 40° C ⇒ t = 0,79
RAd = 38,75 m3/h
RAd = Adjusted through-flow rate [ m3/h ]
R = Through-flow rate [ m3/h ]
f = Conversion factor for p = 10 barop
t = Conversion factor for t A = 40° C
With changed operating conditions the dryer has through-flow

rate of 38,75 m 3/h.
79
5.4.2 Condensation With over-compression the air is compressed far beyond the
by over-compression necessary pressure, and afterwards cooled and relaxed to
operating pressure.
Pressure Operating Volume Entry

dew point pressure flow temperature Operating principle
[°C] [ barop ] [ m3/h ] [°C]
With rising pressure and thus reduced volume the air is able
approx. -70° Depends on Depends on – to hold less water. During pre-compression at high pressure
C compressor compressor a large amount of condensate precipitates. The absolute
humidity of the air goes down. If the compressed air is now
relaxed, the relative humidity drops and with it the dew point.
Example:
Compressed air is pre-compressed to 36 bar. The dew point

is 10° C. The condensate precipitates. After relaxation to 4 bar
the compressed air has a new pressure dew point of approx.
- 23° C.
( see chapter 5.2.7 example 1 )
mK
Features
p = 1 bar p = 36 bar p = 4 bar
– Simple process with continuous volume flow.
Fig. 5.7 : – No expensive refrigeration and drying equipment.
Over-compression with subsequent relaxation
– Only economical for small output quantities.
– Very high energy consumption.
80
5.4.3 Condensation When the temperature falls, air loses its ability to hold water.
by refrigeration drying To reduce the moisture content, compressed air can be cooled
down in a refrigeration dryer.
Pressure Operating Through- Entry tem- Refrigeration drying is a process by which compressed air is
dew point pressure flow rate perature cooled down by a dryer in a heat exchanger. The moisture
[°C] [ barop ] [m3/h ] [°C] contained in the air precipitates in the form of condensate.
The quantity of condensate that precipitates rises with the
to - 2 °C to 210 11-35 000 to +50° C difference between the entry and exit temperature of the com-
pressed air.
Dry compressed air Operating principle
Moist compressed air Refrigeration drying runs in two phases. This is done to im-
3
prove effectiveness and to obtain maximum use of the refrig-
1
erant.
2 1st Phase
Inside an air/air heat exchanger the compressed air already

cooled by the refrigeration dryer cools new air flowing in. 70 %
of the moisture contained in the air precipitates here in the
form of condensate.
4
2nd Phase
The compressed air flows through a refrigerant/air heat ex-

changer and cools down almost to freezing point. The precipi-
tated condensate is directed off before re-heating in the first
cooling phase.
Features:
6 4 – Highly economical.
Refrigeration drying is the most economical process in
5 approx. 90 % of all applications.
– Separation of impurities.
1 = Air/Air heat exchanger Almost 100 % of all solid particles and water droplets
2 = Air/refrigerant heat exchanger larger than 3 µm are separated.
3 = Refrigerant/air heat exchanger – Lower pressure loss in the dryer.
4 = Condensate drain The pressure loss ∆p from the dryer is approx. 0,2 bar.
5 = Refrigerant compressor
6 = Vapour outlet
Fig. 5.8 :
Op. diagram of a refrigeration compressed air dryer
81
5.4.4 Diffusion The principle of the membrane dryer is based on the fact that
by membrane drying water penetrates a specially coated hollow fibre 20 000 times
faster than air.
Pressure Operating Through- Entry tem- The membrane dryer consists of a bundle of thousands of
dew point pressure flow rate perature coated hollow fibre membranes. These hollow fibres are made
[°C] [ barop ] [ m3/h ] [°C] of a solid, temperature and pressure-resistant plastic. Their
inside surface is coated with an ultra-thin (less than the length
0 to -20 °C 5 -12,5 11 - 130 2° to 60° C
of a light wave) coating of a second plastic. The hollow fibres
( membranes ) are installed in a pipe where the inner channel
of the fibres is open at the end.
Moist air
Operating principle
The moist compressed air flows through the inside of the hol-
low fibres ( internal flow ). The moisture contained in the air
penetrates through the layer of coating on the hollow fibres
Moist towards the outside. To do this a concentration gradient of
flushing air moisture is required between the inside and outside of the
hollow fibres.
Inside flow
A quantity of air for flushing is taken from the main volume
Water flow of the compressors and relaxed (decompressed). Since
the maximum air humidity depends on volume, the relative air
humidity drops. The flushing air becomes very dry. The flush-
ing air flows around the hollow fibres and provides the neces-
sary concentration gradient of moisture. The flushing air can
escape unfiltered into the open.
Dry flushing
air
Features
– Low level of particles in the air.

A filter must always be connected upstream of the mem-
brane dryer, in order to filter out particles up to a size of
0.01 µm. If installed directly downstream of the compres-
Dry air sor, the filter should be connected to dust separator.
– Low pressure loss in the dryer.
Fig. 5.9 : The pressure loss ∆p from the dryer is max. 0.2 bar.
The principle of a membrane dryer
– Compact construction.
The dryer can be installed as a component of the pipeline.
– No servicing.
There are no moving parts in the dryer.
– No precipitation of condensate during drying
– No additional energy costs.
– Silent.
– No fluorocarbons.
– No moving parts.
– No motor.
82
5.4.5 Sorption by Absorption With absorption drying the moisture is separated by a chemi-
cal reaction with a hygroscopic drying agent. Since the ab-
sorption properties of the drying agent diminish over time, pe-
riodic renewal is necessary.
There are 3 different types of drying agent. The soluble agents

liquify with increased absorption. The solid and liquid agents
dew point pressure flow rate perature
react with the moisture without changing their aggregate sta-
[°C] [ bar op ] [ m3 /h ] [°C]
tus.
Depends on – – to 30 °C
entry
temperature
Drying agent
Solid Soluble Liquid
1 Dehydrated Lithium chloride Sulphuric acid

chalk
oversour Calcium chloride Phosphoric acid
2 magnesium salt
Glycerine
Triethylene glycol
Operating principle
1
During absorption the compressed air flows upwards through
4 a drying middle bed. During this it gives up some of its mois-
3 ture to the drying agent. A drain directs the condensate to a
floor tank. The pressure dew point is lowered by 8 - 12 %.
Example
1 = Screen
Compressed air enters a dryer operating with calcium chlo-
2 = Solid drying agent
ride at a temperature of + 30 °C. The pressure dew point
3 = Cover
achieved here is between 18 and 22 °C.
Fig. 5.10 :
Absorption dryer with solid drying agent Features
– Low entry temperature.

High temperatures soften the drying agent and bake it
together.
– Very corrosive drying agents.
The dried compressed air can take drying agent with it
into the pneumatic system. This can cause considerable
damage.
– No input of outside energy.
Due to its properties, absorption drying has only become

established in fringe applications of pneumatic engineering.
One example of this is its use for compressed treatment air in
laboratories.
83
5.4.6 Sorption by Adsorption Drying compressed air by adsorption is a purely physical proc-
ess. The moisture is bound to the drying agent by force of
adhesion ( unbalanced molecular attraction ). The moisture stays
on the inner and outer surfaces of the adsorption material with-
out a chemical reaction taking place.
The adsorption material has an open porous structure and a

large inner surface. The most common adsorption materials
are aluminium oxide, silicagel, active carbon and molecular
screens. Different adsorption materials are used for the vari-
ous regeneration processes.
Adsorption material Properties of Adsorption material *)
Obtainable Entry Regeneration Surface

press. dew point temperature temperature
[°C] [°C] [°C] [ m2/g ]
Silicagel ( SiO2 ), raw - 50 + 50 120 - 180 500 - 800
Silicagel ( SiO2 ), spherical -50 + 50 120 - 180 200 - 300
Activated - 60 + 40 175 - 315 230 - 380

Aluminium oxide ( Al2O3 )
Molecular screens - 90 + 140 200 - 350 750 - 800

( Na, AlO2, SiO2 )
*) The properties of the adsorption material change with the pressure and temperature of the gas to be dried
Operating principle
During the drying process the moist compressed air flows

through an adsorption tank. The moisture is bound, which dries
the compressed air. This process generates heat. The adsorp-
tion material must be regenerated when the adhesive forces
are balanced by water deposits. This means that the water
must be removed from the adsorption material. For this rea-
son there must be two parallel drying tanks with continual
operation. The active tank A dries the compressed air, while
the inactive tank B regenerates without pressure.
The following processes are mainly used to regenerate the

A B adsorption material :
– cold regeneration
– internal hot regeneration
– external hot regeneration
– vacuum regeneration
84
5.4.6.1 Cold regeneration With cold regeneration the drying and regeneration time is
around 5 min. For this reason the moisture only deposits on
the outer surface of the drying agent.
dew point pressure flow rate perature Cold regeneration adsorption dryers operate according to the
[°C] [ barop ] [ m³/h ] [°C] pressure alternation process. With this method the desorption
( regeneration ) takes place without additional input of heat. A
to - 70° C 4 - 16 4 - 5600 to + 60° C part of the dried volume flow is branched off. This part-flow
relaxes to a pressure of just over 1 bar and is thus extremely
dry. This dry air then flows through the regeneration drying
tank B. In this process it takes on the moisture stored in the
drying agent and directs it out into the open through an outlet
valve.
Features
Fig. 5.11 :
Adsorption material after 5 min. drying time – Economical on smaller systems with low volume
flows.
2 3 2 Dry compressed air – Can be used at high ambient temperatures.
– Low volume of drying agent.
Drying and regeneration times approx. 5 min.
– High operating costs.
The regeneration air is taken from the pneumatic system
6 and can not be used further .
– Regeneration without outside energy.
– The percentage ratio of regeneration air to the output of
the compressor falls with a higher final compression pres-
sure.
A B
Final comp. Ratio of regeneration air [ % ]
Regeneration
pressure Press. dew point Press. dew point
air
[ barabs ] -25° to - 40° C - 40° to -100° C
5 25,83 27,14
5 7 17,22 18,1
10 11,49 12,07
15 7,39 7,77
20 5,46 5,47
4 1 These values are physically fixed and it is not possible to

Moist compressed air go below them. They are taken from the correlation be-
tween air moisture and compressed air pressure relief.
1 = Valve block – Prefiltration of intake air.
2 = Non-return valve A prefilter removes most of the oil, water droplets and par-
3 = Perforated cover ticles of dirt.
4 = Outlet valve
5 = Pre-filter
Drying material taken with the compressed air from the
6 = After-filter
drying tank must be filtered out.
Fig. 5.12 :
cold regeneration
85
5.4.6.2 Internal hot regeneration With hot regeneration the drying and regeneration times are
Pressure Operating Through- Entry tem- material. To reverse this process heat must be brought from
off the moisture.

Fig. 5.13 :
Adsorption material after 6 - 8 hrs drying time With internal regeneration the heat is transmitted directly
from a heater in the drying tank to the adsorption material.
This happens in two phases:
Dry compressed air
1st Phase
4
Drying tank B is slowly heated by the internal heating to the
2 necessary regeneration temperature. If the regeneration tem-
3 perature is exceeded, the moisture releases itself from the
adsorption material. Approx. 2 - 3 % of the dried flow of com-
5 pressed air from the compressor relaxes and at slight pres-
9
sure is directed through a diversion line through drying tank B.
This flow of regeneration air absorbs the moisture and directs
it out into the open through an outlet valve.
2nd Phase
A B In a cooling phase the operating pressure drops back to the
temperature of the drying bed. A second diversion line opens
for this purpose. Approx. 5 % of the compressor FAD is directed
through drying tank B. The internal heating is no longer oper-
ating at this point.
1
8
Features
6
7 – Economical with high volume flows.
Regeneration
air – Little dried compressed air is required to regenerate the
Moist compressed air dryer.
– Prefiltration of intake air.
1 = Valve block A pre-filter removes most of the oil, water droplets and dirt
2 = Non-return valve particles from the compressed air.
3 = Diversion line with perf. cover 1st Phase – Postfiltration of dried compressed air.
4 = Diversion line with perf. cover 2nd Phase Drying materials taken with the compressed air from the
5 = Heating drying tank must be filtered out of the compressed air.
6 = Stop valve
7 = Outlet valve
8 = Prefilter
9 = After-filter
Fig. 5.14 :
internal hot regeneration
86
5.4.6.3 External hot regeneration With hot regeneration the drying and regeneration times are
Pressure Operating Though Entry tem- material. To reverse this process heat must be brought from
off the moisture.

With external regeneration air is drawn in from the atmos-

phere by a fan and heated in a heating register. This happens
Fig. 5.15 :
in three phases:
Adsorption material after 6 - 8 hrs drying time
1st Phase
The drying tank B is slowly heated to the necessary rege-
2 3 Dry compressed air neration temperature by the flow of hot air. Once the rege-
7 neration temperature is reached, the water releases itself from
the Adsorption material. The fan continues to supply hot rege-
4 neration air through drying tank B. This flow of regeneration
5 air takes on the moisture and transports it into the open through
an outlet valve.
9 2nd Phase
the temperature of drying tank B. For this purpose the heating
register of the fan is switched off and cold air from the atmos-
phere is directed through the drying tank.
A B
3rd Phase
At the end of cooling, dry, relaxed compressed air flows from
the compressor and through the drying tank, in order that the
atmospheric does not bring moisture back into the dryer.
8
Regeneration Features
air
1 6 – Higher regeneration temperatures allow a lower pressure
Moist compressed air dew point.
1 = Bottom valve block – Low additional consumption of compressed air.
2 = Top valve block Only a small part of the regeneration air is taken from
3 = Diversion line with perf. cover 3rd Phase the pneumatic system.
4 = Heating register – Prefiltration of inlet air.
5 = Fan A pre-filter removes most of the oil, water droplets and dirt
6 = Stop valve particles from the compressed air.
8 = Prefilter
9 = After-filter
Fig. 5.16 :
external hot regeneration
87
5.4.6.4 Vacuum regeneration Vacuum regeneration is a variation of external hot regeneration.

As with hot regeneration the drying and regeneration times
are around 6 - 8 hrs. During the long drying time the moisture
Pressure Operating Through- Entry tem- deposits on the inner and outer surfaces of the adsorption
dew point pressure flow rate perature material. To reverse this process heat must be brought from
[°C] [ barop ] [ m3/h ] [°C] outside. If the regeneration temperature of the drying material
is exceeded by heat from outside, the surface energies that
to - 80° C 4 - 16 bar 400 - 7400 to + 40° C occur outweigh the adhesive forces in the drying material and
the water evaporates. A small flow of regeneration air drains
off the moisture.

Fig. 5.17 : With vacuum regeneration atmospheric air is drawn with a

Adsorption material after 6 - 8 hrs drying time partial vacuum into the drying tank. This flow of air heats ex-
ternally. Vacuum regeneration occurs in two phases.
3 2 Dry compressed air 1st Phase

A vacuum pump draws in air from the outside. This flow of air
5 is heated by a heating register and drawn through the drying
tank. Once the regeneration temperature is reached, the wa-
6 ter releases itself from the Adsorption material. The flow of
regeneration air takes on the moisture and transports it into
the open through an outlet valve.
8
2nd Phase
the temperature of the drying tank. For this purpose the heat-
A B ing register is switched off and cold air from the atmosphere is
directed through the drying tank.
Features

7 – No additional compressed air consumption.
Regeneration No compressed air is taken from the system for regen-
air eration.
– Long utility time of drying agent.
1 4 Thermal stress on the drying agent is low.
– Energy savings through lower regeneration temperature.
Moist compressed air
– Prefiltration of inlet air.
1 = Bottom valve block A pre-filter removes most of the oil, water droplets and dirt
2 = Top valve block particles from the compressed air.
4 = Heating register
5 = Fan
6 = Silencer
7 = Prefilter
8 = After-filter
Fig. 5.18 :
Vacuum regeneration
88
5.4.7 Arrangement of the refrigeration There are two basic possibilities for arranging a refrigeration
compressed air dryer compressed air dryer in a compressor station. It can either be
installed before or after the compressed air receiver. No gen-
eral decision on this matter is possible because there are
advantages and disadvantages with both constellations.
5.4.7.1 Dryer before the compressed air Advantages:

receiver
– Dried air in the compressed air receiver.
No precipitation of condensate in the compressed air
receiver.
– Consistent compressed air quality.
Even with abrupt, heavy withdrawal of compressed air
the pressure dew point of the compressed air remains
unchanged.
Disadvantages:
– Large size dryer.

Fig. 5.19 : The dryer must be designed for the entire effective output
Dryer before the compressed air receiver of installed compressor. The dryer is often over-dimen-
sioned if consumption is low.
– Drying of pulsating compressed air.
As a result of their construction, piston compressors in
particular deliver a pulsating flow of air. This puts stress
on the dryer.
– High entry temperature of compressed air.
The compressed air comes directly from the after-cooler
of the compressor.
– Drying of a partial air flow is not possible.
– Large quantity of condensate.
The entire quantity of condensate precipitates in the dryer.
– With systems containing several compressors, each
compressor must have a dryer connected.
Conclusion
Installing a dryer before the compressed air receiver can sel-

dom be recommended. However, an arrangement of this type
makes good sense when sudden peaks of requirement are
anticipated and the quality of the compressed air must not
deteriorate.
89
5.4.7.2 Dryer behind the compressed air Advantages:

receiver
– Favourable dryer size.
The dryer can be sized according to the actual consump-
tion of compressed air, or for a partial flow of compressed
air that needs to be dried.
– Drying of a non-turbulent volume flow.
– Low compressed air entry temperature.
The compressed air has the opportunity to cool down
further in the compressed air receiver.
– Low quantities of condensate.
The droplets of condensate collect in the compressed air
receiver and do not burden the rest of the system.
Fig. 5.20 :
Dryer behind the compressed air receiver
Disadvantages:
– Condensate in the compressed air receiver.

Moisture in the compressed air receiver leads to corrosion.
– Overload of the Dryer.
The dryer is overloaded if there is any abrupt, heavy
withdrawal of compressed air. The pressure dew point of
the compressed air rises.
Conclusion
In most cases, BOGE recommends installing the dryer be-

hind the compressed air receiver. The argument of economy
is in favour of it. A smaller dryer can normally be chosen. Its
efficiency rate is better.
90
Compressed air processing
5.5 Compressed air filters
5.5.1 Basic terminology of filters To assess and operate filters it is first necessary to define and
explain certain sizes and factors.
5.5.1.1 Filter separation rate η [ % ] The filter separation rate η gives the difference in concentra-
tion of impurities before and after the filter. It is also called the
efficiency rate. The filter separation rate η is a measure of the
efficiency of the filter. The minimum grain size [ µm ] that the
filter can separate must always be specified.
 C1 
η = 100 –  ——– × 100 
 C2 
unfiltered Purified C1 = Concentration of impurities before the fil-

compressed air (C2 ) ter.
air ( C1 )
C2 = Concentration of impurities after the filter.
η = Filter separation rate [%]
The concentration is usually measured in proportion of weight

per unit of volume [ g/m3 ] of compressed air. With weaker con-
centrations, the concentration is usually defined by counting
the particles per unit of volume [ Z/cm3 ]. The particles per unit
of volume method is nearly always used to measure the effi-
ciency of high-performance filters. Measuring the weight pro-
portion per unit of volume with sufficient accuracy would in-
Fig. 5.21 : volve a disproportionate amount of effort.
BOGE Pre-filter, series V
η = 99,99 % relevant to 3 µm
Example
Compressed air contains an impurity particle concentration of

C1 = 30 mg/m3 prior to filtering. The purified air after the filter
still has an impurity particle concentration of C2 = 0,003 mg/
m3 with particle sizes over 3 µm.
 30 
η = 100 –  ——–– × 100 
 0,003 
η = 99,99 %
The filter has a separation rate in per cent of 99,99 % relative

to 3 µm.
91
5.5.1.2 Pressure drop ∆ p The pressure drop ∆ p is the difference in pressure before
and after the filter caused by flow. The pressure drop ∆ p in the
filter grows with time as particles of dust and dirt are collected
in the filter element.
– ∆ p0 is the pressure drop for new filter elements.

It is between 0,02 and 0,2 bar, depending on the type of
filter.
– The economically acceptable limit for pressure drop ∆ p is
around 0,6 bar.
Fig. 5.22 : Devices that measure the pressure difference are installed in
General filter with ∆p measuring device most filters.
If the pressure drop ∆ p exceeds the limit, either the filter must
be cleaned or the element replaced.
5.5.1.3 Operating pressure The maximum volume flow of a filter always refers to the norm
pressure pop = 7 bar. When pressure changes the maximum
through-flow rate of the filter also changes. The change to the
through-flow rate can be easily calculated with the aid of ap-
propriate conversion factors f.
Pressure [ barop ] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Factor f 0,25 0,38 0,5 0,65 0,75 0,88 1 1,13 1,25 1,38 1,5 1,63 1,75 1,88 2
Example
A BOGE pre-filter V50 with a nominal performance of 300

m3/h at a norm pressure of pop = 7 bar is to be operated at
pop = 10 bar.
R7 = 300 m3/h R10 = R7 × f
pop = 10 bar ⇒ f = 1,38 R10 = 300 m³/h × 1,38
R10 = 414 m³/h
R10 = effective rate at pop = 10 bar

[ m3/h ]
R7 = effective rate at pop = 7 bar

[ m3/h ]
f = Conversion factor for pop = 10 bar
At a pressure of pop = 10 bar the filter has an effective nominal

performance of 414 m3/h.
92
5.5.2 Dust separators After coming out of the compressor, the compressed air con-
tains water in the form of steam and also droplets of conden-
sate. These droplets are formed during the compression proc-
ess because the air is no longer able to accommodate it when
Pressure Separation Particle Residual oil
its volume is reduced.
difference rate size content
∆p [ bar ] [ %] [ µm ] [ mg/m3] This water normally deposits in the storage tank as the com-
pressed air become more inert. From there the condensate is
> 0,05 bar 95 % > 50 µm not influ-
drained off.
enced
Operating principle
The dust separator operates according to the principle of mass

Purified air inertia. It consists of a vortex cartridge and a catch pan. The
vortex cartridge is designed to put the compressed air into
rotary movement. Solid and liquid components in the air are
forced against the inside walls of the pan by their own mass
1
inertia. This causes heavy particles of dirt and water to sepa-
rate. These separated impurities flow past a baffle plate into
the collection chamber. The baffle plate also prevents the flow
of air from taking the separated liquid with it.
Compressed
air flowing in The condensate can be drained off automatically or by hand
from the collection chamber and properly disposed of or treated.
2 Features
– Almost complete separation of water droplets.

3
– Heavy particles of dust and dirt filtered out.
4
– The filtering capacity of the dust separator depends on the
flow speed of the air. The higher the flow speed, the more
1 = Vortex insert efficient the filter is. Of course, when the flow speed in-
2 = Baffle plate creases the pressure loss in the separator rises also.
3 = Collection chamber
Areas of application
Fig. 5.23 : – No compressed air receiver in the pipeline system.
Cyclone separator
– Large distances between the compressor and the receiver.
If the receiver is a long way from the compressor, then it
makes sense to install a cyclone separator directly down-
stream of the compressor. It prevents unnecessary „trans-
port of water“ in the pipeline.
– Rising lines between the compressed air receiver and the
compressor. The line between the compressor and the re-
ceiver goes vertically upwards. When the compressor is idle
the condensate flows back into the compressor. In this case
it makes sense to install a cyclone separator directly down-
stream of the compressor.
93
5.5.3 Pre-filters Pre-filters filter solid impurities to a particle size of approx.

3 µm out of the compressed air but filter out very little oil and
moisture. Pre-filters take the load off high performance filters
and dryers when the air is very dusty. Finer filters can be dis-
pensed with if the demands on the quality of the compressed
air are low.
∆p [ bar ] [%] [ µm ] [ mg/m3]
> 0,03 bar 99,99 % > 3 µm not influ-

enced Operating principle
Pre-filters operate according to the principle of superficial fil-

tration. They have a purely sifting effect. The pore size deter-
mines the size of particle that can be filtered out. The impuri-
ties remain only on the outer surface of the filter elements.
Standard materials for filter elements are:
– Sintered bronze.
– Highly molecular polyethylene.
– Sintered ceramics.
Fig. 5.24 :
Filtrations mechanism of surface filters – Bronze or brass wire ( coarse filtration ).
– Pleated cellulose paper inserts.
Air flows through the filter from the outside towards the in-
side. An opposite direction of flow would allow the separated
particles to build up inside the filter element. The growing col-
lection of solid matter would block the effective area of the
filter.
Features
– Re-usability.
Because the separated particles are only collected on the
surface of the pre-filter element it is possible to clean the
element.
Fig. 5.25 :
BOGE Pre-filter, Series V
94
5.5.4 Microfilters Microfilters are used when high quality compressed air is
required. They deliver technically oil-free compressed air.
Microfilters reduce the residual oil content of compressed air
to 0,01 mg/m³. They filter out dirt particles with a separation
rate of 99,9999 % relative to 0,01 µm.
∆p [ bar ] [%] [ µm ] [ mg/m3]
> 0,1 bar 99,9999 % > 0,01 µm > 0,01 Operating principle
Microfilters, also called high-performance filters, are deep-bed

filters. The filter the water and oil condensate phase from the
compressed air in the form of fine and ultra-fine droplets.
The deep-bed filter is a fibrous web consisting of a tangle of

very fine individual fibres. The fibres are randomly intertwined
and thus form a porous structure. Between the fibres there is
a labyrinth-like system of passages and openings. This sys-
tem has flow channels that are sometimes much larger than
the particles than the particles to be filtered. Filtration occurs
along the entire path travelled by the compressed air on its
way through the filter element.
Fig. 5.26 :
Filtrations mechanism of deep-bed filters Microfilters work with pleated filter material. This enlarges the
effective filter surface by approx. 1/3 in comparison to wound
filters. The pressure drop ∆ p is also considerably reduced.
Filter material There are several advantages in this:
– Increased through-flow rate.

– Lower energy loss.
– Longer service life.
Fig. 5.27 : Air passes through deep-bed filters from the inside towards
Pleated and wound filter material the outside. The liquid phase from oil and water deposits on
the fibrous web when passing through the filter. The flow of air
then drives the condensate and growing droplets further on
through the filter towards the outside. A part of the conden-
sate leaves the filter element again as a result of this effect.
Following the laws of gravity, the condensate collects in the
collection chamber of the filter.
The working lives of the filters are longer because the con-
densate filtered out is no longer a burden to the element with
this direction of flow.
Fig. 5.28 :
BOGE-Microfilter, Series F
95
Filter mechanisms
Three different mechanisms operate together to separate fine

particles from the air.
Unfiltered
compressed air – Direct contact.
Larger particles and droplets hit the fibres of the filter
materials directly and are bound.
– Impact.
Particles and droplets hit the randomly arranged fibres of
the filter material. There they bounce off, are directed out
of the path of flow and are absorbed by the next fibre.
– Diffusion.
Filter medium Small and ultra-fine particles coalesce in the field of flow
and following Brown’s law of molecular movement come
together to form ever-growing particles. These particles are
then filtered out.
Borosilicate fibre in the form of fibreglass layers is the most

Technically oil-free and widespread material in high performance filters. It is used as a
clean compressed air material for deep-bed filters. The following are also used:
– Metallic fibres.
Fig. 5.29 – Synthetic fibres.

Mechanisms of deep-bed filtration
Features
– Separation of oil in the liquid phase.

Hydrocarbons are found in two aggregate conditions in com-
pressed air: - in gaseous form as oil gas.
- liquid in the form of droplets.
A high-performance filter removes almost 100% of the oil
droplets. The oil gas can not be filtered out.
– Low operating temperatures.
The efficiency of the filter drops when the operating tem-
perature rises. Some of the oil droplets vaporise and go
through the filter. With a rise in temperature from + 20° to
+ 30° C, 5 times as much oil passes through the filter.
– Recyclable.
The materials used are chosen with ecological aspects in
mind.
96
5.5.5 Active carbon filters After passing through high-performance filters and dryers, the
technically oil-free compressed air still contains hydrocarbons
and diverse odorous and taste substances.
∆p [ bar ] [%] [ µm ] [ mg/m3] There are many applications of pneumatics where these resi-
dues would lead to disruptions of production, adverse quality
> 0,02 bar 99,9999 0,01 > 0,005 and unpleasant smells.
An active carbon filter removes the hydrocarbon vapours from

the compressed air. The residual oil-content can be reduced
to 0.005 mg/m³. The quality of the compressed air is better
than that demanded for breathing air by DIN 3188. The
condensated droplets of oil are already removed by the se-
ries-connected filter ( BOGE-Microfilter Series F ).
Operating principle
The filtration of compressed air by absorption is a purely physi-

cal process. The hydrocarbons are bound to the active car-
bons by powers of adhesion ( uneven molecular attraction ).
Chemical compounding does not take place in this process.
The dried and pre-filtered compressed air is directed through

a pleated active carbon filter element. The appearance of this
filter element is similar to that of the microfilter. As with the
microfilter, the compressed air is directed through the filter
element from the inside towards the outside.
Fig. 5.30 : Features

BOGE-Filter combination, Series AF
An active carbon filter with microfilter connected in – Pre-filtration.
series An active carbon filter must always be connected upstream
from a high-performance filter and a dryer. Unfiltered com-
pressed air destroys the adsorbant and reduces the filtra-
tion effect.
– No Regeneration.
The active carbon filling can not be regenerated. It must be
replaced, depending on the degree of saturation.
– Working life.
The filter element of an active carbon filter must be replaced
after approx. 300 - 400 hours of operation.
– Food and luxury food industry.

– Pharmaceuticals industry.
– Chemicals industry.
– Surface treatment.
– Medical equipment.
97
5.5.6 Active carbon adsorbers After passing through high-performance filters and dryers, the
technically oil-free compressed air still contains hydrocarbons
and diverse odorous and taste substances. There are many
applications of pneumatics where these residues would lead
to disruptions of production, adverse quality and unpleasant
smells.
∆p [ bar ] [%] [ µm ] [ mg/m3 ]
An active carbon adsorber removes the hydrocarbon vapours
> 0,1 bar – – > 0,003
from the compressed air. The residual oil-content can be re-
duced to 0.003 mg/m³. The quality of the compressed air is
better than that required for breathing air by DIN 3188. The
Pre-filter After-filter condensated droplets of oil are already removed by the se-
ries-connected filter ( BOGE-Microfilter Series F ).
Operating principle
The filtration of compressed air by adsorption is a purely physi-

cal process. The hydrocarbons are bound to the active car-
bons by powers of adhesion ( uneven molecular attraction ).
Chemical compounding does not take place in this process.
The dried and filtered compressed air is directed through a

diffusor into the loosely piled active carbon bed. The diffusor
distributes the compressed air evenly over the entire bed. This
allows long contact times and ideal use of the adsorption
material. After the adsorber bed the compressed air passes
through emission collector and leaves the active carbon
adsorber.
Features
– Pre-filtration.
An active carbon filter must always be connected upstream
from a high-performance filter and a dryer. Unfiltered com-
Fig. 5.31 :
Op. plan of a pressed air destroys the adsorbant and reduces the filtra-
BOGE active carbon adsorber Type DC tion effect.
– After-filtration.
For safety reasons a high performance filter should be con-
nected downstream from the adsorber. The compressed
air take very fine particles of carbon dust ( smaller than
1 µm ) from the active carbon bed with it.
– No Regeneration.
The active carbon filling can not be regenerated. It must be
replaced, depending on the degree of saturation.
– Long working life.
The active carbon filling must only be replaced after 8000
- 10000 hours of operation.
– As for active carbon filters.
98
5.5.7 Sterile filters Living organisms such as bacteria, bacteriophages and vi-
ruses are a big health problem in many areas. Sterile filters
create 100 % sterile and germ-free compressed air.
∆p [ bar ] [%] [ µm ] [ mg/m3 ] Operating principle
> 0,09 bar 99,9999 0,01 – The pre-purified flow of air is directed from outside towards
the inside through the filter element. The filter element is com-
posed of two filter stages. The pre-filter retains microorgan-
isms up to a size of 1 µm. The second filter stage consists of a
chemically and biologically neutral, three-dimensional micro-
fibre web made of borosilicate. The remaining organisms are
filtered out here. The filter elements are fixed in place by a
stainless steel cage.
The filters can be cleaned and sterilised up to 100 times. They

are steamed for this purpose. In this process, hot steam of up
to +200° C flows through the filter. The steam can be sent
through the filter from both sides. Sterilisation by other media
is also possible.
– Hot water
– Hot air
– Gas ( ethylene oxide, formaldehyde )
– H 2O 2
Features
– Stainless steel material.

All metal parts of the filter are made of high-alloy stainless
steel. Stainless steel offers microorganisms no nutritive
substratum and can neither corrode nor rot.
– Resistent.
The filter medium is inactive and resistent to chemicals
and high temperatures. Bacteria can not grow on or through
it.
Fig. 5.31 : – Short sterile contact distances.
BOGE Sterile filter, Series ST A sterile filter should be installed directly on the end con-
sumer device.
– Food and luxury food industry.

– Pharmaceuticals industry.
– Chemicals industry.
– Packing industry.
– Medical equipment.
99
Disposal of condensate
6. Disposal of condensate
6.1 Condensate Condensate consists primarily of the water contained in the

air drawn into the compressor and which forms during com-
pression. The Condensate also contains many impurities.
– Mineral oil aerosols and unburnt hydrocarbons from the

air.
– Particles of dust and dirt of the most varied kinds from
the air.
– Cooling and lubricating oil from the compressor.
– Rust, scuff, pieces of sealing material and weld from the
pipeline.
Condensate is highly contaminated because of its high con-

tent of harmful substances, and for this reason it must be dis-
posed of responsibly. The mineral oils in the condensate are
hard to biodegrade and are detrimental to oxygen enrichment
and material disintegration in sewage works. This reduces the
efficiency of the entire water treatment effort. The conse-
quences are a hazard to nature and human health.
Distinctions must be made between condensate from differ-

ent pneumatic systems. The condensate has different proper-
ties, depending on environmental conditions and the compres-
sor. For example :
– Oil lubricated compressor systems.

On compressors of this type the oil washes a part of the
aggressive and solid matter out of the air in the compres-
sion chamber. The result of this is that oil-lubricated sys-
tems normally produce condensate that has a pH-value in
the neutral range.
– Oil-free compressor systems.
Most of the harmful substances in oil-free systems are dis-
charged with the condensate. This is why the condensate
has an acidic pH-value. pH-values between 4 and 5 are not
uncommon.
The consistency of the condensates also changes with mar-

ginal conditions. Most condensates are as fluid as water. But
pasteous condensates can occur in exceptional cases.
100
6.2 Condensate drains Everywhere condensate occurs in a pneumatic system it also

has to be drained. If it is not, the flow of air takes it with it, and
it enters the pipeline.
The fact that condensate collection tanks are under pressure

makes condensate drains costly. The condensate must be
drained off under control to unnecessary pressure loss.
It should also be taken into account that condensate does not

occur on a continuous basis. The quantity of condensate changes
with the temperature and moisture of air drawn in by the com-
pressor.
The summary shows the various construction types accord-

ing to their method of operation.
Types of condensate drains
Manual Automatic
Condensate drain Condensate drain

Condensate drain
Manual valve with time-dependent with volume
with float control
magnetic valve measuring
Electronic measuring
Level float
probe
When selecting condensate drains, regardless of the construc-

tion type, the condensate itself and the marginal conditions
must always be taken into consideration. Special applications
require special forms of condensate drain :
– very aggressive condensates.

– pasteous condensates.
– explosion danger areas.
– low pressure and partial vacuum networks.
– high and very high pressure networks.
Condensate drains can not be used without heating in sub-

zero temperatures. The water component of the condensate
will freeze.
101
6.2.1 Condensate drains with manual The condensate collects in an appropriate tank (vessel). The
valves servicing or operating staff must check the level of the collec-
tion tank at regular intervals. If necessary, the condensate must
be drained off with the aid of a valve fitted to the bottom of the
tank.
Features
– Simple, inexpensive construction.

– No electricity connection required.
– No alarm function.
– Regular checks necessary.
The condensate must be drained at regular intervals.
6.2.2 Condensate drains with float Inside the condensate tank there is a float which controls an
control outlet valve at the bottom of the tank by means of a lever. If the
level in the tank rises above a certain level, the outlet valve is
opened. Excess pressure in the system forces the conden-
sate out. If the level in the tank falls below the minimum, the
4 valve closes automatically before compressed air can escape.
The condensate is now separated from the compressed air

and can now be sent by pipe to the treatment equipment.
Features
– Simple, inexpensive design.

– No electricity connection required.
Ideal for use in explosion danger areas.
1
– No blowing off of compressed air.
– Susceptible to malfunctions.
2
3 The moving parts of the system can solidify, stick or cor-
rode through direct contact with condensate.
1 = Inlet line – Regular servicing required.
2 = Outlet line As a result of its susceptibility to malfunctions, it does re-
3 = Drain plug quire regular servicing.
4 = Vent – No external alarm signal.
Fig. 6.1 : – Inflexible.
Condensate drain with float control Float valves must be specially adapted for the condition of
the condensate.
102
6.2.3 Condensate drains with The condensate is collected in an appropriate tank. At fixed,
time-dependent magnetic valves regular intervals ( 1.5 to 30 min. ) a magnetic valve with timer
opens the drain at the bottom of the tank. After an opening
time of 0.4 to 10 s the valve closes again. The condensate is
forced out of the drain by system pressure.
The drain valve is connected condensate disposal facility by

pipes.
Note
If you wish to avoid having condensate in the pipe system the

entire volume of condensate must be drained off. Individually
adjustable opening times for the magnetic valve guarantee
perfect drainage of the condensate.
The quantity of condensate in Summer is far greater than in
Winter because atmspheric humidity is higher. If the opening
times set in Summer for the high humidity are not changed
later for Winter, low temperatures will cause high pressure
loss because the magnetic valves will be open for too long.
Not only the condensate but also large quantities of com-
pressed air will be blown off too.
To minimise compressed air loss the cycle times of the valves
must always be adjusted to suit local conditions.
Because the weather is not always consistent, it is not possi-
ble to set time intervals and valve opening times and not lose
compressed air at all. Either a part of the condensate remains
in the system or some compressed air is lost.
Fig. 6.2 : Features

Electromagnetic drain valve
– Very reliable operation.
The system operates reliably, even with problematic con-
densates.
– Electricity connection required.
– No external malfunction signal.
– No alarm function.
– The magnetic valve operates when the pneumatic station
is switched on, even if no compressed air is required
( e.g., at weekends ).
103
6.2.4 Condensate drains with electronic

volume measurement
Operation
The condensate is collected in an appropriate tank. As soon

as the capacity level sensor Ni2 reports that maximum level, a
magnetic valve opens a pre-control line. The pressure on the
valve diaphragm is released and the outlet line is opened. The
1 excess pressure in the housing forces the condensate out
through the line to the reprocessing facility.
3
As soon as the level reaches capacity sensor Ni1, the mag-
Ni2
4 netic valve is electronically closed. The valve diaphragm closes
before compressed air can escape.
Ni1 5
Features
2 – Very reliable operation.

The system operates reliably, even with problematic con-
densates.
6 – Large cross-section.
Even large impurities and coagulated matter can be dis-
charged without difficulty.
Ni2 – No pressure loss.
7
2 Ni1 – Electricity connection required.
– Flexible application.
The system adapts itself automatically to changing operat-
ing conditions( e.g., varied condensate viscosity and pres-
8 sure fluctuations ).
– Alarm function.
1 = Inlet line If there is a malfunction in draining the condensate the
2 = Collection tank alarm mode is switched after 60 s. The magnetic valve then
3 = Pre-control line opens the valve diaphragm at certain intervals.
4 = Magnetic valve – External malfunction signal.
5 = Valve diaphragm A red LED blinks and a potential-free signal is ready.
6 = Dipstick
7 = Valve seat – Wide performance range.
8 = Outlet line
Fig. 6.3 :
Condensate drain with electronic volume measure-
ment
104
6.2.5 Condensate drains with level floats The collected condensate is directed into the collection cham-
for measuring the level ber of the condensate drain. A float moves on a guide together
with the level of the condensate in the chamber. The guide
has three contacts that electronically register the level in the
chamber. As soon as the float reaches Contact 2, the elec-
tronic control opens the magnetic valve. The pressure on the
7 valve diaphragm is released via a pre-control line and the outlet
line is opened. The system pressure forces the condensate
out of the condensate drain through a rising pipe.
The level of condensate in the pipe drops and after a set time
t the control closes the drain before compressed air can es-
cape. If the condensate level does not reach Contact 1 inside
the time t, the drain is opened at fixed time intervals and re-
closed after a set period. This guarantees that the condensate
3 collection chamber is completely emptied.
2 If the condensate level reaches Contact 3, the control actu-
6
ates the main alarm. The switching intervals and opening times
remain unchanged.
5 1
4 1
Features
3
– Cleaning cycle times.
2 Even with longer idle times there is no dried condensate.
– No pressure loss.
1 = Collection tank – electricity connection required.
2 = Level float
3 = Guide
4 = Rising pipe
5 = Valve diaphragm
6 = Magnetic valve
7 = Control line
Fig. 6.4 :
Condensate drain with level float for measuring the
level
105
6.3 Condensate treatment Condensate from oil-lubricated compressors has an oil con-
tent of between 200 and 1000 mg/l, depending on the season.
This means that the condensate is around 99 % water and
only 1 % oil. Even so, the law requires that this condensate be
treated as waste water containing oil. As such it may not be
discharged into the public sewers. The stipulations for water
purity are set forth in § 7a of the [German] Water Purity Act
( WHG ). This states that the level of harmful substances in
waste water is to be kept as low as the „generally recognised
practices of engineering“ allow. These practices have been
defined by the German government in general administrative
rules.
According to ATV ( Waste Water Association, a non-profit-mak-

ing German organisation ) worksheet A 115 the limit for re-
sidual oil content in waste water is 20 mg/l. However, the local
authorities have the final word. In some areas the limits for
residual oil content are well below 20 mg/l.
This means that condensate must either be disposed of prop-

erly or treated.
Disposal
Disposal by a specialised company is a safe but involved and

very expensive procedure. Disposal costs currently run at
around 500 DM per m3 of condensate. The costs for approved
collection tanks and pipelines must also be taken into account.
Local treatment
Because of the high water content, it is always worth treating

oily condensate on site. Properly treated water can be dis-
charged into the public drainage lines. The oil separated from
it must be disposed of in an environmentally safe way.
The legal limits can not be reached by using normal light liquid
separators as per DIN 1999 and simple gravity separators.
Standard oil-water separators provide excellent law-compli-
ant treatment.
106
6.3.1 Oil-water separators The oil-water separator is suitable for treating condensates
that occur during the operation of screw compressors with
1 2 4 5 6 8 9 oil injection cooling and 1 and 2-stage piston compressors.
The oil-water separator parts condensate from piston and

screw compressors without difficulty as long as oils that do
not emulsify are used.
Operation
The oily condensate is directed into the pressure relief cham-

ber of the oil-water separator. There the excess pressure falls
without causing whirling movement in the vessel. The impuri-
ties carried with the condensate gather in the removable col-
lector.
Inside the separation vessel, the oil deposits on the surface

as a result of its lower specific density. Via a height-adjustable
3 7 10 overflow the oil is directed into the oil catch pan and is avail-
able for disposal.
1 = Condensate inlet
2 = Pressure relief chamber The pre-purified condensate flows through a pre-filter that fil-
3 = Impurity tank ters out the remaining droplets of oil. After that an adsorption
4 = Overflow pipe filter binds the last oil parts of the oil.
5 = Level reporter
6 = Pre-filter
7 = Adsorption filter
8 = Water outlet
9 = Oil overflow, height adjustable Note
10 = Specimen removal valve
All oil-water separation systems are water treatment plants
Fig. 6.5: and must be licensed by law. The oil-water separator should
Op. diagram of an oil-water separator have a specification inspection symbol. The expensive licens-
ing process is then no longer required. All that needs to be
done is to register at the local water authority.
Features
– Weekly filter test.

A specimen of the condensate is compared with a refer-
ence liquid. A change of filter is necessary after the admis-
sible cloudiness is reached.
– No separation of oil-water emulsions.
Special reprocessing systems with emulsion-splitting ap-
paratus is required for these stable emulsions.
Fig. 6.6 :
Oil-water separator
107
Compressed air requirement
‡
7. Compressed air The first step in designing a compressor station and the re-
spective pneumatic network is to determine the requirement
requirement for compressed air and the resulting FAD of the compressor.
The first value to be found when determining the capacity of a

compressor station is the expected total consumption. The
consumption of the individual consumer devices is added
together and adjusted to operating conditions with the aid of
several multiplicators. The compressor can then be selected
according to the resulting FAD figure.
The procedure is similar for determining the size of pipelines.

Definition of the type and number of consumer devices on a
certain section of line comes first. The consumption of the
individual devices is added together and adjusted with the
appropriate multiplicators. The diameter of the respective sec-
tion of piping can then be deduced according to the result.
Loss through leakage must also be taken into account when

determining the expected consumption of compressed air.
7.1 Consumption of compressed Determining the total consumption of compressed air is often
air by pneumatic devices difficult due to lack of information about individual components.
This chapter provides guideline values for the requirements of
individual components.
The information given here concerning the consumption of

individual devices are average values. Please contact the
makers of the devices for exact figures.
7.1.1 Consumption of nozzles The consumption of compressed air by nozzles of different

shapes can vary greatly and depends on various factors :
– Diameter of the nozzle.

The larger the nozzle, the greater the consumption.
– Operating pressure of nozzle.
The higher the operating pressure, the greater the con-
sumption.
– Shape of nozzle.
A simple, cylindrical through-hole consumes much less
compressed air than a conical or Laval-nozzle ( expansion
nozzle ).
– Surface quality of aperture.
If the quality of the aperture is very good ( surface very
smooth, no grooves and unevenness ), more compressed
air can flow through.
– Spraying or blowing.
The consumption of compressed air rises if the air is being
used as a medium for paint, sand, or the like.
108
7.1.1.1 Compressed air consumption Nozzles with a simple, cylindrical bore ( e.g., blow-out guns )
of cylindrical nozzles generate strong whirling and turbulence in the compressed
air that flows out. This reduces the speed of with which it flows.
Consumption is comparatively low.
The following table gives reference values for the compressed

air consumption of cylindrical nozzles depending on operat-
ing pressure and nozzle diameter :
Fig. 7.1 :
Blow-out gun
Nozzle Operating pressure [ barop ]
∅
[ mm ] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0,5 8 10 12 15 18 22 28
1,0 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
1,5 60 75 95 110 130 150 170
2,0 105 145 180 220 250 290 330
2,5 175 225 280 325 380 430 480
3,0 230 370 400 465 540 710 790
Air consumption values in the table are given in l/min .
109
7.1.1.2 Compressed air consumption Paint applied by a spray gun must be even and not drip. The
of paint spray guns nozzles of spray guns are therefore designed for an expand-
ing, non-turbulent volume flow with a high exit speed. The con-
sequence is high consumption of compressed air, well above
that of cylindrical nozzles.
The consistency and desired quantity of paint to be applied

determines the operating pressure and the nozzle diameter of
the spray gun. These two values considerably influence the
compressed air requirement.
With paint spray guns, a distinction is made between flat, broad

and round spray nozzles. The type of spray influences the
application of paint. There is also a difference in the com-
pressed air requirement. On many spray guns it is possible to
switch the types of spray.
Fig. 7.2 :
Paint spray gun with paint tank

air consumption of spray paint nozzles depending on operat-
ing pressure, nozzle diameter and type of spray :

∅ Flat and broad spray
[ mm ] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0,5 100 115 135 160 185 – –
0,8 110 130 155 180 225 – –
1,0 125 150 175 200 240 – –
1,2 140 165 185 210 250 – –
1,5 160 180 200 225 260 – –
1,8 175 200 220 250 280 – –
2,0 185 210 235 265 295 – –
2,5 210 230 260 300 340 – –
3,0 230 250 290 330 375 – –

∅ Round spray
[ mm ] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0,5 75 90 105 – – – –
0,8 85 100 120 – – – –
1,0 95 115 135 – – – –
1,2 110 125 150 – – – –
1,5 120 140 155 – – – –
110
7.1.1.3 Compressed air consumption When spraying, the medium must hit the workpiece with great
of jet nozzles kinetic energy i.e., with high speed. This is the only method
that will achieve the desired result.
For this reason jet nozzles are designed for an extremely high
exit speed of the compressed air. This leads to comparatively
high consumption of compressed air.

air consumption of jet nozzles depending on operating pres-
sure and nozzle diameter :

∅
[ mm ] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3,0 300 380 470 570 700 – –
4,0 450 570 700 840 1000 – –
5,0 640 840 7050 1270 1500 – –
6,0 920 1250 1600 1950 2200 – –
8,0 1800 2250 2800 3350 4000 – –
10,0 2500 3200 4000 4800 6000 – –
111
7.1.2 Compressed air requirement Compressed air cylinders are especially used in the area of
of cylinders automation. A distinction is made between two types of cylin-
der when determining the consumption of compressed air:
– The single-action cylinders use compressed air to gener-

ate the movement of the working stroke only. The return
stroke is performed by spring power or from the outside.
– Double-action cylinders use compressed air to generate
movement in both stroke directions. Force is used for both
strokes. Accordingly, he consumption of compressed air is
twice as high.
The compressed air consumption q of pressure cylinders is

determined by using the following formula:
d2 × π
q = ———— ×S×p×a×b
4
q = Air consumption( 1 barabs and 20° C ) [ l/min ]

Fig. 7.3 : d = Piston diameter [ dm ]
Clamping device with pneumatic cylinder
S = Length of piston path ( Stroke ) [ dm ]
p = Operating pressure [ barabs ]
a = Work cycles per minute [ 1/min ]
b = 1 with single-action cylinders

2 with double-action cylinders
Example
A singe-action cylinder with a piston diameter of 100 mm is

required to work at an operating pressure of 7 barabs . Its work-
ing stroke is 120 mm at 47 work cycles per minute.
12 × π
q = ——112—— × 1,3 × 7 × 47 × 1
d = 100 mm ^
= 1 dm 4
S = 130 mm ^
= 1,3 dm
q = approx. 336 l/min
p = 7 barabs
a = 47 This cylinder consumes approx. 336 Litres of compressed

air per minute.
b = 1
112
7.1.3 Compressed air consumption Pneumatic tools are among the most frequent consumers of
of tools compressed air in industry and the crafts. They are large num-
bers of them in almost every environment.
They generally require a working pressure of 6 bar however,

there are versions that use other working pressures, depend-
ing on the application and the performance required. In these
cases the consumption of compressed air will differ from the
levels shown in the table.
The following table gives reference values for consumption of

compressed air by a number of pneumatic tools. These values
Fig. 7.4 :
may vary for individual tools and should be regarded as aver-
Drive screw powered by compressed air
ages.
Tool Air consumption

Working pressure 6 barop [ l/min ]
Drill Drill up to 4 mm ∅ 200

4 – 10 mm ∅ 200 – 450
10 – 32 mm ∅ 450 – 1750
Screw machine M3 180

M4 – M5 250
M6 – M8 420
Drive screw M10 - M24 200 – 1000
Angle grinder 300 – 700
1
Vibration grinder /4 Sheet 250
1
/3 Sheet 300
1
/2 Sheet 400
Belt grinder 300 – 400
Hand grinder Collet chucks 6 - 8 mm ∅ 300 – 1000

8 - 20 mm ∅ 1500 – 3000
Tacker, tack chuck 10 – 60
113
Device Air consumption

Working pressure 6 barop [ l/min ]
Nailer 50 – 300
Sash saw ( wood ) 300
Plastic and textile shears 250 – 350
Metal shears 400 – 900

Chamfer mortiser ( wood and plastic ) 250 – 400
Chamfer plane ( phases for welding seams ) 2500 – 3000
Rust remover 250 – 350
Needle rust remover 100 – 250
Light universal hammer 150 – 380

Rivet, chisel and mortise hammer 200 – 700
Light pick and shaft hammer 650 – 1500
Heavy pick and shaft hammer – 3000
Pneumatic spade 900 – 1500
Drill hammer 500 – 3000
Stamp hammer( foundries ) 400 – 1200

Stamp hammer ( concrete and earth ) 750 – 1100
Vibrator ( inside - outside ) 500 – 2500
114
7.2 Determining compressed When determining the compressed air requirement of a pneu-
air requirement matic network, it is not simply a case of adding the consump-
tion values of the individual devices. Other factors that influ-
ence consumption must also be taken into account.
7.2.1 Average operation time Most pneumatic devices, such as tools, spray paint guns and
blow-out guns are not in continuous use. They are switched
on and off when needed. It is therefore necessary to find out
the average usage rate UR in order to obtain an accurate fig-
ure for the compressed air requirement.
The following formula is used to determine the average usage

rate UR:
TU
UR = ——— × 100 %
TR
UR = average usage rate [%]

TU = usage time [ min ]
TR = reference time [ min ]
Example
A semiautomatic screwdriver is in use for 25 min in the course

of one hour.
ON
25
UR = ——— × 100 %
60
UR = 41,6 %
OFF The usage rate UR of the tool is 41,6 %.
The average usage rates UR of some widely used pneumatic

TU = 25 min devices is given in the following table. The figures are based
on general experience and may deviate sharply in special
TR = 60 min
cases.
Fig. 7.5 :
Tool Average usage rate
Average operation time
Drill 30 %
Grinding machine 40 %
Mortise hammer 30 %
Stamp hammer 15 %
Forming machine 20 %
Blow-out gun 10 %
Tooling machine 75 %
115
7.2.2 Simultaneity factor The simultaneity factor f is an empirical value. It is based on

experience of pneumatic devices that are not in use at the
same time. The simultaneity factor f is a multiplicator that
adjusts the theoretical total consumption of a number of de-
vices to realistic conditions.
The following table gives the generally recognised values for

the simultaneity factor f:
Qty. consumer devices Simultaneity factor f
1 1,00
2 0,94
3 0,89
4 0,86
5 0,83
Fig. 7.6 :
Supplying several consumer devices on a pneumatic 6 0,80
network 7 0,77
8 0,75
9 0,73
10 0,71
11 0,69
12 0,68
13 0,67
14 0,66
15 0,64
16 0,63
The simultaneity factor f is used with the following pneumatic

devices:
– Non-automatic nozzles as described in chapter 7.1.2.

– Non-automatic pneumatic tools as described in chapter
7.1.3.
– Machine tools, production machinery and the like,
if no other requirement is specified.
116
7.2.3 Defining compressed air When defining the total compressed air requirement for a pneu-
requirement matic network the consumer devices are divided into two
groups:
– Automatic consumer devices.

– General consumer devices.
7.2.3.1 Automatic consumer devices The consumer group includes automatic pneumatic cylinders,
machinery in continuous operation and longer work cycles
that require compressed air. These must be calculated at total
individual consumption q when working out the requirement.
Automatic consumer devices Working Quantity Individual

pressure consump. Q×q
[ barop ] Q [ Units ] q [ l/min ] [ l/min ]
Automatic compressed air cylinders 6 2 336 672
Working machinery 5 1 310 310
Total TQ compressed air consumption of all automatic devices [ l/min ] ∑ 982 l/min
117
7.2.3.2 General consumer devices Most work cycles only run some of the time. An average us-
age rate UR can be calculated for these processes. Also, the
consumer devices are not usually all in use at the same time.
The average usage rate UR and the simultaneity factor f are

used for general consumer devices as requirement-reducing
multiplicators when making the calculation.
General compr. air consumers Working Usage Quantity Individual Q × q × UR / 100

pressure rate consump.
[ barop ] UR [ % ] Q [ Units ] q [ l/min ] [ l/min ]
Spray paint guns ∅ 1,5 mm 3 40 1 180 72
Blow-out guns ∅ 1,0 mm 6 10 3 65 19,5
Drive screw M10 6 20 3 200 120
Drills up to ∅ 20 mm 6 30 1 700 210
Angle grinders 6 40 2 500 400
Total T air consumption of all general consumer devices[ l/min ] ∑ 821,5
Simultaneity factor f 0,71
Air consumption Tf of general consumer devices Tf = f × T [ l/min ] 583,3
•
7.2.3.3 Total compressed air consumption The theoretical total compressed air consumption T is the sum
of the consumption of automatic and general devices.
•
T = TQ + Tf
•
T = 982 + 583,3
•
T = 1565,3 l/min = 1,57 m³/min
However, the total compressed air consumption is not yet a

suitable figure for determining the capacity of the compressor
and the size of the pipes. Several allowances still have to be
made.
118
7.2.4 Allowances for losses and Several allowances must be taken into account to bring the
reserves total consumption figure for individual devices to the actual
output requirement of a compressor:
Allowances [%] Losses v [ % ]
Losses 5 - 25 Losses v through leakage and friction occur in all parts of a

Reserves 10 - 100 pneumatic system. New systems require an allowance of
approx. 5 % of total FAD to be added for losses. Since leak-
Error 5 - 15
ages and friction losses generally increase when the equip-
ment gets older, losses of up to 25 % should be assumed for
older systems.
Reserves r [ % ]
A pneumatic system is sized according to a current estimate

of compressed air consumption. Experience shows that con-
sumption usually rises later. It is advisable to take short and
medium-term extensions of the network into account when
planning the size of the compressor and main pipelines. If this
is not done, later extension of the system can be unnecessar-
ily expensive. An allowance for reserves r of up to 100 % can
be taken, depending on the outlook.
Margin for error f [ % ]
Despite the care taken in calculation, the figures for expected

compressed air consumption are still usually wrong. An exact
figure can seldom be arrived at because of marginal condi-
tions that are mostly unclear. If a pneumatic system is de-
signed too small and needs to be extended later it will cause
additional costs ( equipment out of action ), and so an allow-
ance f of 5 - 15 % is advisable to provide a margin for error.
7.2.5 FAD Required LB When calculating the FAD required LB, allowances of 5 % for
losses, 10 % for reserves and a 15 % margin for error are
•
added to the calculated total consumption value T
•
T × ( 100 + v + r + e )
LB = ———————————
• 100
T = 1826 l/min
1826 × ( 100 + 5 + 10 + 15 )
v = 5 % LB = —————————————
100
r = 10 % LB = 2035 l/min = 2,04 m³/min
e = 15 %
The FAD quantity LB, required to give consumer devices an
adequate supply of compressed air is approx. 2035 l/min. This
value is the basis for determining the size of the compressor
and the main pipeline.
119
7.3 Compressed air loss Compressed air loss is consumption of air ( leakage ) in the
pipelines without work being performed. These losses can
amount to 25 % of the entire FAD of the compressor in unfa-
vourable circumstances.
The causes are manyfold:
– Leaking valves.
– Leaking screw and flange joints.
– Leaking weld seams or soldered points.
– Damaged hoses and hose connections.
– Defective magnetic valves.
– Jammed float drains.
– Incorrectly installed dryers, filters and service facilities.
– Corroded lines.
7.3.1 Costs of compressed air loss Leaks in a pipeline act like nozzles from which compressed
air escapes at high speed. These leaks consume compressed
air 24 hours per day. The energy needed to compensate for
this loss can be considerable. This does not cause physical
injury, but the resulting expense can seriously diminish the
cost-effectiveness of the pneumatic system.
One example demonstrates the magnitude of the addi-

tional cost :
With a network pressure of 8 bar approx. 75 l/min = 4,5 m³/h

escape from a leak of 1 mm diameter. A motor output of 0,6 kW
is required for this volume flow. At a price of 0,25 DM/kWh and
8 000 hours of operation, the additional annual cost amounts
to approx. DM 1250, depending on the efficiency of the motor.
Leak Air escaping Losses

hole - ∅ at 8 barop Energy Cash
[ mm ] Size [ l/min ] [ kW ] [ DM/Y ]
1 75 0,6 1350
1,5 150 1,3 2900
2 260 2,0 4300
3 600 4,4 10200
4 1100 8,8 20300
5 1700 13,2 31100
120
7.3.2 Quantifying leakage The first step in minimising compressed air loss is to quantify
•
the leakage VL. There are two ways of doing this:
•
7.3.2.1 Quantifying leakage The simplest way of quantifying leakage VL is by emptying the
by emptying the receiver compressed air receiver.
The supply line to the receiver is plugged ① . All consumer

devices in the system must be switched off. The receiver pres-
sure pS drops as a result of the leak to pressure pF. The time t
is measured.
The following formula is used to roughly quantify the volume

•
of leakage VL :
VT • V T × ( pS − p F )
VL = ———————
t
•
VL
pS •
VL = Volume of leakage [ l/min ]
①
pF VT = Volume of receiver [l]
pS = Receiver pressure at start [ barop ]

VT = 1000 l
pF = Receiver pressure at finish [ barop ]
pS = 8 bar
t = Time measured [ min ]
pF = 7 bar
t = 2 min
Example
A compressed air receiver with a large pipeline system has a

volume of 1000 l. Within 2 min. the receiver pressure drops
from 8 to 7 barop.
• 1000 × ( 8 − 7 )
VL = ———————
2
•
VL = 500 l/min
The leakage volume of this pneumatic system is approx. 500

l/min.
Note
This method of measuring is only suitable for systems where

the pipeline system is less than 10 % of the volume of the
receiver. Otherwise the results are too inaccurate.
121
•
7.3.2.2 Quantifying leakage by measuring The second method of quantifying the volume of leakage VL
working time is by measuring the operating time of the compressor. This
method can only be used with compressors having intermit-
tent and idling operation modes.
The consumer devices in the network are switched off. The

leaks in the system consume compressed air and the network
pressure drops. The compressor must replace this volume.
The total running time Σ t of the compressor is measured over

a period of time T. To obtain a realistic result, the measuring
time T should last for at least 5 cycle intervals of the com-
pressor.
The following formula is used to roughly quantify the volume

•
of leakage : VL
•
• V × Σ t × 1000
VL = ———————
T
m³/min × s × 1000 l
l/min = —————-–———
s × m³
•
V = 1,65 m³/min
Σ t = 30 s •
VL = Volume of leakage [ l/min ]
T = 180 s •
V = Compressor FAD [m3/min ]
Σ t = Total running time of compressor [s]
Σ t = t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 + t5
T = Measuring time [s]
Example
•
A compressor with an effective FAD V of 1,65 m³/min has five
actuations during a measuring time of T = 180 s. Its total run-
ning time Σ t during the measuring time T is 30 s.
• 1,65 × 30 × 1000
VL = ———–———— —
180
•
VL = 275 l/min
The leakage volume of this pneumatic system is approx. 275

l/min.
122
7.3.3 Limits for leakage Unfortunately, compressed air loss through leakage is inevita-
ble in normal pneumatic systems. The additional costs caused
by leakage reduce the cost-effectiveness of the system con-
siderably. Measures can be taken to reduce the loss, but this
causes costs money as well. At some point, these costs will
outweigh the savings made by cutting the loss of compressed
air. The objective must therefore be to minimise the loss of
compressed air at acceptable expense.
There are therefore some levels of leakage that should be

tolerated for reasons of economy :
– max. 5 % on smaller networks.

– max. 7 % on medium-sized networks.
– max. 10 % on larger networks.
– max. 13 - 15 % on very large networks.
e.g., foundries, steel mills, shipyards etc.
7.3.4 Measures for minimising Staff should be instructed to report leaks and damage to the
compressed air loss network to the persons in charge. Damage should be rectified
immediately. If a system is looked after on a permanent basis,
there will normally be no need for expensive reconstruction of
the network. Compressed air loss will be kept at an accept-
able level.
Leaks
It is usually quite easy to find leaks. Large leaks can be heard.
However, small and very small leaks are harder to find and
can not usually be heard. In these cases, the joints, branches,
valves etc. are covered with seal checker or soapy water. Bub-
bles form immediately where there are leaks.
123
7.3.5 Reconstructing a pneumatic If the leakage volume lies clearly above the levels specified in
network chapter 7.3.3, reconstruction of the system should be con-
sidered.
When reconstructing a pneumatic system the following meas-

ures should be taken to reduce compressed air loss:
– Tighten leaking joints or reseal them.

– Replace leaking joints and slides.
– Replace leaking hoses and hose connectors.
– Weld leaks on pipelines.
– Upgrade condensate drains.
Replace mechanical float drains and time-controlled
magnetic valves with level-controlled condensate drains.
– Upgrade compressed air preprocessor.
Remove harmful impurities such as water, oil and dust
from the compressed air.
– Check magnetic valves.
If possible, install normally closed valves.
– Flush or replace old pipelines.
The inside diameter of old pipes is often reduced by
deposits. This causes a drop in pressure.
– Check couplings and pipe connections.
Reductions in the size of cross-sections causes a drop in
pressure.
– Reduce the size of the system for limited periods.
Cut off parts of large systems with stop valves when not
needed.
124
Determining the size of the compressor station
8. Determining the size of the compressor station
8.1 The type of compressor The primary decision when installing a compressor station is
choosing the type of compressor. Screw or piston compres-
sors are the right choice for nearly all applications.
8.1.1 Screw compressors Screw compressors are particularly suitable for certain appli-
cations.
– Long usage rate UR.

Screw compressors are particularly suitable in situations
where consumption of compressed air is continuous and
without large peak loads ( UR = 100 % ). They are excel-
lent as base load machines in composite compressor sys-
tems.
– High FAD.
The screw compressor is the most economical type where
high FAD is needed.
– Pulse-free volume flow.
Through uniform compression the screw compressor can
also be used for very sensitive consumer devices.
Fig. 8.1 – Screw compressors operate economically with final com-
BOGE screw compressor, Series S pression pressures of between 5 and 14 bar.
The normal maximum pressure pmax categories for screw
compressors are 8 bar, 10 bar and 13 bar.
8.1.2 Piston compressors Piston compressors also have their special areas of applica-
tion. They are an ideal supplement to those of the screw com-
pressors.
– Intermittent requirement.
Piston compressors are suitable for fluctuating consump-
tion of compressed air with load peaks. They can be used
as peak-load machines in a compressor group system.
These compressors are the best choice for frequently
changing loads.
– Small FAD quantities.
When FAD quantities are small, the piston compressor is
more economical than the screw compressor.
– Piston compressors can compress to high final pressures.
The normal maximum pressure pmax categories for piston

compressors are 8 bar, 10 bar, 15 bar, 30 bar and 35 bar.
Fig. 8.2 :
BOGE piston compressor with horizontal com-
pressed air receiver
125
8.2 Maximum pressure pmax The next step in determining the size of a compressor with
compressed air receiver and air treatment is to define the maxi-
mum pressure of the compressor pmax.
The basis for the maximum pressure ( cutout pressure pmax )

is the cycle difference ( pmax - pmin ) of the compressor control,
the maximum operating pressure of the consumer devices
and the total pressure loss within the network.
8.2.1 Factors influencing cutout The receiver pressure, which fluctuates between pmin and pmax,
pressure pmax must always be much higher than the operating pressures of
the consumer devices in the network. Pressure loss always
occurs in pneumatic systems. This is why the pressure loss
caused by the various components of a pneumatic system
must be taken into consideration.
The following values must be considered when defining the

cutout pressure pmax:
– Normal pneumatic networks ≤ 0,1 bar

Behaviour of pressure
The network should be designed so that the total pressure
loss ∆ p of the entire network does not exceed 0.1 bar.
Fig. 8.3 :
Behaviour of pressure in a compressed air receiver – Large pneumatic networks ≤ 0,5 bar
On widely branched networks, e.g., in mines, quarries or
large building sites, a pressure loss ∆ p up t 0.5 bar can be
allowed.
– Treatment of compressed air by dryer.
Diaphragm compressed air dryer with Filter ≤ 0,6 bar
Refrigeration compressed air dryer ≤ 0,2 bar
Adsorption compressed air dryer with filter ≤ 0,8 bar
– Compressed air treatment by filters and separators.
Dust separator ≤ 0,05 bar
Filters generally ≤ 0,6 bar
The pressure loss ∆ p through filters rises from soiling. The
latest time at which the filter must be changed is specified.
– The cycle difference of the compressor.
Screw compressors 0,5 - 1 bar
Piston compressors pmax - 20 %
– Reserves.
Unforeseen pressure loss occurs time and again in pneu-
matic systems. An adequate contingency reserve should
always be planned for in order to avert performance loss.
126
8.3 Determining the volume of a Compressed air receivers are tanks used for storing com-
compressed air receiver pressed air, damping pulsation and separating condensate in
the pneumatic system. The receiver must be of the correct
size to be able in particular to fulfill its task of storing com-
pressed air.
8.3.1 Recommendations for the volume Determining receiver volume VR is accomplished primarily by
of compressed air receivers values gained from experience. BOGE recommends the fol-
•
lowing ratios of compressor FAD V [ l/min ] to receiver volume
VR [ l ] :
•
– Piston compressors. VR =V
Intermittent running is aimed for due to the properties of
the compressor.
•
– Screw compressors VR = V/3
Constant running is aimed for due to the properties of the
compressor.
After defining the volume of the receiver, with piston compres-

sors it is time to work out the cycle interval, which comprises
the compressor running and idling times. The number of com-
pressor cycles results from this.
8.3.2 Norm series and operating Compressed air receivers are available in sensibly graduated
pressures for sizes of compressed volume sizes. A standard size should always be chosen to
air receivers save unnecessary costs for custom-made equipment.
The maximum pressure for which the receiver is designed is,
for safety reasons, always at least 1 bar above the maximum
pressure of the compressor. 10 bar compressors have, for in-
stance, a compressed air receiver designed for 11 bar. The
safety valve is adjusted for 11 bar.
The following table shows the sizes of compressed air receiver
available for various operating pressures:
Compressed air Operating pressure up to

receiver vol. [ l ] 11 [ bar ] 16 [ bar ] 36 [ bar ]
18 •
30 •
50 • •
Fig. 8.4 : 80 •
Compressed air receiver, standing 150 • • •
250 • • •
350 • • •
500 • • •
750 • • •
1000 • • •
1500 • • •
2000 • • •
3000 • • •
5000 • • •
127
8.3.3 Volumes of compressed air The ideal capacity of compressed air receiver for a compres-
receivers for compressors sor can be defined more precisely with the aid of a formula.
The formula is ideal when long idle periods are planned with
intermittent operation. The volume of the pneumatic system
can be considered as a part of the receiver volume.
•
V × 60 × [ LB/V• - ( LB/V• )² ]
VR = ——————————
Al × ( pmax - pmin )
•
V VR
LB VR = Volume of compressed air receiver [ m3 ]
•
V = FAD of compressor [ m3/min ]
LB = Required FAD [ m3/min ]
Al = Allowed motor cycles / h [ 1/h ]

Fig. 8.5 : ( see chapter 8.4.3 )
Compressor and compressed air receiver
pmax = Cut-out pressure of compressor [ barop ]
pmin = Cut-in pressure of compressor [ barop ]
Despite taking all influencing factors into account, it is advis-

able to check the determined receiver size against the allowed
motor cycles of the compressor.
Obviously, compressors with small receiver volumes VRswitch

on and off more often. This is a strain on the motor. In contrast,
with a large receiver volume VR and a constant output the
motor of a compressor switches on less often. This spares the
motor.
Simple formulae for determining the size of the compres-
sed air receiver
Piston compressor Screw compressor

Q × 15 Q × 5
VR = —-—-—- VR = —-—-—-
Al × ∆p Al × ∆p
VR = Volume of compressed air receiver [ m 3]
Q = FAD of compressor [ m3/min ]
15 or 5 = Constant factor
Al = Allowed motor cycles / h [ 1/h ]

( see chapter 8.4.3 )
∆p = Pressure differential ON/OFF
128
8.4 Compressor cycle intervals The cycle interval is an important factor in a pneumatic sys-
tem. To check the correct size of the receiver in relation to the
FAD and compressed air consumption the cycle interval must
first be calculated. This is done by calculating the compressor
running time tR and the compressor idle time tI, the sum of
which provides the cycle interval.
8.4.1 Compressor idle times During the compressor idle time tI the compressed air require-
ment is covered from the volume of air stored in the receiver.
The pressure in the receiver thus drops from the cutout pres-
sure pmax to the cut-in pressure pmin. During this time the com-
pressor does not deliver compressed air.
The following formula is used to determine the compressor

idle time tI:
VR × ( pmax - pmin )
tI = ———————
LB
tI = Idle time of compressor [ min ]

VR = Volume of compressed air receiver [l]
LB = Required FAD [ l/min ]
pmax =Cut-out pressure of compressor [ barop ]
8.4.2 Compressor running times During running time the compressor compensates the pres-
sure loss in the receiver. At the same time the current com-
•
pressed air requirement is covered. The output V is higher than
the actual consumption LB. The pressure in the receiver rises
back to pmax.

running time tR:
tR = ———–———
(V•-L )
B
tR = Running time of compressor [ min ]

•
V = FAD of compressor [ l/min ]
129
8.4.3 Determining the motor cycle speed The maximum motor cycle speed depends on the size of the
drive motor. The drive motor can be damaged if the maximum
number of cycles is exceeded.
To determine the number of expected motor cycles A for the

compressor, the compressor running time tR and idle time tI
are added together, and the reference time ( normally 60 min )
divided by the result.
The compressed air receiver must be larger if the result is

above the maximum allowed number of cycles Al.
A second possibility would be to increase the cycle diferential

( pmax - pmin ).
60
A = ————
tI + tR
A = Cycle speed [ 1/h ]
The following table gives the allowed number of cycles for an

electric motor per hour depending on the power rating of the
motor.
Motor power rating Allowed cycles/ h Al

[ kW ] [ 1/h ]
4 - 7,5 30
11 - 22 25
30 - 55 20
65 - 90 15
110 -160 10
200 - 250 5
130
8.5 Examples for compressor configuration
8.5.1 Sample calculation for piston In chapter 7.2.5 the required FAD of LB = 2035 l/min was
compressors determined for a number of consumer devices. The maximum
required working pressure in this example is 6 barop. A piston
compressor is dimensioned for this case of application.
8.5.1.1 Determining the maximum The maximum compressor pressure pmax of the pneumatic
pressure pmax system must now be determined. Starting from the working
pressure of the consumer devices, all components in the pneu-
matic system must be taken into consideration:
– Maximum working pressure in the system 6 barop

– Pneumatic network Pressure loss 0,1 bar
– Filters Pressure loss 0,6 bar
– Refrig.compressed air dryer Pressure loss 0,2 bar
————
Minimum pressure in receiver 6,9 barop
The cut-in pressure pmin must always

be above this pressure.
Fig. 8.6 :
– Cycle differential of piston compressors approx. 2 bar
Compressor station with piston compressor, com-
pressed air receiver, refrigeration compressed air ————
dryer and filter system
The cut-out pressure pmax is at least 8,9 barop
Selected maximum compressor pressure 10 bar op

( cut-out pressure of compressor )
131
8.5.1.2 Determining compressor size Piston compressors are designed with reserves of approx.
40 %. Reserves are included from experience, in order to have
a contingency for possible extensions to the system and to
use the compressor intermittently. Intermittent operation means
less wear.
The ideal usage rate UR for a piston compressor is around

60 %. BOGE piston compressors are designed for 100 % UR =
continuous operation. When calculating the ideal compressor
size this means: the required FAD L B must be divided by 0.6 in
•
order to obtain the minimum FAD Vmin of the piston compres-
sor.
•
Vmin = LB / 0,6
•
V min = 2035 / 0,6
Fig. 8.7 : •
V min = 3392 l/min
BOGE piston compressor, type RM 3650-213
The choice is:
Piston compressor Type RM 4150-213
Max. pressure pmax : 10 bar

•
FAD V : 3350 l/min
Motor rating : 30 kW ⇒ Al = 20
8.5.1.3 Volume of the compressed air The volume of the compressed air receiver should be deter-
receiver mined using the BOGE recommendation, compressor FAD
•
V volume of compressed air receiver VR. The graduations
among standardised sizes for receivers must be taken into
consideration.
•
V = 3350 l/min ⇒ VR = 3000 l
132
8.5.1.4 Compressor cycle interval After defining the size of the compressed air receiver it is nec-
essary to determine the compressor running and idle times in
order to check the motor cycle rate C.
The following formula is used to find the compressor idle time

t I:
VR = 3000 l
tI = ———––———
pmax = 10 barop LB
pmin = 8 barop 3000 × ( 10 - 8 )
tI = ————————
LB = 2035 l/min 2035
tI = 2,95 min


running time tR:
VR = 3000 l
tR = ————–———
pmax = 10 barop • -L )
(V B
pmin = 8 barop 3000 × ( 10 - 8 )

• tR = —————–———
V = 3650 l/min ( 3350 - 2035 )
LB = 2035 l/min
tR = 4,56 min

•
V = FAD of compressor [ l/min ]
133
8.5.1.5 Motor cycle rate of compressor The motor cycle rate is calculated from the compressor run-
ning and idle time and compared with the allowed figure Al.
tI = 2,95 min
60
C = ————
tR = 4,56 min tI + tR
60
C = ———–——
Motor output rating 22 kW ⇒ Al = 25 2,95 + 4,56
C = 8
C = Cycles [ 1/h ]
Approx. 8 cycles per hour is well below the allowed number for
the 30 kW motor ( Al = 20 ). The compressed air receiver is of
a good size. It could even be somewhat smaller because of
the large reserve of motor cycles.
Note
If the exact compressed air consumption is not defined, 50%

of the of the compressor FAD can be assumed as consump-
tion when determining the motor cycle rate. In this case the
idle and running times of the compressor are the same. This
results in the maximum number of motor cycles.
134
8.5.2 Sample calculation for screw In chapter 7.2.5 the required FAD of LB = 2,04 m³/min was
compressors determined for a number of consumer devices. The maximum
required working pressure in this example is 6 barop. A screw
compressor is sized for this application.
8.5.2.1 Example for determining the The maximum compressor pressure pmax of the pneumatic
maximum pressure pmax system must now be determined. Starting from the working
pressure of the consumer devices, all components in the pneu-
matic system must be taken into consideration:
– Maximum working pressure in the system 6 barop

– Pneumatic network Pressure loss 0,1 bar
– Filters Pressure loss 0,6 bar
– Refrig.compressed air dryer Pressure loss 0,2 bar
————
Minimum pressure in tank 6,9 barop
The cut-in pressure pmin must always

be above this pressure.
Fig. 8.8 :
Compressor station with screw compressor, – Cycle differential of screw compressors 1 bar
compressed air receiver, refrigeration compressed
air dryer and filter system –––––––
The cut-out pressure pmax is at least 7,9 barop
Selected maximum compressor pressure 8 barop

( cut-out pressure of compressor )
8.5.2.2 Determining compressor size The ideal usage rate UR of a screw compressors is 100 %.
This means, the required FAD LB is equal to the minimum
•
output V of the compressor.
min
•
LB = 2,04 m³/min = V min = ca. 2 m³/min
The choice is:
Screw compressor, Type S 21
Maximum pressure pmax : 8 bar

•
FAD V : 2,42 m3/min
Fig. 8.9 :
BOGE screw compressor Motor output rate : 15 kW ⇒ Al = 25
135
8.5.2.3 Dimensioning the compressed air The volume of the compressed air receiver for screw com-
receiver pressors is calculated with the aid of the following formula.
The usual sizes of standard compressed air receivers should
be taken into account.
•
V = 2,42 m3/min •
V × 60 × [ LB/V• - ( LB/V• )² ]
LB = 2,04 m3/min VR = ——————————
Al × ( pmax - pmin )
LB •
/V = 0,843
2,42 × 60 × [ 0,843 - 0,843² ]
Al = 25 1/h VR = ——————————————
25 × ( 9 - 8 )
pmax = 9 barop
VR = 0,77 m3
pmin = 8 barop
Selected receiver volume:
VR = 0,75 m3 = 750 l
• VR = Volume of compressed air receiver [ m3 ]

V VB
Q •
V = FAD of all compressors [ m3/min ]
LB = Required FAD [ m3/min ]
Al = Allowed motor cycle rate [ 1/h ]

Fig. 8.10 : pmin = Cut-in pressure of compressor [ barop ]
Compressor and compressed air receiver
The volume of the compressed air receiver can also be de-

fined according to the BOGE recommendation, compressor
•
FAD to volume of compressed air receiver VR = V/3.
•
V = 2,46 m3/min ⇒ VR = 0,81 m³
8.5.2.4 Compressor cycle interval The cycle intervals and maximum allowed cycle rate of the
motor do not have to be checked with BOGE screw compres-
sors because the microcontroller in the BOGE ARS control
unit does not allow the maximum rate to be exceeded.
136
8.5.3 Summary on compressor selection If a company expects fluctuating consumption of compressed

air and is planning later extensions, it needs a compressor
designed for intermittent operation. A piston compressor is
the ideal choice. If the FAD of a compressor can cover the
constant compressed air requirement then a screw compres-
sor should be used.
Both compressor systems are available with full silencing. Both

are supplied ready for use.
The choice of the right system should not depend on the pur-
chase price, because the system pays for itself quickly if over-
head operating costs are saved. Overhead operating costs
are not only the energy costs to produce compressed air but
also the costs of idling.
Piston compressor work in intermittent operation. The do not

have an idle mode. Screw compressors must, because of their
small cycle differential and relatively small compressed air
receiver, automatically run in idle mode in order to avoid hav-
ing too many motor cycles.
The ARS control unit aims for intermittent operation with mini-
mum idling time.
137
8.6 Information on compressor configuration
8.6.1 Performance and working pressure The working pressure of consumer devices should always be
complied with. The performance of a pneumatic device always
drops disproportionally if the network pressure pN falls below
its working pressure.
The following table shows the dependence of performance on

working pressure using the average pneumatic tools and ham-
mers as examples:
Effective Relative Relative

Fig. 8.11 :
Hammer screw with pneumatic drive
pressure performance air consumption
[ bar ] [%] [%]
at tool drill tool drill
connection hammer hammer
7 120 130 115 120

6 100 100 100 100
5 77 77 83 77
4 55 53 64 56
Fig. 8.12 :
Valveless pneumatic hammer
Example
The consequences of network pressure that is too low can be

shown using a pneumatic cylinder as an example.
If the pneumatic cylinder of a clamping device is not supplied

with the required working pressure, the clamping power of the
cylinders falls and the workpiece is no longer held with the
necessary force.
The workpiece falls loose from the clamp while being proc-
essed by a machine tool. This can result in the destruction of
Fig. 8.13 :
the workpiece and may also injure to the machine operator.
Pneumatic clamp
138
8.6.2 Varying working pressure of If the working pressure of the various consumer devices var-
consumer devices ies widely, the situation requires closer examination.
Some devices with a low compressed air requirement need a

much higher working pressure than others.
In this case a second, small compressor station with a sepa-
rate pneumatic network and an appropriately higher cut-out
pressure pmax should be installed.
The unnecessary overcompression of the main volume flow

of the pneumatic system causes considerable costs. In most
cases, these additional costs justify the installation of a sec-
ond system.
The second system usually amortises itself quickly by reduc-

ing operating costs.
8.6.3 Combined compressor systems For users of compressed air with high, heavily fluctuating con-
sumption, a single, large compressor is not the best solution.
The alternative is to have a combined compressor system con-
sisting of several compressors. Greater operational reliability
and greater economy are the arguments for this option.
One or more compressors cover the continuous basic require-

ment for compressed air ( basic load ). If the requirement rises,
additional compressors are switched on ( medium and peak
load ), until the output covers the requirement. If the require-
ment drops, the compressors are switched back off again,
one after the other.
The configuration of individual compressors ( free air deliv-

ered ) in a combined compressor system is individually so
different that no general statement are possible. The configu-
ration depends on the pneumatic behaviour of all consumer
devices connected to the system.
Advantages
– Operational reliability.
Operations heavily reliant on compressed air can guaran-
tee their supply at all times with a combined compressor
system. If one compressor fails, or if servicing work needs
to be done, the other compressors take over the work.
– Economy.
Several small compressors are easier to adjust to com-
Fig. 8.14 :
pressed air consumption than one large compressor. This
Diagram of a combined compressor system
fact makes a system of this type more economical. If the
system is only running at half-load, there are no high run-
ning costs for a large compressor but low idling costs for
small compressors in readiness in a combined system.
139
The pneumatic system
9. The pneumatic system
9.1 The compressed air receiver The size of the compressed air receiver is determined by the
FAD of the compressor, the control system, and compressed
air consumption. Compressed air receivers have various im-
portant tasks in a pneumatic system.
9.1.1 Storing compressed air The compressor builds up a store of compressed air inside
the receiver. The compressed air requirement can be covered
at intervals from this store. The compressor does not supply
compressed air during this time. It is in readiness and does
not use electricity. Additionally, fluctuating use of compressed
air is compensated for and peak requirements covered. The
motor is switched on less often and wear on it reduced.
In some circumstances several receivers are needed to build

up an adequate store of compressed air. Very large pneu-
matic systems usually have an adequate storage capacity. In
this case, smaller receivers can be used.
Fig. 9.1 :
Compressed air receiver, horizontal
9.1.2 Pulsation damping Due to the way they operate, piston compressors generate a
pulsing volume flow. These pressure fluctuations impair the
operation of various consumer devices. Process control and
measuring equipment in particular react to pulsing volume flow
by making errors. The compressed air receiver is used to bal-
ance out these fluctuations in pressure.
This is much less the case with screw compressors because

they generate an almost even volume flow.
140
9.1.3 Condensate collection Compression causes the moisture in the air to form droplets
of water ( condensate ). This water is usually drawn into the
compressed air receiver with the volume flow. This is where
compressed air is stored. Heat is given off to the cooler sur-
rounding by the large surface of the receiver and the com-
pressed air cools down. This causes a large part of the con-
densate to precipitate on the walls of the receiver. The con-
densate collects on the floor of the receiver and is removed by
a suitable condensate collector.
Compressed air receivers that are only emptied at irregular

intervals can be corroded by the condensate. One protection
against corrosion is to galvanise the receiver in a dip-tank. It
is not absolutely essential to galvanise the receiver if the
Fig. 9.2 : condensate is drained regularly. Galvanising is also a useful
Compressed air receiver, standing
option if the condensate contains a high concentration of
aggressive components.
9.1.4 Operation of compressed air Compressed air receivers may only be continuously used for
receivers compressors with intermittent and idling modes. The area of
pressure fluctuation ∆ p must not exceed 20 % of the maxi-
mum operating pressure ( max. compressor pressure 10 bar,
∆p = 2 bar ). If pressure fluctuations are greater, the welding
seams may break as a result of fatigue over the course of
time. The compressed air receiver must then be specially
designed for fluctuating stress.
9.1.5 Installation of compressed air The compressed air receiver should be installed in a cool place
receivers whenever possible. This will cause more condensate to form
inside, which means that less will enter the pneumatic system
and the pre-processing unit.
Compressed air receivers should be installed so that they are

or can be made accessible for periodic inspections, and with
the factory specification plate well visible.
The compressed air receiver should be installed on a suitable

foundation with plenty of space for inspections. It should be
taken into account that the stress on the foundation increases
during pressure testing when the tank is filled with water.
Compressed air receivers must be installed so as not to be a

hazard for the staff or other people. The necessary safety zones
and distances must be observed.
The compressed air receiver and its ancillary equipment must

be protected against mechanical influence from the outside
( e.g., from vehicles ), so that they are not a hazard for people
or equipment.
141
9.1.6 Safety rules for compressed air Compressed air receivers are subject to „Directive for pressure
receivers receivers“ ( DruckbehV ), the technical rules for „Pressure re-
ceivers“ ( TRB ) and the DIN EN rules. These accident preven-
tion rules ( UVV ) are mandatory and must always be followed.
The operator of a compressed air receiver is legally obliged to
keep himself informed about the latest accident prevention rules
at all times.
Special care must be taken to observe the following excerpts

from the rules:
9.1.6.1 Division into test groups Compressed air receivers are divided into test groups as speci-
fied in § 8 of pressure receiver rules.
( 1 ) The compressed air receivers are divided into groups

according to their maximum operating pressure p in bar and
the content of the pressure chamber l in litres ( the pressure
content product p × l ). If there are several separate pressure
chambers, the product is to be defined separately for each
chamber:
G
ro
u
p
II
G
G
ro
ro
u
u
p
p
IV
III
Operating pressure pop [ bar ]
p
p
p
×
×
×
l=
l=
l=
10
20
20
00
0
G
ro
ro
u
u
p
p
I
II
Content of pressure chamber l [ dm3 ]
Fig. 9.3 : Group I : Compressed air receivers with a maximum oper-

Diagram showing group division of compressed air ating pressure p of no more than 25 bar and a
receivers pressure content product p × l of no more than
200.
Group III : Compressed air receivers with a maximum oper-
ating pressure p of no more than 1 bar on which
the pressure content product p × l is more than
200 but no greater than 1000
( p > 1 bar and 200 < p × l ≤ 1000 ).
Group IV : Compressed air receivers with a maximum oper-
ating pressure p of more than 1 bar on which the
pressure content product p × l is more than 1000
( p > 1 bar and p × l > 1000 ).
142
9.1.6.2 The manufacture of compressed „Simple and unfired compressed air receivers“ with an operat-
air receivers ing pressure of between 0,5 and 30 bar pressure, a pressure
content product p × l up to 10 000, ( receivers up to 750 l, 11 bar
or up to 500 l, 16 bar ) and a cylindrical casing with two bases
are manufactured according to EC-Guideline 87/404 EEC. They
have a CE-symbol on the specification plate. They can there-
fore be used throughout the EC without further regard to
national rules.
Compressed air receivers with a pressure content product

p × l exceeding 10 000 must be made according to national
rules.
9.1.6.3 Registration and inspection Accident prevention rules state that compressed air receivers
obligations must be inspected at the installation point prior to commis-
sioning ( TRB 531, para. 6 ), and at regular intervals after com-
missioning by an expert or proficient person. Compressed air
receivers must be registered at the technical inspection au-
thority and the receiver certificate presented at the same time.
The first inspection takes place at the factory before the re-
ceiver leaves the works. All receivers are subjected to hydrau-
lic pressure testing with water when the model is registered.
Individual receivers for which no model is registered must be
inspected in the presence of an expert.
9.1.6.4 Expert and proficient persons as Experts as defined in § 31 of the German directive for pres-
defined in § 31 and § 32 of the sure receivers are:
German Directive for Pressure
Receivers – Technical inspection authority staff.
– Staff of the public material testing institute.
– Specialists from the trade association authorised to carry
out inspections.
Proficient people § 32 of the German directive for pressure

receivers are those who:
– as a result of their training, knowledge and experience

gained through practical activity offer assurance that the
inspection can be properly carried out.
– possess the required qualifications.
– is not required to follow instructions from others with re-
gard to the inspection.
– has suitable inspection equipment available, if necessary.
– can verify by documentation that he has attended a state-
organised or state-recognised course to certify that he
meets the requirements set forth in point one.
Evidence of proficiency must be provided to the appropriate
authority on demand.
143
9.1.6.5 Inspection of compressed air The inspection prior to commissioning and periodic inspec-
receivers tions of compressed air receivers are subject to national law.
Inspection prior to commissioning is described in § 9 of the
German pressure receiver rules, § 10 covers periodic inspec-
tions.
Inspection prior to commissioning § 9
( 1 ) A compressed air receiver of Groups III, IV and VII may

only be commissioned after an expert has carried out the ini-
tial inspection and certified that the receiver is in a service-
able condition.
( 2 ) A compressed air receiver of Group I, if used for com-

bustible, caustic or toxic gas, steam or liquid, or of Group II,
may only be commissioned,
1. if the maker has subjected the receiver to a pressure test

and has issued a certificate that it is properly made and
that it meets the appropriate requirements according to
the result of the test, and
2. after a proficient person has inspected the receiver and
certified that it meets the requirements of the inspection.
( 3 ) The initial inspection comprises preliminary inspection,

structural inspection and pressure test. The final inspection
comprises serviceability test, equipment inspection and in-
stallation inspection.
144
Periodic inspections § 10
( 1 ) A compressed air receiver of Groups IV and VII must

be inspected by an expert at the intervals specified in para-
graph 4.
( 2 ) A compressed air receiver of Group I, if used for com-

bustible, caustic or toxic gas, steam or liquid, or of Groups II,
III and IV is to be inspected periodically at intervals defined by
the operator based on experience with the mode of operation
and the medium.
( 3 ) Periodic inspections consist of internal inspections and

pressure tests. If the receiver is heated by fire, exhaust emis-
sion or electricity the periodic inspection must also include
external inspections usually carried out on the tank while it is
in operation. Internal inspections according to sentence 1 must
be augmented or replaced by pressure tests or other suitable
tests is the internal inspections can not be performed to the
required extent. Pressure tests according to sentence 1 must
be replaced by non-destructive tests if the pressure tests serve
no useful purpose due to the construction or operating mode
of the tank.
( 4 ) Internal inspections must be carried out on compressed

air tanks of Groups IV and VII every five years, pressure tests
every 10 years, and external tests every 2 years. The authori-
ties responsible may
1. extend these periods if safety is guaranteed by other means,

or
2. shorten them if this is necessary for the safety of staff and
others.
( 10 ) A compressed air receiver of Group IV or VII may only

be used after expiry of the time for periodic inspections if the
inspections have been carried out within the assigned period
and if the expert has certified that according to the results of
the inspection the receiver meets the appropriate requirements.
( 11 ) If the expert finds that the compressed air receiver is

not in a serviceable condition the authority responsible will
pass decision upon application.
145
9.1.6.6 Types of inspection The regular inspections are carried out by experts and profi-
cient people and take place as follows:
Internal inspection ( every 5 years )
The receiver is disconnected from the network and not under

pressure. The inspection aperture is opened and the receiver
thoroughly cleaned from inside. The walls must be metallically
clean. The expert must inspect the internal condition of the
receiver and certify that it is serviceable.
Pressure test ( every 10 years )
The receiver is disconnected from the network and not under

pressure. The fittings must be unscrewed and the connection
openings closed with plugs. The receiver is filled completely
with water and the handpump connected for the pressure test.
The receiver is then brought to operating pressure with the
aid of the handpump and checked for leaks by the expert.
9.1.6.7 Additional excerpts from the Operation of compressed air receivers § 13

directive for compressed air
receivers ( 1 ) Persons operating a compressed air receiver are to keep
it in a serviceable condition, to operate it correctly, to keep it
under supervision, to carry out the necessary maintenance
and servicing work in good time and to take the necessary
safety precautions as circumstances demand.
Proof of inspection and list of compressed air receivers

§ 14
( 1 ) Compressed air receivers must bear evidence of the

completed initial inspection.
( 2 ) Persons operating a compressed air receiver of Groups

IV or VII, must keep a logbook or inspection file to record the
results of periodic and extraordinary inspections by experts.
The logbook or inspection file must be submitted with the cer-
tificate of the expert for the initial inspection and final inspec-
tion together with the appropriate documents ( drawing, cer-
tificate for materials and heat treatment ).
146
9.1.7 Fittings on the compressed air The compressed air receiver is not simply a naked steel con-
receiver tainer. It needs a number of fittings to allow it to operate prop-
erly and assure the required safety.
4 1 – Pressure switch.
The switch is for controlling the compressor.
6 – Non-return valve.
A non-return valve must always be installed in the supply
line from the compressor to the receiver. With piston com-
pressors it prevents compressed air flowing back into the
compressor during breaks in operation. With screw com-
5 pressors the valve is integrated in the system.
– Safety valve.
8 The installation of a safety valve on compressed air receiv-
ers is required by law. If the internal pressure of the re-
3 ceiver pN ( network pressure ) rises 10 % ove the nominal
pressure, the safety valve opens and blows out the excess
pressure.
– Control flange.
The control flange with aperture is used by the inspection
9 authorities to connect a calibrated manometer for the pres-
sure test.
– Manometer.
The manometer shows the internal pressure of the receiver.
– Ball shut-off valve.
The ball shut-off valve isolates the receiver from the pneu-
matic system or the compressor.
– Condensate drain.
7 2 10 Condensate precipitates inside the receiver and therefore
it requires an appropriate connection for the condensate
collector.
1 = Pressure switch – Inspection aperture.
2 = Non-return valve or The inspection aperture can take the form of a socket end
ball shut-off valve or hand-hole flange. It is used to check and clean the in-
3 = Safety valve side of the receiver. The minimum size of the aperture is
4 = Control flange prescribed by law.
5 = Manometer – High pressure hose.
6 = Ball shut-off valve The high pressure hose connects the receiver with the com-
7 = Condensate drain pressor. It is used instead of a pipe so as not to transmit
8 = Mounting for fittings vibration from the compressor to the pneumatic system
9 = Inspection aperture and to correct size deviations on connection to the system.
10 = High pressure hose
Fig. 9.4 : The pressure switch, high pressure hose and non-return valve
Compressed air receiver with fittings are not typical fittings for compressed air receivers. But it it is
sensible to have them installed.
147
9.1.7.1 Safety valve The installation of a safety valve on compressed air receivers
is prescribed by law.
If the internal pressure of the receiver pN ( network pressure )

rises to the maximum operating pressure of the tank ( e.g.,
the maximum compressor pressure 10 bar, tank operating pres-
sure 11 bar ), the safety valve must slowly open.
If the system pressure rises to 1.1 times the nominal pressure

( e.g., tank pressure 11 bar, safety valve 12.1 bar ), the safety
valve must open fully and blow off the excess pressure. Care
must be taken that the cross-section of the outlet aperture of
the safety valve is of a size that allows the entire output of all
connected compressors to be blown off without the pressure
in the receiver rising.
When an existing pneumatic system is extended at a later

date the number of compressors increases. An appropriate
upgrading of the safety valve can easily be overlooked when
Fig. 9.5 : this happens. If the safety valve is no longer able to blow off
Safety valve on combined compressed air-oil re- the entire output of the compressors the operating pressure in
ceiver of an oil-injection cooled screw compressor the receiver will rise. This can cause the receiver to explode in
extreme cases.
Safety inspection
The safety valve must be checked every time a compressor

station is extended so as not to have a valve with too low a
capacity.
The mains connection to the receiver must be shut off. The

press switches must then be bridged, so that the compres-
sors can no longer switch off automatically.
Fig. 9.6 :
Diagram symbol for a safety valve
The pressure in the receiver rises until the safety valve switches.
The receiver pressure must not exceed 1.1 times the limit ( e.g.,
receiver pressure 11 bar, safety valve 12.1 bar ). If this does
happen, the safety valve is below par and must be replaced.
148
9.2 The compressed air circuit A central compressed air supply needs a pipeline circuit to
deliver compressed air to the individual devices. The circuit
must meet various conditions in order to guarantee reliable
and economical operation of the devices:
– Adequate volume flow.

Each device in the circuit must be supplied with the re-
quired volume flow at all times.
– The necessary working pressure.
Each device in the circuit must have the necessary air pres-
sure at all times.
– Quality of compressed air.
Each device in the circuit must have compressed air of the
required quality at all times.
– Low pressure loss.
The pressure loss in the circuit must be as low as possible
for economic reasons.
– Secure operation.
The supply of compressed air should be guaranteed as far
as possible. If lines are damaged, repair and maintenance
work must not put the entire circuit out of use.
– Safety rules.
The relevant safety rules must be followed at all times in
order to prevent accidents and the resulting rights of re-
course.
9.2.1 The structure of a compressed air A pipeline circuit is made up of individual sections. This allows
circuit an ideal connection to be made between the compressor and
dependent devices.
9.2.1.1 The main line The main line connects the compressor station with the com-
pressed air treatment and the compressed air receiver. Distri-
Compressed air receiver bution lines are connected to the main line. The main line must
be of a size that allows the entire output of the compressor
station to be delivered now and in the near future, and with the
minimum loss of pressure.
The pressure loss ∆p in the main line should be no higher

than 0.04 bar.
Condensate
drain
Dryer Main line

Compressor
Fig. 9.7 :
Main line of a compressed air circuit
149
9.2.1.2 The distribution line- ring line The distribution lines are laid through the entire operation and
bring compressed air to the devices. They should always take
the form of a ring line wherever possible. This increases the
economy and security of operation of the line as a whole.
Pressure loss ∆p in the distribution lines should be no higher

than 0.03.
3 5
7 Connection line
4
6
Main line
Ring line
1 = Compressor
3 = Compressed air receiver
4 = Condensate drain A ring line forms a closed distribution ring. It is possible to
5 = Safety valve isolate individual sections of the network without interrupting
6 = Compressed air dryer the supply of compressed air to other areas. This provides
7 = Compressed air connections assurance that compressed air will be available for most de-
vices, even when servicing, repairs and extension work is being
Fig. 9.8 : carried out.
Compressed air supply with ring line
If the compressed air is supplied through a distribution ring,
the compressed air has a shorter route to travel than with stub
lines. This means that lower pressure loss ∆p is needed. When
dimensioning the ring line one can calculate with half the flow
pipe length and half the volume flow.
150
9.2.1.3 The distribution line- stub line The distribution lines are laid through the entire operation and
bring compressed air close to the devices. They can also take
the form of a stub line.
The pressure loss ∆p in the distribution lines should be no

3 5 more than 0.03 bar.
7 Connection line
4
6
Main line
Stub line
1 = Screw compressor Stub lines branch off from larger distribution lines or the main
2 = Non-return valve line and end at the consumer device. Outlying consumers can
3 = Compressed air receiver be supplied through stub lines. It is also possible to supply a
4 = Condensate drain complete compressed air system with stub lines. They have
5 = Safety valve the advantage of needing less material than ring lines. But
6 = Compressed air dryer they also have the disadvantage that they must be of larger
7 = Compressed air connections size than ring lines and frequently cause high pressure losses.
Stub lines should always have a non-return valve which can
Fig. 9.9 : isolate them from the system. This makes servicing and repair
Compressed air supply with stub line
work easier.
9.2.1.4 The connection line The connection lines come from the distribution lines. They
supply consumer devices with compressed air. Since the de-
vices operate with different pressures it is normally necessary
to install a service unit with a pressure regulator in front of the
device. The network pressure is reduced to the working pres-
sure of the device by the regulator. Service units comprising
filters, separators, regulators and oilers are not needed if the
compressed air is pre-treated.
The pressure loss ∆p in the connection lines should be no
higher than 0,03 bar.
Note
For industrial applications the recommended pipe size is DN
25 ( 1" ). This size has next to no cost disadvantages com-
pared with smaller sizes and nearly always guarantees a reli-
able supply of compressed air. Consumer devices requiring
up to 1800 l/min can be supplied through line lengths of up to
10 m with hardly any pressure loss.
151
9.2.1.5 Connecting to a collective line with Attention must be paid to the following points when connect-
multiple systems ing several compressors to a common (collective) line.
Compressed air Condensate
5 4 4 3 5 6
1 1
1 3 2 1 2 7
1 = Screw compressor 1 = Screw compressor 5 = Expansion vessel

2 = Water separator 2 = Piston compressor 6 = Vent silencer
3 = Condensate drain 3 = Connection line 7 = Oil-water-separator
4 = Connection line 4 = Collective line
5 = Collective line
Fig. 9.10 :
Collective lines
Compressed air and condensate collective lines
1. Collective line with gradient.

The line must be laid with a gradient of approx. 1.5 - 2 % in
the direction of flow.
2. Connection line from above.
The connection line must be connected to the collective
line from above.
Compressed air collective lines
3. Water separator on longer rising lines.

On longer lines that rise to a collective line a water separa-
tor with automatic drainage must be installed after the com-
pressor in order to catch the water flowing back.
Vent collective lines

Points 1 and 2 also apply when vent lines are brought
together in collective lines.
Vent collective lines must also have an expansion vessel
and vent silencer installed.
152
9.3 Tips for planning pipe systems
9.3.1 General planning tips Compressed air lines should be straight wherever possible.
On corners that can not be avoided, do not use knee and
T -pieces. Long curves and Y-pieces provide better flow con-
ditions and therefore less pressure loss Dp. Abrupt changes
in the diameter of the line should also be avoided due to the
high loss of pressure this causes.
Large pipe systems should be subdivided into several sec-

tions, each of which should be equipped with a non-return
Fig. 9.11 : valve. It is important to be able to isolate parts of the system,
Unfavourable flow conditions: T and knee-piece particularly for inspections, repairs and conversions.
In some situations it may be of benefit to have a second com-

pressor to supply the system from a different point. This short-
ens the distance the compressed air has to travel. As a result,
the pressure loss ∆p is lower.
Fig. 9.12 : Main lines and large distribution lines should be welded with
Favourable flow conditions: Y-tube and curved pipe V-seams. This means there are no sharp edges and points
inside the pipes. There is therefore less resistance in the pipes
and the burden on filters and tools caused by detached parti-
cles of welded metal is reduced.
153
9.3.2 Pipeline without compressed air Compression causes the water in the air to form droplets ( con-
dryer densate ). If the compressed air is not pre-processed by a
compressed air dryer, water must be expected in the entire
pipeline network.
Pipeline with 1.5 - 2 % gradient In this situation there are various guidelines to be followed
when installing the pipeline, in order to prevent damage to
consumer devices.
– Temperature gradients.
Where possible, the compressed air lines should be laid
so that the air does not cool down when flowing through.
The air should be heated gradually. If the absolute humid-
ity is constant, the relative humidity will then fall. Conden-
sate will then be unable to form.
– Pipelines with gradients.
The pipelines must be laid with a gradient of approx. 1.5 -
2 % in the direction of flow. The condensed water in the
pipeline will then collect at the lowest point of the line.
– Vertical main line.
The main line directly behind the compressed air receiver
should rise vertically. The condensate that occurs when
cooling takes place can then flow back into the receiver.
wrong Condensate drains must be installed at the lowest points
of the system in order to drain off the condensate.
right
– Connection lines.
The connection lines must branch off upwards in the direc-
tion of flow. The pipeline here must be as straight as possi-
ble to avoid unnecessary pressure loss.
Fig. 9.13 : – Fittings.
Examples of correctly laid piping A service unit with filter, water separator and pressure re-
duction valve should always be installed. A compressed air
lubricator may also be needed, depending on the applica-
tion.
154
9.3.3 Pipeline system with compressed If there is a compressed air dryer with an appropriate filter
air dryer installed in the system, many of the measures taken against
condensate can be dispensed with.
– Pipelines.
The lines can be laid horizontally because there is almost
no water left in the system. The other measures concern-
ing the way the lines are laid are also unnecessary.
Condensate drains are only fitted at the filters, the com-
pressed air receiver and the dryer.
– Connection lines.
The connection lines can be joined vertically downwards
with T-pieces.
– Fittings.
Only pressure reduction valves have to be fitted to the con-
sumer devices. A lubricator may be required, depending
on the application.
This considerably reduces the price of the installation. Some-

times, even the money saved here justifies installing a com-
pressed air dryer.
155
9.4 Pressure loss ∆p Every pneumatic pipeline is resistance for compressed air in
flow. This resistance is internal friction which occurs with the
flow of all liquid and gaseous media. It results from the effect
of force among the molecules( viscosity ) of the flowing me-
dium ad the walls of the pipeline. This is the cause of pressure
loss in pipelines.
9.4.1 Type of flow Quite apart from internal friction, the type of flow inside the
line also affects pressure loss. Air can move in two completely
different ways.
Laminar flow
Laminar flow is even-layered flow. The individual molecules of
vmax the compressed air move in parallel, adjacently flowing layers.
This type of flow has two main properties:
– low pressure loss.
– low heat transition.
Fig. 9.14 :
Flow and speed development with laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Turbulent flow is whirly and uneven. The axially directed flow
is surrounded by constantly changing additional movement at
vmax all points. The paths of flow all have an effect on each other
and form small whirls. This type of flow has two main proper-
ties:
– high pressure loss.
Fig. 9.15 :
– high heat transition.
Image of flow and speed with turbulent flow
9.4.2 The Reynolds number Re The type of flow can be defined using the Reynolds number
Re. This gives the criterion for laminar and turbulent flow. The
Reynolds number Re is influenced by various factors:
– The kinematic viscosity of the compressed air.

– The mean speed of the compressed air.
– The inside diameter of the pipe.
The flow in the pipeline remains laminar until what is known
as the critical Reynolds number Recrit is exceeded. It then takes
on the condition of unevenness and turbulence.
Note
The high flow speeds that lead to Recrit being exceeded do not
normally occur in pneumatic networks. The prevailing flow in
pneumatic networks is laminar. Turbulent flow only occurs at
points where there are massive flow disturbances.
The speed of flow in compressed air lines must not exceed
20 m/s, since noise and turbulent flow will otherwise occur.
156
9.4.3 Pressure loss in the pipe system Each change in the line hinders the flow of compressed air
within it. The laminar flow is disturbed and higher pressure
loss results.
Flanged connection
2D-Curve
3D-Curve
Branching off
Reduction
T-Piece
Widening
Leakages
Pressure [ bar ]
Valve
Pressure loss
Fig. 9.16 : Path [ m ]

Pressure loss in a pipeline
The amount of pressure lost is influenced by several compo-

nents and circumstances of the network :
– length of pipe.
– clear inside diameter of the pipe.
– pressure in the pipe network.
– branches and bends in the pipe.
– narrowing and widening.
– valves.
– fittings and connections
– filters and dryer.
– leakage points.
– surface quality of the pipelines.
These factors must be taken into account when planning the

system, otherwise increased pressure loss will occur.
157
9.5 Dimensioning pipelines Correct dimensioning of the pipes in a system is of great im-
portance for economical operation. Pipes with too small a di-
ameter cause high losses of pressure. These losses must be
compensated for by high compression in order to guarantee
the performance of consumer devices.
The main factors influencing the ideal inside diameter di of the

pipe are:
•
– Volume flow V.
The maximum throughput of air should be assumed when
determining di . Increased pressure loss has a greater
impact when the requirement for compressed air is at a
maximum.
– Effective flow length of pipeline.
The length of the pipeline should be determined as accu-
rately as possible. Fittings and bends are unavoidable in
pipeline systems. When determining the effective flow length
of the pipeline these must be taken into account as an
equivalent section of pipe.
– Operating pressure.
When determining di the compressor cut-out pressure pmax
is to be assumed. At maximum pressure the pressure drop
∆p is also highest.
9.5.1 Maximum pressure drop ∆p The pressure drop ∆p in a pipeline with a maximum pressure
pmax of 8 barop and above should not exceed a certain total
loss by the time it reaches the consumer device :
– Pipe system ∆p ≤ 0.1 bar

The following values are recommended for the individual sec-
tions of the system:
– Main line ∆p ≤ 0.04 bar

– Distribution line ∆p ≤ 0.04 bar
– Connection line ∆p ≤ 0.03 bar
In pipe systems with lower maximum pressures ( e.g.,

3 barop ) a pressure loss of 0,1 bar is higher in relative terms
than in an 8 barop system. In this case, a different value is
recommended for the system as a whole:
– Pipe system ∆p ≤ 1,5 % pmax
158
9.5.2 Nominal width of pipelines Medium-weight threaded pipes made of standard structural
Comparison [ DN – Inch ] steel ( DIN 17100 ), which are often used for pipe systems,
are made according to the DIN 2440 standard. This standard
prescribes certain graduations of nominal width ( inside diam-
eter di ) and certain designations. For this reason, fittings and
pipes are only available in the corresponding sizes.
The graduations of nominal diameter also apply for other pipe

materials and standardisations.
The standard nominal widths must always adhered to when

dimensioning pipelines. Other nominal widths are only avail-
able if specially made and are disproportionately expensive.
The following table contains standard graduations in DN

( Diameter Nominal ) mm and inches, and the most important
basic data for pipes according to DIN 2440 :
Nominal pipe width Outside Inside Inside Wall

acc. to DIN 2440 diameter diameter cross-section thickness
[Inches ] [ DN ] [ mm ] [ mm ] [ cm2 ] [ mm ]
1/8" 6 10.2 6.2 0.30 2.00

1/4" 8 13.5 8.8 0.61 2.35
3/8" 10 17.2 12.5 1.22 2.35
1/2" 15 21.3 16.0 2.00 2.65
3/4" 20 26.9 21.6 3.67 2.65
1" 25 33.7 27.2 5.82 3.25
1 1/4" 32 42.4 35.9 10.15 3.25
1 1/2" 40 48.3 41.8 13.80 3.25
2" 50 60.3 53.0 22.10 3.65
2 1/2" 65 76.1 68.8 37.20 3.65
3" 80 88.9 80.8 50.70 4.05
4" 100 114.3 105.3 87.00 4.50
5" 125 139.7 130.0 133.50 4.85
6" 150 165.1 155.4 190.00 4.85
159
9.5.3 Equivalent pipe length A major factor in dimensioning the inside diameter of a pipe di
is the pipe length. Pipelines are not only made up of straight
sections of pipe, the flow resistance of which can quickly be
deduced. Installed bends, valves and other fittings consider-
ably increase flow resistance inside the pipeline. This is the
reason that the effective pipe length L must be determined,
taking into account the fittings and bends.
For simplification, the flow resistance values of various fittings

and bends have been converted into equivalent pipe lengths.
The following table gives the equivalent pipe length in depend-

ency on pipe nominal width and the fitting:
Fittings Equivalent Pipe Length [ m ]
Pipe and Fitting Nominal Width [ DN ]

DN 25 DN 40 DN 50 DN 80 DN 100 DN 125 DN 150
Check valve 8 10 15 25 30 50 60
Diaphragm valve 1.2 2.0 3.0 4.5 6 8 10
Gate valve 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Knee bend 90° 1.5 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 15
Bend 90° R = d 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Bend 90° R = 2d 0.15 0.25 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.5
T-Piece 2 3 4 7 10 15 20
Reduction piece D = 2d 0.5 0.7 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.0
These values must be added to the actual pipe length to ob-

tain the effective pipe length L.
Note
Complete information about fittings and bends are not gener-

ally available at the start of planning a pipeline system. The
effective pipe length L is therefore calculated by multiplying
the straight pipe length by 1.6.
160
9.5.4 Determining the inside diameter d i The following approach formula can be used to dimension
of the pipe by calculation the inside diameter of the pipe. It assumes the maximum
operating pressure p max ( compressor cutout pressure ),
•
the maximum volume flow V ( required output L B ) and the
effective pipe length L. ∆ p is the target pressure loss.
•
5 1,6 × 103 × V1,85 × L
di = ——————————
1010 × ∆p
∆ × pmax
di = Inside diameter of pipeline [m]

•
V = Total volume flow [ m3/s ]
L = Effective pipe length [m]
∆p = Target pressure loss [ bar ]
pmax = Compressor cut-out pressure [ barabs ]
Example
The inside pipe diameter d i of a pneumatic connection line

with a target pressure loss ∆ p of 0,1 bar is to be determined
using the approach formula. The maximum operating pres-
sure p max ( compressor cutout pressure ) is 8 bar abs . A vol-
•
ume flow V of 2 m³/min will flow through pipeline with an
approximate length of 200 m.
•
V = 2 m3/min = 0,033 m3/s
L = 200 m 5 1,6 × 103 × 0,0331,85 × 200

di = ————————————
1010 × 0,1 × 8
∆p = 0,1 bar
pmax = 8 barabs di = 0,037 m = 37 mm
Nominal width selected: DN 40
The inside diameters of pipes are standardised in certain sizes.

But it is rare to find a standard nominal width that matches the
calculated inside diameter. In such cases the next largest stand-
ard nominal width is taken.
161
9.5.5 Determining the inside diameter The pipe inside diameter di can be determined easier and
of the pipe di by graphics faster with a nomogramme than by calculation. The major in-
fluencing factors are the same with calculation method as with
the graphical method.
•
Start by reading the intersection of the volume flow V and the
operating pressure pmax. Proceed by following the thick line in
the example in the direction of the arrow.
Pipe length L [ m ]
Volume flow V [ m3/min ]

Pipe inside diameter di [ mm ]
Pressure loss ∆p in the pipeline[ bar ] Operating pressure p max [ barabs ]
Example
•
Volume flow V = 2 m³/min
Effective pipe length L = 200 m
Pressure loss ∆p = 0,1 bar

Operating pressure pmax = 8 barabs
Pipe inside diameter di = app. 38 mm
The nominal width selected for the pipeline is DN 40
162
9.5.6 Determining the inside diameter The third and simplest method of determining the pipe inside
of the pipe di with the aid of a bar diameter di is the bar graph. However, this method is very
graph limited in application. Two conditions must be met for the bar
graph method to be used:
– A maximum pressure pmax in the network of 8 barop.

– A target pressure loss ∆p of 0,1 bar.
The bar chart is very easy to use:

•
Take the determined maximum volume flow V and the effec-
tive pipe length and find the respective line or column in the
graph. The resulting intersection indicates the correct pipe
nominal width to meet the requirements.
Example
Pressure loss ∆p = 0,1 bar

Operating pressure pmax = 8 barop
Effective pipe length L = 200 m
•
Volume flow V = 2000 l/min
The nominal width of the pipe obtained is DN 40
163
9.6 Choosing the material System pipelines are normally made of steel, non-ferrous metal
for pipelines or plastic. They must meet various criteria, which limits the
choice of material for some applications:
– Protection against corrosion.

The question of resistance to corrosion is always a prime
consideration unless the compressed air is dried in a pre-
treatment unit. The pipes must not rust through over the
course of time.
– Maximum operating temperature.
Some materials lose tensile strength at high temperatures
and become brittle at low temperatures.
– Maximum operating pressure.
The maximum operating pressure drops with increasing
thermal stress.
– Low pressure loss.
Low pressure loss is obtained by high surface quality on
the inside of the pipe.
– Low-cost installation.
Installation prices can be reduced by a multitude of pre-
shaped parts, fast and easy installation and cheap mate-
rial.
9.6.1 Threaded pipes Steel threaded pipes compliant with DIN 2440, DIN 2441 and
DIN 2442 ( medium-weight and heavyweight versions ) are in
widespread use in pneumatic systems. They are used par-
ticularly in small and medium-sized distribution and connec-
tion lines. Threaded pipes are used everywhere where the
demands on the quality of compressed air are not high. They
are available in black and galvanised metal.
– Size DN 6 - DN 150
– Maximum operating pressure max. 10 - 80 barop
– Maximum operating temperature 120° C
Advantages
Threaded pipes are inexpensive and quickly installed. There

are many different and useful shaped parts and fittings to use
with them. The joints can be disconnected and the individual
parts reused.
Disadvantages
Threaded pipes have a high flow resistance and the joints

tend to leak over time. An experienced fitter is needed to in-
stall them. Ungalvanised threaded pipes should not be used
in networks without a dryer, because they corrode.
164
9.6.2 Seamless steel pipes Seamless mild steel pipes compliant with DIN 2448 are chiefly
mainly used in main and distribution lines with medium and
large pipe diameters. They are available in black and galva-
nised finishes.
– Sizes 10.2 - 558,8 mm
– Maximum operating pressure max. 12.5 - 25 barop
Advantages
Seamless mild steel pipes are available in sizes up to 558,8

mm. They are completely airtight if properly laid. Leakage is
therefore practically zero. The pipes are cheap, and there are
relatively many shaped parts to choose from.
Disadvantages
An experienced fitter is needed to lay seamless, mild steel

pipes because they must be welded and flanged. Ungalva-
nised mild steel pipes should not be used in networks without
a dryer, because they corrode.
9.6.3 Stainless steel pipes Stainless steel pipes compliant with DIN 2462 and DIN 2463
are only used in pneumatic networks requiring the highest
quality. They are also often used in the „wet“ sections of a
conventional system between the compressor and the dryer.
– Sizes 6 - 273 mm
– Maximum operating pressure max. 80 barop, part. higher
Advantages
Stainless steel pipes are completely corrosion-proof and have

only low flow resistance ( low pressure loss ). They are abso-
lutely airtight if properly laid. Leakage is therefore practically
zero.
Disadvantages
An experienced fitter is needed to lay seamless, stainless steel

pipes because they must be welded and flanged. The pipes
are very expensive and the availability of shaped parts is
limited.
165
9.6.4 Copper pipes Copper pipes conforming to DIN 1786 and DIN 1754 are used
for small and medium pipes as process control lines. The seam-
less pipes are available in hard, semi-hard and soft qualities.
– Sizes soft 6 - 22 mm
semi-hard 6 - 54 mm
hard 54 - 131 mm
– Maximum operating pressure max. 16 - 140 barop
Advantages
Copper pipes are available in long sections, they can be bent

if the diameter is small, and they are easy to work with. It is
therefore possible to use one piece for longer sections of the
network. This reduces the number of joints. The occurrence of
leaks is also lower.
Copper pipes are corrosion-proof and pressure loss is low

due to the smooth surface of the inside walls.
Disadvantages
An experienced fitter is needed to install copper pipes since

fittings are normally soldered to them. The joints can not be
disconnected.
The material is expensive, but there are many shaped parts to

choose from because copper pipes are also used in the sani-
tary area.
If the lines are longer, the expansion of copper due to heat

must be taken into account. The coefficient of length expan-
sion for copper is greater than that for steel.
If the compressed air contains moisture, particles of copper

may form local galvanic elements in subsequent steel piping,
leading to pitting. Copper vitriol can also arise.
166
9.6.5 Plastic pipes There are plastic pipes as pipe systems from various makers
and in various materials. There are also polyamide pipes for
high pressures and polyethylene pipes for large diameters.
This means that there are plastic pipes with the appropriate
properties for almost every area of application. For this rea-
son it is difficult to generally apply information about sizes,
operating pressures and temperatures.
Advantages
Because plastic pipes do not corrode, there is no need for any

protective surface material. They are up to 80 % lighter than
steel. This simplifies installation and there are fewer demands
placed on the pipefittings.
The inside surface is very smooth. Flow resistance is low ( low

pressure loss ) and deposits such as calcium and rust etc.
have practically no chance to build up. Plastic pipes are usu-
ally harmless from a toxicological and hygienic standpoint.
PVC pipe systems and the like have a large number of shaped
parts and fittings available for them. Installation is very easy.
The pipe sections are fitted together and given an airtight seal
Fig. 9.17: with special adhesive. No special knowledge is necessary for
An assortment of plastic shaped parts and fittings installation. Pressure loss and leakage is generally very low in
plastic piping.
Disadvantages
The low-cost PVC pipe systems have a maximum operating

pressure of only 12.5 bar at 25° C. It must also be carefully
noted that the maximum operating pressure of these plastic
pipes drops heavily if the temperature is increased. For this
reason plastic pipes may not be used in the hot areas of a
compressor station and must be protected from direct sun-
light.
Plastic pipes have large coefficients of linear expansion and

their mechanical stability is not particularly high.
Resistance to certain condensates and types of oil is not al-

ways guaranteed with some plastics. The composition of con-
densates in the network must therefore be checked before-
hand.
Plastic pipes are not made in large quantities for high pres-
sures or large diameters. This makes them expensive and the
number of shaped parts available is limited. An experienced
plastic welder is needed to install these pipes.
167
9.7 Marking pipelines Pipelines must be marked clearly according to the type of
medium they contain according to German law and DIN 2403.
Unambiguous marking also eases correct installation, the plan-
ning of extensions and firefighting.
The marking should indicate possible dangers in order to avert

accidents and physical injury. Appropriate marking also makes
it easier to follow pipelines in a complicated network. For this
reason, the direction of flow of the medium must always be
indicated.
Pipes are marked with ID numbers ( groups ) and colours, both

of which are defined in DIN 2403.
Medium Group Colour Colour number

ID number
Air 3 grey RAL 7001
Water 1 green RAL 6018
Combustible liquids 8 brown RAL 8001
Gas 4/5 yellow RAL 1013
Water steam 2 red RAL 3003
Acids 6 orange RAL 2000
Alkalis 7 violet RAL 4001
Oxygen 0 blue RAL 5015
Colour markings and markings in writing must be applied at

certain points:
– In writing at the start of the line.

– In writing at the end of the line.
– In writing at branches.
Fig. 9.18: – In writing where the line passes through a wall.
Marking plates with cleartext
– In writing at fittings and distribution points.
– In colour by way of rings or continuous paint for the en-
tire length of the line.
Marking plates
Direction of flow.
Colour matches colour code for medium.
Sub-group number ( different line networks ).
Group number of medium.
Fig. 9.19:
Marking plates with ID numbers
168
The Installation Room
10. The Installation Room The installation room of a compressor must satisfy a number
of conditions for correct operation to be assured. When con-
sidering the significance of a well-planned and well-kept in-
stallation room it is important to know that around 2/3 of all
compressor malfunctions are caused by faulty installation, in-
adequate ventilation and a lack of servicing.
The general rules for accident prevention and environmental

protection must also be adhered to.
10.1 Cooling the compressor When designing a compressor station it must be remem-
bered that the compression process inside the compressor
generates a large amount of waste heat. The main principle
100 %
of thermo-dynamics applies, which states that the entire elec-
Electricity trical power intake of the compressor is converted into heat.
intake from the
mains The waste heat must be extracted reliably since there may
9% otherwise be an accumulation of heat in the compressor. If the
Heating
the motor
temperature inside the compressor is too high for too long it
can lead to mechanical damage in the compressor stage and
the drive motor.
The required cooling medium (air or water) can be supplied in

two ways:
4% – Air-cooling.
Residual heat
in the com- Air-cooling is the most common cooling method for all types
pressed air of compressor. When it is used, ventilation of the installa-
75 % 13 % tion room is of particular importance. It must be well planned
Oil cooler Compressed air
aftercooler
and implemented. If not, thermal problems with the com-
pressor are bound to occur.
1% – Water-cooling.
Heat
radiated off
Water cooling may be necessary in larger compressors if
the heat can not be properly extracted by air-cooling. Wa-
ter-cooling places fewer demands on ventilation inside the
95 % installation room.
of energy intake
is extracted by the
cooling medium
( Water/air ) This chapter deals primarily with the requirements and rules
applying to installation rooms for air-cooled compressors. With
Fig. 10.1 : the exception of information concerning ventilation, the mate-
Heat distribution in a screw-type compressor with oil rial in this chapter can be used equally for water-cooled com-
injection cooling. pressors.
169
10.2 Compressor installation When installing compressors and the other components of a
compressor station there are certain conditions to observe
which, if not complied with, may lead to malfunctions. There
are also certain accident prevention and environmental pro-
tection rules to be followed.
10.2.1 General information regarding The installation room should be clean, free of dust, dry and
the installation room cool. Strong sunlight must not be allowed to enter. The room
should be located on the north side of a building wherever
possible, or in a well-ventilated basement.
There should be no heat-emitting pipes or assemblies in the

installation room of a compressor. If this can not be avoided,
the pipes and assemblies must be adequately insulated.
Easy accessibility and good lighting should be provided for

servicing work and periodic inspections of the compressed air
receivers.
A compressor installation room must always be properly ven-

tilated to prevent the ambient temperature from exceeding the
maximum admissible levels.
Fig. 10.2 :
Compressor station with 2 screw-type compressors,
refrigerant air dryer, compressed air receiver and
oil/water separator.
10.2.2 Admissible ambient temperature Compressors operate ideally at ambient temperatures between
+20° and +25° C. The following ambient temperatures apply
for piston and screw-type compressors :
– Minimum + 5° C.
If the temperature falls below + 5° C, pipelines and valves
can ice up. This can cause the compressor to malfunction.
Screw-type compressors switch off automatically if the
temperature is below the minimum admissible compres-
sion temperature.
An additional anti-freeze facility allows ambient tempera-
tures down to -10° C.
– Maximum + 40° C.
Maximum + 35° C with sound-insulated piston-type com-
pressors.
If the ambient temperature rises above the maximum level,
the compressed air outlet temperature may exceed the
maximum statutory level. The quality of the compressed
air deteriorates, the components of the compressor are
subjected to more strain, and the servicing intervals are
shorter. Screw-type compressors switch off automatically
if the temperature is above the maximum admissible com-
pression temperature.
170
10.2.3 Fire safety rules for installation The following rules apply for rooms where compressors with
rooms oil injection cooling are to be installed:
– The room must have special fire protection if the com-

pressor motor rating is over 40 kW.
– Compressors with a motor rating of over 100 kW must
be installed in a separate fire-protected room.
Requirements for fire-protected installation rooms:
– The walls, ceilings, floors and doors must be Fire safety

category F30 or better.
– No inflammable liquids may be stored in the installation
room.
– The floor area around the compressor must not be made
of combustible material.
– Leaking oil must not be allowed to spread on the floor.
– There must be no inflammable substances within a radius
of at least three metres from the compressor.
– No combustible system parts, such as cable lines, may
be laid over the compressor.
10.2.4 Disposal of condensate The inducted air contains water in the form of vapour which
turns into condensate during compression. This condensate
contains oil. It may not be allowed into the public sewage net-
work without being processed.
Always follow the appropriate drainage rules set by the local

authority.
BOGE recommends the ÖWAMAT for processing the conden-

sate. The purified water can be drained into the public sewage
lines. The oil is caught in a catch pan and must then be dis-
posed of in a responsible manner.
171
10.2.5 Compressor installation When installing compressors, the following general points must
instructions be observed, regardless of ventilation:
– When installing a compressor or compressed air receiver

a flat industrial floor without foundation will suffice. Special
mountings are not generally needed..
– Compressors should always be located on elastic mount-
ings. This stops vibration being transmitted to the floor, and
the compressor noise being carried to other parts of the
building.
– The compressor should be connected to fixed lines with a
BOGE high pressure hose of approx. 0.5 m in length. This
prevents vibration from the compressor being transmitted
to the compressed air line and compensates inaccurate
lines.
– The compressor must be fitted with paper induction filters
if there is a heavy dust occurrence at the installation point.
This keeps wear on the compressor to a minimum.
– Compressor units must never be covered by hoods or clad-
ding. Measures of this type always lead to thermal prob-
lems. An exception to this is the original BOGE sound insu-
lation hood, which is specially designed for each individual
compressor.
10.2.6 The space requirement of a A compressor requires a certain amount of space, and this
compressor depends on the construction and type of compressor con-
cerned. From this arise compressor-specific minimum dis-
tances in all directions.
Air supply possible

– The compressor must be installed to allow easy access for
operation and servicing.
Wall mounting possible
Corner – For the cooling of a compressor to be assured, there must
inst. be a certain minimum distance between the ventilator or
possible
cooler and the neighbouring wall or other systems. If this is
Compres-
sed air
not provided for, the effect of the ventilator or cooler is much
connection reduced and efficient cooling is no longer guaranteed.
Air
supply – When several compressors are installed adjacently the
heated cooling air of one compressor must not be used as
the cooling air of another.
Operating side
The minimum distances to walls and neighbouring equipment

Fig. 10.3 : and machinery can sometimes vary greatly, depending on the
Space requirement plan for a sound-insulated types and versions of the compressors. These are to be taken
screw-type compressor, model S 21 - S 30 from the respective operating instructions.
172
10.2.7 Conditions for installing Certain accident prevention rules must be followed when in-
compressed air receivers stalling compressed air receivers.
– Compressed air receivers must be protected from external

damage ( e.g., falling objects ).
– The receiver and its equipment must be able to be oper-
ated from a safe location.
– Safety areas and distances must be observed.
– The receiver must be safe where it stands. It must not move
or tilt by the application of external force. This includes the
additional weight during pressure testing! A reinforced
foundation may be necessary for large compressed air
receivers.
– The factory specification plate must be well visible.
– Compressed air receivers must have reasonable protec-
tion against corrosion.
– Vertical receivers are brought horizontally into the com-
pressor rooms and then set up on their feet. The diagonal
height of the receiver must therefore be taken into account
in the dimensions of the room, otherwise it will be impos-
sible to set up the receiver.
173
10.3 Ventilation of a compressor The most important requirement for operating air-cooled com-
•
station pressors is an adequate flow of cooling air V c. The waste heat
generated by the compressor must be reliably extracted at all
times. There are three different possibilities for ventilation, de-
pending on the rooms available, and the type and model of
the compressor:
– Natural ventilation.
Ventilation through the air inlet and outlet apertures in
the side walls or the ceiling by natural means i.e., without
assistance from a ventilator.
– Artificial ventilation.
Ventilation through the air inlet and outlet apertures in
the side walls or the ceiling with the assistance of an outlet
ventilator.
– Air inlet and outlet ducts.
Ventilation by means of appropriate ducts, usually with the
assistance of an exhaust ventilator.
– With water-cooled compressors the main heat is extracted
by the cooling water. The residual heat ( radiated from the
motor ) must be extracted by cooling air.
10.3.1 Factors influencing the flow of A compressor generates a certain amount of waste heat de-
•
cooling air of a V c of a compressor pending on its drive rating. On air-cooled compressors this
•
heat must be extracted by a flow of cooling air Vc.
•
The volume of cooling air Vc is influenced by several factors as
well as the drive rating of the compressor :
– Transmission heat
A part of the heat generated is emitted as transmission
heat by the walls enclosing the installation room ( includ-
ing the windows and doors ). The constitution of the walls,
the ceiling, the floor, doors and windows have a consider-
•
able influence on the flow of cooling air Vc.
– Room temperature.
The higher the temperature of the installation room, the
greater the requirement for cooling air.
– Temperature gradient.
The greater the difference ∆t between the outside and in-
side temperature, the lower the requirement for cooling air.
– Room height and site.
The greater the height and size of the room, the better the
distribution of the generated heat, and the requirement for
cooling air drops accordingly.
174
10.3.2 Definition of the factors influencing To obtain generally applicable values for the flow of cooling
• •
the flow of cooling air V c to and airV c the following outline conditions have been set that influ-
•
from a compressor ence the volume of cooling air V c.
– Room temperature 35° C = 308 K

– Temperature gradient ∆t 10 K
– Wall thickness 25 cm
The surrounding walls are assumed to be homogenous
brick walls without windows and doors.
– Room height and size.
The room height is defined as being lower than 3 m and
the area of the room less than 50 m².
The defined outline conditions above assume the least favour-

able admissible environment for operating the compressor. The
•
values calculated for the flow of cooling air V c are generally
applicable because conditions in real installation rooms are
normally better.
Thermal problems will not occur if the recommended flow of

•
cooling air V c for a compressor is assured.
175
10.3.3 General information for ventilation This chapter specifies the most important conditions concern-
of compressor rooms ing air supply and extraction that must be satisfied by the in-
stallation room of one or more air-cooled compressors. They
are based on the requirements set forth in VDMA specifica-
tion sheet 4363 „Ventilation of installation rooms for air-cooled
compressors“.
– Hot air always rises. To allow an effective exchange of heat,

the (inlet) apertures for the supply of cold air must be lo-
cated close to the ground and the (outlet) exhaust aper-
tures must be in the ceiling or in a side wall at the top.
– The compressor must be installed next to the air inlet aper-
ture Ain so that it draws fresh air for compression and cool-
ing air for ventilation directly from the inlet aperture Ain.
– The compressor must be positioned so that it can not re-
induct its own heated exhaust air..
– The inlet apertures or ducts of the compressor must be
Fig. 10.4 :
arranged so that dangerous admixtures ( e.g., explosive or
Arrangement of air inlet and outlet apertures
chemically unstable substances ) can not be inducted.
– The exhaust air should flow from the compressor via the
compressed air receiver ( if fitted ) to the outlet aperture
Aout. The assemblies in the installation room should be
Air inlet apertures arranged accordingly.
with roller shutters
– Adjustable roller shutters must be installed in the air inlet
apertures Ain. This allows the flow of cold air from the out-
side to be reduced and the temperature should then not
fall below the minimum admissible level in Winter. If this is
not sufficient, the compressor must be equipped with its
own heater. The accessories required can be obtained from
BOGE.
– When installing several compressors in one room, care must
be taken that there is no thermal interaction between them.
If one compressor draws in the exhaust air from another
compressor, the system will overheat. The ventilation must
cater for the total cooling-air requirement for all compres-
sors. Ideally, each compressor should have its own air inlet
aperture of a size according to its need.
Air outlet aperture

with ventilator,
if required
Fig. 10.5 :
Installation room with three sound-insulated
compressors
176
10.3.4 Natural ventilation With natural ventilation, the circulation of air is controlled by
an air inlet aperture Ain and an air outlet aperture Aout in the
side walls of the installation room. Heat is exchanged by the
natural circulation of air only, since hot air rises. For adequate
ventilation to be provided, the air inlet aperture must be lo-
cated as far as possible below the air outlet aperture.
Experience shows that this method of ventilation is only suit-

able for compressors with ratings of up to 22 kW. Even smaller
compressors can have ventilation problems, depending on the
conditions in the installation room.
•
10.3.4.1 Outlet air aperture required An adequate flow of cooling-air V c can only be obtained with
for natural ventilation natural ventilation if the air inlet and outlet apertures are of an
appropriate size.
The figures in the following table are based on VDMA speci-

fication sheet 4363 „Ventilation of installation rooms for air-
cooled compressors“.
•
VK
Ain
Aout Drive Required flow of Required ventil-
rating cooling-air ation apertures
•
P Vc Ain and Aout
[ kW ] [ m³/hr ] [ m² ]
3,0 1350 0,20

Fig. 10.6 :
Natural ventilation of a compressor installation room 4,0 1800 0,25
with a sound-insulated BOGE screw-type compres- 5,5 2270 0,30
sor 7,5 3025 0,40
11,0 3700 0,50
15,0 4900 0,65
18,5 6000 0,75
22,0 7000 0,90
In principle, the air inlet Ain and outlet apertures Aout should
be of equal size. The cooling air has to pass through both
apertures. But taking into account the installation of roller shut-
ters, grids and the like, the air inlet aperture should be
approx.20 % larger than the air outlet aperture Aout. If this is
not the case, the maximum admissible ambient temperature
may be exceeded..
Note
•
When defining the flow of cooling-air V c for a compressor sta-
tion, the cooling-air requirement of a cold compressed air dryer
or heat-generating absorption dryer must be included in the
calculations.
177
10.3.5 Artificial ventilation In many cases natural ventilation of the installation room is
insufficient. Due to structural aspects or the high output of the
installed compressor the flow of cooling air is inadequate for
• the task. In these cases, the hot air must be extracted with the
VV
aid of a ventilator.
Ain Artificial ventilation increases the flow speed of cooling air
Ventilator inside the installation room and guarantees the required flow
of air by forced ventilation. There are greater reserves when
outside temperatures are high. The inlet air aperture must be
modified to cater for the ventilator output.
The ventilator(s) should, for reasons of economy, be control-

led in several stages by a thermostat. The control depends on
Fig. 10.7 :
the temperature in the installation room. The higher the tem-
Artificial ventilation of a compressor room with a
sound-insulated BOGE screw-type compressor perature rises, the greater the output rate of the ventilator.
•
10.3.5.1 Required ventilator output with As with natural ventilation, the required flow of cooling air V c is
artificial ventilation derived from the output of the installed compressor. The waste
heat generated by the compressor must be reliably extracted.
•
The ventilator output V V is approx. 15 % greater than the re-
•
quired flow of cooling-air V c. This guarantees perfect cooling,
even in high Summer.
The figures in the following table are based on VDMA speci-
fication sheet 4363 „Ventilation of installation rooms for air-
cooled compressors“.
Drive Required
rating ventilator output
•
P VV
[ kW ] [ m³/hr ]
4.0 1800
5.5 2270
7.5 3025
11.0 3700
15.0 4900
18.5 6000
22.0 7000
30.0 9500
37.0 11000
45.0 14000
55.0 17000
65.0 20000
75.0 23000
90.0 28000
110.0 34000
132.0 40000
160.0 50000
200.0 62000
250.0 70000
178
10.3.5.2 Required inlet air aperture with With artificial ventilation, the exhaust ventilator determines the
artificial ventilation size of the air outlet aperture.
The aperture needed for an exhaust ventilator is normally much

smaller than that required for natural ventilation.
The size of the air inlet aperture Ain depends on the ventilator
•
output V V and the maximum flow speed vS in the inlet aper-
ture.
It is preferable to calculate with a flow speed of vS = 3 m/s.

However, if structural considerations do not permit the size of
aperture resulting from this calculation, it is also possible to
use a flow speed of vS = 5 m/s.
The minimum size of the air inlet aperture is calculated with

the aid of the following formula:
•
VV
Ain = —————
3600 × vS
m³/hr
m² = ———————
3600 s/h × m/s
Ain = minimum area of air inlet aperture [ m³ ]

•
VV = Ventilator output [ m³/h ]
vS = maximum flow speed [ m/s ]
Note
It is to be remembered when choosing exhaust ventilators,

that the flow of cooling-air is subject to the same laws of phys-
ics as the compressed air. Even when cooling-air flows through
ducts and apertures, when flow speed increases the dynamic
pressure ∆p ( pressure loss ) rises. A ventilator can only over-
come dynamic pressure that lies below its defined surface
pressure. If the dynamic pressure is higher than the surface
pressure of the ventilator, no volume flow can occur.
The maximum dynamic pressure is determined from the shape

and size of the air inlet and outlet apertures together with the
respective ducts ( if fitted ). The flow speed must also be taken
into account.
A ∆p = 100 Pa ( 10 mm WH ) can be assumed for simple

apertures without unfavourable diversion (ducting).
179
10.3.5.3 Example of artificial ventilation A screw-type compressor, model S 21, is to be operated to-
of a compressor station gether with a cold compressed air dryer D 27 in a small in-
stallation room. Structural considerations do not allow natural
ventilation. Artificial ventilation with a ventilator is therefore
required.
BOGE screw-type compressor, model S 21

•
Output V : 2.42 m³/min
Motor rating : 15 kW
•
Cooling-air req. V V1 : 4900 m³/hr ( see page 178 )
Cold compressed air dryer, model D 27

•
Through-flow rate V : 2.66 m³/min
•
Cooling air req. V V2 : 770 m³/min ( see data sheet )
The two flows of cooling air must be added together. The re-
sult is the required ventilator output that must be provided in
the installation room.
•
Ventilator output V Vttl : 5670 m³/hr
Fig. 10.8 :
Compressor station with screw-type compressor, The required size of air inlet aperture is calculated using ven-
•
cooling compressed air dryer, compressed air tilator output V Vttl and the maximum flow speed vS = 3 m/s:
receiver
•
VVttl
Ain = —————
3600 × vS
5670
Ain = —————
3600 × 3
Ain = 0.525 m²
Ain = minimum area of air inlet aperture [ m³ ]

•
V Vttl = Ventilator output [ m³/hr ]
A ventilator with an output of 5670 m³/hr must be installed in

the installation room ( The dynamic pressure of the apertures
must be taken into account when choosing the ventilator ).
The air inlet aperture Ain should be at least 0.525 m² in size.
180
10.3.6 Circulation of cooling-air The circulation of cooling air through inlet and outlet ducts is
with inlet and outlet ducts an elegant solution to thermal problems in a compressor in-
stallation room.
Duct ventilation is possible with sound-insulated compressors.

The cool air is directed over the compressor and kept together
for extraction. BOGE screw-type compressors are fitted with a
cooling ventilator that generates a surface pressure of approx.
60 Pa ( approx. 6 mm WH ). This means that it can force ex-
haust air through a straight outlet duct of approx. 5 m in length
and with the recommended cross-section.
The ducts can be connected to the apertures in the sound

insulation hood without difficulty. There is normally no need
for an additional exhaust ventilator inside the duct.
The cool-air ducts direct the air out into the open. But they can
also be fitted with flap controls to use the heated air for room
heating in Winter. If the compressor rooms are unheated, it
Fig. 10.9 : may be desirable in Winter to use an air circulation system
Circulation of cooling-air in a BOGE screw-type with part of the heated cooling air being released into the com-
compressor from series S 21 - S 150 pressor room.
10.3.6.1 Air inlet ducts It is also possible in principle to supply cooling air to compres-
sors by way of ducts. However, an air inlet duct reduces the
induction volume flow ( dynamic pressure ) and thus has a
negative effect on the output of the compressor. For this rea-
son, cooling air should only be supplied through ducts in the
following situations:
– Unclean environment.
The induction air at the location of the compressor con-
tains a high proportion of dirt, dust, chemical impurities or
it contains too much moisture. Under these conditions
the air supply should be drawn from a cleaner part of the
building.
– High ambient temperature.
The temperature at the compressor’s location is distinctly
higher than that in neighbouring rooms or outside the build-
ing. This is possible if a lot of heat is given off by systems
and machinery in the compressor room.
181
10.3.6.2 Extraction of air through Compressor rooms containing individual units can usually be
a cool-air duct cooled by a appropriately arranged exhaust ventilator or by
natural ventilation. When there are several compressors set
up in one installation room, the use of cool-air ducts is always
recommended.
Ad •
Vd
Ain When ducts are fitted, the installation room is not heated as
much by waste heat from the compressor.
The difference in temperature ∆t between the inlet and outlet

air is approx. 20 K. The flow speed in the outlet ducts should
not exceed 6 m/s. The cross section (radius) required for the
duct is therefore much smaller than the wall aperture when
using natural or artificial ventilation.
Fig. 10.10 :
Extraction of air from a compressor room with a
BOGE screw-type compressor, emitting the air into
the open
• •
10.3.6.3 Required flow of cooling-air V d The figures for the required flow of cooling air V d with ducts
and cross-section of duct Ad given in the following table are based on VDMA specification
when using a cool-air duct sheet 4363 „Ventilation of installation rooms for air-cooled com-
pressors“. An increase in the temperature of the cooling-air of
Dt = 20 K is assumed.
The calculation used to determine the required free cross-

section of the duct Ad are based on a maximum dynamic pres-
sure in the duct of 50 Pa ( 5 mm WH). This corresponds to
approx. 5 m of straight outlet duct, with no bends, tapering or
objects inside, a flow speed of 4 – 6 m/s.
Drive Required flow of Required

rating cooling-air free cross-
with exhaust duct section for duct
•
P Vd Ad
[ kW ] [ m³/hr ] [ m² ]
4.0 800 0.08
5.5 1000 0.10
7.5 1300 0.13
11.0 1700 0.13
15.0 2900 0.15
18.5 4500 0.23
22.0 4500 0.26
30.0 4500 0.33
37.0 6500 0.41
45.0 6500 0.48
55.0 8000 0.59
65.0 8600 0.64
75.0 9200 0.68
90.0 16000 0.85
110.0 16000 1.11
132.0 24400 1.24
160.0 24400 1.61
200.0 27800 2.06
250.0 33600 2.49
182
10.3.6.4 Information concerning ventilation All objects or features inside ducts, such as diversions, filters,
by ducting roller-shutter flaps, curvatures, T-pieces and silencers cause
an increase in flow resistance and thus an obstacle to the flow
of air. If the duct has many such features and is very long, the
size of the recommended free cross-section (radius) of the
duct must be checked by an expert.
There are appropriate fire safety measures prescribed to pre-

vent fire from spreading through ventilation ducts. DIN 4102,
part 6 requires the installation of automatic fire safety flaps
whenever ventilation ducts pass through a wall.
If the duct is long or unfavourably laid, the dynamic pressure

can be over 50 Pa ( 5 mm WH ). In this case there is a risk that
the cooling ventilator of a screw-type compressor can not over-
come the dynamic pressure in the duct. This means that cool-
ing air stops flowing and the entire cooling effort for the com-
pressor collapses. In this case an auxiliary ventilator will have
to be installed.
The air inlet and outlet flaps as well as the ventilators should,
for economical reasons, be controlled by a thermostat in the
installation room.
The cooling-air ducts must never be mounted directly on the

compressor housing. Compensators that remove tension and
stop the transmission of vibration must always be used.
A cooling-air duct with sound-insulation cladding radiates less

heat to the surroundings and also suppresses noise that comes
out of the compressor with the exhaust air.
BOGE generally recommends that the task of installing the

ducts and any associated construction work be given to a spe-
cialist company.
With multiple units, each compressor must have its own air
inlet and outlet duct.
When using a collective duct for multiple units, automatic check

flaps must be used to prevent heated cooling-air flowing over
a compressor that is switched off in the installation room and
heating the inlet air.
183
10.3.6.5 Dimensioning the air inlet aperture The size of the air inlet aperture Ain is dependent on the flow
when using an outlet duct of cooling-air Vd and the maximum flow speed vS in the aper-
ture itself.
It is preferable to calculate with a flow speed of vS = 3 m/s.

However, if structural considerations do not permit the size of
aperture resulting from this calculation, it is also possible to
use a flow speed of vS = 5 m/s.
The minimum size of the air inlet aperture is calculated with

the aid of the following formula:
•
Vd
Ain = —————
3600 × vS
m³/h
m² = ———————
3600 s/h × m/s
A in = minimum area of outlet aperture [ m³ ]

•
Vd = Ventilator output [ m³/h ]
184
10.3.6.6 Variations of duct-type

ventilation
The duct directs the hot exhaust air directly into the open. This
Cooling-air method is recommended if there are high temperatures in the
compressor room.
Fig. 10.11 :
Extraction of air into the open using an outlet duct
Cooling-air
Summer operation
The outlet duct directs the hot cooling-air directly into the open.
When temperatures in the installation room are cold, hot ex-
Cooling-air
haust air is added to the cold room air through a circulation
Winter operation flap. The circulatory ventilation prevents the unit from freezing
when outside temperatures are below zero. It is also recom-
mended to have auxiliary heating to prevent a cold compres-
sor from freezing during the start-up phase.
When this method is used, it is necessary to have an air outlet

aperture dimensioned according to the flow of cooling-air in
Fig. 10.12 : addition to the outlet duct itself.
Outlet duct with circulation flap
Cooling-air Cooling-air
Winter operation Summer operation
Inlet air
Fig.10.13 : When the outdoor temperature is cold (in Winter) duct directs
Using hot cooling-air for heating all or some of the heated cooling-air from the compressor into
other rooms in the building in order to heat them. When out-
door temperatures are hotter ( in Summer ) the duct emits the
air directly into the open.
With this configuration, the inlet air is mostly drawn from heated
rooms. This guarantees that the cooling-air is warm enough
when ambient temperatures are low. The compressor then
always operates above the minimum admissible temperature.
Air filters and silencers should be installed in the outlet duct in
order to reduce dust and noise in the rooms heated.
185
10.4 Example installation plans
10.4.1 Installation of a screw-type

compressor: an example
Compressed air receiver

Filter
Compressed air
emission
Outlet air
Oil/water separator
Bypass
Condensate diverter Water Oil
Condensate line
Inlet
air
Operating side HP hose

Screw-type compressor Refrigerant air dryer
Safety distance
acc. to VDE 0100
186
10.4.2 Installation of piston-type

compressor: an example
Compressed air receiver

1000 l
Compressed air
Sub-micro filter
Servicing space emission
F 30 Active carbon
G 3/4
filter A 30
Piston-type compressor
SCL 1160-25
Oil/water separator
Water Refrigerant air dryer

D 12
with Bekomat 2
req. air inlet

aperture 0.4m² HP hose Condensate diverter Bekomat 2
Condensate line
Operating side
Servicing space
Safety distance
Servicing space
187
Heat reclamation
11. Heat reclamation Rising energy costs and increasing environmental awareness
led many compressor-users to the view that the enormous
potential of compressor heat must not longer be allowed to
escape unused. They approached the compressor makers who
developed high performance heat reclamation systems. Since
then, the heat given off by compressors has been utilised. It
serves to heat rooms, and to heat utility and heating water.
11.1 The heat balance of a To be able to appreciate the possibilities of heat reclamation
compressor station from compressors it must be taken into account that on the
basis of the first principle of thermodynamics the entire elec-
tricity intake of a compressor is converted into heat. In order
100 %
Electrical to make this heat useful one must know where it occurs and
intake from the what proportion of it can be economically reclaimed for fur-
mains ther use.
9%
Heating The heat is always discharged with the aid of a coolant. This
the motor
coolant contains approx. 95 % of the electrical energy enter-
ing the compressor in the form of heat. Approx. 4 % remains in
the compressed air as residual heat and approx. 1 % is lost to
the atmosphere by radiation.
When drawing up the balance sheet, assumptions should not

4%
Residual heat
be based only on the output from the motor that the compres-
in the com- sor needs to compress the air. The electric motor itself con-
pressed air verts energy into heat. One must also consider the efficiency
75 % 13 % rate of the motor, which according to the drive rating lies
Oil cooler Compressed air
between 80 % and 92 %. This again increases the amount
after-cooler
of heat emitted.
1%
Radiated
heat
95 %
of energy intake
is extracted by the
cooling medium
( water/air )
Fig. 11.1 :
Distribution of heat in a screw compressor with oil
injection cooling
188
Heat reclamation
11.2 Room heating The most obvious use for compressor heat is to heat rooms.
With the simplest method of room heating the compressor is

installed in the room to be heated. This means that the com-
pressor is installed directly in the workshop or storeroom, usu-
ally close to workplaces.
In this case, the only ducts required are those to discharge

hot air into the open during Summer. The heating air does not
require to be transported over long distances.
Of course, there must be adequate cooling for the compres-

sor. Sound insulation is normally required by safety rules.
11.2.1 Room heating through ducting To utilise the heat emitted by a central compressor station the
heated flow of cooling air must be brought through ducts into
6 7 5 6 the rooms to be heated. This is only recommended for larger
compressors since smaller ones do not provide enough us-
5
able heat.
8 The flow of cold air passes over the compressor and drive
motor. The cooling air absorbs the emitted heat and is drawn
into an outlet duct with the aid of a ventilator. In this process
the cooling air normally heats up to + 50° / + 60° C.
One use of compressor heat for room heating requires a si-

lenced compressor with ducted cooling air. BOGE screw com-
pressors are all silenced and fitted with an internal ventilator.
For this reason they can be connected to a ducting system
without difficulty. Non-silenced compressors ( e.g., most pis-
ton compressors ) can not be upgraded later for utilisation of
emitted heat, even if an adjusted sound-insulation hood is
9 2 1 4 3 fitted.
1 = Silenced compressor
2 = Inlet duct
3 = Outlet duct
4 = Additional exhaust ventilator
5 = Control flaps
( thermostatically controlled )
6 = Air outlet duct
( Room heating )
7 = Heat exchanger
8 = Air outlet duct
( into the open for Summer operation )
9 = Air inlet flap
Fig. 11.2 :
Op. diagram of ducting
189
Heat reclamation
11.2.2 Operation of room heating Insulated ducts conduct the warm cooling air of a compressor
or compressors at low outside temperatures into the building.
This heats the respective rooms. If the outside temperatures
are high, a duct directs the cooling air directly into the open.
The flow of cooling air is directed by inlet and control flaps.

These flaps and the ventilators should be controlled by an
adjustable room thermostat which monitors the temperature
in the heated rooms.
Fire safety measures are prescribed to prevent fire spreading

through the ventilation ducts. DIN 4102, Part 6 requires that
self-closing fire safety flaps be installed if the ventilation flaps
pass through a wall.
It is possible to heat exchangers in the ducts. With the aid of

these heat exchangers, water can be heated to a temperature
of approx. + 40° C. This hot water can assist a central heating
system or be used as utility water.
11.2.3 Economy of room heating The installation costs of room heating can be very high in pro-
portion to to energy costs saved. Before installing an expen-
sive system, it should be checked that enough heat is gener-
ated to justify the expense of a ducting system. It should be
taken into account that the flow of hot air inevitably cools down
if it has to travel long distances through a ducting system. The
investment must be in the correct proportion to the heating
costs saved.
The cost savings increase the more the compressor is used.

The more the compressor runs, the more effective the room
heating is.
190
Heat reclamation
11.3 The Duotherm For screw compressors with oil injection cooling there are
heat exchanger special heat reclamation systems for heating utility water or
heating water. . A heat exchanger is installed in the main flow
path of hot oil in the compressor. Utility or heating water is
heated by this hot compressor oil.
The Duotherm heat exchangers operate independently of the

type of compressor cooling because the heat exchanger is
installed as a pre-cooler before the actual air and water cooler.
11.3.1 Duotherm BPT The Duotherm BPT-System is used for heating water or hot
production water. The heart of this system is a plate heat ex-
changer consisting of a number of profiled, stainless steel
plates. The piled plates form a mutually isolated two channel
system. A Special process of hard-soldering connects these
layered plates together. Seals, which have the inherent risk of
leaks, are not required. The resulting heat exchanger works
very effectively and reliably.
Operating principle
The oil heated to approx. + 90° C by the compressor circuit

flows through the plate heat exchanger. The water coming in
Fig. 11.3 :
The heat reclamation system reverse flow through the exchanger is heated up to +70° C.
BOGE-Duotherm BPT The heated quantity of water is independent of the tempera-
ture difference in this process.
Compressed air There is a thermostatic oil control valve before and after the
outlet heat exchanger. Depending on the oil temperature the flow
of oil is either sent through the oil cooler and also the heat
1 2 3 5
9 10 exchanger or through a bypass.
4
Features
8 – When the stop valves in the water inlet and outlet are closed
6 Return an enclosed space is formed at the same time. When the
water heats in this space it expands and the pressure rises.
11 An expansion vessel and safety valve must be installed in
order to prevent damage to the plate heat exchanger.
Advance
– If the water is very dirty, a dirt pan with a maximum pore
7
6 width of 0.6 mm should be installed in the line.
– Flush connections for cleaning the heat exchanger must
1 = Intake filter be fitted.
2 = Suction controller
– This heat exchanger is normally integrated in the com-
pressor cabinet. It can be set up separately or fitted on site
4 = Combined compressed air/oil vessel
later.
5 = Oil separator
6 = Thermostatic oil control valve
7 = Oil cooler
8 = Oil filter
9 = Min. pressure non-return valve
10 = Compressed air aftercooler
11 = Heat exchanger
Fig. 11.4 :
Flow diagram of BOGE-Duotherm BPT
191
Heat reclamation
11.3.2 Duotherm BSW The Duotherm BSW-System is used to heat drinking and util-
ity water. Since other rules apply in the sanitary area, this is a
safety heat exchanger. Two independent circuits are kept apart
by a separation liquid.
The BSW-System is a pipe bundle heat exchanger in which
one pipe is inserted into another without making contact. The
safety area in this double pipe is filled with a non-toxic separa-
Fig. 11.5 : tion liquid. The liquid transmits the heat and in the event of
The heat reclamation system damage it prevents the water from mixing with the oil. The
BOGE-Duotherm BSW drinking water can therefore not be contaminated.
A pressure monitor switches immediately in the event of pipe
breakage. The emitted impulse can be processed elsewhere
( e.g., for an alarm or to shut down the system ).
Compressed air
outlet Operating principle
3 The oil from the compressor circuit heated to approx. + 90° C
1 2 5
9 10 flows through a pipe bundle. The separating liquid transmits
4 the heat to the utility water in the second bundle. The water
coming in reverse flow through the second pipe bundle can be
heated to approx. 55° C. The quantity of water heated depends
8 on the temperature difference. The heated water is subse-
Return
quently directed to a appropriate container ( boiler ) from where
6 it can be transported to the hot water circuit.
12 13
There is a thermostatic oil control valve before and after the
heat exchanger. Depending on the oil temperature the flow of
oil is either sent through the oil cooler and also the heat ex-
11 changer or through a bypass.
Advance
Features
7 6 – The pressure monitor must be set to a value that is at least
20 % below the minimum pressure of the media used.
– Conditions for use
1 = Intake filter Minimum water pressure 0,5 bar
2 = Suction controller Maximum water pressure 16 bar
3 = Compressor stage Maximum oil pressure 16 bar
4 = Combined compressed air/oil vessel Maximum pressure of separating liquid 10 bar
5 = Oil separator Maximum temperature ( oil and water ) +100° C
6 = Thermostatic oil control valve If the maximum temperature is exceeded, malfunctions will
7 = Oil cooler follow and an alarm will be actuated.
8 = Oil filter
– Because of its size, the BSW safety heat exchanger is in-
9 = Min. pressure non-return valve
tegrated in the compressor cabinet. It can also be set up
10 = Compressed air aftercooler
separately or fitted later on site.
11 = Safety heat exchanger
12 = Pressure monitor for aperture
13 = Expansion vessel
Fig. 11.6 :
Flow diagram of BOGE-Duotherm BSW
192
Heat reclamation
11.3.3 How much energy is it possible The Duotherm-System makes available 75 % of the electrical
to save ? power taken into the compressor. This takes in the form of
heat discharged by the compressor oil.
The values given in the table for the quantity of heat and water
have been calculated on the basis of energy retention and the
general laws of heat transfer. They are in principle applicable
for both Duotherm systems. When using a Duotherm BWT
system it is not economical to heat utility water to above + 55° C
because the amount of water heated is too small.
The values given assume continuous compressor operation,

and heat loss is not taken into account because local condi-
tions vary. The calculation of savings for heating costs is based
on conventional oil heating :
– Specific heating value H for heating oil 38.0 MJ/l
– Price of heating oil 0.40 DM/l
– Heating efficiency 75 %
– Operating hours 1000 hrs
Drive- Discharged Usable Quantity of water at Cost

rating power quantity of ∆ t 25 K ∆ t 35 K ∆ t 50 K savings
heat 313 → 338 K 293 → 328 K 293 → 343 K at 1000 hrs
[ kW ] [ kW/h ] [ MJ/h ] [ m3/h ] [ m3/h ] [ m3/h ] [ DM ]
11.0 8.9 32.0 0.305 0.217 0.152 449.-

15.0 12.3 44.2 0.420 0.300 0.210 620.-
18.5 14.8 53.2 0.509 0.363 0.255 746.-
22.0 17.7 63.7 0.609 0.435 0.305 894.-
30.0 24.4 87.8 0.835 0.596 0.417 1232.-
37.0 30.3 109.0 1.040 0.743 0.520 1530.-
45.0 37.7 135.7 1.295 0.925 0.647 1905.-
55.0 45.5 163.8 1.565 1.118 0.782 2300.-
65.0 54.9 197.6 1.885 1.346 0.942 2770.-
75.0 63.1 227.1 2.170 1.550 1.085 3187.-
90.0 74.0 266.4 2.545 1.818 1.272 3740.-
110.0 90.0 324.0 3.095 2.210 1.547 4547.-
132.0 110.5 397.0 3.800 2.714 1.900 5570.-
160.0 133.5 480.6 4.590 3.278 2.295 6745.-
200.0 168.3 605.8 5.790 4.136 2.895 8500.-
250,0 208,9 752,0 7,180 5,128 3,590 10550,-
193
Heat reclamation
11.4 Closing remarks concerning Compressors offer enormous possibilities for saving energy
heat reclamation and costs through exploitation of heat emission. However, it is
not wise to attempt to force heat from a small compressor. It is
normally only worth the expense with large screw and piston
compressors and combined systems. The usable energy rises
with the capacity of the compressor.
The investment costs for a heat reclamation system depend

much on local conditions. They must be taken into account
because they are a big influence on the amortisation time of
the system.
A principle decision must be made whether to use the emitted

heat for room heating or for utility and heating water. Remem-
ber that room heating is seldom used in Summer.
Compressor usage is also a major factor. The longer it oper-

ates, the more heat there is, and it is available continuously
and in ample supply.
Before such a system is installed, a needs analysis should

always be made for the heat requirement. This analysis can
then be compared with the average running time of the com-
pressor.
This comparison then allows the true value of the heat recla-
mation system to be seen. It will also show whether reclama-
tion can cover the demand for heating or whether a second
heating system is needed.
194
Sound
12. Sound
12.1 The nature of sound Sound waves are mechanical vibrations of an elastic medium.
Starting from a sound source, a vibrating body, they spread
in solid bodies, liquids and gases in the form of pressure
fluctuations( pressure waves ). The study of sound is called
acoustics.
Vibrating bodies of all aggregate conditions can transmit sound
waves.These are known as sound sources.These can be strings,
rods, plates, columns of air, membranes, machines etc.
If the vibrations are emitted from the ambient air they are known
as airborne sound.
The vibrating bodies, gases and liquids can transmit the vi-
brations to solid objects. In this case they are known as struc-
ture-borne sound.
12.1.1 Sound perception There are the following connections between the vibrations of
airborne sound coming from the vibrations of a sound source
and the human perception of sound:
Amplitude of vibration
The amplitude is the periodic deviation of pressure that oc-
curs in a sound wave.
It corresponds to the impression of loudness perceived by
human beings.
Amplitude (sound pressure )
Tone
Frequency of vibration
The frequency is the number of pressure fluctuations during
a unit of time. It is normally measured in Hz ( vibrations per
second ).
Sinusoidal sound
This corresponds to the impression of tone perceived by hu-
man beings.
Vibration form
Transient noise A distinction is made between different forms of vibration which
cause the different impressions of sound:
– Tone.
Time A tone ( pure tone ) is a sinus vibration.
Crack – Sinusoidal sound.
This is the superimposition of several tones. Several sinu-
Fig. 12.1 : soidal vibrations superimpose and form a non-sinusoidal
Impressions of sound vibration. The tone with the lowest frequency defines the
overall perception of the sound. The other tones ( top tones )
give the impression of sound colour.
– Transient noise.
Transient noise is an irregular vibration. It is a mixture of
very many frequencies or different magnitudes.
– Crack.
A crack is a single, short and sharp report.
195
Sound
12.2 Important terminology in acoustics
~
12.2.1 Sound pressure Sound pressure p is the periodic pressure deviation ( over
and under pressure and alternating pressure ) that occurs in
a sound wave. It is measured in Pa ( 10-5 bar ).
In gaseous media sound pressure is superimposed over the

existing gas pressure p. Sound pressure is heavily dependent
on various factors e.g., the sound output of the source, the
spatial circumstances etc.
Sound pressure moves between approx. 2 × 10-4 Pa with the

ticking of a clock and approx. 65 Pa with the start of an aircraft
in the direct vicinity.
12.2.2 Sound level To be able to handle acoustic sizes better, the value is set in
proportion with a reference size put in a logarithm. The levels
as logarithm of a proportional size are dimensionless. The
designation dB ( Decibel ) is added.
The sound pressure level is set in proportion to the reference

pressure p0 = 2 × 10-5 Pa and pu in a logarithm. The following
applies for the sound pressure level:
~
p
Lp = 20 lg —— dB
p0
LP = Sound pressure level [ dB ]

~
p = Sound pressure [ Pa ]
p0 = Reference sound pressure [ 2 × 10 Pa ]
-5
The other sizes in acoustics are treated in similar fashion.

Acoustics uses almost only levels to indicate sizes.
12.2.3 Sound intensity The sound intensity indicates the sound energy radiated by a
sound source per second. It is a machine-specific size ( emis-
sion size ) and can be influenced by sound insulation meas-
ures among other methods.
Using the sound intensity of a machine, it is possible to calcu-

late the sound pressure level of a certain location, taking into
account the distance, the structural conditions and other sound
sources near to the sound intensity. There is often no need to
carry out extensive measuring.
196
Sound
12.3 Human perception of sound The human ear can normally only hear frequencies from 16 to
20000 Hz . Higher frequencies are described as supersonic,
lower ones as infrasonic. The perceptible sound pressure is
Pain threshold
between 10-5 Pa and 100 Pa, whereby a sound pressure of
100 Pa nearly always leads to the immediate loss of hearing
Sound intensity[ dB ]
in humans.
Audibility range The human sense of hearing does not perceive the various
sound pressures and frequencies with the same intensity. The
audibility range offers a summary of the sound pressure and
frequency ranges perceptible to humans. The bottom limit of
the curve shows the audibility threshold and top curve the
Audibility threshold pain threshold. The largest range of sound pressure percep-
Frequency [ Hz ]
tible to the human ear is at around 1000 Hz.
Fig. 12.2 :
The human hearing range
12.3.1 The sound intensity level Sound pressure is a physical size and can therefore be
measured. The intensity at which a person perceives sound
pressure is a physiological size that depends on the sense of
hearing.
The level of loudness is an empirically determined size. The
perception of loudness has been tested in series of experi-
ments with different people and an average value formed. The
level of loudness is given in Phon.
At 1000 Hz the sound intensity level matches the unassessed
sound pressure level. The sound intensity level can not be
measured with technical instruments. This is why comparative
measurements are very difficult, if not impossible.
12.3.2 Assessed sound level dB ( A ) Acoustic sizes must be adapted to the perception range of the
human ear in a way that they make also technical sense. De-
pending on the frequency, the real sound pressure level is
adjusted with certain values to the sensitivity of the ear. There
are valid international evaluation curves for these adjustment
values.
Some areas of application for different evaluation curves are
given below.
A – Evaluation curve for LN = 30 - 60 Phon.

B – Evaluation curve for LN = 60 - 90 Phon.
C – Evaluation curve for linear audibility range.
D – Evaluation curve for aircraft noise.
An evaluated sound level is indicated by having the letter of

the evaluation curve e.g., dB ( A ) suffixed.
The A-evaluation curve is the one primarily used in measuring
the noise of compressors and other machinery. Sound meas-
urement as standardised in DIN 45635 uses A-evaluated sound
pressure levels.
197
Sound
12.3.3 Loudness in comparison The following diagram shows the hearing range of an average
person, which lies between the audibility threshold and the
pain threshold, together with various examples of differing
loudness.
Pain threshold
Sound pressure level [ dB ]
Phon
no
rm
al
au
di
bi
lit
yt
hr
es
ho
ld
Frequency [ Hz ]
The ticking of a clock corresponds to a sound pressure level

of approx. 20 dB ( A ).
Normal conversation at a distance of around 1 m corresponds

to a sound pressure level of approx. 70 dB ( A ).
198
Sound
12.4 Behaviour of sound The dissemination and general behaviour of sound depends
on various factors. It must also be taken into account that the
sound output of a machine ( the sound source ) remains con-
stant.
12.4.1 Distance from the sound source The sound pressure generated from the source always dimin-
ishes with increasing distance. The constant sound output of
a source disseminates over a greater area (dispersion) with
increasing distance. The form of the sound wave plays an
important part in this. Machinery and compressors nearly al-
ways radiate sound energy in the form of a semisphere be-
cause they are normally on a firm base.
The sound pressure level then goes down, with reference to

the 1 m distance value, as shown in the following table:
Distance from the sound source [m] 1 2 5 10 25 50 100
Sound pressure level reduction[ dB ( A ) ] 0 5 12 16 23 28 32
These starting values refer to an unrestricted dissemination

of sound over an open area. A certain amount of reflection
from normal, reverberant ground is taken into account.
Example
An ultra-silenced BOGE screw compressor S 21 is installed

in a large hall. It generates according to DIN 45635 a sound
pressure level of 69 dB ( A ). At a distance of 10 m the sound
pressure generated by the compressor is only around 57 dB
( A ).
12.4.2 Reflection and Absorption A part of the sound is reflected by the walls and other objects.
In rooms, reflection causes a diffuse field of undirected sound
waves. The general level of sound pressure in the room is
increased by reflected sound. This reflected sound is known
as reverberation.
Reverberant materials with smooth surfaces, such as brick

Reflections
walls, reflect a large amount of occurrent sound. The shape of
the surface heavily influences the reflections. If a room is pad-
direct sound ded with specially arranged insulative pyramids the result is
an acoustically dead room without reflection. Rooms of this
type are used to measure sound pressure and the like with
scientific accuracy.
The sound not reflected is absorbed by walls or objects. The

material conducts the absorbed sound further and damps it. It
is usually transmitted back to the air at another point. Materi-
Fig. 12.2 : als with a high elasticity module, such as steel, conduct sound
The dissemination of sound in an enclosed space very well. The damping effect is usually low.
199
Sound
12.4.3 Damping sound Damping is the conversion of sound energy into heat gener-
ated by the friction of particles against each other. The sound
Incident Sound is absorbed in this process. Damping of airborne sound is
sound achieved by porous or fibrous absorption materials with a low
elasticity module and a large area mass ( kg/m² ). The extent
to which sound is damped by appropriate materials also
depends on the frequency spectrum of the sound. Some fre-
quencies are affected more and others less.
Reflected
Sound damping by the air depends much on the temperature
Sound and humidity of the air. Under normal conditions it is only per-
ceptible from a distance of 200 m. When humidity is high e.g.,
Absorbed
in fog, the damping effect is greater.
sound
Fig. 12.3 :
Sound insulation (damping) by walls
12.4.5 Dissemination of sound in pipes Special laws apply for the dissemination of sound in pipes and
and ducts ducts. A flowing medium and the reflections in a narrow duct
assist the dissemination of sound. Measures must be taken
against the unrestricted dissemination of sound in ducts, par-
ticularly when the hot outlet air of a compressor is being used
for room heating.
Coming from a silenced compressor, a sound wave is directed

into the air outlet duct. The sound, which here is not affected
by the silencer, continues through the duct system. It proceeds
unimpeded through the ventilation apertures and into the
heated rooms.
There are various measures that can be taken to reduce the

continuation of sound in ducts or pipes:
– Linear insulation.
The ducts are lined with strongly absorbent materials. This
reduces the sound energy and the sound pressure level in
the duct.
– Absorption insulation.
Fig. 12.4 : A part of the duct is loosely filled with sound absorbent
Absorption silencer with straight elements
material ( e.g., rock wool ). This absorbs a large part of the
sound energy, similar to walls. The great drawback of this
form of insulation lies in its high resistance to flow. Insula-
tion of this type is not recommended in duct systems with-
out a big exhaust ventilator.
200
Sound
12.4.6 Sound pressure level from many If there are several sources of sound in one room, the sound
sound sources pressure level will rise. The more sound energy emitted, the
higher the sound pressure. The perceived intensity of the sound
increases. The correlations are not linear. They depend much
on the structure of the room, the sound pressure levels of the
individual sources and their frequency spectrum. Therefore,
when looking at the correlations, only the two simplest cases
are given here.
The numbers given here should be seen as reference values

only. They may deviate sharply in individual cases because
many influencing factors are not taken into consideration.
12.4.6.1 Several sound sources with the When there are two or more sound sources with the same
same level sound pressure level in a large room, the correlation is rela-
tively simple. The following table shows the increase of the
overall sound pressure level without taking possible reflection
or transient noise into account:
Number of sound sources 2 3 4 5 10 15 20
Increase of sound pressure level [ dB ( A ) ] 3 5 6 7 10 12 13
To obtain the overall sound pressure level the increase in sound

pressure must be added to the sound pressure levels of the
individual sources.
Example
There are three ultra-silenced BOGE screw compressors S 21

in a large hall. Each generates according to DIN 45635 sound
pressure of 69 dB ( A ). The overall sound pressure level is
therefore at 74 dB ( A ) [ 69 + 5 ].
12.4.6.2 Two sound sources with different The total sound pressure of two different sound pressures
levels ( L1 + L2 ) can be determined with the aid of a diagram. When
there are several sound sources with different levels the cor-
relations are very complicated.
The diagram shows by how many Decibels ( ∆ L ) the higher of

the two sound levels L1 rises in dependency on the difference
∆ L [ dB ( A )
L 1 + L2 → L 1 + ∆ L between the two levels( L1 - L2 ).

]
Example
A compressor with a sound pressure according to DIN 45635

L1 - L2 [ dB ( A ) ]
of 69 dB ( A ) and a compressor with a sound pressure of
Fig. 12.5 : 74 dB ( A ) are installed in the same room. The total sound
Sound strengthened by two sources with different pressure in this case is approx. 75.3 dB ( A ).
levels [ 74 - 69 = 5 → 74 + 1.3 = 75.3 ]
201
Sound
12.5 The effects of noise
150
140
130
120
mechanical
110
damage
100 deafness
90
80
Hearing
70 impairment
Sound pressure level [ dB ( A ) ]
noise deafness
60 damage to inner
vegetative ear, incurable
50 reactions
nervous effects, stress
40 falling work-rate
falling concentration
30
psychic
20
reactions
10 Anger
Irritation
Fig. 12.6 : One form of sound is noise. This is undesired, annoying or

Noise as a health hazard painful sound. Noise has various adverse effects depending
on its sound pressure:
– Disturbed concentration
– Sound pressure of approx. 70 dB ( A ) disturbs speech
communication.
– Sound pressure of 85 dB ( A ) usually leads to a tempo-
rary reduction of hearing after an 8-hour shift. If this acous-
tic stress continues for several years it can cause perma-
nent damage to hearing.
– Sound pressure of 110 dB ( A ) leads to a reduction of
hearing in a very short time. If this stress continue for sev-
eral hours it is very likely to result in permanent damage to
hearing.
– Sound pressure of 135 dB ( A ) and above causes imme-
diate deafness in most cases.
202
Sound
12.6 Noise protection directives Various safety rules have been devised for workplaces to pre-
vent the negative effects of noise. These rules are intended to
provide long-term protection for staff and to improve general
working conditions.
12.6.1 Safety rules for noise generating The safety rules for noise generating operations prescribe the
operations following measures:
Date 12/1974
– Noisy areas of over 90 dB ( A ) must be marked accord-
ingly.
– From 85 dB ( A ) staff must be given noise protection gear.
This gear must be worn all the time with sound pressures
above 90 dB ( A ).
– Appropriate measures must be taken if noise increases
the risk of accidents.
– Regular examinations of staff are prescribed by law if the
sound pressure levels exceed 85 dB ( A ).
– New work facilities must comply with the most advanced
noise protection methods.
12.6.2 Safety rules for compressors § 12 para.3 Maximum permitted sound pressure 85 dB ( A )
( VBG 16 ) when installed in workrooms. Noise to be meas-
Date 4/1987 ured at the workplace as set forth in DIN 45635.
Remark: The work areas at compressor stations are not

workrooms, even if some of the maintenance
tasks carried out in them require lengthy periods
of time.
12.6.3 National workplace directive The sound pressure level in workrooms should generally be
Date 4/1975 as low as possible ( § 15 ) . It may not exceed the following
limits:
55 dB ( A ) At the workplace for jobs mainly involving mental

work.
55 dB ( A ) Staff rooms for tea and coffee breaks
70 dB ( A ) For simple or mainly mechanised office jobs.
85 dB ( A ) All other jobs ( production and installation work

and similar activities )
203
Sound
12.6.4 National general administrative These rules define general noise limits for commercial and
rules concerning noise residential areas. This includes noise made by traffic as well
Date 7/1984 as industry.
Place of measurement:
0,5 m in front of the open window of the person most directly

affected by the noise.
Maximum allowed sound level

Area Day Night
6.00 - 22.00 hrs 22.00 - 6.00 hrs
max. dB ( A ) max. dB ( A )
Commercial only 70 70
Mainly
Commercial 65 50
Commercial and
residential 60 45
Mainly residential 55 40
Residential
only 50 35
Med. build. and hospitals 45 35
Homes annexed to
plant buildings 60 45
204
Sound
12.7 Noise measurement When measuring noise at compressors and similar machin-
ery the main method used is the enveloping surface method
of DIN 45635. This norm defines the conditions for measuring
the noise emitted by compressors and machinery to the out-
side air ( noise output ) according to standard methods, thus
making the results comparable.
Noise is mainly measured at compressors and machinery

to find out whether certain requirements are being met. The
results determined are useful for:
– Comparing similar machinery.

– Comparing different machinery.
– Estimating sound levels at a distance.
– Checking noise emissions with respect to safety laws.
– Planning noise protection measures.
12.8 Silencing on compressors Compressors sometimes emit sound levels of over 85 dB ( A )

when in operation. This can be much higher if there are sev-
eral unsilenced compressors in one room. Since the Work
Safety Act recommends the wearing of protective equipment
from 85 dB ( A ) upwards and prescribes it from 90 dB ( A ), it
is often beneficial to install silenced compressors.
Silenced compressors can be installed close to workplaces.

This avoids the cost of long lines and separate compressor
rooms, and reduces pressure loss in pneumatic lines.
Certain demands are placed on sound-insulation materials:
– Not combustibility.
– Insensitivity to dust.
– Insensitivity to oil.
Fig. 12.7 :
Silenced BOGE screw compressors
The silencing material used for compressors is therefore usu-
ally mineral cotton ( rock wool or fibreglass ) and fluorocarbon-
free, hardly flammable, self-extinguishing foam material, that
is installed in the steel sheet case.
205
Costs of compressed air
13. Costs of compressed air
13.1 Composition of compressed The operating costs for compressed air comprise three fac-
air costs tors:
– Servicing and maintenance costs.

The servicing costs are for the wages of the fitter, spare
parts and consumed materials such as lubrication and cool-
ing oil, air filters, oil filters and the like.
– Energy costs.
The energy costs include the costs for electricity and fuel.
These are needed to heat the compressor.
– Capital service.
Capital service includes the interest and repayment on the
items invested in ( compressor, pre-processing and pipe-
line ). These are the depreciation and interest costs.
13.1.1 Cost factor ratios The individual factors can vary in size, depending on the hours
of operation per year. With single shift operation this is normally
2000 hrs/yr, 4000 hrs/yr with 2-shift operation, and 7500 hrs/yr
with 3-shift operation.
In determining the cost ratios, calculations are based on elec-

100%
90%
tricity costs of 0,25 DM/kWh and a depreciation period of 5
80% years with an interest rate of 8 % .
70%
60% Cost factors Hours of operation per year
50%
40% 2000 Oh/y 4000 Oh/y 7500 Oh/y
30% [%] [%] [%]
20%
10% Servicing and
0% maintenance 2 2.5 2.7
2000 Bh/J
Oh/Y 4000 Bh/J
Oh/Y 7500 Bh/J
Oh/Y
Energy costs 73 84 87
Capital service 25 13.5 10.3
Servicing and maintenance costs
It is easy to see that energy is the greatest cost factor. The
Energy costs servicing and maintenance costs are more or less negligible,
and the costs for service of capital equipment are hardly a
Capital service major item in the long term. The main criterion in acquiring a
compressor system must therefore be energy consumption.
Fig. 13.1 :
Composition of compressed air costs with differing
There is a breakdown of energy costs on the following page.
operating hours per year
206
Costs of compressed air
13.2 Cost-effectiveness calculation for energy costs
Maker BOGE
Type Screw compressor
Model S21
•
(1) FAD of complete system ( V ) m3/h 145.2
acc. to PN2 CPTC2
Ambient temperature t = 20° C
Operating pressure bar 8
(2) Electrical power requirement
of compressor kW
of drive belt kW
of transmission kW
of fan kW
of overall system ( Pe ) kW 14.79
(3) Motor efficiency rating ( η ) 90
with IP 54 protection
(4) Total intake ( Pi ) kW 16.43
from electricity supply
Pi = Pe ( 2 ) × 100 / η ( 3 )
(5) Electricity price ( c ) DM/kWh 0.25
(6) Electricity costs per hour DM/h 4.11
C = Pi ( 4 ) × c ( 5 )
(7) Costs per m3 compressed air DM/m3 0.0283
•
CV = C ( 6 ) / V ( 1 )
(8) Costs per year
Compressed air requirement ( AR ) m3/h 122.4
Hours of operation per year Bh 2000
Compressed air requirement per year m3 244800
AR/Y = Oh × AR
(9) Total costs per year DM/Year 6926.-
CY = AR/Y ( 8 ) × CV ( 7 )
( 10 ) Additional costs per year
The energy cost calculation takes no account of possible idling times.
207
CE-Certification
14. CE-Certification
14.1 Introduction The CE symbol is the technical passport for machinery. Since
1 January 1995 machinery and equipment may no longer be
sold or displayed at exhibitions and fairs inside the EU without
a CE symbol.
This means that machinery and equipment must be compliant

with the EC Directive „Machinery“ and other EC directives,
rules and standards.
The major rules etc. for compressors are:
– Machinery directive 89/392/EEC ( from 1.1 1995 )

Fig. 14.1
– Low-voltage directive 73/23/EEC ( from 1.1.1997 )
The CE symbol
– EMV directive 89/336/EEC ( from 1.1.1996 )
– Directive for simple unfired pressure tanks
87/404/EEC
14.1.1 EC Machinery Directive Under the EEC directive the „Council Directive for the Align-
ment of Rules of Member States for Machinery“ ( 89/392/EEC ),
short form: the Machinery Directive, plays a central part.
It does not govern the measures for individual product groups

but sets general safety requirements for the machinery and
equipment in its area of application.
The requirements for safety and health protection for machin-

ery are found in appendix I of the machinery guideline and
form the work base for manufacturers.
In Germany the machinery directive was implemented under

national law by the 9th Directive of the Equipment Safety Act
( Machinery Directive ).
Fig. 14.2
The states of the European Community
14.1.2 Areas of application Machinery, as defined in the directive, is the sum of connected
parts or devices, of which at least one must be movable, and
of actuation devices, control and energy circuits, that are
assembled for a certain application.
Safety features, such as double-handed switching componentry,

are also covered by the guideline. The term „Machinery“ is there-
fore very broadly defined.
A number of expressly specified devices are not covered by

the machinery directive. These include, among others, ma-
chines that are powered solely by human effort.
Electrically powered compressors made by BOGE are there-

fore definitely covered by the machinery directive.
208
CE-Certification
14.2 Introducing machinery to When introducing machinery to the market the following con-
the market ditions must be met:
– The CE symbol must be visibly, legibly and permanently

attached to the machinery.
– The machinery must be supplied with an EC or Maker’s
declaration of conformity. By this declaration, the maker
confirms that the machinery is compliant with the safety
requirements and that the prescribed procedures for the
EC declaration of conformity and the EC design inspec-
tion have been observed.
– The maker must be in possession of technical documen-
tation for the machinery ( summary plans, certificates and
inspection reports, list of standards complied with and safety
rules ).
– The machinery must be supplied with an original set of
operating instructions and operating instructions in the lan-
guage of the country it is used in.
The machinery directive obliges the authorities in EC member

states to monitor machinery marked with the CE symbol by
way of random checks, to ensure that the guideline is com-
plied with.
If it is found that properly used machinery constitutes a dan-

ger to people, domestic animals or property, then measures
are to be taken.
These measures, to be taken by the authorities can be as

follows:
– Fines
– A ban on further circulation of the machinery.
– A recall of all machinery concerned
14.2.1 CE Symbol On signing the EC conformity and maker’s declaration, the

maker is entitled to affix the CE symbol to the machinery.
The CE symbol consists of the letters „CE“ and if necessary

the name of the body that checked conformity. It must be well
visible, legible and permanently attached. The minimum height
of the letters is 5 mm. This minimum height may be deviated
from with small machinery.
The CE symbol is not a quality or safety symbol. It can be

Fig. 14.3 seen as a market registration sign or a passport. It allows the
The CE Symbol free circulation of goods within the EC single market.
209
CE-Certification
14.2.2 EC Declaration of Conformity The machinery guideline 89/392/EEC states that makers of
machinery and systems must conform in writing that the
machinery they bring into circulation is in line with the basic
safety and health requirements set forth in appendix I of the
guideline.
This written confirmation must be in the same language as

the operating instructions. A copy in the language of the coun-
try where the machinery is used must be included with it.
The EC declaration of conformity must contain the following:
– Name and address of the maker ( or person responsible in

the Community ).
– Description of the machinery or system ( make, model, se-
rial number etc. )
– All relevant rules with which the machinery complies ( all
guidelines that apply for the machinery or system must be
given )
– Where to find the harmonised norms, if necessary.
– The national technical standards and specifications applied,
if necessary.
– Information about signatory ( title, position in company )
– Name and address of the accredited inspection and certi-
fication centre that has carried out an inspection, if neces-
sary.
The EC declaration of conformity by BOGE for ready-to-use

compressors is on the following page.
210
CE-Certification
(D) Konformitätserklärung gemäß EG-Richtlinie 89/392/EWG

(I) Dichiarazione di conformità secondo la direttiva CE 89/392/CEE
(GB) Conformity declaration in accordance with EC guideline 89/392/EEC
(F) Certficat de conformité selon la réglementation CE 89/392/CEE
(E) Declaración de conformidad según la norma EG 89/392/CEE
(P) Declaração de conformidade segundo as Normas 89/392/CEE
(NL) Conformiteitsverklaring volgens EG-richtlijn 89/392/EEG
(DK) Overensstemmelseserklæring i.h.t. EF-Maskindirektiv 89/392/EøF
(S) Konformitetsförklaring enligt EG-riktlinje 89/392/EEC
(N) Konformitetserklæring i henhold til EU direktiv 89/392/EøF
Wir - Noi - We - Nous - Nosotros - Nos - Wij - Vi - Vi - Vi

B O G E Kompressoren, Lechtermannshof 26, 33739 BIELEFELD
(D) erklären hiermit, daß der nachstehende Kompressor in der von (NL) verklaren hiermede, dat de onderstaande compressor inde
uns gelieferten Ausführung folgenden einschlägigen door ons geleverde uitvoering aan de toegepaste normen voldoet,
Bestimmungen entspricht, insbesondere: 89/392/EWG speciaal: 89/392/EEG, 73/23/ EEG, 87/404/EEG, 89/336/EEG
Maschinenrichtlinie, 73/23/ EWG Niederspannungsrichtlinie, 87/
404/EWG Richtlinie über einfache unbefeuerte Druckbehälter, 89/
336/EWG Richtlinie über elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit
(I) dichiariamo con la presente che il compressore seguente (DK) erklærer hermed, at følgende kompressor i den af os
ne’llesecuzione da noi fornita corrisponde alle norme applicate, in leverede udførelse stemmer overens med de anvendte standarder,
particolare : 89/392/CEE, 73/23/ CEE, 87/404/CEE, 89/336/CEE især: 89/392/ EøF, 73/23/ EøF , 87/404/ EøF, 89/336/ EøF
(GB) hereby declare that the following compressor in the design (S) förklarar härmed att nedanstående kompressor i av oss
delivered by us meets the standards applied, in particular: 89/392/ levererat utförande uppfyller de tillåmpade normerna, sårskilt: 89/
EEC, 73/23/ EEC, 87/404/EEC, 89/336/EEC 392/EEC, 73/23/ EEC, 87/404/EEC, 89/336/EEC
(F) déclarons par la présente que le compresseur délivré (N) erklærer hermed at nedenstående kompressor i den utførelse
mentionné ci-dessous est conforme aux normes, en particulier: 89/ som er levert av oss er overensstemmelse med de anvendte
392/CEE, 73/23/ CEE, 87/404/CEE, 89/336/CEE normer, særlig: 89/392/ EøF, 73/23/EøF, 87/404/EøF, 89/336/ EøF
(E) declaramos por la presente que el compresor figurado al final (P) declaramos pela presente, que o compressor, a seguir
en la ejecución que hemos suministrado cumple las normas mencionado na versão por nós fornecida corresponde às normas
aplicadas, en particular: 89/392/CEE, 73/23/ CEE, 87/404/CEE, aplicadas, em especial: 89/392/CEE, 73/23/ CEE, 87/404/CEE, 89/
89/336/CEE 336/CEE
........................................................................................................................................................................................
Typ/Tipo /Type/Type/ Maschinennr./ N.della maccina/ Machine No.
Tipo/Tipo/ Type/Type/ N° de machine/ N° de serie/ N° da máquina/
Typ/Type Machineno./ Maskin-nr./ Maskinnr./ Maskinnr
(D) Angewendete harmonisierte Normen, insbesondere: prEN 1012 Teil 1 Sicherheitsanforderungen Kompressoren
(I) Norme armonizzate applicate, in particolare: prEN 1012 Teil 1 Sicherheitsanforderungen Kompressoren
(GB) Harmonized standards applied, in particular: EN 292 Teil 1+2 Sicherheit von Maschinen
(F) Normes harmonisées appliquées, en particulier: EN 294 Sicherheit von Maschinen - Sicherheitsabstände
(E) Normas armonizadas aplicadas, en particular: EN 60204 Teil 1 Sicherheit von Maschinen - Elektr. Ausrüstung
(P) Normas armonizadas aplicadas, em especial: EN 286 Teil 1 Einfache unbefeuerte Druckbehälter
(NL) Toegepaste geharmoniseerde normen, speciaal: EN 50081-1,2 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit - Störaussendung
(DK) Anvendte harmoniserede standarder, især: EN 50082-1,2 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit -Störfestigkeit
(S) Tillämpade harmoniserade normerna, sårskilt:
(N) Anvendte harmoniserte normer, særlig:
(D) Angewendete nationale Spezifikationen, insbesondere : Gerätesicherheitsgesetz

(I) Specificazioni nationali applicate, in particolare: Verordnungen zum Gerätesicherheitsgesetz
(GB) Harmonized standards applied, in particular:
(F) Spécifications nationales appliquées, en particulier:
(E) Especificaciones nacionales aplicadas, en particular:
(P) Especificações nacionais aplicadas, em especial:
(NL) Toegepaste nationale specificaties, speciaal:
(DK) Anvendte nationale specifikationer, især:
(S) Tillämpade nationella specifikationer, sårskilt:
(N) Anvendte nasjonale spesifikasjoner, særlig:
Bielefeld Beutel, Managing director design/development......................................................................
211
CE-Certification
14.2.3 EC Maker’s Declaration If a machine or machine part or assembly is installed in an-

other machine or a machine part is fitted together with other
machines (parts) to form a machine and this machine or
machine part can not function alone, then this machine ( ma-
chine part, assembly) must be supplied with a declaration from
the maker or person responsible. In this declaration the maker
must state in writing that the machine he is putting into circu-
lation conforms with the basic safety and health requirements
set forth in appendix I of the machinery directive 89/392/EEC.
This written confirmation must be in the same language as

the operating instructions. A copy in the language of the coun-
try where the machinery is used must be included with it.
The EC maker’s declaration must contain the following:
– Name and address of the maker ( or person responsible in

the Community ).
– Description of the machinery or system ( make, model,
serial number etc. )
– All relevant rules with which the machinery complies ( all
directives that apply for the machinery or system must be
given )
– Where to find the harmonised norms, if necessary.
– The national technical standards and specifications applied,
if necessary.
– Information about signatory ( title, position in company )
– Information that commissioning is prohibited until it is es-
tablished that the machine into which this machine it to be
installed is compliant with EC machinery directive 89/392/
EEC.
– Name and address of the accredited inspection and certi-
fication centre that has carried out an inspection, if neces-
sary.
The EC maker’s declaration by BOGE for installed compres-

sors is on the following page.
212
CE-Certification
(D) Herstellererklärung gemäß EG-Richtlinie 89/392/EWG

(I) Dichiarazione del fabricante secondo la direttiva CE 89/392/CEE
(GB) Manufacturer’s declaration in accordance with EC guideline 89/392/EEC
(F) Certficat du fournisseur selon la réglementation CE 89/392/CEE
(E) Nota explicativa del fabricante según la norma EG 89/392/CEE
(P) Declaração de fabrico segundo as Normas 89/392/CEE
(NL) Fabrieksverklaring volgens EG-richtlijn 89/392/EEG
(DK) Fabrikanterklæring i.h.t. EF-Maskindirektiv 89/392/EøF
(S) Tillverkarförklaring enligt EG-riktlinje 89/392/EEC
(N) Produsenterklæring i henhold til EU direktiv 89/392/EøF
Wir - Noi - We - Nous - Nosotros - Nos - Wij - Vi - Vi - Vi

B O G E Kompressoren, Lechtermannshof 26, 33739 BIELEFELD
(D) erklären hiermit, daß der nachstehende Kompressor in der von uns (NL) verklaren hiermede, dat de onderstaande compressor in de door ons
gelieferten Ausführung zum Einbau in eine Maschine/Zusammenbau mit geleverde uitvoering voor montage in een machine/voor combinatie met
anderen Maschinen bestimmt ist, und daß seine Inbetriebnahme solange andere machines bestemd is en dat zijn inbedrijfstelling zolang verboden is,
untersagt ist, bis festgestellt wurde, daß die Maschine, in die dieser tot vastgesteld is, dat de machine, waarin deze compressor gemonteerd
Kompressor eingebaut werden soll, den Bestimmungen der EG-Richtlinie moet worden, aan de voorwaarden van de EG-richtlijn 89/392/EEG in de
89/392/EWG i.d.F. 91/368/EWG, 73/23/ EWG Niederspannungsrichtlinie, redactie van 91/368/EEG, 73/23/ EEG, 87/404/EEG, 89/336/EEG voldoet.
87/404/EWG Richtlinie über einfache unbefeuerte Druckbehälter, 89/336/
EWG Richtlinie über elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit entspricht.
(I) dichiariamo con la presente che il compressore seguente (DK) erklærer hermed, at følgende kompressor i den af os leverede
ne’llesecuzione da noi fornita è destinato al montaggio in una macchina / udførelse er beregnet til indbygning i en maskine/sammenbygning med
all’assemblaggio con altre macchine e che la sua messa in esercizio è andere maskiner, og at ibrugtagning er forbudt, indtil det er konstateret, at
vietata fintanto che non si sia constatato che la macchina, nella quale deve den maskine, som denne kompressor skal monteres i, stemmer overens
venire montato questo compressore, corrisponde alle disposizioni della med bestemmelserne i EF-Direktiv 89/392/EøF, udgave 91/368/EøF, 73/23/
direttiva CE 89/392/CEE e seguenti 91/368/CEE, 73/23/ CEE, 87/404/CEE, EøF, 87/404/ EøF, 89/336/ EøF
89/336/CEE
(GB) hereby declare that the following compressor in the design delivered (S) förklarar härmed att nedanstående kompressor i av oss levererat är
by us is intended for installation in a machine/assembly group in line with avsedd för montage i en maskin/hopbyggnad med andra maskiner, och at
other machines and that it may not be commissioned until it has been deter- dess igångsättning år förbjuden tills det konstaterats att den maskin, i
mined that the machine in which this compressor is to be installed meets vilken denna kompressor skall monteras, uppfyller bestämmelserna i EG-
the regulations laid down in EC guideline 89/392/EEC continued as 91/368/ riktlinje 89/392/EEC i.d.f. 91/368/EEC, 73/23/ EEC, 87/404/EEC, 89/336/
EEC, 73/23/ EEC, 87/404/EEC, 89/336/EEC EEC
(F) déclarons par la présente que le compresseur délivré mentionné ci- (N) erklærer hermed at nedenstående kompressor kompressor i den
dessous est apte à être monté dans une machine ou en combinaison avec utførelse som er levert av oss er bestemt for installasjon i en maskin/
d’autres machines. Sa mise en service n’est autorisée que lorsqu’il a été sammenbygning med andre maskiner, og at bruk av dette er forbudt til det
constaté que la machine, dans laquelle le compresseur doit être monté, est er fastslått at den maskinen som dette kompressor skal bygges inn i er i
conforme aux clauses de la réglementation CE 89/392/CEE, par la suite 91/ overensstemmelse med bestemmelsene i EU-Direktiv 89/392/ EøF utgave
368/CEE, 73/23/ CEE, 87/404/CEE, 89/336/CEE 91/368/EøF, 73/23/EøF, 87/404/EøF, 89/336/ EøF
(E) declaramos por la presente que el compresor figurado al final en la (P) declaramos pela presente, que o compressor, a seguir mencionado na
ejecución que hemos suministrado está concebido para el montaje en una versão por nós fornecida, se destina a ser montado numa máquina/
máquina/o montaje conjunto con otras máquinas, y que su puesta en montagem com outras máquinas e que a sua entrada em serviçio está
servicio está prohibida hasta que se haya determinado que la máquina en interdita até ser definido que a máquina na qual este compressor deve ser
la que tiene que montarse el compresor cumple el reglamento de la norma instalado, corresponde às prescrições das Normas 89/392/CEE na versão
89/392/CEE en continuación 91/368/CEE, 73/23/ CEE, 87/404/CEE, 89/ 91/368/CEE, 73/23/ CEE, 87/404/CEE, 89/336/CEE
336/CEE
..................................................................................................................................................................................
Typ/Tipo /Type/Type/ Maschinennr./ N.della maccina/ Machine No.
Tipo/Tipo/ Type/Type/ N° de machine/ N° de serie/ N° da máquina/
Typ/Type Machineno./ Maskin-nr./ Maskinnr./ Maskinnr
(D) Angewendete harmonisierte Normen, insbesondere : prEN 1012 Teil 1 Sicherheitsanforderungen Kompressoren
(I) Norme armonizzate applicate, in particolare: EN 292 Teil 1+2 Sicherheit von Maschinen
(GB) Harmonized standards applied, in particular: EN 294 Sicherheit von Maschinen - Sicherheitsabstände
(F) Normes harmonisées appliquées: EN 60204 Teil 1 Sicherheit von Maschinen - Elektr. Ausrüstung
(E) Normas armonizadas aplicadas, en particular: EN 286 Teil 1 Einfache unbefeuerte Druckbehälter
(P) Normas harmonizadas aplicadas, em especial: EN 50081-1,2 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit - Störaussendung
(NL) Toegepaste geharmoniseerde normen, speciaal: EN 50082-1,2 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit -Störfestigkeit
(DK) Anvendte harmoniserede standarder, især:
(S) Tillämpade anpassade normer, sårskilt:
(N) Anvendte harmoniserte normer, særlig:
Bielefeld, Beutel, Managing director design/development................................................................
213
Appendix
A.1 Symbols
A.1.1 Picture symbols defined by The following picture symbols are standardised by DIN 28 004,
DIN 28004 part 3. Only the parts of the norm relevant for compressed air
generation are reproduced here.
These picture symbols are used for standard representation in
flow diagrams for process systems.
Flow diagrams are used for communication among all persons
involved with the development, planning, installation and op-
eration of process systems, and to show the procedure used.
Compressors and pumps
Compressor, general Diaphragm compressor Rotary piston compressor
Liquid ring compressor Reciprocating compressor Roots Compressor
Screw compressor Turbo-Compressor Rotary vane compressor

Rotary Compressor
Filters
Fluid filter, general Liquid filter, general Gas filter, general

Filter apparatus, general Air filter, general
Active carbon filter Gas-sorption filter
214
Appendix
Separators
Separator, general Centrifugal separator, Rotation Gravity separator

separator Deposit chamber
Dust separator
Fittings
Shut-off fitting, general Shut-off through valve Shut-off 3-way valve
Shut-off through cock 3-way cock
Main slide valve Butterfly valve
Non-return fitting, general Non-return through-valve Non-return flap
Fitting with constant setting action Fitting with safety function
Miscellaneous
Dryer, general Condensate drain Vessel/receiver, general
215
Appendix
A.1.2 Symbols for contact units and The following symbols are standardised by ISO 1219 ( 8.78 ).
switching devices as per ISO 1219 Only excerpts from the norm are reproduced here.
The symbols are used to make pneumatic and hydraulic circuit
diagrams for describing the operation of respective controls
and systems.
Energy transformation
Compressor Vacuum pump Pneumatic motor with one direc-

tion of flow
Pneumatic motor with two direc- Single-action cylinder, return stroke Single-action cylinder, return
tions of flow by external power stroke by spring power
Double-action cylinder Double-action cylinder with single- Double-action cylinder with two-
side, non-adjustable damping side, adjustable damping
Non-return valves
Non-return valve without spring Non-return valve with spring Controlled non-return valve
Flow control valves
Throttle valve with constant Throttle valve, adjustable One-way restrictor

restriction
216
Appendix
Direction valves
2/2-Way valve 3/2-Way valve 4/3-Way valve

with shut-off neutral position with open neutral position with shut-off middle position
2/2-Way valve 3/3-Way valve 5/2-Way valve

with open neutral position with shut-off middle position
3/2-Way valve with 4/2-Way valve 4/3-Way valve

shut-off neutral position Middle position Work direction
vented
Pressure valves
Diaphragm non-return valve Pressure relief valve, adjustable Pressure control valve without
drain aperture, adjustable
Throttle valve Emergency valve Pressure control valve with drain

adjustable, manually operated adjustable, with air vent aperture, adjustable
Short description of connections A, B, C Work line R, S, T Drain, vent

P Pneumatic connection X, Y, Z Control lines
217
Appendix
Energy transmission
Compressed air source Work line Control line
Line connection ( fixed ) Line intersection Flexible line
Drain with pipe connection Pressure connection Pressure connection

( closed ) ( with connecting line)
Compressed air receiver Dryer Lubricator
Filter Water separator, hand-operated Water separator, automatic

emptying
Filter with automatic water Cooler Service unit

separator ( simple representation )
218
Appendix
Miscellaneous devices
Pressure measuring device Differential pressure measuring Temperature measuring device

device
Compressed air measuring device Flow measuring device Pressure switch

Ammeter Volumemeter
Flow probe Pressure probe Temperature probe
219
Conversion Table
Length
from x to • from x to
mm 0,03937 inch 2,54 mm
m 3,281 foot 0,3048 m
m 1,094 yard 0,914 m
Surface
mm² 1,55 x 10-3 sq.inch 645,16 mm²
cm² 0,155 sq.inch 6,452 cm²
m² 10,76 sq.ft. 0,0929 m²
Volume
cm³ 0,06102 cu.inch 16,388 cm³
dm³(litre) 0,03531 cu.ft. 28,32 dm³(litre)
dm³(litre) 0,22 gallon(U.K.) 4,545 dm³(litre)
dm³(litre) 0,242 gallon(US) 4,132 dm³(litre)
m³ 1,308 cu.yard 0,764 m³
Volume flow
l/min 0,0353 cfm 28,3 l/min
m³/min 35,31 cfm 0,0283 m³/min
m³/h 0,588 cfm 1,7 m³/h
Pressure
bar(abs) 14,5 psia 0,07 bar(abs)
bar(abs) 14,5+Atm. psig 0,07+Atm. bar(abs)
Force
N 0,2248 pound force(lbf) 4,454 N
kW 1,36 HP 0,736 kW
Temperature
°C (°C x 1,8) + 32 °F (°F -32) / 1,8 °C
220
Index
A Pulsation damping 140 D

Safety rules 142
Absorption 83 Set-up 173 Dew point 71
Adsorption 84 Test groups 142 Distribution line 150, 151
Compressed air
Active carbon Adsorber 98 Drive motor 48
requirement 108, 115
ARS 57 Allowances 119 Dryer
Atmospheric humidity 70 Mean operation time 115 Arrangement 89
Simultaneity factor 116 Operating conditions 79
Automatic 58
Compressor 24 Duotherm heat exchanger
Autotronic 58 Cost savings 191
Ambient temperature 170
• Duotherm BSW 191, 192
B Cooling air flow VK 174
Cycle interval 129 Dust separator 93
Basic units 6 Diaphragm 29 Dying 78
Blaise Pascal law 3 Free piston 30
Absorption 83
Heat balance 188
Boyle-Mariotte law 7 Liquid ring 32
Adsorption 84
Membrane drying 82
C Lubricant 50
Over-compression 80
Reciprocating piston 27
Refrigerated drying 81
CE-Certification 208 Rotary vane 31
CE-Marking 209 Running time 129 E
Screw 33
Choice of compressor 137 Silencing 205 EC-Machinery directive 208
Collective line 152 Space requirement 172 Expert 143
Stop time 129
Combined compressor
systems 139
Summary 26 F
Notes for installation 172
Compressed air Types of construction 25 Filter
Advantages 14 Compressor installation 170 Active carbon 97
Applications 2, 21 Micro- 95
Compressor layout Operating pressure 92
Composition 7
Piston compressor 131 Pre- 94
Costs 206
Energy costs 207
Screw compressor 135 Pressure loss ∆p 92
Filters 91 Compressors Sterile 99
History 1 Axial 35 Filter mechanisms 96
Impurities 66, 69 Displacement 24 Filter separation rate 91
Loss 120 Dynamic 24
Possible applications 18 Radial 36 Fire safety rules 171
Properties 7 Roots 34 Flow 13, 156
Quality 77 Condensate 100 Fluidics 5
Compressed air consumption Disposal 171 Frequency control 56
Cylinders 112 Condesate drain 101
Cylindrical nozzles 109
Condensate quantity 72 H
Nozzles 108
Spray nozzles 111 Condensate separator Harmful area 38
Spray paint guns 110 Compressed air receiver 141 Heat exchanger 191
Tools 113 Dust separator 93
Total 118
Heat reclamation 188
Condensate treatment 106
Compressed air quality Conformity declaration 210 I
Planning tips 67
Connection line 151 Idling control 54
Compressed air receiver 140
Compressed air storage 140 Control 51 Idling mode ( L1 ) 52
Condensate separation 141 Control unit Infinite output control 56
Determining volume 127 ARS concept 57 Inspection 144, 146
Fittings 147 •
Cooling air flowVK 174 Inspection, evidence of 146
Inspection 144
Installation 141 Costs Installation room 169
Manufacture 143 Compressed air 206
Compressed air loss 120
Intake filter 49
Norm series 127
221
Index
Intermittent control 54 Piston compressor 37 S

Intermittent control, delayed 55 Area of application 125
Assemblies 41 Safety rules
Isobar 8 Control 40 Compressed air receiver 142
Isochor 8 Cooling 39 Safety valve 49, 148
Isotherm 8 Example installation 187
Screw compressor 42
Pipe inside diameter di
Area of application 125
L Bar diagramme 163 Assemblies 47
Laws Determining by calculation 161 Compression process 42
Determining by graph 162 Example installation 186
Workplace directive 203
Pressure tank directive 142 Pipe length, equivalent 160 Method of operation 43
Noise 204 Pipeline SI-System 6
Safety rules for noise generating Dimensioning 158 Sound 199
operations 203 Marking 168
Safety rules for compressors Sound dissemination 200
Material 164
( VBG 16 ) 203 Nominal width 159 Sound intensity level 196
Leakage 120 Pipeline material 164 Sound level 196
Leakage quantity 123 Copper pipes 166 Assessed, dB ( A ) 197
Determining 121, 122 Plastic pipes 167 Sound perception 195
Loudness 198 Seamless steel pipes 165
Stainless steel pipes 165 Sound pressure 196
level 197
Threaded pipes 164 Stopped/stationary ( L0 ) 52
M Pipe system 149 Stub line 151
Pressure loss ∆p 157 Suction rate 38
Main line 149
with compressed air dryer 155
Maker's declaration 212 without dryer 154 Supertronic 59
MCS 60 Pneumonics 5 Switching symbols 216
Motor cycles Pressure 10 T
Determining 130 Pressure content product 142
Allowed 130 Temperature 9
Pressure definitions 51
Multiple systems 152 Test groups 142
Pressure dew point 71
N Tongue valve 49
Determining 75
on pressure relief 76 Treatment 66
Noise
Safety directives 203 Pressure loss ∆p 156 Types of control 54, 60
Effects 202 Pressure ranges 17 V
Noise measurement 205 Proficient person 143
Norms Vacuum pumps 24
DIN 28004, Part 3 214
Q Ventilators 24
ISO 1219 ( 8.78 ) 216 Quality classes 77 Ventiliation 174
O R Air inlet ducts 181
Artificial 178
ÖWAMAT 107 Ratiotronic 59 Compressor rooms 176
Oil-water separator 107 Cool air duct 182
Refrigeration drying 81 Ducting 181
Operating modes 52 Regeneration 84 Natural 177
Operation mode ( L2 ) 53 Cold 85 Volume 9
Output 38 External hot 87 •
Volume flow V 11
Internal hot 86
P Vacuum- 88
Reynolds number Re 156
Part-load 53
Ring main 150
Part-load control 56
Room heating 189
Physical fundamentals 8
Economy 190
Picture symbols 214
222

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One in a

U.S. Department of Energy

Chris Beals, Air Science Engineering, Inc.

Atlas Copco Compressors Inc.

Prepared for: Compressed Air Challenge® and the

Prepared by: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

i Improving Compressed Air System Performance

Quick Start Guide 1

Section 1: Introduction to Industrial Compressed Air Systems 3

Section 2: The Performance Opportunity Roadmap 17

Section 3: Where To Find Help 75

A Sourcebook for Industry ii

List of Appendices Figures

iii Improving Compressed Air System Performance

A Sourcebook for Industry 1

The Systems Approach

• Establishing current conditions and operating

2 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

Section 1. Introduction to Industrial Compressed Air Systems

A Sourcebook for Industry 3

Introduction To Industrial Compressed Air Systems

Figure 1.1 Components of a Typical Industrial Compressed Air System.

Positive Displacement Dynamic

Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial

Single-Acting Helical-Screw Liquid-Ring Scroll Sliding-Vane Lobe

Figure 1.2 Compressor Family Tree.

A Sourcebook for Industry 5

6 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

A Sourcebook for Industry 7

8 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

A Sourcebook for Industry 9

10 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

A Sourcebook for Industry 11

12 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

A Sourcebook for Industry 13

14 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

do not produce sparks and have low heat build-up.

Table 1.1 Industrial Sector Uses of Compressed Air

A Sourcebook for Industry 15

Table 1.2 Non-Manufacturing Sector Use of Compressed Air

Sector Example Compressed Air Uses

16 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

The Performance Opportunity Roadmap

Improving and maintaining peak compressed air The Fact Sheets

A Sourcebook for Industry 17

Analyzing Compressed Air Needs

Use of Recoverable Heat

Type of Control System

Type of Control System Determining Your Compressed Air

Figure 2.1 Performance Opportunities.

Analyzing Compressed Air Needs

Air Quality Air Quantity—Capacity

A Sourcebook for Industry 19

Figure 2.2 Compressed Air System Block Diagram.

20 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

Dryer and Filter

Figure 2.3 Pressure Profile at a Single Point in Time.

A Sourcebook for Industry 21

Plant Air Consumption

Flow to System (SCFM)

Figure 2.4 Pressure Profile Over a Defined Time Period.

22 Improving Compressed Air System Performance

Potentially Inappropriate Uses of Compressed Air