UGSemsterSyllabus 1YEAR Sociology English 2sem226sociology English

BA226SOC-E
B.A.
FIRST YEAR
SEMESTER-II
SOCIOLOGY
INDIAN SOCIETY : STRUCTURE AND CHANGE
"We may forgo material benefits of civilization, but we cannot

forgo our right and opportunity to reap the benefits of the
highest education to the fullest extent.....”
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD
2018
COURSE TEAM
COURSE DEVELOPMENT TEAM (CBCS)
EDITOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Prof. N. Ramulu Dr. B. Srinivas
WRITERS
Dr. M. V. Lakshmi Devi
Dr. D. Sammaiah
Dr. M. Swarnalatha
Dr. Vinita Pandey
Dr. K Bhavani Shankar
Dr. P. Venkata Ramana
Dr. B. Srinivas
Cover Design : G.V. Swamy
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad.
First Editon : 2018
Copyright © 2018 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form without permission in
writing from the university.
This text forms part of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Programme.
Further information on Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Courses may be obtained from the
Director, (Academic), Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Road No. 46, Prof. G. Ram Reddy
Marg, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad - 500 033.
web: www.braou.ac.in;
E-mail: info@braou.ac.in
Printed on behalf of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad by the Registrar.
PREFACE
Indian society is one of the oldest with its peculiar, distinct traditions and customs,
found within human kind. It has passed through many phases and stages in the course of its
evolution. It also experienced dynastic and colonial rules and retained its distinctive character
maintaining its integration. It has had to reckon with attempts made to change its pattern of
life. This course aims to answer such questions as “what are the significant features of our
society?” and “what kind of social change and how does it really take place?” Much more such
elementary aspects are also addressed.
This book entitled, “Indian Society: Structure and Change” includes as one of the
main papers meant for the Under Graduation Course offered by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open
University. The topics of the course cover the ‘core’ areas of the subject designed for the
second semester of the First Year course, under newly introduced CBCS system. For the sake
of convenience, the course syllabus is divided into FIVE BLOCKS, each of which comprises
a number of units. The units/lessons are prepared by specialists in accordance with a format to
enable the student to read and comprehend them easily. Each unit begins with a statement of
its objectives followed by an introduction. And each unit has at its end, a summery and glossary,
with the provision of model questions and self check exercises.
It is generally perceived that societies and their parts almost all over the world are
passing through a critical phase and manner. If one ponders over, he is confronted with some
of the questions which are facing today are: How the societies have come to be shaped as they
are seen today? What are the historical bases and elements that keep the societies intact? What
are the challenges posed for social transformation? Possible answers to these basic questions
and some other issues are attempted in this volume.
This course consists of FIVE BLOCKS and Fifteen units. Block-I covers, historical
bases of the Indian Society, in its units i.e. the vedic Indian society, ashrama dharmas,
purusharthas; emergence of jainism, buddhism, advent of islam and european colonization;
cultural assimilation, and Unity and Diversity in India. The Block-II, deals with the Indological/
textual, structural functionalism, marxist and subaltern perspectives. Block-III consists of social
structure of Indian Society viz- family, marriage, tribal, agrarian and industrial societies and
religious composition in India. Block-IV, deals with caste system, concept of development
planning, green revolution, industrilization, urbanization and social change. Block-V discusses
the challenges for social transformation such as development, displacement, rehabilitation,
environmental and ecological issues, sustainability, social and economic inequalities.
The University hopes that this course material will help in understanding the basic
bases/elements of Indian society, its aspects of structure and change, which makes Sociology
a distinct and significant subject of the study. Critical suggestions for improving the material
are most welcome and they will be incorporated in future editions.
III
INDIAN SOCIETY : STRUCTURE AND CHANGE
CONTENTS
Page No.
BLOCK-I : HISTORICAL BASES OF THE INDIAN SOCIETY 1

Unit-1 : Traditional Hindu Social Organisation : Vedic Indian Society- 3-19
Ashrama Dharmas, Purusharthas
Unit-2 : Emergence of Jainism, Buddhism, Advent of Islam and 20-34
European Colonization
Unit-3 : Cultural Assimilation and Unity in Diversity in India 35-56
BLOCK-II : PERSPECTIVES ON THE STUDY OF INDIAN SOCIETY 57

Unit-4 : Indological/Textual Perspectives : Manu, Dumont, Ghurye, 59-71
Structural-Functionalism : M.N. Srinivas, S.C. Dube
Unit-5 : Marxist Perspective : D.P. Mukherjee, A.R. Desai 72-85
Unit-6 : Subaltern Perspective : Jyothi Rao Phule, Dr.B.R Ambedkar, 86-102
David Hardiman
BLOCK-III : SOCIAL STRUCTURE 103

Unit-7 : Tribal, Agrarian and Industrial Social Structure 105-124
Unit-8 : Family, Marriage and Kinship in India 125-143
Unit-9 : Religious Compositions in India-Communalism, 144-162
Social Tensions, Problems of Religious Minorities
BLOCK-IV : SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA 163

Unit-10 : Caste System: Definition, Origin of Caste, Features of Caste, 165-176
and Changes in Caste System
Unit-11 : Vision of Social Change in India: Concept of Development, 177-190
Planning and Mixed Economy
Unit-12 : Education, Green Revolution, Industrialization and 191-203
Urbanization-Social Change
BLOCK-V : CHALLENGES FOR SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION 205

Unit-13 : Development, Displacement and Rehabilitation 207-221
Unit-14 : Environmental and Ecological Issues and Sustainability 222-239
Unit-15 : Social and Economic Inequalities 240-257
IV
BLOCK - I : HISTORICAL BASES OF THE
INDIAN SOCIETY
In the history of human civilization, Indian Society is the most ancient and highly
complex. India represents the different stages of social evolution from the pre-historic to modern
times. Even today there exist many primitive tribes with pre-historic traits. There are also
civilized people with modern habits and with modern technological advancement. India’s
inhabitants constitute different cultural groups representing different religions like Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity etc. Indian society is a blender of many cultures,
religions, variety of ethnic groups, castes, sects with varying degree of social ranks and statuses,
of unity in diversity. In the words of V.A. Smith, a historian, “India beyond all doubt possesses
a deep underlying fundamental unity for more profound than that of produced either by
geographical isolation or political suzerainty, that unity transients the innumerable diversities
of blood, colour, language, dress, manner and sect”. Inspite of diversity, the common way of
life evolved, is further, sustained. This Block certainly deals with above aspects.
The Units included in this Block are:

Unit - 1 : Traditional Hindu Social organization: Vedic Indian Society-Ashram
Dharmas, Purusharthas.
Unit - 2 : Emergence of Jainism, Buddhism, Advent of Islam and European
Colonization.
Unit - 3 : Cultural Assimilation and Unity in Diversity in India.
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2
UNIT-I : TRADITIONAL HINDU SOCIAL
ORGANISATION, VEDIC INDIAN SOCIETY -
ASHRAMA DHARMAS, PURUSHARTHAS
Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Traditional Hindu Social Organisation
1.3 Vedic Indian Society
1.4 Ashrama Dharmas
1.5 Purusharthas
1.6 Varna System
1.7 Summary
1.8 Check Your Progress-Model Answers
1.9 Model Examination Questions
1.10 Glossary
1.11 Further Readings
1.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to understand:
• Traditional hindu social organization
• The features of vedic Indian society
• The concept of Ashrama dharmas and Purusharthas
• The Varna system and differences between Varna and Caste
1.1 INTRODUCTION
India has a long history. Its cultural heritage is one of the most ancient, extensive
and varied. Throughout the ages many races and people contributed to India’s culture.
Some came in to contact with her only temporarily, others settled permanently within her
borders. There was synthesis on the basis of eternal values. India is a vast peninsula and
owing to its huge size and heterogeneity, it is also referred as sub-continent.
The Hindus believe in a number of characteristics of their social organisation.
According to K.M. Panikkar the social structure of Hinduism rests on two fundamental
institutions, the caste and the joint family. Anything and everything concerned with Hindus
outside or inside their religion is related to these two institutions. Prof. Yogendra Singh
holds the view that the normative principles of Hinduism are based on beliefs, ideas and
logic of permissiveness, liberalism, being and becoming, creation and destruction,
utilitarianism and spiritual transcendence.
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1.2 TRADITIONAL HINDU SOCIAL ORGANISATION
The traditional value system in India revolves around the notions of Ashrama
Dharmas, Purusharthas, Varnas and Sanskaras. These also are the basis of Hindu social
organization.
Traditionally the Hindus believe in ‘Punarjanma’ or rebirth, immortality of soul,
Pap (Sin) Punya (Merit) Karma (Deeds) Dharma (Morality) and Moksha (Salvation). The
Hindu undergoes the process of the life cycle. His status, comfort and discomforts depend
on the nature of his actions. The concept of ‘Karma’ implies that a Hindu is born into a
particular social group or caste or family on the basis of his actions in the previous life.
It is believed in Hinduism that as there is harmony between the various parts of the
body harmony is also evinced among various aspects of social life. Religion and rituals
have interconnections and likewise every aspect of social life and action are interrelated.
The idea of purity and pollution has sufficiently influenced the Hindu social life. Of
course regional variations are marked in respect of the concept of purity and pollution.
These concepts are considered important in matters of commensal relation, in touching or
maintaining physical distance, in inter-caste marriages and in personal life of the Hindus.
Purity and pollution are considered important on occasions like birth, menstruation,
marriage, death, offering of prayer etc.
Marriage and family are very old institutions and are universal. Among the Hindus
there are certain rules and regulations which govern the family life and also conditions of
married life. Prescriptions are also there relating to the selection of life partner.
Among Hindus marriage is considered as not only an institution necessary for
procreating the children but it is essential for an ideal household. P.H. Prabhu says in this
connection that for the Hindu marriage is Sanskara and as such, the relations between the
marrying parties are of sacramental character and not a contractual nature. Because apart
from the necessity of begetting a son, in order to assist the householder in the discharge of
his obligations (rinas), it has been ordained by the Dharma Sutra that wife is a necessary
complement as the Grihapatni (i.e. the lady of the house) for the proper and full execution
of his Dharmas as the Grihapati (i.e. the lord of the House).
Speaking on Hindu Social Organization, Sir Herbert Risley, who was the Director
of Ethnography and Census Commissioner in India for several years, was struck by this
phenomenon and remarked in his book ‘The People of India’: These ideas are not the
monopoly of the learned; they are shared in great measure by the man in the street. If you
talk to a fairly intelligent Hindu peasant about the Paramatma, Karma, Maya, Mukti, and
so forth, you will find, as soon as he gets over his surprise at your interest in such matters,
that the terms are familiar to him, and that he has formed a rough theory of their bearing
on his own future.
The sources of the understanding of traditional value system and organisations are
many and various. These include the Vedic literature, the Epics, the Puranic literature, the
Sutra literature, the drama, the poetry, and the vast store house of folktales.
Two of the most important groups of sources dealing with ideas of great sociological
significance are the epics-Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Sutras, viz., the Grihya
–Sutras and the Dharma-sutras, or Dharama-sastras, as they are usually called. It is difficult
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to say how far the original Ramayana has been making and moulding Hindu life and mind
through history; but it is obvious that the Hindi version of Tulsidas and also other versions
had and have been having a hold over millions of men and women in India. Rama is
definitely worshipped as an Avatara, an incarnation of God, by Hindus and his life is
considered as mirroring the ideal and the holy and the divine in human life, institutions,
ideology, and practices.
The Mahabharata is another work of immense sociological value. Though this epic
describes the war fought about 1,000 B.C., and as such it is mainly concerned with the
events connected with two contending families of the Kuru dynasty, it gives minute details
and principles concerning the laws, life and conditions which existed and controlled human
conscience and destiny during a period much before the war was actually fought.
The Dharma-Sutras treat mainly of the social conduct and life of the Hindu. They
are the rich sources of information with regard to almost every phase of life of the Hindu
in the domestic, social, economic, political, moral and religious spheres.
The Hindu society constitutes one of the oldest integrated societies of the world.
Infact it reveals the earlier phases of Indian culture and civilization.
The Hindu Social Organisation considers man as a social being in relation to Desa
(place or region), Kala (time), Shrama (effort) and Guna (natural trait). It revolves around
the following institutions:
• Ashrama Vyavastha (Vyavastha means system)
• Purusharthas
• Varna Vyavastha
• Caste System
• Joint family System
Check Your Progress
Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. What are the main institutions of Hindu Social Organisation.
....................................................................................................................................................
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1.3 VEDIC INDIAN SOCIETY

The Vedic civilization broadened and enriched the cultural heritage and traditions
of India. The masters of this civilisation were none else than the Aryans, who migrated to
India from Central Asia. The word ‘Arya’ literally means ‘independent-minded’ or one
with ‘noble character’. They belonged to the Indo-European group of human race who
lived somewhere in the area east of the Alps mountains known as Eurasia.
The only source of information about the Aryans in India is the vast literature known
as the Vedas. As historical sources, the Vedic texts have given vivid description of the
social, economic, political and religious picture of the then society.
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The Vedic age covers a period from 1800 BC to 600 BC, being divided into two
phases: (Some also give the time period from 1500 BC to 500 BC)
1. Early Vedic Age or Rig Vedic Age
2. Later Vedic Age
The four Vedas are divided into these two phases. In the early phase only the Rig
Veda was composed. In the words of R.K. Mukherjee, “Rig Veda is the earliest book not
merely of Indians but of the entire Aryan race.” The starting point of our study of Vedic
culture begins with the Rig Veda. The later Vedic culture has been reflected in the
composition of Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. These voluminous Vedic
literatures give us vast information about the culture of the period.
Each of the four Vedas constitutes four parts namely Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyaka
and Upanishad. For a clear understanding of the Vedic literature, knowledge of each of
these parts is essential. Each of these parts spreads the rich heritage of Vedic literature in
a composite way and the flavour prevails till today.
As per the description in the Rig Veda, the Aryans began their early settlements in
the Sapta Sindhu region which roughly corresponds to the present Punjab, Kashmir, Sindh,
Kabul and Kandahar. The area was also known as Brahmavarta. It was only during the
later period that the civilisation expanded towards the east. In their eastward progress, the
Aryans came into contact with native residents of the land known as Dasyas.
When the Aryans began to move eastward, they marched towards the middle of the
country or madhyadesha and new kingdoms were established. Gradually they occupied
the whole of northern India from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas and from the western sea
to the east. Later on this part of the land came to be known as Aryavarta.
The Vedic texts are primary sources that throw light on the life of the Vedic Aryans.
These are the oldest works of the Indo-Aryans. Although the texts mainly deal with
devotional, spiritual and metaphysical concepts and throw ample light on socio-economic,
religious and political life of the Vedic Aryans.
As mentioned above the Vedic period has been broadly classified into two categories:
the Early and Later Vedic Periods. This has been done according to the way the transition
in the style of culture and society took place. The Vedic period society developed rapidly
as time passed by. In Vedic age, culture and society developed from the crude form to the
refined form as more and more people came to settle and started to contribute their own
ideas to reform the society. With the development in society and culture during Vedic era,
historians had to divide the era according to the developments.
Society and Culture in Early Vedic Period
Society in the early Vedic period was basically semi-nomadic in nature as people
were still learning to settle permanently. They did settle on small patches of land, but
moved as soon as the resources over there were depleting. They started to domesticate
wild animals and train them as farm animals. As the population in these semi-nomadic
groups increased, they settled permanently as moving with a large group was next to
impossible. They then started to do farming on a large scale and resorted to full time
farming. Their culture was that of a typical tribe. They had a tribal Chief who was the
governing head of the tribe. He was helped by a group of wise and experienced men in
performing his duties.
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Vedic texts reveal to the posterity the existence of an advanced civilisation, quite
unlike the urban civilisation of the Harappa people. Vedic civilisation concerns a nomadic
rural people with an agricultural economy within the bounds of an organized society. The
motto of Vedic life style can be summarized in the dictum- simple living and high thinking.
The Aryans preferred to lead a simple life determined by intellectually higher and nobler
thoughts. Therefore, their social life was highly ethical and moralistic.
Their simple way of living is reflected in the pastoral character of the society. It
centred around a tightly-knit village life. The Vedic Aryans preferred the simplicity of
rural family settings, unlike the urban flourishes of Harappa. The members of the family
were bound to each other with a strong bond of love, affection and attachment. Their
simple, unassuming and non-materialistic life style manifested itself in various aspects of
their social life.
Political Organization
The political units during the Rig-Veda or the early Vedic period comprised of Grama
(village), Vish and Jana. The biggest political unit was that of Jana, after which came Vish
and then, Grama. The leader of a Grama was called Gramani, of a Vish was called Vishpati
and that of Jana was known as Jyeshta. The Rashtra (state) was governed by a Rajan
(King) and he was known as Gopa (protector) and Samrat (supreme ruler). The king ruled
with the consent and approval of the people. There were four councils, namely Sabha,
Samiti, Vidhata and Gana, of which women were allowed to attend only two, Sabha and
Vidhata. The duty of the king was to protect the tribe, in which he was assisted by the
Purohita (chaplain) and the Senani (army chief).
Family
Family was the pivot of the Vedic society. The Vedic Aryans had developed a very
healthy family chain. Kula (literally meaning a unitary family) was the smallest unit,
which included all members living under one single roof (otherwise called griha). The
social organisation of the Vedic period was based on patriarchal system. The father
dominated the family. He was known as kulapa, kulapati or grihapati. Father had the final
say in all family matters. He used to pass on his authority to the eldest son. So the birth of
a son in a family was considered to be an absolute necessity.
The system of joint family was a very important feature of the Vedic society. Besides
the husband and his wife, the family consisted of other members like their parents, brothers,
sisters, sons, daughters etc. Generally the relation among the members was very cordial.
The spirit of mutual help and cooperation was a great factor behind the existence of strong
familial bond. Sometimes, however, disputes over property related to land, cattle, ornaments
etc. did crop up among the members of a family and led to the breakup of the same. But
such cases were exceptions rather than the rule.
Food and Drink
The Vedic Aryans were very simple in their habits of eating. Their diet was both
balanced and enriching. They were both herbivores and carnivores. Wheat, barley, rice,
fruits and vegetables comprised their main diet. Milk and milk products like curd, cheese,
butter and ghee were quite favorite among the Vedic Aryans. On festive occasions and
social gatherings, they preferred non-vegetarian dishes of mutton, sheep, fish and birds.
The drinking water of the Aryans used to be drawn from rivers, streams and wells.
The Vedas give reference to some intoxicating drinks like somarasa and sura. These
specially prepared liquors were usually consumed during festivals and religious occasions
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of sacrifice. Hence, these beverages were considered sacred by the Aryans. Somarasa was
a type of liquor extracted from Soma plant and other wines were prepared from different
corns. In spite of these beverages, in general, the food and drink habits of the Vedic Aryans
were quite simple and wholesome.
Dress and Ornament
In any civilized society, patterns of dress and ornament are given importance along
with food and drinking habits. The Aryans generally used cotton and woolen garments
which were both single coloured and multi-coloured. Deer skin was also in use. An Aryan
gentleman wore a dress of three parts - Nivi, Vasa and Adhivasa. Nivi or Vasa was used for
the lower part of the body, i.e., waist downwards. Vasa or Paridhan was used for the upper
portion of the body from waist upwards. Adhivasa or atka or drapi was the head-dress. But
there was not much difference between the dress habits of males and females. However,
the rich people wore more attractive, embroidered and colorful silken clothes than the
common people who often wore coarse cotton garments.
Equally interesting is the Aryan’s habit of wearing ornaments. Both men and women
were fond of ornaments which were made of gold and other precious stones. Ornaments
were worn on various parts of the body like ear, nose, ankle, wrist, neck etc. Beautiful
pieces of stone were set on these ornaments to make them more attractive. Stylish combing
of hair was quite common. Gentlemen used to grow moustache or beard while the ladies
used to decorate their hair with floral braids. Men used to shave with kshura, i.e., a razor
with a handle. The Aryans were also adept in using precious stones for the purification of
the body on special occasions.
Education
For the noble-minded Vedic Aryans, education was a very essential part of human
life. Their education centred around Gurukula (literally meaning the ‘home of the teacher’)
where a pupil was sent to stay and receive education. Education was imparted, by the
teacher orally. Much importance was paid to enunciation and pronunciation. The primary
aim of Vedic education was building of character.
Recreation and Amusement
The Vedic Aryans were very sportive and entertainment-loving people. They used
to spend their leisure and refresh their minds in various ways. Since they lived in villages,
they were fond of outdoor games. Hence, pastimes like gambling, dancing, chariot-racing,
hunting and war-dances were very popular. Along with singing and dancing they played
different musical instruments like flute, lute and drums. The female folk were equally
enthusiastic about singing, dancing and other forms of merry-making. Thus, the Aryans
enjoyed their leisure hours by socializing and pursuing creative talent. We also find
references to the holding of Samana (fairs) at different periods of the year where people
exhibited their feats of bravery in sporting events. As the Aryans’ social life became more
and more complex, other hobbies were also included. For example, although playing dice
was restricted, it was permitted to some extent in certain quarters.
Caste System
In the beginning of the Vedic civilisation caste system, as formulated on the basis of
a person’s birth, was very much absent. Members of one family took to different professions.
They used to perform their own duties and preferred to lead a happy and contented life.
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There was freedom and mobility in the adoption of a profession to earn one’s living.
The concept of hereditary trade and occupation was not there. The caste system among
the Aryans thus seems to have begun in the later Vedic age.
With the increase in number of professions, the society was gradually divided into
four distinct Varnas i.e. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. The teachers and priests
were called Brahmans; rulers and administrators were called Kshatriyas; farmers, merchants
and bankers were called Vaisyas, while artisans and labourers came to be known as Sudras.
However, at first these vocations were followed by persons according to their ability and
choice. It had not become strictly hereditary and was not rigid, as it became later. The
caste system of the Aryans provided stability and versatality to their society.
Position of Women
Women enjoyed a very high position in the Vedic society. They were held in high
esteem and dignity by male members. They enjoyed equal status with the men folk in
almost all spheres of life. Monogamy was the usual practice, while polygamy was not
totally absent. However they are no references to polyandry and child marriage. Women
enjoyed the freedom to choose their husbands under whose protection and care they led a
normal married life.
Although father was the head of the family, the autonomy of women in household
affairs was supreme. They controlled the entire household and participated in religious
sacrifices and other social ceremonies with dignity and honour. There was no restriction
on their movement in the public. They availed educational facilities. Some prominent
women of the Vedic age are so learned in different shastras that they composed mantras
and hymns after the fashion of the rishis. Apala, Visvavara and Ghosha are some of the
illustrious women of the Vedic age.
Widow Remarriage was prevalent during this period. The so-called Sati System was
totally absent and there was no use of purdah. The tradition was such that a woman depended
on her father before her marriage, on her husband after her marriage and on her son in her
old age. Thus the entire setup of a woman’s life was so designed as to make her lead a
comfortable life. Women’s position and dignity were perhaps higher than in the present
time.
Knowledge of Medicine
The Vedic Aryans had sufficient knowledge about plants and herbs having medicinal
qualities. There were Vedic physicians who used to prepare curative medicines. At times
they also performed some preliminary surgical operations. Miraculous cures were attributed
to Ashiwini Kumars the divine doctors who were great healers of fatal diseases.
In general, the social life of the Vedic Aryans was highly developed and disciplined.
They maintained a high degree of morality in their conduct. Simple food and dress habits,
happy family life, education as builder of character, high position of women, absence of
social complexities like caste system etc. had brought about a value-based society. The
result was a peaceful, contented, healthy and refined social life in the early Vedic period.
However, the high standard of social life was lost with the march of time. Social
and religious norms and practices became more rigid and complex in the later Vedic age.
Various social evils like caste system, degradation in the position of women, consequent
curtailing of their freedom and many other social taboos and customs destroyed the very
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lofty ideals of Vedic life. The openness of the Vedic fabric of life gave way to a confined
system and a general degradation set in with the advancement or passage of time and age.
Vedic Religion
The origin of Hinduism can be traced to the Vedas which depict the Divine Truth
revealed by the rishis and sages in their state of supernormal consciousness. The heart of
the Vedic culture was their religion which manifested itself with the chanting of Vedic
mantras.
Nature Worship
The religion of the Vedic people was very simple in nature. The Aryans led pastoral
life and spent their time amid the bounties of nature. The towering peaks of the mountains,
vast green fields, boundless seas encircling the land on three sides, the splendor of changing
seasons all these produced a purifying effect on them. These lustrous natural phenomena
inspired the Vedic Aryans to worship nature with awe and reverence. They were conscious
of both the creative and destructive aspects of natural forces. So they wanted to please
these forces to receive their blessings and keep away their wrath and destruction. The
Vedic gods worshipped by the Aryans were generally personified powers of nature. These
gods can be classified into three categories corresponding to three orders.
Following are the gods of the three orders:
1. Terrestrial sphere (Prithvi sthana) Prithvi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and the rivers.
2. Intermediate sphere (Antariksha sthana) Indra, Apam-napad, Vayu-vata, Parjanya,
Apah, Matarisvan.
3. Celestial sphere (Dyu sthana) Dyaus, Varuna, Mitva, Suiya, Pushan, Vishnu, Aditya,
Usha, Ashvini.
This classification is founded on the basis of natural forces that the deities represent.
Hence, such a division is quite practical and is least open to objection. All the gods
worshipped by the Aryans numbered thirty-three divided into the above three groups.
Human food articles like milk, grain, flesh etc. becomes the food of the gods when
offered during sacrifice. On the whole, the Aryan gods were benevolent. But some of
them had malevolent traits like Rudra (Fire) and Marut (Air or Wind). Splendor, strength,
knowledge and truth were common attributes of the deities. It was the firm belief of the
Aryans that gods subdued forces of evil, regulated the natural and social order, rewarded
the righteous and punished the sinner.
The Aryans were not worshippers of images or idols. They could ignite fire with
sacred wood by chanting different mantras or reciting hymns. This tradition of fire ceremony
or yajna was a characteristic ritual to worship the gods and goddesses. Milk, ghee, grains,
fruits, Somarasa (wine) etc. were offered to this holy fire. They believed that such rituals
would please the gods who in return would shower their bounties on the devotees.
Belief in Monotheism
The Aryans used to worship various manifestations of nature. The worshipping of
various forces of nature as gods generally gives the impression that Aryans were polytheists.
However, that was not the real case. Behind the worshipping of several natural phenomena,
the Aryans sincerely believed in a single Absolute Truth permeating all natural phenomena.
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Vedic religion had attached much importance to doctrine of Karma or action. In
other words, a good soul who performed good deeds was rewarded whereas the evil soul
was punished for evil deeds. So the concept of heaven and hell dominated the Aryans’
religious belief.
Apart from the doctrine of Karma the Aryans strongly believed in the concept of
transmigration of soul, meaning life after death (punarjanma). Action determines the destiny
of man. However, soul is immortal and leaves the body, which dies, to be reborn elsewhere.
It enjoys or suffers according to the action performed in this mundane world. The Aryans
used to burn their dead and then consigned the ashes to the water because they believed
that only then would the soul rest in peace.
Society and Culture in Post-Vedic Period
The period that followed the Rig Veda is known as the Later Vedic Age (roughly
from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C.). Great significant changes took place in the religious life of
the people during this age. The old gods like Varuna, Indra, Agni and Surya were worshipped
with lesser zeal. New gods like Shiva, Vishnu and Krishna came into prominence. Snake
worship and the concept of Devasura (god-demon) battle received much attention.
Another change that took place during this period was the elaboration of rites and
ceremonies concerning the old Vedic religion. In the later Vedic age animal sacrifice became
an important part of religion. Indeed, gods played second role to such sacrifices. It was
firmly believed that the gods would be happy if animals were sacrificed at religious altars.
Superstitions, belief in spirits, charms, and witchcraft found a place in the Vedic religion.
Ceremonial aspects of religion became more elaborate, complicated, expensive and
fashionable. A separate class of priests emerged to supervise and conduct such rituals and
sacrifices.
Nevertheless, a high sense of duty and morality influenced the later Vedic religious
thought. People began to believe that life was a duty and responsibility. Man was believed
to be born with certain debts that should be properly repaid by performing certain duties.
He had a debt to repay to gods, rishis, ancestors, members of his family and society and
above all, to himself. Following the truth, performance of duty, respect for parents, love
for fellow-beings, abstinence from theft, adultery, murder and such other sins were
considered to be essential for a pure life.
Another current of the later Vedic religious thought was the ascetic ideal of life.
Tapa or austerity and brahmacharya or celibacy was emphasized. An ascetic was a person
who had renounced worldly life and retired to the solitude of the forest to meditate upon
spirituality. For the purification of soul he had to practise self mortification. This belief
became more prominent in the Epic age or the Age of Puranas which constituted the last
part of the Vedic Age. To sum up, the spirit of sacrifice, restraint and harmony through
love and desire for attainment of immortality came to be the dominant factors of the cultural
life of the Aryans.
The society in the later Vedic period increased in size as people began to live in
large settlements that had all facilities for the people. The size of the agricultural fields
grew in size. During this time, kingship evolved into the hereditary form in which the son
of a ruling chief gets the throne after the chief. The priestly class developed and occupied
the highest position in the society. Another significant development during the later Vedic
age was that of the caste division of the society. The society was divided into four castes
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namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins were the priestly class
who occupied the highest position in the society. The Kshatriyas were the warriors; the
Vaishyas were the service class like businessmen and peasants. The Shudras were the
lowest class of people who did jobs like removing garbage, cleaning up, etc.
Check Your Progress
2. Write about Vedic age.
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3. How was the general social life of Vedic Aryans.
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4. What are the major changes in later Vedic stage?
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1.4 ASHRAMA DHARMAS

The word ashrama is originally derived from the Sanskrit root ‘shrama that is ‘to
exert oneself ’; therefore, it may mean, by derivation (i) a place where exertions are
performed, and (ii) the action of performing such exertions. The ashramas are to be regarded
as resting places during one’s journey on the way to final liberation which is the final aim
of life. The four stages of life, says Sage Vyasa in the Mahabharata form a ladder or flight
of four steps. Each of the ashramas is a stage of life in which the individual has to train
himself for a certain period and exert himself within the circuit of the same in order to
qualify him for the next.
There are four Ashramas:
• Brahmacharya Ashrama, that of a student
• Grihasta Ashrama, that of a married man, the house-holder
• Vaanaprastha Ashrama, that of retired life in the forest, after abandoning the home,
preparatory to complete renouncement of worldly relations
• Sanyaasa Ashrama, the life of complete renunciation of worldly relations and
attachments
Brahmacharya Ashrama:
This is the first stage and usually starts at the age of seven years whereby the guidance
of guru (teacher) starts and thus starts the student life. The boy resides with his guru and
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offers service without any reservations. The boy is imparted training in all the aspects of
life and is made to realize the ultimate truth of life. “Upanayana” is the most important
initiation performed at this stage. This is prescribed only for three castes-Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas by which they were considered as Dwija or twice born. This is a
period of training and discipline which moulds the plastic youth towards a life of duty.
The pupil becomes Snataka (scholar).
Grihasta Ashrama:
This is the stage when one joins the worldly life. The ceremony to mark the shift
from Brahmacharya Ashrama to Grihasta Ashrama is called “Samavartana”. All the aspects
learnt in theory have to be put in practice. This is the stage to testify the ability, wisdom,
social morality and social adaptability. It is the duty to maintain family in the dignified
manner, earn wealth in the right way and have children which enables to pay the rinas or
obligations. These rinas are Pitri Rina (Parental obligation), Rishi Rina (duty towards
teachers and saints), Deva Rina (duty towards the gods and goddesses). The natural impulses
are given proper channel through Ashrama. For women “marriage” is the only way of
“Upanayana”. This Ashrama combines the three Purusharthas-Dharma, Artha, and Kama.
This stage is also important because Brahmachari (unmarried), Vanaprasthi (living in forest)
and Sanyasi (sage) all knock the door of Grihasti (house holder) for alms and charity.
Vaanaprastha Ashrama:
It was expected that by this time the person begins to renunciate his worldly life
slowly and gradually leaves the bustle of world and retires to forest for meditation. He
should start living on vegetables and fruits. A life of self control, friendliness, charity and
develop compassionate attitude towards all creatures. The preparation for more advanced
stage starts during this Ashrama.
Sanyaasa Ashrama:
This stage is usually entered around 75 years. The individual in this “ashrama”
should be above all worldly desires or anxieties. The main aim is attainment of Moksha
and revelation of ultimate truth and spiritual freedom. According to the Hindu Dharma-
Sastra, each individual should normally pass through these four phases of life, one after
the other, (kramasah), and live in them in accordance with the sastras if he desires to
obtain salvation (moksha). After passing from ashrama to ashrama, and after offering the
sacrifices with senses under control (jitendriyah), comprehending and realizing the
limitations and futility of a life dependent upon alms and offerings, if one goes forth as a
wandering mendicant and dies thereafter. However, before entering the last phase viz., the
sanyasa, he has to pass through the three previous phases of life in their proper order;
besides, he has to satisfy himself that he has carried out the duties and obligations laid
down for each of the ashramas; and the social obligations or the three “debts”(rinas).
These three rinas are (1) the debt to the rishis (rishis rina), (2) the debt to the ancestors
(pitri rina), and (3) the debt to the gods (deva rina). Now these three debts could be
vicariously satisfied, respectively. (1) by studying the Vedas in accordance with the rules
laid down for the study, that is to say, by passing through the Brahmacharya ashrama, (2)
by betting sons in accordance with the dharma, ie. by going through the Grihasta ashrama,
and (3) by offering sacrifices according to one’s capacity, i.e. by performing the duties of
the Vaanaprastha Ashrama.
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According to Vatsyayana, in fact, one should pursue all the three purusharthas
(trivarga) viz. dharma, artha and kama, together in proper adjustment with each other,
without any one of these coming in the way of the other. This is also the tone in which
Manu has advised that the real good of man consists in the harmony or aggregate of the
three purusharthas (trivarga).
The upanayana ceremony introduces the young boy into the Brahmacharya ashrama.
After the course of studies is over in accordance with the dharma laid down for the
brahmachari, he takes a bath, symbolic of his completion of that ashrama course; so he
now becomes a snataka i.e. one who has taken the bath. He now becomes fit to enter the
next ashrama viz., the grihasta ashrama. The ceremony of returning back home from the
teacher is called samavartana. In the grihasta ashrama, the individual has to fulfil his
obligations (rinas) to the members of his family, to his deceased ancestors, to strangers
and to gods, in order to become fit to enter the next ashrama of vaanaprastha. Now, in the
vaanaprastha ashrama, the individual has to leave the shelter not only of the family (kula)
and of the home (griha), but of the village (grama) too; he must go to the forest (vana) and
live there, all the while striving to bring under control his senses of enjoyment. He has to
eat vegetables and fruits only.
He should utilize his time in studying the Upanishads and the srutis, and practice
penances (tapas) for the purging of his body, as also in order to elevate his soul up to
higher and higher levels. Thus, he must devote his heart and soul to his studies and
meditation; at the same time, he has to lead a life of self-control and friendliness and
charity to others-a life wherein though he never accepts charity to others-a life wherein
though he never accepts charity from others, he bears a compassionate attitude towards
all creatures. In the scheme of the ashramas (ashrama-vyavastha) the problem is approached
from the point of view of the training or nurture (shrama) of the individual through
specifically provided environments at different stages of his life; in the varna organization
(varna vyavastha) on the other hand, the problem is considered from the point of view of
the larger group, and the individual’s position is defined in this group with reference to
his innate nature (guna), his tendencies and dispositions.
Check Your Progress
5. What are the four Ashrama Dharmas?
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1.5 PURUSHARTHAS
The whole material and moral universe with which the individual has to deal in this
world is classified by the Hindu into three big realms, viz., Dharma, Artha and Kama,
which may be translated, briefly and conveniently, as moral and ideal needs, material
needs, and the needs of senses; or the moral, material and the sensual needs of man; or the
needs of the soul, the needs of material prosperity, and the psychobiological needs of the
flesh. In modern terminology, these are the three principal motivating forces or urges or
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drives around which the whole life and conduct of man could be comprehended. And
therefore, the management and conduct of his social and individual life is conceived and
formulated in terms of these three, with reference to the ultimate end of life viz., Moksha.
P.N. Prabhu’s work on Hindu Social Organisation is marvellous. He says “We speak
purusharthas as the ‘pshyco-moral’ bases of the ashrama theory, because, on the one hand,
the individual receives a psychological training through the ashramas in terms of lessons
in the use and management of the purusharthas; while, on the other hand, in actual practice,
he has to deal with the society in accordance with these lessons. It is in the light of the
understanding of the meaning and place of the purusharthas in the ashrama scheme that
we shall be able to comprehend the right method, way and outlook for the management of
each of the ashramas.”
The philosophical basis of Hindu Social Organization is regulated by certain spiritual
principles. According to Hindu philosophy, the ultimate aim of human life is to attain
Moksha or Salvation. Purusharthas means purpose of life. They are the guiding principles
of life and represent the view towards life. The entire Hindu Social Organization is based
on the foundations of Purusharthas. There are four Purusharthas:
• DHARMA (Righteousness or Morality)
• ARTHA (Wealth)
• KAMA (Artistic, Cultural life and fulfillment of desires and Passions)
• MOKSHA (Spiritual Freedom or Salvation)
Dharma: It is formed from the word Dhri which is derived from the Sanskrit root
‘dhri’ meaning ‘to hold together, to preserve’. It is a principle to maintain the stability of
society. Dharma does not mean religion or creed instead it denotes mode of life or code of
conduct. The aim of Dharma is to bring the gradual development of man and to enable him
to reach what is deemed to be the goal of human existence. The social implications and
meaning of dharma as a principle for maintaining the stability of society is brought out by
Sri Krishna in three verses in the Mahabharata: In advising Arjuna as to what is dharma he
explains that ‘dharma is created for all the well being of all creation, and further that ‘all
that is free from doing harm to any created being is certainly dharma; for, indeed, dharma
is created to keep all creation free from any harm. Sri Krishna proceeds, next, to give a
still more comprehensive view of dharma; “Dharma is so called because protects all; dharma
preserves all that is created. Dharma, then, is surely that principle which is capable of
preserving the universe”.
Artha: It is to be understood as referring to all the means necessary for acquiring
worldly prosperity such as wealth and power. It includes whole range of tangible objects
that can be possessed, enjoyed, lost and which are required in daily life for the upkeep of
household raising of a family and discharge of religious duties for the virtuous fulfillment
of life’s obligations.
Kama: It refers to all the desires in man for enjoyment and satisfaction of the life
of the senses including the sex drive. It includes the natural impulses, the instincts and
desire of man. It involves sexual, emotional and aesthetic life. The term is also often used
in a broader sense to include socially acquired motivation too. Dharma, Artha and Kama,
therefore, refer respectively to the moral, material and mental resources, accessories and
energies available to man.
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Artha and Kama thus refer to two of man’s earthly belongings, while Dharma stands
on higher level. However it is equally true that a human being cannot conduct his life
without Artha which constitute the material means of living and Kama which helps the
propagation of species. Therefore it is needed that correct quality and quantity, the place
and time of Kama have to be determined.
Moksha: It is the supreme end of human life. Attainment of Moksha/salvation ensures
the rising of soul above all worldly desires. According to Hindu philosophy, the body is
subjected to birth and death but soul is eternal. Independence from the bondage of birth
and death is Moksha
It is equally true that a human being cannot conduct his life without artha which
constitutes the material means of living, and kama which helps the propagation of the
species, therefore, it is needed that the correct quality and quantity, the place, and the time
of artha and kama, have to be determined and laid down by the wise sages. This is done
through dharma which defines for man, the proper quantum, place and season, for the
right functioning of artha and kama.
Purusharthas are concerned both with the individual and the group and justify the
kind of relation between individual and the group. Thus the four aspects point to different
sides of human nature, i.e. the instinctive and emotional, the economic, intellectual, ethical
and spiritual.
1.6 VARNA SYSTEM

Varna basically means “colour”. There are four Varnas - Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras. They have been said to have emerged from mouth, arms, thighs and
feet of the creator respectively.
There are various duties and obligations to the members of various Varnas. Further
there is division of occupation among the four varnas. Varnas existed as Open Classes
since there were no restrictions on food, drink, marriage etc.
Brahmins: This Varna is regarded at the highest ladder. Since they were created
from mouth the organ of speech this Varna was entrusted with teaching, priesthood and
maintain self control. The Brahmin has to declare the duties of other varnas while Kshatriyas
should regulate it. Due to increased importance of sacrifices and ritualism the significance
of Brahmins increased to a great extent. This led to them enjoying many social privileges.
They were considered to be the guardian of the moral discipline of remaining varnas.
Kshatriyas: They occupy the second ladder and due to their creation from arms
which is the seat of courage and strength. Their duties included protecting people, territory,
performing sacrifices and giving gifts.
Vaishyas: They were believed to be originated from thighs which are significant
for mobility and thus were involved in the jobs of trading, acquiring wealth through fair
means and celebrating the sacrifices. They were also involved in agriculture. Trade and
commerce, agriculture are significant for society to move and function.
Shudras: They originated from the feet of the creator and thus were to offer services
to all other varnas. There are several passes in the oldest Vedic literature dealing with the
origin of the varnas. The oldest is the hymn in the purushasukta of the Rig-Veda which
says that the Brahmana Varna represented the mouth of the purusha, which word may be
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translated as the universal man referring perhaps to mankind as a whole, the Rajanya (i.e.
Kshatriya) his arms, the Vaishya his thighs and Shudra his feet. The mouth of the purusha
from which the Brahmanas are created is the seat of speech; the Brahmanas therefore are
created to be teachers and instructors of mankind. The arms are symbol of valour and
strength; the Kshatriyas mission in this world is to carry weapons and protect people. It is
difficult to interpret that portion of the hymn which deals with the creation of the Vaishyas
from the thighs of the purusha. But the thigh consumes food, and therefore the Vaishya
may be said to be created to provide food to the people. The creation of the shudra from
the foot symbolize the fact that the Shudra is to be the ‘footman’, the server of other
varnas. The whole social organization is here conceived symbolically as one human being.
The varnas seem to have been ‘open classes’, to use a term of Charles Horton Cooley.
They were not watertight compartments, the membership of which was determined by
virtue of heredity only; they were, to use Cooley’s words again, “more based on individual
traits and less upon descent.” Gradually, however, the varnas came to be distinguished
from each other. Each Varna became more and more marked off and separated from the
other. The four varnas came to be addressed in four different ways, differing in degrees of
politeness. A gradual increase in the distinction between the different varnas in terms of
different rights and privileges is noticeable as we pass on from the Rigvedic literature to
the Brahmanic literature, viz., in the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads.
Check Your Progress
6. What are the four Varnas?
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1.7 SUMMARY
The traditional value system in India revolves around the notion of purusharthas,
ashramas, varnas and sanskaras. These also are the bases of Hindu social Organization.
The sources of the understanding of Hindu social institutions and organisations are
many and various. These include the Vedic literature, the Epics, the Puranic literature, the
Sutra literature, the drama, the poetry, and the vast store house of folktales.
The Hindu Social Organisation considers man as a social being in relation to Desa
these institutions-Purusharthas, Ashrama Vyavastha, Varna Vyavastha, Caste System, Joint
family system.
The Vedic civilisation broadened and enriched the cultural heritage and tradition of
India. The masters of this civilisation were none else than the Aryans, who migrated to
India from Central Asia. The word ‘Arya’ literally means ‘independent-minded’ or one
with ‘noble character’. They belonged to the Indo-European group of human race who
lived somewhere in the area east of the Alps mountains known as Eurasia.
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The only source of information about the Aryans in India is the vast literature known
as the Vedas. As historical sources, the Vedic texts have given vivid description of the
social, political, economic and religious picture of the then society.
1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - MODEL ANSWERS

1. The Hindu Social Organisation considers man as a social being in relation to Desa
the following institutions
• Ashrama Vyavastha
• Purusharthas
• Varna Vyavastha
• Caste System
• Joint family system
2. The Vedic age covers a period from 1800 BC to 600 BC, being divided into two phases:
(Some also give the time period from 1500 BC to 500 BC) - Early Vedic Age or Rig Vedic
Age and Later Vedic Age. The four Vedas are divided into these two phases. In the early
phase only the Rig Veda was composed. The starting point of study of Vedic culture begins
with the Rig Veda. The later Vedic culture has been reflected in the composition of Sam
Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. Each of the four Vedas constitutes four parts namely
Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. For a clear understanding of the Vedic
literature, knowledge of each of these parts is essential. Each of these parts spreads the
rich heritage of Vedic literature in a composite way and the flavour prevails till today.
3. In general, the social life of the Vedic Aryans was highly developed and disciplined.
They maintained a high degree of morality in their conduct. Simple food and dress habits,
happy family life, education as builder of character, high position of women, absence of
social complexities like caste system etc. had brought about a value-based society. The
result was a peaceful, contented, healthy and refined social life in the early Vedic period.
4. The period that followed the Rig Veda is known as the Later Vedic Age (roughly from
1000 B.C. to 600 B.C.). Great significant changes took place in the religious life of the
people during this age. The old gods like Varuna, Indra, Agni and Surya were worshipped
with lesser zeal. New gods like Shiva, Vishnu and Vasudeva Krishna came into prominence.
Another change that took place during this period was the elaboration of rites and
ceremonies concerning the old Vedic religion. In the later Vedic age animal sacrifice became
an important part of religion.
5. Brahmacharya Ashrama that of a student; Grihasta Ashrama that of a married man, the
house-holder; Vaanaprastha Ashrama that of retired life in the forest, after abandoning the
home, preparatory to complete renouncement of worldly relations and Sanyaasa Ashrama
the life of complete renunciation of worldly relations and attachments.
6. The four Varnas are Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
1.9 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following Questions in about 30 lines each
1. Write about Ashrama Dharmas and Purusharthas System.
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2. Explain about the Vedic Indian society.
3. Write about Hindu Social Organisation.
II. Answer the following questions in about 10 lines each
1. Explain Vedic Religion.
2. Discuss Monotheism.
1.10 GLOSSARY
Dharma : It is formed from the word Dhri which is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘dhri’
meaning ‘to hold together, to preserve’.
Artha : It is to be understood as referring to all the means necessary for acquiring worldly
prosperity such as wealth and power.
Kama : It refers to all the desires in man for enjoyment and satisfaction of the life of the
senses including the sex drive.
Moksha : It is the supreme end of human life. Attainment of Moksha/Salvation ensures
the rising of soul above all worldly desires.
Samavartana :The ceremony to mark the shift from Brahmacharya Ashrama to Grihasta
Ashrama is called “Samavartana”.
1.11 FURTHER READINGS

1. Ahuja, Ram : Indian Social System
2. Ahuja, Ram : Society in India
3. Rao, Shankar : Sociology of Indian Society
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UNIT-2: EMERGENCE OF JAINISM,
BUDDHISM, ADVENT OF ISLAM AND
EUROPEAN COLONIZATION
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Emergence of Jainism
2.2.1 Vardhamana Mahavira
2.2.2 Doctrine of Jainism
2.2.3 Spread of Jainism
2.3 Emergence of Buddhism
2.3.1 Buddha
2.3.2 Doctrine of Buddhism
2.3.3 Spread of Buddhism
2.3.4 The Buddhist Councils
2.4 Advent of Islam
2.4.1 Basic Features of Islam
2.5 European Colonization
2.6 Summary
2.7 Check Your Progress - Model Answers
2.9 Glossary
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 Know the causes for emergence of Jainism and Buddhism in India.
 Understand the influence of Islam on Indian society.
 Analyze the causes and consequences of European Colonization in India.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
India is said to be a synthesis of diverse social and cultural elements. The synthesis has
created continuity from the ancient period till today, continuity from the time of Mohenjodaro
(2500 B.C.) through Buddhism, Jainism and Islam from the time of British rule to Post-
Independent India. One finds the process of assimilation and synthesis in the fields of art,
painting, music, religion, etc. In this unit we can understand Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and
European Colonization.
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2.2 EMERGENCE OF JAINISM
According to the Jains, the origin of Jainism goes back to ‘very ancient times’. They
believe in twenty four Tirthankaras or great teachers or leaders of their religion. The first
Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhadev, who was born in Ayodhya. He is said to have laid
the foundations for orderly human society. The last, twenty fourth Tirthankara, was Vardhaman
Mahavira who was contemporary of Gautama Buddha. His immediate predecessor was
Parshvanath or Parsva , who lived 250 years before Mahavira and preached the basic prin-
ciples of Jainism - non violence, honesty and non-possession of property.
2.2.1 Vardhamana Mahavira
The great preacher of Jainism, Vardhamana Mahavira was probably born in 540 B.C in
a village near Vaishali in north Bihar. His father was the chief of Kundagraha in Vaishali and
his mother, a Lichchavi princess. They were also connected with the royal family of Magadha.
The popular belief is that Vardhamana Mahavira was the founder of Jainism, but in fact he
only revived and reorganised it.
Mahavira spent thirty years of his life as a householder, but later left home and became
an ascetic in search of truth. It is said that he wandered in complete austerity for over twelve
years begging for his food, meditating and debating. He did not even change his clothes and
totally abandoned them when he attained ‘Kaivalya’ (perfect knowledge). Kaivalya helped
him to conquer both misery and happiness. He came to be known as ‘Jina’, the conqueror and
his followers as Jains. Soon Mahavira gained a great reputation and taught in the Gangetic
Kingdoms for thirty years, under the patronage of various kings. He took his mission to Kosala,
Magadha, Mithila and a few other places. He died at the age of 72 at a place called Pavapuri,
near Rajgir in Bihar.
The five major doctrines that were taught to the early followers of Jainism were non-
violence, not to speak a lie, not to steal, not to acquire property and to lead a Brahmacharya
life. Many of these, particularly ideas on non-violence were impressed upon with such an
extremity that, even an unconscious killing of small insects was considered a sin. Mahavira
asked his followers to discard their clothes completely. This practice indicated that the Jains
were supposed to follow a very austere life. During the later stages of its development, Jainism
was divided into two sects, the ‘Svetambaras’ or those that wore white dress, and the
‘Digambaras’ or those who kept themselves naked.
Jainism recognized the existence of Gods, but they were placed below the Jina i.e. the
conqueror who was Mahavira. Thus, the existence of God was irrelevant to its doctrine. Every
human being had the potentiality to become a prophet or Tirthankara, if he followed the principle
of the purification of the soul through a long course of fasting and rigorous practice of non-
violence. It was this purification which was the main purpose of living. The Jain principles
clearly stated that purification of the soul and its detachment from the body to achieve bliss,
could not be gained through knowledge, since each man could only be part of true knowledge.
Since knowledge was relative, it would not ever be the right path for salvation. In this sense,
Mahavira disagreed with the thought of the Upanishadic teachers who taught that purification
could be achieved through knowledge. Jainism mainly concentrated on the attainment of
freedom from worldly bond. It rejected the use of any ritual to achieve this aim, and therefore,
antagonized the Brahmans. However, Jainism did not condemn the varna system. Mahavira
postulated that a person is born into a higher or lower varna because of the virtues or sins
committed by him in his previous life. Thus, only a pure and meritorious life could lead to
liberation for members of the lower orders too.
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2.2.2 Doctrine of Jainism
Jainism has no prescribed rituals or observances. Jain teaching denies the existence of a
supreme ‘Deity’ as creator of the universe, and holds that the universe functions according to
eternal laws of causes and consequences. The Jains believe that man is subject to the
consequences of his own acts or karma.
According to Jainism, every object has a soul. Not only the birds and beasts, but plants,
metals, minerals, stones and water too, have souls. They hold that it is possible to indict pain
even on a stone. Jainism lays emphasis on good conduct and morality. It prescribes five rules
of conduct and these are abstention from killing, stealing, lying and possession of property
and brahmacharya. Jains believe in karma and rebirth. According to Jainism, moksha or freedom
from wordly bonds is the highest goal of life, and moksha can be attained through Triratna or
three jewels, namely ‘Right Belief’, “Right Knowledge’ and ‘Right Conduct’. Mahavira asked
his followers to lead an austere life.
2.2.3 Spread of Jainism
Mahavira organised a religious order of his followers. They were on tour to southern
and western India to spread the teachings of Jainism. According to a later Jain tradition,
Chandragupta Maurya helped the spread of Jainism in Karnataka. He gave up his throne and
spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jain ascetic. But this tradition is not confirmed
by any other source.
Another reason given for the spread of Jainism in South India is the great famine that
took place in Magadha two hundred years after Mahavira’s death. The famine lasted for twelve
years and forced many Jains to move to the South. Many monastic establishments called Basadis
sprang up in Karnataka and immigrant Jain helped the spread of Jainism. When the famine
was over, many Jains came back to Magadha. However, they developed certain differences
with the local Jains. A joint meeting was called at Pataliputra to sort out the differences but
southern Jains boycotted the council and refused to accept its decision. This eventually led to
the division of the Jains into two sects-Digambara (sky clad-Southerners) and Swetambaras
(those who dressed in white-the Magadhas).
Jainism spread in Kalinga and later reached Tamilnadu. It also gradually spread to
Rajasthan, Malwa and Gujarat. It became popular among the trading community. The emphasis
on strict non-violence discouraged agriculturalists from becoming Jains, since cultivation
involved killing of insects and pests. Jainism made serious efforts to fight the evils of the
Varna system and the rigour of ritualistic Vedic religion. It spread the message of ahimsa (non-
injury) and kindness towards all beings, living and non-living. It made significant contributions
to the growth of Indian literature and development of regional languages like Gujarati, Marathi
and Kannada.
The Jain literature is made up of three branches viz religion: Texts, Philosophy and
Secular Writings. These mainly comprise of poetry, fables, grammar, drama etc. A large number
of these writings are still in manuscript form and are found in the shrines of Gujarat and
Rajasthan. In later periods they used Sanskrit in place of Prakrit to write legends and fables.
Their works on grammar and poetics richly contributed to the growth of Sanskrit. The Jain
literature has been an important source of information on the contemporary social and political
conditions of India.
The Jain temples at Rajgir, Girnar and Mount Abu and those located at Mathura,
Bundelkhand and in central and southern India are some of the finest examples in the field of
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art and architecture. Some standing and seated Jina images in Khandagiri caves near
Bhubaneswar show highly developed art traditions. The carvings at Satghara and Satbakhra
(northern caves) and other medieval relics of Khandagiri caves also establish the high standard
of iconography attained under Jainism. Some of the caves have beautiful carvings representing
the Tirthankaras. Jainism also contributed to the development of art and architecture. Beautiful
carvings and statues in the Jain temple and caves exhibit great artistic talent.
In order to make it possible to spread his teachings, Mahavira organized his followers
into an order. Both men and women were allowed to join it. This order preserved the Jaina
teaching in an oral tradition. In order to sort out the differences among the various Jain monks,
a Council was convened at Pataliputra which the Southern Jain monks boycotted. The Jaina
faith spread gradually to Karnataka, Orissa, some parts of Tamilnadu and finally during the
later centuries, to Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The trading community particularly patronized
it. The excessive emphasis on non-violence probably prevented agriculturists from becoming
its followers. Some ideas in Jainism like frugality, restriction on the acquisition of landed
property, fitted in with many of the occupations that were concentrated in the urban setting.
Although Jainism was not as popular as Buddhism, during the early years of its spread, it has
continued to survive in India even today, while Buddhism has practically disappeared from
India.
Check Your Progress
1. Explain the Basic principles of Jainism.
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2.3 EMERGENCE OF BUDDHISM

In the 6th B.C. most important religion in India was Buddhism. It has occupied promi-
nent place in the history of world. Buddhism is one of the world’s great religions and has
deeply influenced the character and evolution of Asian civilization over the past 2,500 years.
It is based on the teachings of a historical figure, Siddhartha Gautama, who lived around the
fifth century B.C. As it moved across Asia, Buddhism absorbed indigenous beliefs and incor-
porated a wide range of imagery, both local and foreign, into its art and religious practices.
Buddhism continues to evolve as a religion in many parts of the world.
2.3.1 Buddha
Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha (born 563 B.C.). Before enlightenment, he
was called Siddartha, and belonged to Kshatriya family of Kapilavastu. He came from a
republican tradition of the Shakya tribe. Like Mahavira, he also led the life of a householder,
and only at the age of twenty nine, did he leave home in search of truth. Having been moved by
the misery that people suffered in the world, he took to asceticism as a means of salvation, but
rejected it, and subsequently decided on meditation as a method for understanding the cause
of suffering in the world. He eventually achieved enlightenment and delivered his first sermon
at Sarnath, where his first five disciples had gathered. This first sermon is called
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dharmachakraparvartana or the Turning of the Wheel of Law. In it lies the essence of the
Buddhist teaching. The Four Noble Truths and the Eight-Fold-Path were incorporated in this.
It advocated that the way to salvation from the material world of suffering was through adopting
a middle way. These simple teachings did not require complicated metaphysical thinking.
The basis of Buddha’s argument was rational, and he underlined the notion of causality
in understanding reality. Nothing was left to divine intervention. Therefore, Buddha did not
indulge in the various controversies regarding the nature of soul (atma) which the Brahmanical
texts concentrated on. He was concerned about worldly problems and answers for them. Like
‘Mahaveera, Buddha too laid down a code of conduct for his followers. It emphasised moral
values, such as not to covet the property of others, to be non-violent, to speak the truth, to
avoid corrupt practices and so on. In the Buddhist view of things, the ultimate aim of all things
was to achieve nirvana or freedom from the wheel of rebirth. In this connection, the doctrine
of karma was important to Buddhist thought. The place of God in their way of thinking was
secondary, as the universe essentially saw natural cosmic rise and fall. In this universe, the
main reason for man’s suffering was desire, which in turn, stemmed from ignorance. To eradicate
ignorance, the Buddha way had to be adopted, what is called the Middle Path. Buddhist views
and values, thus, naturally rejected Brahmanical ritual and cults. In fact, during his wanderings
to preach the doctrine, Buddha encountered many Brahmanas whom he defeated in philosophical
debates.
2.3.2 Doctrine of Buddhism
Buddha taught four noble truths, these are: Dukha (the world is full of suffering).
Samudaya (every suffering has a cause), Nirodha (the cause is desire, and if desire is removed,
the suffering can also be removed, and Marga (there is a path to remove desire).
According to the Buddha, the highest goal of life is to attain nirvana. Nirvana literally
means the ‘blowing out’ or extinction of human desire. In other words, the end of desire leads
to the end of all human sufferings ; it is also a state of ‘peace and tranquillity’ that man can
attain, by being free from desire. He suggested the Ashtangika Marg (Eight-fold Path) for the
elimination of human misery. It comprises Samyak Dristi (Right Understanding). Samyak-
Sankalpa (Right Thought). Samyak-Vak (Right Speech), Samyak-Karmanta (Right Action).
Samyak-Ajiva (Right Livlihood), Samyak-Vayama (Right effort), Samyak-Smriti (Right
Thinking) and Samyak-Samadhi (Right Concentration). Buddha. Like Mahavira, believed in
the theories of karma and re-birth. These signify that every individual pays for his own actions
and has to be born again and again to do. According to the teachings of the Buddha, nirvana
can only be achieved by leading a life free from Trishna or craving; and Pious, honest and
truthful conduct paves the way to nirvana. Buddha advocated the ‘middle path’ avoiding both
strict asceticism and too much indulgence in pleasures.
The Buddha also laid down a code of conduct. He asked his followers to abstain from
lying, coveting the property of others, committing violence. using intoxicants and indulging in
corrupt practices.
2.3.3 Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism gained numerous followers. The avoidance of complex religious practices,
the absence of caste distinctions and the use of Pali-the language of the common people,
instead of Sanskrit, were the main causes of the appeal of the new religious thought. The
principles of non-violence brought about many sympathisers also. The personality of the
Buddha, who offered goodness for evil and love for hatred, also attracted a large number of
people towards his doctrine. In the beginning. it particularly won the support of the lower
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orders in society who were exploited under the Varna system. People were taken into the
Buddhist order irrespective of their castes. Women were also admitted to the Sangha. This was
a big change from the point of view of the status of women as Brahmanical orthodoxy had
started putting increasing restrictions on them. Buddhist monks and nuns wandered from place
to place preaching and asking for alms. It gave this religion a missionary character. Monasteries
and nunneries were democratic in nature and were based on the pattern of republican assemblies.
With the support of rulers like Bimbisar, Ajatashatru. Asoka, Buddhism expanded rapidly
throughout India and Sri Lanka. The people of kingdoms like Kosala and Vatsa and many
republics embraced Buddhism. Later on, the Kushan emperor, Kanishka, became one of its
greatest patrons. He convened a council in Kashmir; where the Buddhist teachings were
engraved on sheets of copper and preserved under a stupa. Buddhism eventually became the
major religion in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tibet, Cambodia, Laos and Burma. It travelled to many
countries of the Far East as well-Vietnam, Japan and China.
2.3.4 The Buddhist Councils
The Buddha did not preach through written scriptures but only through sermons and
discussions. During the entire period of the growth of Buddhism in India, the Buddhists used
to meet in councils from time to time to lay down the rules and settle the religious disputes
amongst themselves. We know of four famous councils, the first of which met at Rajgir
immediately after the death of the Buddha around 483 BC. The Tripitakas which form the
basis of the Buddhist scriptures were the result of the Rajgir Council. A century later came the
Vaishali Council that ruled out all deviations from the strict code of the Tripitakas. The third
council met during Asoka’s reign at Pataliputra. The Patliputra Council led by scholars like
Tissa, Moggaliputta and Upagupta confronted orthodox Brahmanism and asserted the
superiority of Buddhism. It also viewed Buddhism as the religion of all mankind that should
be taken to other lands. The fourth Council meeting under emperor Kanishka’s patronage,
however, gave Buddhism an entirely new turn. It recognized an ideological difference within
Buddhism between the new Mahayana (the greater vehicle) School that looked upon the Buddha
as a God and the old Hinayana (the lesser vehicle) School that considered Buddha as a guide
and relied on his teachings as embodied in the Tripitakas. The Mahayana gave up Pali for
Sanskrit, and started worshipping idols of the Buddhas Avalokiteshwara. In some ways it soon
began resembling the same Vedic religion and religious practices.
Buddhism appealed to the common people on many counts. Many of the popular cults,
like the worship of trees, was accepted by the Buddhists. This did not interfere with the early
Buddhist philosophy in a way. Rather, the appeal of Buddhism to the people was its simple
ideas which were explained by Buddha in a way meant to evoke goodness and love. In this
regard, his personality played an important role. He tackled his opponents with calmness and
clarity of mind, and therefore, he refused to be provoked by others. In comparison with
Brahmanism, Buddhism emerged as a more liberal and open system of thought. Men of the
lower orders lost their caste identity once they joined the Order. The Order was based on the
tradition of the republican assembly.
The democratic organization of the Sangha and the use of Pali i.e., the language of the
people, also facilitated the spread of Buddhist doctrines among all sections of the society. On
joining the Sangha, the monks and nuns had to strictly follow rules and regulations. They had
to take three vows. that of continence poverty and faith. There are thus, three main elements of
Buddhism: Buddha, Sangha Dharma and Dhamma. During the life time of the Buddha, the
faith had become popular in both the monarchical and republican States of North Eastern
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India, like Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi, the kingdom of the Lichchavis and Shakyas etc. During
the subsequent centuries, Buddhism spread to Central Asia, West Asia, Sri Lanka, Burma,
Tibet, China and Japan. Some of these countries profess this faith, though it has disappeared
from the land of its birth. In the present context, we cannot dwell upon the reasons for its
decline. Suffice it to say that during the later centuries, Buddhism too succumbed to ritualistic
practices and idol worship. On social issues also, it could not take a stand that opposed the
caste system totally.
Check Your Progress
2. What are the principles of Buddhism?
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2.4 ADVENT OF ISLAM

In the 7th century Arabia become the cradle of the world’s third great monotheistic reli-
gion. All three have begun within a small area of southwest Asia. First Judaism, somewhere in
the region stretching up from the Red Sea to Palestine, then Christianity at the northern end of
this area; and finally Islam to the south, in Mecca, close to the Red Sea. Each of the later
arrivals in this close family of religions claims to build upon the message of its predecessors,
bringing a better and more up-to-date version of the truth about the one God-in this case as
revealed to the Messenger of God, Muhammad. Islam means ‘surrender’ (to God), and from
the same root anyone who follows Islam is a Muslim.
The role of Islam may be divided into three periods. The period from the Seventh to
Twelfth centuries period, the period from the Twelfth to Eighteenth century is regarded as the
medieval period. The period from the Eighteenth century to the present day may be called
modern period. In the Classical period Mohammed prophet was born. The Medieval period
witnessed the rise of several great muslim empires which challenged the European expansions
during the Modern period many muslim empires collapsed and several institutions were af-
fected by the Western influence.
2.4.1 Basic Features of Islam
Religion in Pre-Islamic Arabia
Animism was the religion of the early tribes of Arabia. Springs, rocks, trees and moun-
tains were the manifestations of this nature spirit. They had a number of spirits among whom
some were considered more important than others [polytheism]. Isaf and Nailah and the god-
desses Al-lat, Manat and Al-uzza were some of the gods and goddesses who were worshipped
in the regions around Mecca, Spring Zem Zem in Mecca is regarded as sacred. This spring
provided water to pilgrims who came to worship the spirit of the Black Stone that which is
believed to have fallen from the sky. An unadorned cubical stone building was erected over the
stone and this is known as Kaaba. It is draped by a black cloth (the entire structure) which is
26
replaced every year. Kaaba is the holiest shrine for the Muslims which convery’s the inde-
scribable nature of the infinite god.
Mohammed
Islam was founded by Mohammed who was born in the commercial city of Mecca about
A.D. 570 in the houses of Hashimid who belonged to Kuraish tribe. Mohammed’s father died
a few months prior to his birth and his mother died when he was only six years old. It was his
uncle who took him under his charge. Mohammeds childhood and youth were spent in the
vicinity of Mecca. He was an intelligent, inquisitive and Imaginative Person. He was known
for his honesty, integrity and truthfulness. Mohammed means “the praised one” and Muslims
addressed him as prophet. He was well known as Al-amin, the trustworthy, because of his
honesty.
When he was twenty five years old he married Khadija a rich widow who was forty
years old. Fatima was the only child of that marriage who survived while others died in their
infancy. Mohammed lived a normal married life till the age of 40 years. It was after the attain-
ment of 40 years of age that Mohammed used to retreat from time to time into an isolated cave
where he meditated on problems of higher truth or religious questions. He had strange experi-
ences which puzzled him. It was during one of the sojourns in the cave that he had his enlight-
enment when he heard the voice of the angel Djibriel (Gabriel). The angel told him that he was
the prophet of Allah and that he should convey the revelations from God to his people.
In the beginning he was unsuccessful as a prophet. His old friends did not believe his
stories about angel Gabriel and revelations from God. For three years Khadija, his slave Zaid
were his only followers. They were the first converts to Islam. Though Mohammed was dis-
couraged by the rejection of his revelations, he preached them in Mecca for ten years.
Mohammed started preaching the new faith to humanity in A.D.612 and he called it
Islam or the submission of oneself to God. He preached that God is one and he is the creator of
the universe who is to be worshipped. He preached a simple monotheistic religion, which
impressed upon its followers to have faith in God and to do good to their fellow men. The
people disliked his preachings and became increasingly hostile to him and made his life in
Mecca intolerable. In A.D.622 he migrated to Yethrib. Soon he established himself as a lead-
ing citizen of Yathirab, he changed its name to Medina, which means the city of the prophet. In
617 Mohammed had his ascension known as Miraj when he was summoned to heaven to see a
vision of God and where the Islamic prayers to be recited five times a day were enjoined on the
faithful.
In Medina the Prophet built the first mosque. Remarkable changes took place in his life.
He was not only a religious leader but also a temporal ruler. He laid the foundation of a stable
social and economic order. He considered gambling and drinking a curse and bloodshed a
crime against God. He taught his followers to turn their face towards Mecca, their own holy
city for prayers. The Arabs recognized him as the Prophet and head of their faith. In A.D.632
at the age of sixty two when his mission was completed, he established a state and a social
order based on justice, equity, and brotherhood.
The highest act of devotion for Mohammed was service to humanity. He preached that
a man’s true wealth is the good he does in the world. His teachings are well preserved in
several volumes which are known as Hadith.
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The Quran
The Quran is the sacred book of Muslims. Mohammed did not put it together in the form
of a book. After his death Abu Bakr, his successor selected Zaidibn Thabit to collect and edit
the oracles in the form of a book. Zaid collected fragments from every quarter, from the leaves
and tablets of white stone to put the Quran together. The messages of Mohammed were deliv-
ered orally as oracles or sermons. Some of the sayings were not written down but preserved in
the memory of the faithful. The Western scholars agree that the Quran is a classic of Arabic
literature. They praise its rhythmic quality.
The Chapters or “Suras” vary in length. The Quran is a collection of independent pro-
phetic oracles or homilies having the nature of sermons. Just as the Bible is a code of law, the
Quran is also a law books as well a book of theology and worship. The Quran is the law by
which the entire Muslim world lives. The Quran is considered a book of divine truth. It speaks
to their minds as well as to their hearts.
The Caliphs
The successor of the prophet Mohammed is called Caliph. Religion, government, edu-
cation, art, economics are fused together in a Muslim state, the head of which is a religious
person who exercises both religious and secular authority. Mohammed as the ruler of the
nation as he was the founder of Islamic religion and government.
When Mohammed died Abu Bakr, father of Aisha (Mohammed’s favourite wife) was
made the first Caliph. This act created a division in Islam. Those who accepted Abu Bakr and
his successors as legitimate Caliphs are called Sunnites, the tradition alists in Islam. Those
who refused to accept Abu Bakr as Caliph were called shia’s in Islam. The Shiites are noted for
the tenancity of their devotion to the faith. They are found in large numbers in Iran and India,
while Sunnites are concentrated in Arabia, Jordan, Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt, Afghanistan,
India, China, Africa and East Indies.
Abu Bakr had no revelations but he followed the preachings of Mohammed. When Abu
Bakr died Omar was made the Caliph and he ruled from 634 to 644. He was a most successful
ruler. In 637 he conquered Palestine thereby beginning the Muslim period in the history of
Palestine. The conquest was appreciated by Muslims as they traced their origin back to Abraham.
For muslims Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem and Hebron are the holy sites of Islam. Abraham was
buried in Hebron.
In 1517 the last important caliphate was established when the Sultan of Turkey con-
quered Egypt. After that date Islam had no such head.
Muslim Law
The Quran, Sunna and Ijma constitute the Muslim Law. The Quran is the word of allah
and sunna means custom. The relevations given to Mohammed by the angel Gabriel and deliv-
ered by the Prophet are preserved in the Quran. Muslims believe this to be Allah’s truth, the
ultimate law which they must observe. Sunna means custom, the particular way of acting in
the accordance with the actions and words Mohammed. The teachings and sayings are all
preserved in several volumes which are known as Hadith. Muslims believe that Mohammed
lived a perfect life and that what he did was a perfect example for others to follow.
Arabs followed the traditions of their fathers before the time of Mohammed. Sometimes
they modified their traditions to the one that was related to Mohammed. The various actions
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Mohammed had taken, and the words he had spoken, were recorded from the memories of old
persons who were associated with the Prophet. It was necessary for someone to decide the
relevant statutes which were to be applied. Such a decision is the ijma, the consensus, which
acts as the final verdict. According to sunnies, the community could take the final decision
while the Shiite rejected the principle of consensus. They considered Imam the divinely autho-
rized and endowed spiritual leader of Muslims, descendent of Ali, to make the final interpre-
tations and decisions.
In Islam there are four schools of law each of which is derived from an eminent scholar.
Hanifitic school derived from Abu-Hanifah, al-Safil derived from Abbasi Caliphs of Baghdad,
Malik ibn-Anas based at Madina and last by ibn-Hanbal School. Every Muslim committee has
a legal authority mufti, who is an expert in Muslim law and in the interpretations of these
schools.
Muslim Theology
Mohammed preached monotheism and opposed polytheism and all forms of idolatory
including the use of images. Mohammed asked men to practice justice. Sovereignty of one god
and submission of man’s will to the will of God constitute the essence of Mohammed’s
theology. He warns people of an impending judgement which includes a resurrection of the
dead, heavenly reward for the righteous and a Hell of fire for the wicked.
Prophet Mohammed was neither a theologian nor a philosopher. He never set forth his
faith as a theological system. It is only from his poetic utterances that one can construct a
system of Mohammed’s theology. Every Sura of the Quran proclaims that God is the sovereign
of history and judge of the world, that he rules with compassion and that he provides for those
who trust him. Mohammed speaks of Allah as the almighty who looks after the faithful and
forgives the wrong doers.
The Five Pillars of Islam (Obligatory Duties of Islam)
Muslims summarize Islam as a religion under the five pillars. The first pillar is the
tauheed which every Muslim holds and practices. Every Muslim considers that Allah is the
only God and Mohammed his prophet. The second pillar is prayer at daybreak, noon, mid-
afternoon, just before sunset, and about dark which are the five recognized times for prayer in
Islam. Every mosque has a minaret from where the muezzin chants the call to prayer at each of
these times. Just as Christians ring bells and Jews sound horn, the Muslims use the human
voice to call men to pray.
Every Muslim must purify himself by washing his hands and feet before entering the
mosque. When it is not possible to come to the mosque one may pause facing towards Mecca
wherever he is when the time of prayer arrives. The morning prayer at dawn is called fadjar,
the mid-day prayer is zuhar, the mid-afternoon prayer is asar, the sunset prayer is maghrib and
the night fall prayer is isha. While praying the face is turned towards mecca and opening surah
of the Quran is recited first followed by a few more verses from the holy Book. Muslims recite
their prayers standing, kneeling and reclining on their rugs. Outsiders are not allowed to enter
the mosque during the prayers.
Every Friday there is a service at mosque. For Hanifinites the Friday service can be held
with an Imam and three others but for shafites there must be atleast forty persons.
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One third obligatory duty or the third pillar is fasting. Ramzan is the prescribed month
of fasting. This fasting starts with the sighting of the moon at the end of the eighth month of
the Muslim calendar and lasts till the sighting of the moon in the following month. Muslims
during this month abstain from all foods and drink from early dawn to late dusk. When the
moon is sighted a big festival known as Eid-ul-fitr is observed. Fasting which is compulsory
for both men and women is to inculcate a sense of self control and to know what hunger is.
Fasting requires strict observance of moral, social and personal conduct, strict performance of
prayers, recitation of the Quran so that all thirty chapters are completed in the thirty days of
the month, giving alms or Zakat, giving up vices like smoking and gambling. The fourth pillar
of islam is Zakat or alms giving of charity which is compulsory. According to Islam, man has
to earn his bread through the sweat of one’s brow and share part of it with the needy and the
poor. 2 ½ percent of the total wealth, that is only one unit of every forty units has been pre-
scribed by Islam for it and it is applicable to all items of wealth, money, land cattle,jewelry,houses
and all other kinds of property. The first three pillars are intended to improve the personal
character of man while the fourth is intended to improve the conditions of the entire society,
the poor, the needy, orphans, widows and destitute. True piety is achieved only by sharing with
the caring for others and by making prompt payment of what belongs to Allah.
The fifth pillar of Islam is haj or a pilgrimage to Mecca. It is usually undertaken during
the last month of the year which is in the memory of the supreme sacrifice of Abraham and his
son who surrendered themselves to the will of God. Every Muslim once in a life time should
undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca. The main idea or supreme lesson of this pillar is that nothing
is greater in the eyes of the Creator than one’s complete surrender to the divine will.
The eighth, ninth, and tenth of the last month of the Islamic calendar are the three
stipulated days of Haj known as Zil-haj. The pilgrim must wear a special garment and must go
round the kaaba seven times kissing the black stone which is supposed to have come down
from the sky. After a short prayer the pilgrims go to the hills of safa and Marwa, the symbol of
patience and preservance. On the Seventh day they listen to the sermon. On the eighth day the
Pilgrims visit the valley of Mina and on the ninth day they proceed to the hills of the Arafat,
where Adam and Eve were reunited after their wandering. The tenth day is the Id day the day
of sacrifice, Bakrid, which is connected with the story of Abraham who was prepared to sacri-
fice his son as he was called upon to do so by God. The sacrifice took place in the valley of
Mina, and pilgrims perform a symbolic ceremony of throwing seven stones at evil there at.
This ends the pilgrimage. The pilgrimage or Haj affords an opportunity to Muslims to meet at
one place on terms of perfect equality and brotherhood.
Muslim Prophets
According to the Muslim doctrine there have been a total of some 124,000 prophets, of
whom only 313 were outstanding. Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed were
the most outstanding prophets. Mohammed was the last and the greatest of the line. Next to
these great prophets are a large number persons intimate with God and they are called as wali’s
(friends).
Mysticism in Islam
Mysticism is congenial to Shiite form of Islam and is known as Sufi movement. It is the
purification of the heart to prevent the purification of basic temptations and to gain personal
experience of God. Sufism has been derived from the word Sauf which means coarse wool
30
signifying hard, simple life. Spiritual perfection according to Sufism involves five stages. In
the first stage a man has to completely surrender himself to the will of God. In the second stage
he has to act according to the commands of God or Shariat. The third stage is called ‘Tarikhat’
in which spiritual knowledge is attained. The Forth Stage ‘hakhikat’ or reality is the stage of
perfection where a man is completely absorbed in God. The stage of ‘fana’ or the final stage is
attained by passing through a long experiences of seven different types repentance, absti-
nence, renunciation, poverty, patience, trust and satisfaction. Apart from these, there are ten
more states through which a mystic has to pass-meditation, love, hope, longing, nearness to
God, intimacy, tranquility, contemplation and certainty.
The sufi has to undergo rigorous training under a religious teacher. Only when he passes
these stations of mystical experience he reaches the spiritual goal of enlightenment.
Check Your Progress

3. What are the five pillars of Islam?
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2.5 EUROPEAN COLONIZATION

On 20 May 1498, Vasco de Gama sailed into the harbor of Calicut, thus opening up a
route for European trade with the East that were not dependent upon Muslim countries. Euro-
peans established trading posts in India, but it was not until 1757, when the British under Sir
Robert Clive defeated the French and their allies, that the prospect of European colonization
became a reality. Britain replanted the Mughal Empire, and ruled India until 1947.
Impact of the British on Indian Society and Culture
Indian society underwent many changes after the British came to India. In the 19th
century, certain social practices like female infanticide, child marriage, sati, polygamy and a
rigid caste system became more prevalent. When the British came to India, they brought new
ideas such as liberty, equality, freedom and human rights from the Renaissance, the Reforma-
tion Movement and the various revolutions that took place in Europe. These ideas appealed to
some sections of our society and led to several reform movements in different parts of the
country. At the forefront of these movements were visionary Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Aruna Asaf Ali and Pandita Ramabai.These movements strived
for social unity and propelled the society towards liberty, equality and fraternity. Many legal
measures were introduced to improve the status of women.
The impact of the efforts made by these numerous individuals reform societies and
religious organizations was felt all over and was most evident in the national movement. Women
started getting better educational opportunities and took up professions and public employ-
ment outside their homes.
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The British took a keen interest in introducing the English language in India. The Brit-
ish gave jobs to only those Indians who knew English thereby compelling many Indians to go
in for English education. Education soon became a monopoly of the rich and the city dwellers.
Though the British followed a half-hearted education policy in India, English language
and western ideas also had some positive impact on the society. Many reformers like Raja
Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Sir Syed Ahmad
Khan, and Swami Vivekananda absorbed western ideas of liberalism and democracy and used
it to reform some of the non-humanitarian social and religious practices of the time. Though
education did not reach the masses some ideas of anti-imperialism, nationalism, social and
economic equality took root through political parties, discussions and debates on public plat-
form and the press. The spread of English language and western education helped Indians to
adopt modern, rational, democratic, liberal and patriotic outlook. New fields of knowledge in
science, humanities and literature opened to them. English became the lingua franca of the
educated people in India. It united them and gradually made them politically conscious of
their rights.
It also gave opportunity to the Indians to study in England and learn about the working
of democratic institutions there. The writings of John Locke, Ruskin, Mill, Rousseau and
many others instilled in them the ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity, human rights and self-
government. The French and the American Revolutions, and the unifications of Italy and Ger-
many further strengthened their appreciation of these ideas. They began to aspire for these
ideals for India.Western thinkers like Max Mueller and Annie Besant encouraged vernacular
languages and literary works to instill a sense of pride in Indian heritage and culture.It enabled
Indians to revive India’s cultural past. Also, the important role of press in arousing political
awakening and exchange in ideas is noteworthy. The newspapers and journals gave opportuni-
ties to share ideas and problems. Similarly, novel, drama, short story, poetry, song, dance,
theatre, art and cinema were used to spread views and express resistance to colonial rule.
The British also introduced a new system of law and justice in India. A hierarchy of civil
and criminal courts was established. The laws were codified and attempts were also made to
separate the judiciary from the executive. The adverse impact of the British rule on the politi-
cal, economic and social spheres resulted in sharp reaction of the Indian people against the
foreigners. This led to a series of the anti-British movements throughout the country. Some of
the cultural and legal changes that took place as a result of British rule continue to affect our
life even today.
Check Your Progress

4. Who encouraged Vernacular language in India.
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2.6 SUMMARY
Indian society and culture is an amalgamation of various foreign social cultures that
came into the country from time to time. Aryans were hailed for bringing unity in the Indian
culture. The Indian Muslims are influenced by Indian culture and they differ from the Muslims
of the Arabic and Persian countries. British colonization modernized the society more than the
economy. The establishment of British rule introduced western ideas of rationality, liberty,
progress, individualism, nationalism, humanitarian ethics, and social reform to the Indian
masses. In this unit we have discussed the influence of Jainism, Buddhism, Islam and Euro-
pean Colonization on the Indian society.
2.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - MODEL ANSWERS

1. The five principles of Jainism are Ahimsa, Satya, Achaurya, Brahmacharya and
Aparigraha.
2. There are four principles in Buddhism that is Dukha, Samudaya, Nirodha and Marga.
3. The five pillars of Islam are Tauheed, Prayer, Zakat, Fasting and Hajj.
4. The vernacular language and literary works were encouraged in India by the western
thinkers like Max Muller and Annie Besant.
2. 8 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each
1. Explain the importance of Buddhism in Influencing the Indian society.

2. Briefly explain the advent of Islam in India.
3. Examine the impact of the British Rule on the Indian society.
II. Answer the following questions in about 10 lines each.
1. Buddhism.
2. Emergence of Jainism.
3. Characteristic features of Islam.
4. European colonization in India.
2.9 GLOSSARY
Buddhism: Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, be-
liefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha.
Islam: Islam is a religion that believes in one God. All of its teachings and beliefs are laid
down in the Quran. People who follow Islam are called Muslims.
Colonization: Colonization is a process by which a central system of power dominates the

surrounding land and its components.
Colonial India: Colonial India is the part of South Asia which was under the jurisdiction of
European colonial powers, through trade and conquest.
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1. Ranade M.G. : Indian Mysticism
2. Majumder R.C : Classical Account of India, 1960.
3. Sunitha V.A. : Early History of India.
4. Gangulee N. : The Buddha and his Message (1957).
5. Iswari Prasad : History of Medieval India.
6. Tara Chand : Influence of Islam on Indian Culture.
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UNIT-3 : CULTURAL ASSIMILATION AND
UNITY IN DIVERSITY IN INDIA
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Unity in Diversity
3.3 Factors of Diversities of Indian society and culture
3.3.1 Geographical factors
3.3.2 Caste Diversity
3.3.3 Tribe
3.3.4 Region
3.3.5 Religious Diversity
3.3.6 Linguistic Diversity
3.3.7 Cultural Diversity
3.3.8 Ethnic Diversity
3.3.9 Demographic Diversity
3.4 Factors of Unity
3.5 Cultural Assimilation
3.6 Summary
3.9 Glossary
3.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to
• Explain Unity in Diversity
• Summarize the diversities inherent in Indian society
• Explain the factors of Unity in Indian society
• Describe Cultural assimilation
3.1 INTRODUCTION
India has a history of 5000 years. Its culture, extensive, profound and mysterious,
has made immeasurable contributions to the world progress and civilization. The
characteristics of one specific culture must meet two requirements. One is commonality.
The Indian cultural system is made up of numerous cultural elements. So the characteristics
of Indian culture must be incarnated in each of the cultural elements with their own
personalities, representing the mainstream of Indian culture. The other is individuality
that represents the uniqueness of Indian culture and plays very significant role.
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3.2 UNITY IN DIVERSITY
Unity in diversity is the most notified feature of Indian society and has become a
part of India’s self-identity. Several foreign travellers have written extensively about the
diversity of Indian society.
Unity means integration. It is a socio-psychological condition. It connotes a sense
of oneness, a sense of wellness. It stands for the bonds, which hold the members of a
society together. There is a difference between unity and uniformity. Uniformity
presupposes similarity, unity does not. Unity is of two types, first which may be born out
of uniformity, and second which may arise despite differences.
In literary terms, diversity means differences. However in social context the meaning
is more specific; it means collective differences among people, that is, those differences
which mark off one group of people from another. These differences may be of any sort:
biological, religious, linguistic cultural differences, may be different ways of attitudes,
way of life, attire, song, dance, music etc. On the basis of biological differences, for
example, we have racial diversity. On the basis of religious differences, similarly, we
have different religions. The point to note is that diversity refers to collective differences.
The term diversity is opposite of uniformity. Uniformity means similarity of some
sort that characterizes a people. ‘Uni’ refers to one; ‘form’ refers to the common ways. So
when there is something common to all the people, we say they show uniformity. When
we have groups of people hailing from different races, religions and cultures, they represent
diversity. Thus, diversity means varieance.
Unity in Diversity is the most notified feature of Indian society and has become a
part of India’s self identity. The foreign travellers Megasthanese (315 B.C.); Fa Hien
(405-411 AD); Huan Tsang (630-644 AD); Alberuni (1030AD); Marco Polo (1288-1293
AD) and Ibn Batua have written extensively about the diversity of Indian society.
In his book 'The Discovery of India' Jawaharlal Nehru says that Indian unity is not
something imposed from the outside but rather, “It was something deeper and within its
fold, the widest tolerance of belief and custom was practiced and every variety
acknowledged and even encouraged.” It was Nehru, who coined the phrase, “unity in
diversity” to describe the country.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the concept of unity and diversity?
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3.3 FACTORS OF DIVERSITIES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

AND CULTURE
Diversity stands out as one of the most prominent characteristics of the Indian cultural
system. Within this system, there are different cultural elements such as Hellenic culture,
36
Islamic culture, Persian culture, English culture and Chinese culture. The reason for this
diversity is multifaceted and the most important factor is the alien cultures brought to
India by invaders. For example, the Indian Islamic culture was launched after Babar defeated
Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, the ruler of Delhi, in 1526 and founded the Mogul empire. Babar,
who had a Mongolian origin and came from Central Asia, was one of the descendants of
the Turkish conqueror Timur. The introduction of English culture into India was completed
after the British colonists invaded India and imposed colonial rule on it, which lasted for
200 years.
Even in Indian cultures, there are different types of vernacular cultures with different
characteristics resulting from varying periods, conditions and environments for subsistence
and development. They include Vedic culture, Aryan culture, Dravidian culture, Marathi
culture, Punjabi culture, Assamese culture, if defined by time period and linguistic area.
They include Buddhist culture, Indian Islamic culture, Jain culture, Christian culture, Sikh
culture and Bahai culture that rose in the modern times, if defined by religious sects. It is
the diversity of Indian culture that exhibits its antiquity, brilliance and glory, making it
without parallel in the whole world.
Some of the factors of diversities of Indian society and culture are discussed below:
3.3.1 Geographical Factors
The diversity in the geographical environment is reflected in the continuous stretching
territory, prevalence of varied climatic conditions and regions, land types, natural resources,
skin colour. Owing to diversity in geographical features, there is diversity in food habits,
dressing patterns, festivals and cultural activities. Shut off from the rest of Asia by mighty
Himalayas and with seas and oceans on all other sides and western part covered with
desert areas, India is clearly marked to be a geographical entity and highly diverse. However
agricultural economy has led to development of common characteristics. There is
widespread network of shrines and sacred places spread throughout the country.
3.3.2 Caste Diversity
Caste is the most important social concept in the Indian society. It has continued
since thousands of years and has not confined itself to Hinduism and has percolated itself
to other more egalitarian religions like Islam, Christianity and Sikhism. We can find castes
among the Muslim, Christian, Sikh as well as other communities. Muslims are divided
into classes of Ashraf and Ajlaf. Ashraf are in turn divided into Shaikh, Saiyed, Mughal,
Pathan while Ajlaf consist of various other castes like teli (oil pressure), dhobi (washerman),
darjee (tailor), etc. among the Muslim. Similarly, caste consciousness among the Christian
in India is not unknown. Among the Sikh again we can hear of a number of castes including
Jat Sikh and Majahabi Sikh. Caste system is a closed system. Entry is only through birth
in the system while exit is impossible. The system is discriminatory as it allows certain
privileges to the high castes while the lower castes face disabilities. It is maintained by
enforcing the notions of pollution and purity through elaborate rules governing touch,
dining and marriage.
Caste as a regional reality can be seen in the different patterns of caste-ranking,
customs and behaviours, marriage rules and caste dominance found in various parts of
India. Caste structure and kinship; caste structure and occupation; and caste structure and
power are three important aspects which are discussed as under:
Diversity of caste structure and occupation manifest in India social system. The
hereditary association of caste with an occupation used to be a very striking feature of the
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caste system. The Jajmani system is a system of economic, social and ritual ties between
different caste groups in the villages. Under this system some castes are patrons and others
are service castes. The service castes offer their services to the landowning upper and
intermediate castes and in turn are paid both in cash and kind. The patron castes differ
from one region to another depending on the socio-economic and political status of the
castes. For example, the Rajput, Bhumihar and Jat are the patron castes in the North and
Kamma, Reddy and Lingayat in the South. The service castes comprise Brahman (Priest),
Barber, washer man, Potter, Carpenter, Blacksmith, Water-carrier, Leather-worker, etc.
Thus, to understand regional variations we have to know something about the ownership
of land, the land tenure status and adherence to the jajmani system. These economic
organizations depend a lot on the caste structure and regional topography and vice versa.
Regional caste structures, in part, account for variations in their respective power
structure. It is important to know what qualifies caste for regional dominance. According
to M.N. Srinivas a caste is said to be dominant when it is numerically the strongest in the
village or local area and economically and politically exercises a preponderating influence.
The status of a dominant caste appears to rest on such criteria as:
• The control of land and economic resources;
• Numerical strength;
• A relatively high ritual status in the caste hierarchy; and
• Educational, administrative status of its members. The above factors combine to place
a particular caste group in a position of political dominance.
Caste is thus a significant factor of diversity. Owing to regional variations and also
diversified kinship structure, caste is further diversified.
3.3.3 Tribe
In Indian context tribes are another significant factor of diversity. Tribes have been
defined as a group of indigenous people with primitive history, having common name,
language and territory, tied by strong kinship bonds, practicing endogamy, having distinct
customs, rituals and beliefs, simple social rank and political organization, common
ownership of resources and technology. Geographically, the tribes are concentrated in
five regions namely, Himalayan region (with tribes like the Gaddi, the Jaunsari, the Naga
etc.), Middle India (with tribes like the Munda, the Santal etc.), Western India (with tribes
like the Bhil, the Grasia), South India (with tribes like the Gonds, Koya, Yanadi, Chenchu,
Kadars,Todas and Yeruvas etc., Hilly region (with tribes like the Toda, the Chenchu etc,)
and the Islands Region (with tribes like the Onge in Bay of Bengal, the Minicoyans in
Arabian Sea).
‘On the basis of racial features, B.S. Guha (1935) considers that they belong to six
major races. The prominent three among them are:
1. The Proto-Australoids: This group is characterized by dark skin colour, sunken
nose and lower forehead. These features are found among the Gond (Madhya
Pradesh), the Munda (Chotanagpur), the Ho (Bihar) etc.
2. The Mongoloids: This group is characterized by light skin colour; head and face
are broad; the nose bridge is very low and their eyes are slanting with a fold on the
upper eye lid. These features are found among the Bhotiya (Central Himalayas), the
Wanchu (Arunachal Pradesh), the Naga (Nagaland), the Khasi (Meghalaya), etc.
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3. The Negrito: This group is characterized by dark skin colour (tending to look like
blue), round head, broad nose and frizzle hair. These features are found among the
Kadar (Kerala), the Onge (Little Andaman), the Jarwa (Andaman Islands), etc.
Linguistically, there is great diversity among these tribes. According to estimate
tribals speak 105 different languages and 225 subsidiary languages. These languages belong
to:
1. Austro-Asiatic family with two subgroups namely, Mon Khmer branch and Munda
branch which are spoken by Khasi, Nicobari, Gonds and Santhals.
2. Tibeto-Chinese family: There are two sub-families of this type, namely Siamese-
Chinese sub-family and Tibeto-Burman sub-family. In extreme North-Eastern frontier
of India. Khamti is one specimen of the Siamese Chinese sub-family. The Tibeto-
Burman sub-family is further sub-divided into several branches. Tribals of Nagaland
and Lepcha of Darjeeling speak variants of Tibeto-Burman languages.
3. Indo-European family: Tribal languages such as Hajong and Bhils are included in
this group
4. Dravidian family: Languages of Dravidian family are, for example, spoken by Yeruva
of Mysore, Oraon of Chotanagpur.
These languages are a broad classification showing extreme diversity among them.
For example, among the Naga there are at least 50 different groups, each one of them has
a speech of its own and quite often the speakers of one speech do not understand the
speech of others.
Numerical strength of tribes also shows great variation. The tribes like Gonds and
Bhils number in millions while some like Great Andamanese number less than hundred.
These tribes also show great variety in their economic pursuits. Some tribes like
Cholanaikkan depended on food collection and hunting others like Khasi of Meghalaya
practiced shifting cultivation. Most of the tribes of middle, western and southern regions
of the country practiced settled agriculture while some like the Kota of the Nilgiris live on
crafts. The craftwork is done at the family level but raw material may be collected at the
community level. For example, the basket makers may go collectively for obtaining
bamboos but basket making may be a family enterprise. Some tribes like the Toda in the
Nilgiri and the Gujjar, the Bakarwal and Gaddi in Himachal Pradesh are pastoral.
3.3.4 Region
A region is a nucleus of social aggregation for a variety of purposes. A Particular
territory is set apart, over a period of time, when different variables operate in different
degrees. These variables may be geography, topography, religion, language, usages and
customs, socioeconomic and political stages of development, common historical traditions
and experiences, a common way of living, and, more than anything else, a widely prevalent
sentiment of “togetherness”. This togetherness leads to development of regionalism. At
the core of regionalism is a profound sense of identity, which is as real, and as dear, to a
people than their feeling of identity with a state or a nation or a religious group, or a
linguistic group. These are cultural realities and one cannot wish them away.
Being a result of the particular geographic environment and climate, region is the
unique characteristic of Indian culture, which some scholars tend to call the “culture of
the tropical subcontinent”. From a geographic point of view, the Indian subcontinent is
39
just like an isolated island projecting into the Indian Ocean. The geographic separation
and scorching weather are the main external factors contributing to the region aspect of
Indian culture.
Regional identity thus is a combination of geographical and cultural identities and
regional consciousness invariably evolves from either or both of these characteristics.
When this regional consciousness is coupled with economic disparities it brings in a
contradiction between the community and the state, and the community starts demanding
a separate administrative setup in the form of state or autonomous councils where they
can preserve their socio-cultural identity and look after well being of their people, which
according to them are neglected. While some such movements have led to successful
creation of states like, Chattisgarh, Jharkand and Telangana.
3.3.5 Religious Diversity
Secular India is home to 8 major religious communities in India i.e. Hinduism, Islam,
Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism.
Hinduism
• Hinduism is the dominant faith practiced by over 80% of the population. The underlying
tenets of Hinduism cannot be easily defined. Hinduism is perhaps the only religious
tradition that is so diversified in its theoretical premises and practical expressions as
to be called a “museum of religions”. This religion cannot be traced to a specific
founder nor does it have a “holy book” as a basic scriptural guide
• At one end of the scale, it is an exploration of the ‘Ultimate Reality’; at the other end
there are cults that worship spirits, trees and animals.
• There are festivals and ceremonies associated not only with gods and goddesses but
also with the sun, moon, planets, rivers, oceans, trees and animals. Some of the popular
Hindu festivals are Deepawali, Holi, Dussehra, Ganesh Chaturthi, Pongal, Janamasthmi
and Shiva Ratri. These innumerable festive occasions lend Hinduism its amazing
popular appeal and make the Indian tradition rich and colourful.
• The Rig Veda, Upanishads, Ramayana and the Bhagwad Gita can all be described as
the sacred text of the Hindus.
• There are numerous gods and goddesses worshipped by Hindus all over India. Among
these, the most fundamental to Hinduism, is the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva
- creator, preserver and destroyer respectively.
• Polytheist religion with idol worship and nature worship is seen in Hinduism.
Islam
• It arrived in late 7th AD when Arab traders came to Malabar Coast.
• Islam says that there is one God (Monotheist) and submission to Him results in peace.
In the Islamic perspective, religion is not seen as part of life or special kind of activity
along with art, commerce etc. Instead it is the matrix and world view within which all
the activities should take place.
The important foundations of Islam are:
• Holy Quran is the central foundation of Islam which is supposed to contain the revealed
words of God. God revealed to Prophet Mohammad through angel Gabriel (pronounced
as ‘Jibraal’)
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• Prophet Mohammad is the best interpreter of God’s message and perfect creation of
God.
• Hadith is the book of sayings dictated by the Prophet himself as well as recordings of
his sayings by his companions and followers. It deals with all details of legal
significance, moral and spiritual teachings.
• Shariat (divine law) contains concrete embodiment of will of God. Life from cradle
to grave is governed by Shariat.
• Tariquat is the spiritual path which represents the inner dimension of Islam.
• Haj-Supreme pilgrimage to Mecca
• The basic rites of Islam include worship of only one God (Tawheed), Canonical prayers
(Namaaz), fasting (Roja), Charity (Zakat) and Pilgrimage (Haj)
Christianity
• Christianity came to India in different phases. According to Syrian Christian tradition
Apostle Thomas one of the Jesus original 12 disciples came to vicinity of Cochin in
52 AD.
• Three constituents of Christian’s religious life include faith in Jesus Christ as the
messenger of God, active service and love to the neighbour.
• The population of Catholics is more. Pope is the supreme head in all religious affairs.
• Bible is the holy text of Christians.
Sikhism
• The Sikh religion emerged during the early 16th century in the state of Punjab in
North India. The founder of this faith was Guru Nanak, who from his childhood was
attracted to both Hindu and Muslim saints.
• The tenth Guru, Guru Govind Singh imparted military training to the Sikhs to help
them defend themselves. On Baisakhi day of 1699 at Anandpur, Guru Govind Singh
ordered his Sikhs to assemble before him as was customary and created a new
brotherhood of Sikhs called the Khalsa (Pure Ones). Five men selected for their
devotion to the Guru were called Panj Pyares and given nectar (amrit) for initiation
into the brotherhood of Khalsa.
• The members of the new brotherhood were instructed to wear the five symbols (the
five Ks) - 1) Kesh (uncut hair), Kanga (a comb), 3) Kara (a steel wrist guard), 4)
Kirpan (a sword) and 5) Kaccha (breeches). The initiated men took the name Singh
(Lion) and the women Kaur (Princess).
• Sikhism propounds monotheism, i.e. worship of one God. It also opposes the caste
system and believes that all men are equal. However the ideas of karma and rebirth
from Hinduism are accepted.
Jainism
• Jainism as a religious tradition was established in India about the same time as
Buddhism. Mahavira (599-527 B.C.), one of the jinas (conquerors) preached the Jain
philosophy. Jainism rose against the corruption in the interpretation of Hinduism
prevalent at the time. Infact the word Jain is derived from “Jin” which means conqueror.
41
• The underlying philosophy of Jainism is that renunciation of worldly desires and
self-conquest leads to perfect wisdom. This faith believes in total abstinence and
asceticism as practised by the Jinas and the Tirthankars (“crossing-makers”). The
“crossing refers to the passage from the material to the spiritual realm, from bondage
to freedom.
• There are 24 tirthankaras-the first was Rishabh and 24th was Mahavir. There are 2
main sects- Swetambar (white clothed) and Digambaras (unclothed). The third lesser
known sect is Sthanakvasi who need not be represented in images.
• The focus of this religion has been purification of the soul by means of right conduct,
right faith and right knowledge. This faith also enunciates complete non-violence.
Fasting and austerity are considered essential for self purification.
• The five fold discipline of non-violence, truth, honesty, sexual purity and indifference
to material gain is for personal virtue and also for social good.
Buddhism
• It emerged around 6th century B.C. with the teachings of Buddha.
• The three jewels of Buddhism are the Buddh-the enlightened teacher; the Dhamm the
doctrine given by the teacher and, Sangh-the community of believers in the doctrine
taught by Buddh. Dhamm has 4 meanings-the absolute truth, right conduct, doctrine,
ultimate constituent of experiences.
• Four noble truths:
 There is suffering
 Cause for suffering is desire
 Cause for suffering can be removed
 There is detached blueprint to remove the cause of suffering.
• The eightfold path propagated by Buddhism is right view; right aspiration; right speech;
right action; right livelihood; right effort; right mindfulness and right meditation. It
leads to nirvana.
• Buddhism is categorized into Hinayana (No concern for God and regarded Buddha as
perfect man whose precepts and examples were to be followed by each individual)
and Mahayaan (Buddha as God and evolved an elaborate metaphysics involving a
pantheon of gods and goddesses, inspired by love for fellow beings.).
Zoroastrianism
• The first Zoroastrians to enter India arrived on the Gujarati coast in the 10th century,
soon after the Arabian conquest of Iran and by the 17th century, most of them had
settled in Bombay.
• Zoroastrian practice is based on the responsibility of every man and woman to choose
between good and evil, and to respect God’s creations.
• The founder was Zarathustra who preached monotheism and lived in Iran in 6000 BC.
He was the first religious prophet to expound a dualistic philosophy, based on the
opposing powers of good and evil. Most Zoroastrians can be seen in Mumbai today
where they are known as Parsees. They have no distinctive dress and few houses of
worship.
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• Five daily prayers, usually hymns uttered by Zarathustra and standardized in the
religious text Zenda Avesta, are said in the home or the temple, before a fire, which
symbolizes the realm of truth, righteousness and order.
Judaism
• The Jews are the smallest religious group in India. Judaism is based on revelation of
Moses; Torah is their sacred religious text. Jews temples are known as synagogue.
• The 3 main communities are Bene Israel, Kerala Jews and Baghdadi Jews.
Check Your Progress
2. What are the various religions found in India?
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3.3.6 Linguistic Diversity

In India around 179 languages and 544 dialects are recognized making it a multi
lingual country. The Eighth Schedule to the Indian Constitution contains a list of 22
scheduled languages. At the time the constitution was enacted, inclusion in this list that
the language was entitled to representation on the Official Languages commission. The
22 Languages are Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri,
Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit,
Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu.
• Hindi is the official language and in 1965, English was given the status of associate
additional official language.
• The three linguistic families whose languages are spoken in India are:
 Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit, North Indian languages and dialects)
 Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam)
 Mundari (languages and dialects of tribal communities)
Check Your Progress

3. List the language families spoken in India.
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3.3.7 Cultural Diversity
The cultural diversity includes diversity of language, religion, region, food and
clothing, art and literature to name a few. The culture of India is among the world’s oldest,
reaching back about 5,000 years. India is a very diverse country, and different regions
have their own distinct cultures. Language, religion, food and the arts are just some of the
various aspects of Indian culture.
India has a history of thousands of years. People have been living in India since the
Stone Age. People from different regions of the world came to India. They became one
with the Indian culture. From this has evolved the composite Indian Culture. All of us
living in different parts of the country are Indians. Though there is a variety in our languages,
literature and art, as Indians, we all are one. It is this diversity which has created a sense
of unity among the Indians. This diversity has enriched our social life.
Many of our festivals are related to agriculture and environment. In Maharashtra,
Dassera, Diwalil, Holi, in Punjab Baisakhi, in Andhra Pradesh Eruvak Punnam, Batukamma,
Dasara, Diwali in Telangana, Tamilnadu Pongal and in Kerala Onam are celebrated.
Ramzan, Eid-ul-Fitr, Christmas, Buddha Pornima, Samvatsari, and Pateti are also important
festivals. What ever religious festival all Indians happily participate in it. We find diversity
in the clothing and food habits of Indians. Clothing depends upon the climate, physical
feature and traditions of the respective regions. There is diversity in our foods habits too,
due to climatic conditions crops and other geographical factors. For e.g. the people of
Punjab eat dal roti whereas people living in the coastal areas eat rice and fish.
Indian cuisine boasts Arab, Turkish and European influences. It is known for its
large assortment of dishes and its liberal use of herbs and spices. Cooking styles vary
from region to region. Wheat, rice and pulses with chana (Bengal gram) are important
staples of the Indian diet. The food is rich with curries and spices, including ginger,
coriander, cardamom, turmeric, dried hot peppers, and cinnamon, among others. Chutneys
thick condiments and spreads made from assorted fruits and vegetables such as tamarind
and tomatoes and mint, cilantro and other herbs are used generously in Indian cooking.
Indian dance has a tradition of more than 2,000 years. The major classical dance
traditions Bharata Natyam, Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri, Kuchipudi, Mohiniattam and
Kathakali draw on themes from mythology and literature and have rigid presentation rules.
3.3.8 Ethnic Diversity
India is a fascinating country where people of many different communities and
religions live together in unity. Indian Population is polygenetic and is an amazing
amalgamation of various races and cultures.
It is impossible to find out the exact origin of Indian People. The species known as
Ramapithecus was found in the Siwalik foothills of north western Himalayas. The species
is believed to be the first in the line of hominids (Human Family) lived some 14 million
years ago. Researchers have found that a species resembling the Austrapithecus lived in
India some 2 million years ago. Even this discovery leaves an evolutionary gap of as much
as 12 million years since Ramapithecus.
There are many diverse ethnic groups among the people of India. Herbert Risley
had classified the people of India in to seven racial types. They are (1) Turko-Iranian, (2)
Indo- Aryan (3) Scytho-Dravidian, (4) Aryo-Dravidian (5) Mongolo-Dravidian (6)
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Mongoloid (7) Dravidian. These seven racial types can be reduced to three basic types-
the Indo-Aryan, the Mongolian and the Dravidian. In his opinion the last two types would
account for the racial composition of tribal India. He was the supervisor of the census
operations held in India in 1891 and it was data from census which founded the basis of
this classification.
3.3.9 Demographic Diversity
The demographics of India are remarkably diverse. India is the second most populous
country in the world, with over 1.21 billion people (2011 census), more than a sixth of the
world’s population. Already containing 17.31% of the world’s population, India is projected
to be the world’s most populous country by 2025, surpassing China, its population
exceeding 1.6 billion people by 2050. However, India has an astonishing demographic
dividend where more than 50% of its population is below the age of 25 and more than
65% below the age of 35. It is expected that, in 2020, the average age of an Indian will be
29 years, compared to 37 for China and 48 for Japan; and, by 2030, India’s dependency
ratio should be just over 0.4. India has more than two thousand ethnic groups, and every
major religion is represented, as are four major families of languages (Indo-European,
Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages) as well as a language isolate
(the Nihali language spoken in parts of Maharashtra).
About 72.2% of the population lives in some 638,000 villages and the rest 27.8% in
about 5,480 towns and urban agglomerations. The literacy rate of India as per 2011
Population Census is 74.04%, with male literacy rate at 82.14% and female at 65.46%.
Kerala has the highest literacy rate at 93.9%, Lakshadweep (92.3%) is on the second
position and Mizoram (91.6%) is on third.
Every year, India adds more people than any other nation in the world, and in fact
the individual population of some of its states is equal to the total population of many
countries. For example, Population of Uttar Pradesh (state in India) almost equals to the
population of Brazil.
Some of the reasons for India’s rapidly growing population are poverty, illiteracy,
high fertility rate, rapid decline in death rates or mortality rates and immigration from
Bangladesh and Nepal. Alarmed by its swelling population, India started taking measures
to stem the growth rate quite early. In fact India by launching the National Family Planning
program in 1952 became the first country in the world to have a population policy.
Sex Ratio is an important demographic indicator. It is a term used to define number
of females per 1000 males. It’s a great source to find the equality of males and females in
a society at a given period of time. According to Census of India 2011, Indian sex ratio has
shown some improvement in the last 10 years. It has gone up from 933 in 2001 to 940 in
2011 census of India. There has been some improvement in the Sex Ratio of India but it
has gone down badly in some states like Haryana. The state of Kerala with 1084 females
for every 1000 males has the best sex ratio in India. It has shown a tremendous improvement
in the last 10 years. Kerala and Puducherry are only two places in India where total female
population is more than the male population. Other states like Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
and Karnataka are also showing an increase in their sex ratio.
India is also set to become the largest contributor to the global workforce. Its
workingage population (15-59 years) is likely to swell from 749 million to 962 million by
2030.
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If India’s working-age population, its so-called demographic dividend, is productively
employed, India’s economic growth prospects will brighten. India can create jobs in the
scale required on a sustained basis only with changes in its policy frameworks for education
and workforce management.
Check Your Progress
4. What is the sex ratio of India?
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3.4 FACTORS OF UNITY

India was not politically united before Independence except for short spells, the
natural geographical boundaries, a common history, social values and systems, linguistic
relations and religious harmony were the factors, which unified India strongly. Hinduism
has always been the religion of its majority community.
India exhibits a fascinating picture of unity in diversity. There is co-existence of
varied belief, patterns and thoughts due to racial intermixing and cultural mingling. More
than anywhere else in the world, it holds a multitude of thoughts, processes and practices.
This is the reason for it being one of the oldest, continuous and uninterrupted living cultures
in the whole world.
The factors, which keep its unity and continuity intact, are:
a) Indian philosophy, Vedic literature and its value system
Indian philosophy contains a vast reservoir of knowledge. It is found in Vedas,
Upanishads, Sutras and Smritis. A.L. Basham, an Australian Indologist writes in his book,
“The Wonder That was India” that Vedic literature contains “an ocean of knowledge in a
jar.” The Vedic literature is a magnificent example of scientific division and orderly
arrangement of rules, in a few words, in different branches of human knowledge, covering
almost all the aspects of life, be it phonetics, arts, literature, medicine, polity, metrics,
law, philosophy, astrology.
This gold mine of knowledge inspired not only Indians, but foreigners as well as
intellectuals from various countries have translated it in their own languages and
reinterpreted it for a rational mind.
b) Geographical Unity
India is known for its geographical unity marked by the Himalayas in the north and
the oceans on the other sides. Politically India is now a sovereign state. The same
constitution and same Parliament govern every part of it. We share the same political
culture marked by the norms of democracy and secularism. The geo-political unity of
India was always visualized by our seers and rulers. The expressions of this consciousness
of the geo-political unity of India are found in Rig-Veda, in Sanskrit literature, in the
edicts of Asoka, in Buddhist monuments and in various other sources. The ideal of
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geo-political unity of India is also reflected in the concepts of Bharatavarsha (the old
indigenous classic name for India), Chakravarti (emperor), and Ekchhatradhipatya (under
one rule).
The first striking feature about India is its diversity because of India’s geographical
environment and numerous population. It is difficult to imagine the vast territory that
stretches from north to south and east to west as one continuous territory. It is nearly
fourteen times as large as Great Britain and over ten times the size of the entire British
Isles. The temperature varies from extreme heat to extreme cold. The temperate, the tropical
and the polar climates are found in India. In terms of physical features of the population,
there is diversity in appearance, skin colour, eye colour, height and figure. However,
geography seems to have played an important role in endangering Indian unity and the
sense of Indianness. Shut off from the rest of Asia by the inaccessible barriers of the
mighty Himalayas and with the seas and the ocean on all other sides, India is clearly
marked out to be a geographical entity. Not only are her territories thus sharply demarcated
from the rest of the world, but nature has generously placed within her boundaries all
resources that human beings need for developing a rich and creative life. Thus, Indian
geography has facilitated unity and continuity of her history as a country. Attempts either
to divide the country or to expand it beyond its natural frontiers have mostly failed.
The vastness of the land influenced the mind of Indians in two ways. The great
variety in landscape, climate and conditions of life prepared in the mind a readiness to
accept differences. Besides, the vast spaces offered room for slow infiltration by newcomers
and allowed each locality unhampered scope of development along its own lines. The
geographical unity of the country has had its effects on the economic life of the people.
The size of the country and quality of the land permitted gradual increase in population
and expansion of cultivation. The fact that India has continually developed and maintained
an agricultural economy for almost four or five thousand years explains in part the depth
and tenacity of her culture and traditions. The primacy of agricultural economy led to the
development of common characteristics and a common outlook. A permanent and
characteristically Indian expression of unity is found in the network of shrines and sacred
places spread throughout the country.
c) Culture as factor of unity
The story of Indian culture is one of continuity, synthesis and enrichment. Culture
is also a source of unity as well as diversity like religion. Powerful kingdoms and empires
such as the Mauryas and the Guptas did not aggressively intervene in social and cultural
matters; leaving much diversity intact. Although Islam was the politically dominant religion
in large parts of the country for several centuries it did not absorb Hinduism, or disturb
the Hindu social structure. Nor did Hinduism, which was demographically and otherwise
dominant, seek to eliminate the beliefs and practices, characteristic of other religions.
Various beliefs and practices are pursued and maintained by Hindus, Muslims and
Christians alike.
The role played by Indian religion, philosophy, art and literature in bringing about
unity is conspicuous. Social institutions like the caste system and the joint family, which
are found throughout the length and breadth of the country, are typically Indian. The
celebration of festivals is observed all over India in much the same manner. Likewise,
similarities in art and culture engraved on the temple and palace walls all over India have
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generated the feeling of oneness. In spite of their distinctiveness the co-existence of cultures
is celebrated.
d) Religion as factor of unity
There are two major aspects to any religion, the spiritual and the temporal. The
spiritual aspect of religion is quite similar in all religions. In every religion an emphasis is
placed on the moral conduct and transcendence of the selfish ego. While this aspect of
religion is a matter of personal devotion, the temporal aspect of religion is always related
with the group identity and solidarity is maintained by religious rituals and community’s
beliefs. At the temporal level, different religious groups differ from each other. In India,
there has not been only a great degree of religious tolerance among the different religious
communities, but some religious places have acquired a character and popularity that
goes beyond a single religious community. Similarly, some religious festivals are celebrated,
at least in a limited way, by many religious communities. Places like Varanasi, Ujjain,
Amritsar, Mathura, Bodhgaya, Vaishno Devi, Tirupati and Ajmer Sharif are some such
religious centres. For instance, a large number of Hindus also visit Ajmer Sharif, a Muslim
pilgrimage place. Also, the economy of these religious centres often involves shopkeepers
and service providers from other religions.
In the field of bhakti and devotion the Hindu Saints and Muslim Sufis had many
similarities and commonalities. Some religious festivals like Diwali, Dushehera and Holi
have two aspects, ritualistic and cultural. The ritualistic aspect is restricted to Hindus but
the cultural aspect is more or less celebrated by all the communities. In the same way,
Christmas and Eid-ul-fitr are also celebrated at many places by different religious
communities. Kabir, Akbar, Dara Shikoh and Mahatma Gandhi have been instrumental in
developing common ethos among the different religious communities in India. Persian
Sufism took a new shade of colour in India. Poets and religious teachers-Ramanand and
Kabir-tried to combine the best and condemn the worst in Hinduism and Islam alike. At
the courts of Oudh and Hyderabad there grew aesthetic standards in painting, in poetry, in
love and in food, which drew on the courtly traditions of Rajasthan and Persia. Muslims
borrowed caste from Hindus, Hindus took purdah from Muslims.
e) Political factors
It is generally believed that India’s continuity as a civilization was social and cultural
rather than political. Order and stability were maintained not by means of the state but
through culture and society. The vastness of the country’s extreme diversity of physical
features, endless variety of races, castes, creeds and languages and dialects have made it
difficult to establish an all Indian empire. This also accounts for the fact that political
unity is not the normal characteristic of ancient and medieval Indian history. However, the
idea of bringing the whole country under one central authority has always been on the
minds of great kings and statesmen of India. It was with this purpose that the kings of
ancient India proclaimed the idea of ‘Chakravarti’. Kings like Chandragupta Maurya,
Ashoka, Samudragupta and Harshvardhana had put this idea into practice. The socio-
political contributions of some Muslim rulers such as Akbar and Jahangir were also highly
commendable. Akbar’s Din-e-elahi and Jahangir’s emphasis on justice deserve special
mention in this regard. In a sense, India has never been a wellorganised political unit
under the government of a single state. Even British India was a part of India and did not
comprehend the whole of it, which was split up into about 600 states, large and small but
separate and independent as autonomous entities. The British tried to establish political
unification under a paramount power with regard to the defence, external relations, foreign
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policy and certain economic matters within the whole of India. Such attempts, however,
were not uncommon in earlier periods.
After the independence India was united politically and administratively but it was
already divided between India and Pakistan. After the independence the unity of India is
expressed in the institution of the nation. It is the product of the freedom movement as
well as the constitutional legacy of the British rule. There is political and administrative
unity today but there are different political parties and diverse political ideologies.
Therefore, politics is both a factor of unity and diversity.
f) Linguistic Factors
Although there is bewildering diversity in the languages and dialects of India,
fundamental unity is found in the ideas and themes expressed in these languages. There is
unity also at the level of grammatical structures.
Sanskrit has deeply influenced most languages of India with its vocabulary. Dravidian
languages also have a number of Sanskrit words today. Persian, Arabic and English words
too have become part of the Indian languages and dialects today. The spirit of
accommodation, which united different ethnic groups into one social system, also expresses
itself in the literatures of India.
g) Tolerance and Accommodation
Indian culture has a remarkable quality of accommodation and tolerance. The first
evidence of it lies in the elastic character of Hinduism, the majority religion of India. It is
common knowledge that Hinduism is not a homogeneous religion, that is, a religion having
one God, one Book and one Temple. Indeed, it can be best described as a federation of
faiths. Polytheistic (having multiple deities) in character, it goes to the extent of
accommodating village level deities and tribal faiths. For the same reason, sociologists
have distinguished two broad forms of Hinduism: 'Sanskritic' and 'Popular'. Sanskritic is
that which is found in the texts (religious books like Vedas, etc.) and popular is that which
is found in the actual life situation of the vast masses. Robert Redfield has called these
two forms as great tradition of Ramayana and Mahabharata and the 'little tradition' of
worship of the village deity. And everything passes for Hinduism. What it shows is that
Hinduism has been an open religion, a receptive and absorbing religion, an encompassing
religion. Nor has it ordinarily resisted other religions to seek converts from within its
fold. This quality of accommodation and tolerance has paved the way to the coexistence
of several faiths in India.
Elements of Unity in Traditional India
Due to cultural and economic interaction and geographical mobility there have
emerged an all-India style, a series of inter-linkages and much commonality between
different regions of India. The elements of all-India structure include the following:
1) India is characterized by numerous local level traditions or folk traditions as well as
what could be deemed as the greater classical tradition. The latter would be more
widely spread over the country but also confined to certain dominant sections of
society. The Sanskrit Brahmi at one end and Persian script at another for Indian and
other sub-continental languages and literature.
2) Common to each linguistic region are specific agriculture castes which form the
core of rural communities, along with their complementary artisan and service castes.
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These were involved in a jajman service provider relationship. In the urban areas
there were predominantly, castes of banias (traders), crafts persons and castes such
as Brahmans and Kayasthas.
3) In the institutions of administration and defence both social and spatial mobility
existed. Cosmopolitan recruitment also took place due to traditional cultural
institutions such as gharanas of music and dancing. There were also ‘schools’ of
medicine, shastric schools of learning, peethas, and akharas of devotional sects.
4) Pilgrimage centers have also led to a type of unity at the all India level. Barriers of
caste, class and other social taboos were almost absent at pilgrimage centers during
several cultural occasions. People from different regions were able to interact at the
pilgrim centers with each other leading to the establishment of cultural bonds.
Transsectarian pilgrim sites include Kashi, Haridwar, Rameshwaram, Dwarka,
Badrinath, Gaya, similarly Amritsar and Ajmer Sharif also become pilgrimage centre
during medieval period.
5) Cultural identity is maintained by a common metaphysical base, such as the idea of
ethical compensation (Karmphal) and the idea of transcendence.
6) Variants of all India epics and mythology, which emphasize certain values and goals,
are found in all regions. Examples are Purusharthas (achievement ideals), rinas
(obligations), dana (sharing), Samskara (sacraments) at birth, death and marriage,
vrata (the ritual to earn merit) and prayaschita (penance or expiation)
7) Traditional personal laws and social customs of the Hindus were applicable in
different regions. The dayabhaga system of inheritance was popular in Bengal
whereas the mitakshara prevailed over the rest of the country, except in Kerala and
Bengal.
8) Most Indians believe in the ideas of 'heaven' and 'hell' and cherish the idea of moksha,
salvation or nirvana liberation from the cycle of life and death. This concept of
moksha or nirvana is linked with the perception of the one ultimate Brahma.
Elements of Unity in the Modern India

During the colonial rule different factors led to significant changes in the structure
of Indian society. The traditional framework of unity in Indian civilization came under
tremendous stress. Modern education introduced by the colonial rulers initiated a process
of cultural westernisation. The freedom movement (1857-1947) created new sources of
unity in Indian society. Now, nationalism replaced religion and culture as the cementing
force within Indian society. Despite the partition in 1947, the experience of freedom
movement is still the foundation of Indian unity in modern India. After the independence
the nation and its different organs have become the pillars of unity in India. The Indian
Constitution built on the pre-existing unity of India has strengthened it still further by
emphasizing the values of equality, fraternity, secularism and justice. In contemporary
India the pillars of unity include the following:
1) The Indian Constitution is the most fundamental source of unity in India today.
Indians believe in the basic framework of the Constitution.
2) Indian Parliament is the national legislative organ of the Indian nation.
Representatives are elected by the people and every adult citizen (above 18 years)
of India has a right to vote. This represents the people’s will in general.
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3) The Government of India is formally headed by the President who rules on the
advice of a Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister.
4) The Judiciary is the legal guardian of Indian people. The judiciary is an autonomous
body at the local, regional and central levels. It works as the custodian of the Indian
Constitution.
5) The bureaucracy, the police and other educated professionals such as engineers,
scientists, doctors, academics and journalists have played an important role in
governing the country, maintaining law and order and in carrying out various
development projects and schemes of the government. The military services deserve
special mention in view of the wars, insurgency and the inter border tensions
experienced during the last few decades, as also during national calamities like
floods, earthquakes, cyclones etc.
6) Modern means of communication, the network of railways, surface transport, civil
aviation, post offices, telegraph, telephones, print media, radio and television have
played important roles in maintaining and strengthening the national ethos and
creating a “we” feeling among Indians.
7) Industrialization, Urbanisation and other economic factors have led to the creation
of the capitalist and the middle classes and have also created mobility of labour and
services throughout the country.
The belief on spirituality and cultural power has played an important role in binding
the people of India together in a bond of unity. Hinduism, which forms majority of India’s
population has either absorbed the foreign cultures or has influenced them largely. Freedom
of expression has also a strongest component of India’s unity in diversity. All these factors
are deeply associated with the cultural diversity and unity of India.
Indian culture is dynamic and tolerant. Indian culture is more varied and richer.
Though the foreign cultures retained their basic character, they became a part of the Indian
culture with the passage of time. The diversity of the Indians contributes to the variety
and richness of Indian culture and strengthens national unity.
But intolerance and narrow mindedness may weaken national unity. Therefore Nation
should create conditions in which people should become conscious of the similarities
which make them Indians rather than the dissimilarities which distinguish them from others.
People must be encouraged to feel proud of India’s cultural heritage, of being called Indians
while retaining their distinct features. India is a live example to the world to show them
that they have Unity in Diversity. This country not only remains together in an emergency
but also remain together during natural calamities such as famines, floods and earthquakes.
This country has become quite inspirational for the countries who have heavily been divided
racially.
Despite several factors of diversity Indian society has several factors of unity which
is reflected in the following:
• Agriculture as the main occupation of India
• Indian Constitution, Parliament and Judiciary unite India
• Bureaucratic, Defence system
• Educational system
• Transport and Communication (Railways and postal system)
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• Industrialization and Urbanisation
• The feeling and spirit of being Indian.
Check Your Progress
5. List any three elements of unity in modern India.
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3.5 CULTURAL ASSIMILATION

Assimilation is a process of cultural unification and homogenization by which newly
entering or subordinate groups lose their distinctive culture and adopt the culture of the
dominant majority.
According to Gillin and Gillin, factors favouring assimilation are toleration, equal
economic opportunity, sympathetic attitude on the part of the dominating group towards
the minority group, exposure to the dominant culture, similarity between the cultures of
the minority and dominant groups and amalgamation or intermarriage. On the other hand,
factors hindering or retarding assimilation are isolating conditions of life, attitudes of
superiority on the part of the dominant group, excessive physiological, cultural and social
differences between the groups and persecution of the minority group by the majority
group.
India is one of the oldest civilizations in the world and boasts of many ethnic groups
following different cultures and religions. Being a diverse civilization, India is a land of
myriad tongue with over 1650 spoken languages and dialects. Despite different cultures,
religions and languages, people of India live together with love and brotherhood. The
immense unity in diversity makes India an example of cultural brotherhood. Each and
every region of the country from Jammu & Kashmir to Kanyakumari portrays different
customs and traditions. Since ancient time, the people of India have been living together
and respecting all religions and cultures. Unity in Diversity is distinctive feature of this
beautiful nation and binds people together in the bond of humanity and peace. The
unforgettable struggle of freedom is an excellent example of India’s Unity in Diversity,
when the whole nation stood together at par the differences of caste and religions. The
leaders of India’s freedom movement Mahatma Gandhi, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Gopal
Krishna Gokhle, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad and Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel had used the
slogan Unity in Diversity to make the freedom fight successful.
The history of India’s cultural assimilation is remarkable and conveys a strong
message that nation is above than any particular religion or culture. India’s cultural diversity
can be traced back to the history when Mughals and other dynasties ruled India and brought
in their own tradition and culture. The cultural assimilation of India justifies the fact that
the people holding different views on life, religion, social, economic and political systems
can make a civilized nation with their perception and cultured behavior. Indian people
have been honoring saints, sages, religious preacher and philosopher since ancient time.
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For instance, the shrine of Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer is given equal
respect as of Vaishno Devi’s shrine in Jammu.
India is a multi-cultural, multi-racial, multi-lingual and multi-ethnic society. It is a
land of diversity. People of different creeds, customs, cultures and traditions live here.
They have their different festivals, manners and lifestyle. Their religions and beliefs are
also different. Despite all these, there are certain common able bonds that link us together.
This is a distinct feature of India and it is popularly known as unity in diversity. This has
contributed in cultural assimilation. Basically, Indian culture is tolerant and absorbing. Its
nature is assimilating. Democratic set up facilitates the process. The diversity in every
aspect of society serves as a source of strength and wealth. The different ways of worship
and belief represent underlying uniformity. They promote a spirit of harmony and
brotherhood. This is beyond all considerations of religious, regional, linguistic and sectional
diversities. India is proud to have a rich cultural heritage. We are inheritors to many grand
treasures in the field of music, fine arts, dance, drama, theatre and sculpture. Our spiritual
tradition, piety, penance and spiritual greatness are common. Our seers and sages are the
same they are held in high esteem in every section of society alike. Our scriptures are the
storehouse of spiritual wisdom. Indian yogis, rishis, maharishis, etc. are equally popular
in every community. They are revered by them all. India is abundantly rich in dialects and
languages. Twenty two languages constitutionally enjoy the status of official language
but Hindi is recognized as the lingua franca of the nation. From Kashmir to Kanyakumari
and from Nagaland to Mumbai, Hindi is understood as the national language of India.
Though different regions have their different regional affiliation they all are Indians. People
call themselves Bihari, Punjabi, Kashmiri, Marathi, Gujarati, but they feel proud to say
that they are the Indians. Indian dance and drama are the brilliant examples of unity in
India.
M.N. Srinivas examines the role of the religion in social integration as a binding
force amongst individuals and groups. He refers to three points (1) the relations between
different castes and religious groups at the village and other local levels; (2) the general
role of religion in the economic development of the country ; and (3) religion and socio –
economic privileges. In cities Hindus and Muslims have been greeting each other on their
festive occasions. There is an association between religious communities and specific
economic functions they perform. The spread of various communities all over the country
and diversification of their economic activities have strengthened the process of social
integration.
The overwhelming impact of Hinduism on the Indian minds can be considered as
the single most important unifying and assimilating factor. India is a land of diverse religious
faiths. But the influence of Hinduism easily transcends that of any other religion. It is
mainly due to the all-comprehensive and all-embracing pervasiveness of Hinduism. Like
Christianity in Europe, Hinduism in India has provided an attitude and way of thinking,
which is shared and cherished even by the people of other religions. Religious concepts
like monotheism, immortality of the soul, re-incarnation, karma, nirvana, moksha etc.
inspire people all over the country. Religious rites and rituals have uniformity throughout
the country. Sages and saints, religious preachers and the pilgrims have never differentiated
between the north and south. If Shankaracharya carried the message from the south to the
north, Buddhism and Jainism spread from the north to the south. Chaitanya, Kabir and
Nanak formed the connecting link among various regions of the country.
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Srinivas further notes that India, as a secular state facilitates cultural assimilation.
The Five Year Plans, the spread of egalitarian ideals, a single government and a common
body of civil and criminal laws are enough evidence of India’s plural character and oneness.
Different ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks,
Mughals and Europeans came to India. They settled here and mingled with the local
population. They brought their cultural habits, thoughts and ideas to India. India has always
shown a remarkable capacity for the assimilation of ideas. Despite this diversity, there is
an intrinsic unity in our cultural heritage. It is reflected throughout the nation in our music,
dance forms, drama, art and literature.
Assimilation and fusion of different cultures has been a continuous process of the
Indian civilization. A major cultural synthesis took place during 6th and 10th century, between
Vedic Hindu culture, Buddhism and Dravidian culture. Another assimilation was seen
after the 10th century, when the thinking of Arabs, Turks and Afghan, mainly guided by
reason, influenced Indian thought. Sufi and Bhakti movements are examples of this. These
two sects taught the people to love and respect all human beings irrespective of caste or
creed. These also brought changes in the nature of mutual understanding, communal amity
and accommodation.
Once again, during the period between 18th century to 20th century, a major cultural
synthesis took place with modernization and industrialization ushered in by the British.
Despite having different kinds of diversities, most of the times, the Indian society
has been able to develop “an attitude of reconciliation, assimilation rather than refutation,
co-operation rather than confrontation and co-existence rather than mutual annihilation.”
Check Your Progress
6. Briefly mention about assimilation of different cultures in India.
........................................................................................................................................
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3.6 SUMMARY
India has a long history and its cultural heritage is one of the most ancient, extensive
and varied. Throughout the ages many races and people contributed to India’s culture. On
the basis of fossil evidences it is believed that man in India is around five lakh years old.
But it is difficult to identify those earliest inhabitants of India and their racial/ethnic
affiliations despite the fact that several scholars have made efforts on the basis of their
classifications.
Indian Culture is very ancient and continuous. There is belief in doctrine of Karma.
Dharma is seen as life centre of society. There is scientific aspect of Indian heritage.
Indian culture and its very aspects are embedded in the natural setup. Mountains, rivers,
forests, lakes, land, plants, animals and other things of nature also have cultural and
religious importance. India is a religious country and almost all the people sincerely believe
in religion.
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3.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-MODEL ANSWERS
1. Unity in Diversity is the most notified feature of Indian society and has become a part
of India’s self-identity. The foreign travellers Megasthanese (315 B.C.); Fa Hien (405-
411AD); Huan Tsang (630-644 AD); Alberuni (1030AD); Marco Polo (1288-1293 AD)
and Ibn Batuta have written extensively about the diversity of Indian society. The concept
basically means that despite diversities Indians are unified by the bond of being Indian.
2. Secular India is home to 8 major religious communities in India-Hinduism, Islam,
Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism.
3. The three linguistic families whose languages are spoken in India are:
• Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit, N. Indian languages and dialects)
• Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam)
• Mundari (languages and dialects of tribal communities)
4. It is a term used to define number of females per 1000 males. According to 2011 census
sex ratio of India is 940.
5. (1) The Indian Constitution is the most fundamental source of unity in India today.
Indians believe in the basic framework of the Constitution.
(2) Indian Parliament is the national legislative organ of the Indian nation. Representatives
are elected by the people and every adult citizen (above 18 years) of India has a right to
vote. This represents the people’s will in general.
(3) Modern means of communication, the network of railways, surface transport, civil
aviation, post offices, telegraph, telephones, print media, radio and television have played
important roles in maintaining and strengthening the national ethos and creating a “we”
feeling among Indians.
6. Assimilation and fusion of different cultures has been a continuous process of the Indian
civilization. A major cultural synthesis took place during 6th and 10th century, between
Vedic Hindu culture, Buddhism and Dravidian culture. Another assimilation was seen
after the 10th century, when the thinking of Arabs, Turks and Afghan, mainly guided by
reason, influenced Indian thought. Sufi and Bhakti movements are examples of this. These
two sects taught the people to love and respect all human beings irrespective of caste or
creed. These also brought changes in the nature of mutual understanding, communal amity
and accommodation. Once again, during the period between 18th to 20th centuries, a major
cultural synthesis took place with modernization and industrialization ushered in by the
British.

1. Write about factors of diversities in Indian society.
2. Describe the factors of unity in Indian society.
3. Write about cultural assimilation in India society.
1. Highlight the religious diversity of Indian society.
2. Write about the ethnic diversity in Indian society.
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3.9 GLOSSARY
Assimilation : It is a process of cultural unification and homogenization by which newly
entering or subordinate groups lose their distinctive culture and adopt the culture of the
dominant majority.
Ethnic : Relating to a population subgroup (within a larger or dominant national or cultural
group) with a common national or cultural tradition.
Sex Ratio : It is a term used to define number of females per 1000 males. It’s a great
source to find the equality of males and females in a society at a given period of time.
Diversity : Variety or multiplicity in kind, forms, composition etc.
Region and Regionalism : A region is a nucleus of social aggregation for a variety of
purposes. A Particular territory is set apart, over a period of time, when different variables
operate in different degrees. These variables may be geography, topography, religion,
language, usages and customs, socio-economic and political stages of development,
common historical traditions and experiences, a common way of living, and, more than
anything else, a widely prevalent sentiment of “togetherness”. This togetherness leads to
development of regionalism.
3.10 FURTHER READING

1. Ahuja, Ram : Indian Social System (2002)
2. Ahuja, Ram : Society in India (2004)
3. Dube, S.C. : Society in India (1990 )
4. Hasnain Nadeem : Indian Society and Culture- Continuity and Change (2004)
5. Rao, Shankar, C.N. : Sociology of Indian Society (2004)
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BLOCK - II : PERSPECTIVES ON THE STUDY OF
INDIAN SOCIETY
Sociology as a science of study focuses on the study of certain basic concepts,

ideas, understandings and analysis. A common man understands any society through
his looking at the people as, common embodiments of society and forms ideas of co-
habitant in the culture of common to all; and may not comprehend, compare and analyze
as full-fledged as scientist do. But he may go along with his fellow community of people.
The community at helm of affairs provides him a common acceptable picture of everyday
life and living, after his understanding go through folkways traditional structural aspects
of happenings, contrast around his way of life or some time may influence him,
comparative picture explained, learned through individuals and pioneers. In this Unit
the version of social thinkers is given and hence in the units some perspectives on the
study of Indian society are furnished.
The 3 Units in this Block are:

Unit - 4 : Indological / Textual perspectives : Manu, Dumont, Ghurye.
Structural - Functionalism : M.N.Srinivas, S.C.Dube.
Unit - 5 : Marxist perspective : D P Mukherjee, A.R.Desai
Unit - 6 : Subaltern perspective : Jyothi Rao Phule , Dr. B.R. Ambedkar,
David Hardiman.
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UNIT - 4 : INDOLOGICAL / TEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES:
MANU, DUMONT, GHURYE,
STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM :
M.N. SRINIVAS, S.C. DUBE
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Indological/Textual Perspectives
4.2.1 Manu
4.2.2 Dumont
4.2.3 Ghurye
4.3 Structural-Functionalism
4.3.1 M.N. Srinivas
4.3.2 S.C. Dube
4.4 Summary
4.7 Glossary
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Understand the Indological perspective for the study of Indian society,
• Analyse the Structural-Functional perspective for the study of Indian society.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Indology is known as the study of Indian Society. Indology is both an approach to
study the Indian Society and also an independent discipline with Indian Society as subject
matter. In both the form Indology consists of studying language, believes, ideas, customs,
taboos, codes, institutions, rituals, ceremonies and other related components of culture.
The structural-functional perspective relies more on the field work tradition for
understanding the social reality so that it can also be understood as ‘contextual’ or ‘field
view’ perspective of the social phenomena. In this unit we will analyse indological and
structural-functional perspectives of Indian society.
4.2 INDOLOGICAL/TEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES

The Indological perspective claims to understand Indian Society through the
concepts, theories and frameworks that are closely associated with Indian Civilization. It
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made a claim that Indian Society is unique in structure, function and dynamics and cannot
be associated with the European Society. Indology relies on book view and culture and
denounces rigorous empirical investigation. Indology is more a textual study, so a lot of
scholars have conducted their studies depending on text. Hence, it is also known as textual
perspective. Indological Perspective owes its origin to the contribution of the Orientalists
like William Jones, Henry Maine, Max Muller etc.
The use of the Indological approach during the early formative years of Indian
Sociology and social anthropology is seen in the works of S.V. Ketkar, B.N. Seal and B.K.
Sarkar. G.S. Ghurye, Louis Dumont. K.M. Kapadia, P.H. Prabhu and Irawati Karve have
tried to explore Hindu social institutions and practices, either with reference to religious
texts or through the analysis of contemporary practices.
4.2.1 Manu
The people of ancient India believed in the order and regularity of the world as the
manifestation of God’s will and intent, and the clear victory of the divine forces over the
demonic. Hence, the laws governing the conduct of individuals and the order and regularity
of Hindu society were formulated by many scholars and sages in ancient India since the
earliest times. Their works are today available to us as Dharmashastras, of which the work
of Manu (Manusmriti) is considered the most important and widely used.
The Manu Smriti discusses the genesis and evolution of human civilisation from
the Vedic age, the cultural foundation, the allegiance which was all influenced by the
place, time and situation. Manusmriti projects an ideal society and ideal human conduct
as the basis to establish an orderly society and divine centered life. To promote those
ideals and enforce divine will, it proposes numerous laws to minutely govern human life
and conduct as applicable to each individual according to her or his social class, duties
and responsibilities. Their purpose is to inculcate discipline, provide a basis for the rulers
to enforce lawful conduct, and ensure the orderly progression of the world through righteous
conduct and observance of obligatory duties by individuals who have chosen for themselves
the life of a householder, or that of a renunciant. The power to enforce the laws is carefully
distributed among the rulers and the guardians of society who assist him in decision making.
Manusmriti recognizes the corrupting and deluding influence of power over the mind and
cautions the kings to exercise their judgement with great care to avoid sinful karma and
harmful consequences for themselves and for the world.
Laws of Manu or Manava Dharma Shastra is one of the standard books in the Hindu
canon. It is traditionally accepted as one of the supplementary arms of the Vedas. This
comprises 2684 verses, divided into twelve chapters presenting the norms of domestic,
social, and religious life in India (circa 500 BC), and is fundamental to the understanding
of ancient Indian society. The main contents of the twelve chapters speak about the different
ways in which a human can get happiness. The contents are:
1. The genesis of the universe.
2. Procedures of performing ceremonies, the methods of fulfilling vows.
3. Holy baths, sexual life, performing marriages, Mahayagya [religious sacrifices],
methods of pacifying deceased ancestors etc.
4. Regular ablutions and routines, Sutak Vrata.
5. Edible and non-edible things, cleanliness, impurity, the duty of the wife.
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6. Vanaprastha, liberation, detachment.
7. The duty of Royal people.
8. The relegation of duty.
9. The duty of women and men, the duty of departments, the annihilation of the wicked,
etc.
10. The narrow, parochial castes, the duty in emergency.
11. Repentance.
12. Transmigration, Supreme Bliss.
Manu Smriti is the first legal text of human civilization which till date has the
ability to guide and direct the society. The Manu Smriti discusses the genesis and evolution
of human civilisation from the Vedic age, the cultural foundation, the allegiance which
was all influenced by the place, time and situation.
The laws that were proposed by Manu to govern human conduct and society reflect
the conditions, needs and values of the times in which they were formulated. They
acknowledge prevailing social and gender inequalities as natural conditions of human
existence, and propose laws to govern the behavior of individuals without providing scope
for any changes that time may bring in the conditions of society or the lives of people.
Relevance of Manusmriti in modern context
Manu’s definition of Dharma is as relevant today as it was in the past which says
“Dhriti Kshama Damostayam shauchamindriyanigraha.Dhirvidhya satyamakrodho
dashkam dharmalakshnam.”(Manusmriti 6.92), i.e., There are ten characteristics of Dharma,
(1) dhriti (perseverance), (2) forgiveness (kshama), (3) self restraint (dama), (4) not to
take possessions of others without permission (asteya), (5) internal and external purification
(shaucha), (6)subjection to senses (indriya nigraha), (7) improvement of intellect (dhi),
(8) acquisition of accurate knowledge(vidya), (9) truth (satya), (10) abstaining from anger
(akrodha). There is a unanimity amongst scholars both Indian and foreign with regard to
position of Manu ‘as the basis of Indian thought’ and the significant role of Manusmriti in
the context of Indian tradition.
4.2.2 Dumont
Louis Dumont, the French Sociologist, is regarded as an Indologist. He has written
on wide range of subjects such as Hinduism, caste, kinship, and social and political
movements in India.
Homo Hierarchicus
The Homo Hierarchicus: The caste system and its Implication (1966) is an unusual
work of Dumont in its conception, design and execution. This is a complete, theoretical
work that helps us to access the vast body of available ethnographic data on caste. As a
study of the caste system in India, Dumont’s Homo Hierarchius offers several new
perspectives of social structure. The notion of ideology and traditions are intrinsic parts
of his paradigm. He has brought the method of structuralism to bear upon his study of the
caste system.
Dumont seeks the ideology of castes in Indology, and in the assumption of the unity
of Indian civilization. Defining ideology, he writes: “it designates a more or less unified
set of ideas and values”.
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Apart from ideology and structure, the notion of hierarchy has a pivotal place in
Dumont’s study of caste system. Hierarchy implies opposition between pure and impure,
which also determines its dialectics. Dumont describes those who write of ‘stratification’
in the Indian caste system as ethno or ‘socio’- centric. He claims to derive his own view of
caste from purely Indian sources, thereby discovering the truth which has escaped those
less capable than of transcending their modern, Western biases. His analysis is based on a
single principle, i.e., the opposition of pure and impure.
This opposition underlies ‘hierarchy’, which means superiority of the pure and
inferiority of impure. This principle also underlies ‘separation’, which means pure and
the impure must be kept separate. Dumont felt that the study of the caste system is useful
for the knowledge of India, and it is an important task of general sociology. He focused on
the need to understand the ideology of caste as reflected in the classical texts, historical
examples etc. He advocated the use of an Indological and structuralist approach to the
study of caste system and village social structure in India.
Theory of Varnas
Dumont feels one cannot speak of the castes without mentioning the varnas, to which
Hindus frequently attribute the castes themselves. India has the traditional hierarchy of
varnas, whereby four categories are distinguished: the highest is that of the Brahmins or
priest, below them are the Kshatriyas or warriors, then the Vaishyas, in modern usage
merchants, and finally the Shudras, the servants or have-nots.
There is one more category, the untouchables, who are outside the classification
system. Dumont maintains that many of the Indologists confuse the varna with caste,
mainly because the classical literature is concerned almost entirely with the varnas. Caste
and varnas are to be understood with relationship of hierarchy and power.
By his interpretation, caste was different from other forms of social stratification
through the ‘disjunction’ of ritual status and secular (political and economic) power within
the same social system. The subordination of the political and economic criteria of social
stratification to that of ritual status in Dumont’s model, however, plays down the
significance of social change in colonial and contemporary times.
Caste System
Louis Dumont was primarily concerned with the ideology of the caste system. His
understanding of caste lays emphasis on attributes of caste that is why; he is put in the
category of those following the attributional approach to the caste system. For him, caste
is a set of relationships of economic, political and kinship systems, sustained by certain
‘values’, which are mostly religious in nature. Dumont says that caste is not a form of
stratification but a special form of inequality, whose essence has to be deciphered by the
sociologists. Here, Dumont identifies ‘hierarchy’ as the essential value underlying the
caste system, supported by Hinduism.
Dumont starts with Bougie’s definition of caste and says that it divides the whole
Indian society into a larger number of hereditary groups distinguished from one another
and connected together by three characteristics:
(a) Separation on the basis of rules of the caste in matters of marriage and contact,
whether direct or indirect (food);
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(b) Interdependent of work or division of labour, each group having, in theory or by
tradition, a profession from which their members can depart only within certain
limits; and
(c) Finally, gradation of status or hierarchy, which ranks the groups as relatively superior
or inferior to one another.
Dumont views that this definition indicates the main apparent characteristics of the
caste system. He describes mainly three things:
1. India is composed of many small territories and castes;
2. Every caste is limited to particular and definite geographical area;
3. Marrying outside one’s own caste is not possible in the caste system.
In fact, Dumont highlights the ‘state of mind’, which is expressed by the emergence
in various situations of castes. He calls caste system as a system of ‘ideas and values’,
which is a ‘formal comprehensible rational system’.
His analysis is based on a single principle, i.e., the opposition of pure and impure.
This opposition underlies ‘hierarchy’, which means superiority of the pure and inferiority
of impure. This principle also underlies ‘separation’, which means pure and the impure
must be kept separate.
Critical Appraisal
Dumont’s work is based on traditional Indian Texts. Consequently, the features of
the caste system, as projected by Dumont, seem to be unchanging. In reality, the caste
system has changed in various ways during a period of time. Dumont also seems to
characterize Indian Society as almost stagnant, since he emphasizes the integrative function
of caste system. Dumont has been criticized on the ground that he is always concerned
with the system integration and system maintenance than with change or conflict. Even
Dumont was criticized for his ideas on purity and pollution, as they are not universal.
4.2.3 Ghurye
Ghurye has often been acclaimed as the ‘Father of Indian Sociology’. Ghurye’s
Indological approach hovers around the study of Indian Culture and Social Structure
drawing its sustenance from sanskritic literature base.
According to Ghurye Sociology of India is not static, it emanates from the ancient
India, travels through medieval India and reaches Modern India. Ghurye realized that if
an institution cannot be studied in those three distinct phases then one cannot make a
claim that the study is made in totality. Ghurye viewed that an institution should be studied
on the basis of three things that are transition, transplantation and transformation.
The few broad areas that have been identified in Ghurye’s writings are;
1. Caste.
2. Tribe.
3. Kinship.
4. Culture and Civilisation.
5. Religion.
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6. Sociology of Conflict and Integration.
7. Family and Marriage.
Caste in India
Ghurye’s understanding of caste is comparative, historical and Indological as well.
Ghurye considers caste as a product of Indian culture, changing with the passage of time.
Hence, it is a subject of sociological interest. In his book “Caste and Race in India”, he
agrees with Sir Herbert Risley that caste is a product of race that comes to India along
with Aryans. Caste has gone through the process of fusion and fission in different ways in
Indian history. During Vedic period caste was a product of race. Aryans distinguished
themselves from non-Aryans just in terms of colour but subsequently different ethnic
groups developed alliance/relationship with each other and Hindu culture and values moved
from Aryan community to non-Aryan communities.
Aryan society itself practiced different kinds of occupations which were allocated
to different individuals and families. On the basis of their occupation caste names were
allocated to different groups.Therefore Aryans society had architects, peasants, warriors,
artisans and their society was highly disciplined, organized and progressive.
Ghurye tells that it may be a matter of fact that caste evolved in India with the
advent of Aryans, as their racial character was different from Indians. But at the same
time there were different racial categories present in India prior to coming of the Aryans.
Caste was not a hierarchical exploitative system. Aryans carried with them caste system
which promoted discipline in their life giving them specialization over particular
occupation. No caste was superior or inferior. Occupation change was possible.
Ghurye points out that caste was considered as central to organized form of division
of labour in Aryan society. When Aryans and indigenous communities developed
interpersonal relationship through communication and warfare, the disciplined nature of
Aryan society was appreciated by indigenous rulers who injected the elements of caste
into their social life. In addition to that, priests, monasteries and travelers glorified the
virtues of Aryan caste system. Hence the element of caste radiated from northern India to
other parts of the country.
Features of Caste
Ghurye explains caste in India on the basis of six distinctive characteristics:
• Segmental division of society;
• Hierarchy;
• Civil and religious disabilities and privileges;
• Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation;
• Restriction on food, drinks and social intercourse; and
• Endogamy;
Segmental division of the society
Segment is the compartmentalization of the population into groups. It is basically
horizontal in character and generates social grouping but not labelling. The membership
is ascribed by birth and flows from generation to generation. Based on the membership
every member are assigned with fixed status, roles and tasks.
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Hierarchy
It is the second major characteristic of Caste. After the segmental divisions of the
society, they are put in a pyramidical structure then it is called as hierarchy.
Certain cultural principles like purity and pollution, prioritization of certain group,
preferences of the society, determines the position of segmented social group into hierarchy.
Hierarchy also determines the individual’s access to life chances (education, health,
nutrition) and life resources (wealth, power, property). The higher the position in caste
hierarchy the easier becomes the access and vice-versa.
Civil and religious disabilities
Civil and religious disabilities expressed the rigidity of the Caste system. To Ghurye
the general reflection of Hindu social life was observed and felt through such disabilities.
Civil and religious disabilities basically came from the concept of purity and pollution.
Disabilities were for impure and polluted caste and privileges were for pure/higher castes.
Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation
The occupations have been fixed by heredity. Generally they have not been allowed
to change their traditional occupations. Members of a caste maintain their supremacy and
secrecy in their jobs and do not allow the other caste group to join in. The upper caste
people like Brahmins are free to opt for study of religious books, while this cannot be
done by other classes. The lower ranking activities like sweeping bathrooms, washing
clothes, scavenging etc. have been kept in untouchable category.
Restriction on food, drinks and social intercourse
Some rules have been imposed upon all caste people. Restrictions on feeding and
social intercourse are still prevalent in Indian society. There are two types of food i.e.
Kachha (cooked) food and Pakka (cooked) food upon which certain restrictions are imposed
with regard to sharing.
Endogamy
Indian caste system is also polarized due to endogamy being determined primarily
by Caste. People can marry within caste only. Disobeying such rules is not only treated as
crime but as a sin. The caste panchayat not only denounces inter-caste marriages but also
imposes severe punishment upon those who break these rules.
Critical Appraisal
He fails to recognize the rise of modern India and the contribution of Islamic and
British rulers. Town planning, architecture, new administration and technology by both
made India altogether different from what it was during Vedic and non-Vedic period. If
sociology is a science then sociologists must have to honour the fact rather than ideology.
In Ghurye’s sociology ideology predominates over the fact and that is a tragedy for Indian
sociology.
A.R. Desai writes that, studying India from the lens of culture provides us no space
to understand the real India that lives within inequality, diversity, dialectic and exploitation.
Therefore one has to come out of the bondage of Ghurye’s sociology to understand real
India and the challenges and problems associated.
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Check Your Progress
1. Write on the views of Dumont on Homo Hierarchicus.
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
2. Explain the views of Ghurye on caste in India.
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4.3 STRUCTURAL - FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Structural-functionalist approach tries to explain the various social forms in terms
of their contributions to social cohesion. The followers of this perspective focus on the
understanding of the ‘ordering’ and ‘patterning’ of the social world. The functional unity
of a system is defined in terms of social order. M.N. Srinivas is to be credited for initiating
the new line of structural-functional analysis in sociological and social anthropological
research in India. The important followers of this perspective are M.N. Srinivas, S.C.
Dube, McKim Marriott, I.P. Desai, D.N. Majumdar and others.
4.3.1 M.N. Srinivas
Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas (1916-1999) was a world renowned Indian
sociologist. He is mostly known for his work on caste and caste systems, social stratification
and sanskritization in southern India. Through use of terms such as “sanskritization”,
“dominant caste”, “vertical (inter caste) and horizontal (intra caste) solidarities”, Srinivas
sought to capture the fluid and dynamic essence of caste as a social institution. M.N.
Srinivas established Sociology as a ‘structural functionalist’ discipline in India.
Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives
Srinivas has initiated the tradition of macro-sociological generalizations on
microanthropological insights and of giving a sociological sweep and perspective to
anthropological investigations of small-scale communities. Srinivas wanted to understand
his countrymen not on the basis of western textbooks or from indigenous sacred texts but
from direct observations, field study and field experience. He made intensive field study
of Coorgs of Mysore between 1940-42. In his study, he describes the concept of functional
unity by explaining the interaction in ritual context of different castes of Coorgs, mainly
Brahmins (priests), Kaniyas (astrologers and magicians) and Bannas and Panikas (low
castes). In the context of the study of Rampura also, he describes that the various castes in
a village are interdependent.
Srinivas studies of caste and religion highlighted not only their structural-functional
aspects, but also the dynamics of the caste system in rural setting. He proposed conceptual
tools like ‘dominant caste’, ‘sanskritization-westernization’ and to understand the realities
of inter-caste relations and also to explain their dynamics. The concept of ‘dominant caste’
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has been used in the study of power relations at the village level. Srinivas presents the
results of a number of studies on the structure and change in the village society. Srinivas
also worte articles in the 1940s on Tamil and Telugu folk-songs.
Srinivas explains two basic concepts to understand our society. They are: (a) book
view, and (b) field view.
(a) Book view (bookish perspective): Religion, varna, caste, family, village and
geographical structure are the main elements, which are known as the bases of Indian
society. The knowledge about such elements is gained through sacred texts or from books.
Srinivas calls it "book view or bookish perspective". Book view is also known as Indology,
which is not acceptable to Srinivas and he emphasized to the field view.
(b) Field view (field work): Srinivas believes that the knowledge about the different
regions of Indian society can be attained through field work. This he calls field view.
Consequently, he prefers empirical study to understand our society. Srinivas took the path
of small regional studies rather than the construction of grand theories. In this context,
field work plays an important role to understand the nativity of the rural Indian society.
Srinivas also realized the need for a mathematical and statistical orientation in sociology.
His self-analysis underlines this point. There are cogent reasons of both an ideological
and a practical nature which explain why the secondary level of analysis described above
is not usually pursued by scholars. The practical considerations are easy to detect. Perhaps,
more in the past than at present, the fear of mathematics drive many brilliant and diligent
scholars to the ‘humanistic’ disciplines like sociology.
Writings of M.N. Srinivas
Srinivas has written on many aspects of Indian society and culture. He is best known
for his work on religion, village community, caste and social change. He was influenced
by Radcliffe Brown’s notion of structure, who was his teacher at Oxford. He studied Indian
society as a ‘totality’, a study which would integrate “the various groups in its inter
relationship, whether tribes, peasants or various cults and sects”. His writings are based
on intensive field work in South India in general and Coorgs and Rampura in particular.
Srinivas produced outstanding works, for instance:
1. Marriage and Family in Mysore (1942)
2. Religion and Society Among the Coorgs of South India (1952)
3. India’s Villages (1955)
4. Caste in Modern India and Other Essays (1962)
5. Social Change in Modern India (1966)
6. The Remembered Village (1976)
7. India: Social Structure (1980)
8. The Dominant Caste and Other Essays (1987)
9. The Cohesive Role of Sanskritization (1989)
10. On Living in a Revolution and Other Essays (1992)
11. Village, Caste, Gender and Method (1996)
12. Indian Society through Personal Writings (1996)
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Srinvas has also written many other important essays including ‘On Living in a
Revolution’ (1986), ‘Some Reflections on Dowry’ (1984), ‘The Insider and the Outsider
in the Study of Cultures’ (1984) – all illuminating dimensions on ongoing social change in
India. Thus, Srinivas’ writings are inter disciplinary in nature. We would like to discuss
here on the following themes of Srinivas’ contribution:
1. Social change: Brahmanization, Sanskritization, Westernization and Seculirazation.
2. Religion and society
3. Study of village
4. Views on caste
5. Dominate caste
Study of Coorgs through a structural-functionalist lens
Study of Coorgs was a structural functionalist study of a localized community. For
him a most significant aspect of Coorgs society and culture was their incorporation into
the Hindu socio-cultural order. In this connection he wrote about the ‘spread’ of Hinduism,
introducing for analytical purposes the idea of local, regional, peninsular and all India
levels. Second, illustrating the dialectical process, he observed that some ‘splinter groups’
among the Coorgs had ‘solved their problem [of working out a viable relationship with
the encompassing caste based Hindu society] by sanskritizing their customs entirely’,
while other, more conservative, groups lagged behind. In Srinivas’s work, the structure of
Indian society determined by caste emerges as a kind of adjustment mechanism that expands
and fits.
4.3.2 S.C Dube
Shyama Charan Dube (1922-1996) has contributed on a variety of themes including
tribes, rural life, community development, and modernization, management of change
and tradition and development. Dube’s book on Indian Village, first published in 1955,
and was a milestone in the study of Indian Society. In this book, he made a significant
contribution in understanding the Indian society through structural functional perspective.
The study presents a comprehensive picture of the functioning of village institutions
although it is one of the earliest monographs on a village. Dube asserts that the economic
system of rural India is founded mainly on caste’s functional specialization, interdependence
and occupational mobility. He also observes that the elements of classical Hinduism of an
all India spread are mingled with the regional religious beliefs and practices of Hindus of
Deccan Plateau.
Dube understands village communities to be organized around caste, kin and
territorial affinities, with links to the wider community. He divided Indian villages into (i)
single settlement villages; (ii) nucleated villages; and (iii) dispersed villages.
S.C. Dube was also deeply concerned with the status of the social sciences in India.
He believed that Indian social sciences suffered from a crisis of commitment, generating
materials irrelevant to the national purpose. He strongly believed in relevant and purposive
research by social scientists on pressing social issues. At the same time, he commended
the potential usefulness of the social sciences in public policy formulation and national
development in the light of their strong diagnostic and analytical techniques and their
capacity for testing hypotheses on the ground through the methodology of ethnographic
fieldwork.
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The major premise of structural-functional perspective include:
• It aims studying the pattern of relationship, social institutions and their working in
the society in a holistic manner. For example M.N. Srinivas in his study on Coorgs
of Mysore, not only gave an ethnographic account of Coorg society, but also
developed a holistic picture of solidarity among Coorgs in terms of their customs,
beliefs, religion, family etc. More importantly existing socio-political framework
was taken into account through a field view.
• This perspective attempted to develop an interpretation of a particular social
phenomenon in functional terms within a larger social context.
• For example, studies on family in India emphasized upon understanding its
significance in the Indian society rather than simply studying it as a type of family.
In this context, studies conducted by K.M. Kapadia, Karve etc. are quite significant.
• Structural-functional perspective in India took into account actual structural
cleavages and social differentiation in society. This made sociological understanding
more empirical and contextual. In this, functions were seen not only in cultural
angle, but also within changing structural context.
• This perspective also emphasized upon comparative understanding of various social
institutions, taking into consideration various variations and their implications on
wider society.
• Initially, structural-functional perspective was confined with an anthropological view,
but during 1960s and 1970s studies focused on particular phenomenon or institutions
from purely structural functional perspective.
Like its original framework in West, structural functionalism in India also suffered
from several limitations and was criticized for following reasons -
1. Perspective ignored conflict in Indian society. Social institutions may be
dysfunctional and causing conflict in society. For example caste is more dysfunctional
than functional.
2. This perspective is considered status quoits. Generally, social patterns were
considered desirable and functional in a broader context.
3. It lacked purity in its application owing to influence of other perspectives. Cultural
influence was quite marked in study of structures.
4. A number of studies become too much empirical that there were nothing more than
explanations of empirical generalizations.
Check Your Progress
3. Briefly explain the contributions of M. N. Srinivas for the study of Indian Society.
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4. Explain the structural-functional perspective of S.C. Dube.
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4.4 SUMMARY
In the study of Indian society, sociologists/social anthropologists have largely used
indological, and structural-functional approaches. The indological approach focuses on
certain ideals such as Dharma, Karma, belief in punarjanma and moksha, Hindu traditions,
caste system, monogamy as a value and the like. This approach was used to understand
the idealised life of Hindu society. Structural-functional perspective in India made
sociological understanding more empirical and contextual.

1. The Homo Hierarchicus : The Homo Hierarchicus: The caste system and its Implication
(1966) is an unusual work of Dumont in its conception, design and execution. This is a
complete, theoretical work that helps us to access the vast body of available ethnographic
data on caste. As a study of the caste system in India, Dumont’s Homo Hierarchius offers
several new perspectives of social structure. The notion of ideology and traditions are
intrinsic parts of his paradigm. He has brought the method of structuralism to bear upon
his study of the caste system
2. Ghurye’s understanding of caste is comparative, historical and Indological as well.
Ghuriye considers caste as a product of Indian culture, changing with the passage of time.
Hence, it is a subject of sociological interest. In his book “Caste and Race in India”, he
agrees with Sir Herbert Risley that caste is a product of race that comes to India along
with Aryans.
3. M.N. Srinivas studies of caste and religion (1952, 1959, 1962, and 1966) highlighted
not only their structural-functional aspects, but also the dynamics of the caste system in
rural setting. He proposed conceptual tools like ‘dominant caste’, ‘sanskritization-
westernization’ and to understand the realities of inter-caste relations and also to explain
their dynamics. The concept of ‘dominant caste’ has been used in the study of power
relations at the village level. Srinivas presents the results of a number of studies on the
structure and change in the village society.
4. S.C. Dube has contributed on a variety of themes including tribes, rural life, community
development, and modernization, management of change and tradition and development.
The study presents a comprehensive picture of the functioning of village institutions
although it is one of the earliest monographs on a village. Dube asserts that the economic
system of rural India is founded mainly on caste’s functional specialization, interdepen-
dence and occupational mobility.

1. Critically examine the Indological perspective.
2. Explain the contribution of M.N. Srinivas to the Structural-Functional approach
to the study of Indian society.
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1. G.S. Ghurye.
2. Homo Hierarchicus.
3. Indian Village.
4. Sanskritization and Westernization.
4.7 GLOSSARY
Indology : The academic study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of
India
Homo Hierarchicus : Louis Dumont’s treatise on the Indian caste system. It analyses the
caste hierarchy and the ascendancy tendency of the lower castes to follow the habits of
the higher castes.
Sanskritization : A particular form of social change found in India. It denotes the process
by which castes placed lower in the caste hierarchy seek upward mobility by emulating
the rituals and practices of the upper or dominant castes. It is a process similar to passing
in sociological terms. This term was made popular by Indian sociologist M. N. Srinivas in
the 1950s.
Westernization : M.N. Srinivas (1966) defines ‘westernisation’ in terms of the change in
Indian society due to the impact of British rule in India. The areas of change include
technology, dress, food, and changes in the habits and lifestyles of people.

1. Ahuja, Ram : Sociey in India
3. Eisensdt S.N. : Modernization : Protest and Change.
4. Singer M. : When a Great Tradition Modernizes: An Anthropological
5. Singer M. : Traditional India : Structure and Change
6. Yogendra Singh : Modernization of Indian Tradition
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UNIT-5 : MARXIST PERSPECTIVE :
D.P. MUKHERJEE, A.R. DESAI
Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Marxist Perspective
5.2.1 D.P. Mukherjee
5.2.2 A.R. Desai
5.3 Summary
5.6 Glossary
5.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson you will be able to understand
• The Marxist Perspective with regard to Indian society
• Contributions of D.P.Mukherjee and A. R. Desai
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A perspective is a way in which social facts, social phenomenon or social behaviors
etc. is viewed. When a group of scholars come to share a particular view point towards the
study of socio-cultural and other aspects of human life, a particular sociological approach
emerges. Such an approach is accompanied by appropriate concepts, theory or theories,
methods and techniques for studying society. This particular approach may be criticized
by others who take a different approach towards the socio-cultural phenomena.
Sociologists today broadly employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the
symbolic interactionist perspective, the functionalist-perspective, and the conflict
perspective. These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining
how society influences people, and vice versa. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes
society, social forces, and human behaviour.
Of the classical founders of social science, conflict theory is most commonly
associated with Karl Marx. Two early conflict theorists were the Polish-Austrian sociologist
and political theorist Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838-1909) and the American sociologist and
palaeontologist Lester F. Ward (1841-1913).
Indian society is generally viewed as a society which still holds tradition dear. It has
many peculiar features like caste, kinship and village which are unparalleled elsewhere.
Its unique social structure has attracted many interests from India and outside and as a
result, it has been studied from different perspectives. Major perspectives include
Indological perspective, Marxist perspective, and Structural-Functionalist perspective and
so on.
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5.2 MARXIST PERSPECTIVE
The Marxist approach highlights the conflicting forces and contradictions inherent
in the society. The Marxist approach in Sociology in India gained prominence as Marxist
sociologists became critical of structural functionalism and the kind of research it emanated.
They felt there was an overemphasis on the role of traditional factors as caste, kinship and
religion. D.P. Mukherjee was professed Marxist. He attempted dialectical interpretation
of the encounter between Indian traditions of cultural contradictions during the colonial
era. Within the broad framework of these dialectical Marxist approaches Mukherjee focused
more on the historical specificity of India’s cultural and social transformation.
With specific reference to Indian society, Yogendra Singh (2004) has used the term
dialectical (opposing forces) and not Marxist because in Indian Sociology, Marxist approach
comprised several adaptive models; many innovations have been made on classical Marxist
formulations for the study of Indian society.
Sociological studies on contemporary India on village, caste, religion, industry, record
changes taking place in it. Marxist sociologists express this inadequacy of the structural
functional framework to understand change. Change occurs with conflict and resistance
hence the Marxist framework would be useful in explaining these contradictions. Another
area of research in Indian society is that of inequality. The changing relations between
caste, class and power drew the attention of sociologists to these external forces of change.
The emphasis is on class and material interests rather than on caste and historical status.
Caste and class have been studied at different levels and the contribution of some
sociologists and social anthropologists is by studying it in this context of agrarian relations
at these local levels. Some of these sociologists have used the Marxian approach in these
analysis and interpretations. Caste and class are often studied together not only in the
study of stratification but also polities. Studies on caste politics have been attempted by
various sociologists who may not have any distinctive theoretical approach but tend to be
descriptive and analytical. Marxist, however, the politics of class is a matter of theory and
practice. Marxist sociologists are now paying more attention to caste in their political
analysis.
In this context, Marxist perspective attempts to understand society in following ways:
1. Marxists approach understands society in terms of a process of historical
developments in dialectical materialistic terms. For example, A.R. Desai in his book
‘Social Background of Indian Nationalism, 1946’ takes historic materialistic view
and understands the process of historical change in Indian society in terms of
changing economic activities.
2. The social structure and institutions are seen as rooted in productive relations. For
example Kathleen Gough in the context of ‘caste, class nexus’ uses Marxist
perspective for generating an understanding in its dialectical way.
3. While understanding society, primacy is given to economic infrastructure; culture
is seen as rooted in economic infrastructure.
4. Society is seen in systemic terms conforming to model of economic interpretation
of superstructure. For example, Marxist village studies emphasize more on
understanding of socio-political setup on the basis of network relations woven around
land.
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5. Indian society is studied in terms of conflict and social institutions are seen as
exploitative and existing for the benefit of the few. For example-Jajmani system
was interpreted as coercive and exploitative institutions by Marxists like Berreman.
A.R. Desai was critical of harmonious and co-operative picture of Indian village.
Similarly, various village studies, a number of them compiled in his book ‘Rural
Sociology in India’ studied various other social institutions from Marxist point of
view.
Some more aspects of Marxist approach are:
• Characteristics of socio-economic aspects during the British period.
• Nature of dominant mode of production generated by the British impact on India
• Nature of changes generated by British as consequences of adopting measures such
as introduction of private property in land, new modes of revenue collection,
commercialization of agriculture, administration of hierarchy, new principles of
recruitment and promotion.
• Whether the British expropriated power from Kings, feudal lords and other or created
new feudal classes and shared power with them.
• Whether British introduced a Bourgeoisie economic system without facilitating a
capitalist mode of production in agriculture or adequate industrialization or
strengthened the dominant mode of production.
• Characterization of strata and classes such as zamindars, tenants, share croppers,
bonded labour, agricultural labour etc.
• Characterization of the working conditions in rural areas which appear to be
precapitalist but operating and serving the capitalist world market.
• Characterization of the types of socio-economic formation which has emerged in
India after Independence, it is a neo-colony, peripheral capitalism, a satellite
formation or a backward Capitalist social formation.
• Nature of state which has emerged after Independence and which has been reshaping
economy and society of India on the basis of mixed economy.
• Nature of revolution to be brought in India.
• The class which will be the leader of the revolution, the classes which will ally with
leading class, will remain neutral or act as an enemy against whom revolutionary
movements will have to be studied.
However, Marxist perspective suffers from a number of deficiencies, some of which are:
I. In a bid to give importance to material aspects, it ignored the importance of religion
and culture in the lives of people of India. Religion occupies an important place in
Indian society and world view of people is influenced by it. This perspective is not
capable of portraying a total view of social reality in India and takes only a material
view.
II. Another deficiency has been ignoring of ‘caste’ as the basis of traditional Hindu
social organization. Caste was often equated with class which generated an
oversimplistic view of the pattern of social inequalities.
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III. Over emphasis upon conflict led them to overlook integration and solidarity aspect
of Indian society. For example-institutions like Jajmani and panchayats were also
seen as exploitative.
Indian Marxist scholars use basic assumptions of Marxian analysis of understanding
of society. In India, this view found favour among nationalist leadership after Russian
revolution. This new leadership favoured this approach within the context of freedom
struggle. Before independence, this perspective was used by D.P. Mukherjee by combining
it with Indological perspective to develop a Marxiological perspective to analyse social
change.
A. R. Desai pioneered the use of this perspective since 1940s and it is best exemplified
in his ‘Social Background of Indian Nationalism, 1946’. This perspective couldn’t become
popular because, firstly, before independence British government was strictly opposed to
Marxian thoughts. Secondly, after independence due to euphoria generated by the welfare
state, Marxist perspective was given a pass. However, this perspective became popular
during the eventful 1970s after an article written by A.R. Desai titled ‘Relevance of Marxist
Perspective in the Understanding of Indian Society’ on account of two reasons Firstly two
decades of Five year planning was inadequate in meeting the aspirations of people and
their problems still remained. It was felt that there is some deficiency in interpretation of
Indian society. Secondly although, initially it was felt that the academic perspective has to
just provide inputs for the planning rather than just suggesting ideological alternatives.
After 1970s, whole conception of planning came under serious doubt for it apparent failures.
To understand Indian society Marxist paradigm offers systemic and dialectical
explanation. It treats structures as historical product by locating historical forces in mode
of production which under certain historical conditions creates contradictions of classes.
The mode of production is the centre piece of the Marxist theory of social stratification
and social structure. The social structure in India has centered on the mode of production
and its distribution according to the Marxist approach. Much of the Marxist literature in
India to study Indian society has been pre-occupied with the nature of mode of production
in agriculture. (Whether its mode of production is capitalist, pre-capitalist, semi-feudal,
colonial, semi-colonial, dual or multiple).
The notions of mode of production is linked with class structure, caste structure,
power structure, kinship, family and thus display a greater flexibility of the approach. A.
Rudra, J.Banaji, Utsa Patnaik, Chattopadhyaya, N.K. Chandra, Ranjit Sau, A. Bhaduri,
Pradhan Prasad have used Marxist perspective in their studies.
Most basic Marxist thinking in India was done in the forties and fifties by non-
sociologists. The study of Indian social reality from the Marxian perspective has been
conducted by scholars such as, M.N, Dutta, S.A. Dange, D.D. Kosambi, A.R. Desai, D.P.
Mukherjee, P.C.Joshi, R.S. Sharma, Irfan Habib, D.P. Chattopadhyay and others. Among
the early sociologist who emphasized the significance of the dialectical model were D.P.
Mukherjee, A.R. Desai and Ramakrishna Mukherjee.
Check Your Progress
1. In what ways does Marxist perspective attempts to understand society.
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2. Name few scholars who have studied Indian society using Marxist perspective.
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5.2.1 D.P. Mukherjee (1894-1961)
Dhurjati Prasad Mukherjee (1894-1961), popularly called as D.P. Mukherjee was
one of the founding fathers of sociology in India. D.P. was an outstanding Indian whose
versatile interests have made landmarks not only in the field of sociology but also in
economics, literature, music and art. Yet, sociology has been benefitted most from his
erudite contributions. D.P. besides being a scholar, was an extremely cultured and sensitive
person. His personality was remarkable for its power in influencing and moulding the
young people who came in touch with him. He was a Marxist but preferred to call him a
Marxologist, i.e., a social scientist of Marxism. He analysed Indian society from Marxian
perspective of dialectical materialism. Dialectical materialism is a strand of Marxism,
synthesizing Hegel’s dialectics, which proposes that every economic order grows to a
state of maximum efficiency, while simultaneously developing internal contradictions and
weaknesses that contribute to its systemic decay. For example, Capitalism grew to its
peak, but its own internal dynamics and conditions led to its decay.
Perhaps of much greater importance than his writings were his lectures, discussions
and conversations. It was through these that he shaped the minds of youth and trained
them to think for themselves. “Shaping men is enough for me”, he often told his students.
D.P. Mukherjee was a pioneer in the field of sociology of culture. This work is an endeavour
to focus upon an area, which was dear to his heart. It is only a modest attempt and it may
have many deficiencies but we feel that there is a convergence of ideas that make a unified
theme. It is hoped that this work will elicit interest among sociologists and scholars in the
related fields.
In his work on Indian History:
A study in Method, D.P. Mukherjee discusses the relevance of Marxist method to
understand history. He also emphasizes the need for philosophy and historical matrix as
essential for understanding any society. He was deeply interested in understanding the
nature and meaning of Indian social reality rooted in the Indian tradition. He was equally
interested in finding out the ways of how to change it for promoting welfare of the common
people by adapting the forces of modernity to the specificity of Indian tradition. D.P.
Mukherjee contributed the perspective of Marxian sociology in India. He was tolerant of
western ideas, concepts and analytical categories. He viewed that there is a need for an
indigenous sociology and social anthropology, but he certainly did not want to insulate
these disciplines in India from the western social traditions.
D.P. Mukherjee was a versatile scholar. He wrote nineteen books, including
Diversities (1958), ten in Bengali and nine in English. His early publications include:
• Basic Concepts in Sociology (1932)
• Personality and the Social Sciences (1924)
• Modern Indian Culture (1942, revised enlarged edition in 1946 and 1948)
• Modern Indian Culture (1942)
• Diversities (1958) are known as his best works.
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His versatilities can be seen from his other contributions such as:
• Tagore: A Study (1943)
• On Indian History: A Study in Method (1943)
• Introduction to Music (1945)
Apart from these, he also enjoys a unique place in Bengali literature as a novelist,
essayest and literary critic.
Emphasis in his works has changed through passage of time. D.P. Mukherjee was
very sensitive and was influenced by environment around him. He drew from traditional
culture as well as modern. Modern Indian Culture: A Sociological Study was first published
in 1942 and its revised edition in 1947 the year of partitioned independence. Synthesis
has been the dominant organizing principle of Indian culture. The British rule provided a
real turning point to the Indian society. The middle class helped in the consolidation of
British rule in India, but later challenged it successfully. D.P. Mukherjee’s vision of India
was a peaceful, progressive India born out of ‘union’ of diverse elements, of distinctive
regional cultures. Reorientation to tradition was an essential condition of moving forward.
D.P. Mukherjee denied that he was Marxist; he claimed to be only a ‘Marxologist’.
The strength of the Indian tradition lies in its crystallization of values emerging
from past happenings in the life-habits and emotions of men and women. In this way,
India has certainly conserved many values: some good and others bad. The point, however,
is that of utilizing the forces, which are foreign to Indian traditions, e.g., technology,
democracy, urbanization, bureaucracy, etc. D.P. Mukherjee’s most popular and significant
writings on ‘tradition and modernity’ help us in understanding the authentic measuring of
these two bipolar concepts. He argued that there is dialectical relation between India’s
tradition and modernity, British colonialism and nationalism, individualism and collectivity.
The encounter between tradition and modernity, therefore, ends up in two
consequences: (1) conflict, and (2) synthesis. Indian society, as D.P. Mukherjee envisages,
is the result of the interaction between tradition and modernity. It is this dialectics, which
helps us to analyse the Indian society. D.P. Mukherjee’s concept of tradition appeared for
the first time in the year 1942 when his book Modern Indian Culture: A Sociological
Study was published. The central thesis of the book was that the key to the history of India
was cultural synthesis - creative response to the internal and external political and cultural
challenges and that the history of India was more than its past.
D.P. Mukherjee tried to provide a classification of Indian traditions under three
heads, Viz., primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary traditions have been primordial
and authentic to Indian Society. The Secondary traditions were given second ranking,
when the Muslims arrived in the country. The tertiary traditions are from the time of the
British arrival.
D.P. Mukherjee’s sociological analysis of the Indian society has the merit of showing
that the Indian society is changing, but without much disintegration. He was, therefore,
aware that the study of the Indian social system requires a different approach to sociology
because of its tradition, its special symbols and its special patterns of economic and
technological changes in culture and symbols follows thereafter. D.P. Mukherjee observes:
“In my view, the thing changing is more real and objective than change perse.”
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D.P. Mukherjee declares that “it is not enough for the Indian sociologist to be
sociologist. He must be an Indian, that is, he is to share in the folkways, mores, customs
and traditions for the purpose of understanding this social system and what lies beneath it
and beyond it.”
D.P. Mukherjee had a great faith in Marxism. Marxism gives an idea of a desirable
higher stage in the development of human society. However, he expressed doubts about
the efficacy of the analysis of the Indian social phenomena by the Marxists. He gave three
reasons for it: (1) the Marxists would analyse everything in terms of class conflict. But, in
our society, class conflict has for a long time been covered by the caste traditions and the
new class relations have not yet sharply emerged. (2) Many of them are more or less
ignorant of the socio-economic history of India. (3) the way economic pressures work is
not that of mechanical force moving a dead matter. Traditions have great powers of
resistance.
D.P. Mukherjee was against the positivism of western social sciences. For it reduced
individuals into biological or psychological units. D.P. Mukherjee observes, “Our
conception of man is purusha and not the individual or vyakti”. The work vyakti rarely
occurs in our religious texts or in the saying of the saints. Purusha or person develops
through his co-operation with the others or around him, through his sharing of values and
interests of life with the members of his group.
The urban-industrial order, introduced by the British in India, set aside the older
institutional networks. It also discovered many traditional castes and classes. It called for
a new kind of social adaption and adjustment. In the new set-up the educated middle
classes of the urban centres of India became the focal point of the society. They came to
command the knowledge of the modern social forces, that is, science, technology,
democracy and a sense of historical development, which the west would stand for. India
can move on to the road of modernity only by adapting it to her traditions if the middle
classes re-establish their link with the masses. They should not be either apologestic for
or unnecessarily boastful of their traditions. They should try to harness its vitality for
accommodating changes required by modernity. A balance between individualisation and
association will be achieved thereby. India and the world will be enriched with the new
experience.
D.P. Mukherjee followed Marx closely in his conception of history and in his
characterization of British rule as uprooting. However he differed significantly not only
with Marx’s assessment of the positive consequence of British rule. He also differed with
regard to his negative assessment of pre-British traditions. It is important to note this
because some Marxists have claimed on their side, despite his denials that he was a Marxist;
he jestingly claimed to be only a ‘Marxologist”
D.P. Mukherjee’s arguments have been criticized. A.K.Saran has pointed out the
D.P. Mukarjee does not subject the socialist order itself to analysis and takes its benign
character on trust. He fails to realize that a technology oriented society cannot easily be
non-exploitative and not anti-man; and the traditional and the modern worldviews are
rooted in different conceptions of time. D.P. Mukarjee’s concern is seen as that of
westernized Hindu intellectual. According to T.N. Madan, there is a need to read D.P.
Mukarjee, reprint his works and examine his ideas.
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The contributions of D.P. Mukherjee are very significant in building Sociology in
India. He was deeply influenced by the Marxian thought and he firmly believed that the
Indian social reality could be properly appraised only in terms of its special traditions,
special symbols and special patterns of culture and social actions.
Check Your Progress
3. How did D.P. Mukherjee analyse Indian society using Marxist Perspective?
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4. What is the classification of traditions according to D.P. Mukherjee?
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5. According to D.P. Mukherjee what are the problems in using Marxist perspective to
study of Indian society.
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5.2.2 A.R. Desai (1915-1994)
Among Indian Sociologists one who has consistently advocated and applied
dialecticalhistorical module in his sociological studies is Akshay Ramanlal Desai. He
closely studied the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and the writings of Leon
Trotsky. He may be regarded as one of the pioneers in introducing the modern Marxist
approach to empirical investigations involving bibliographical and field research. He rejects
any interpretations of tradition with reference to religion, rituals and festivals. It is
essentially a secular phenomenon. He finds it in family, village and other social institutions.
He also does not find the origin of tradition in western culture. He considers that the
emerging contradictions in the Indian process of social transformation arise mainly from
the growing nexus among the capitalist bourgeoisie, the rural petty-bourgeoisie and a
state apparatus all drawn from similar social roots.
He is pioneer of use of Marxist perspective of Indian society. His seminal work
‘Social Background of Indian Nationalism’ generates a detailed view of Indian society by
using this perspective. This perspective was further popularized through his one of articles
‘Relevance of Marxist Perspective in Understanding of Indian Society’ in 1970s. He also
used the dialectical historical approach in understanding of Indian society. He conducted
his village studies in order to identify the contradictions present in Indian society. He also
emphasizes comparative approach in his writings. His approach witnesses a transition
from an emphasis on understanding to suggestion of alternatives. Like other Marxist
scholars, he also tried to expose the contradictions and anomalies in the process of change
in Indian society.
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A.R. Desai is one of the rare Indian sociologists who was directly involved in politics
as a formal member of political parties. A.R. Desai was a Marxist and became involved in
Marxist politics during his undergraduate days at Baroda, though he later resigned his
membership of the Communist Party of India. After his undergraduate studies in Baroda,
A.R. Desai eventually joined the Bombay Department of Sociology to study under Ghurye.
He wrote his doctoral dissertation on the "social aspects of Indian nationalism" and was
awarded the degree in 1946. His thesis was published in 1948 as The Social Background
of Indian Nationalism, which is probably his best known work. In this book, A.R. Desai
offered a Marxist analysis of Indian nationalism, which gave prominence to economic
processes and divisions, while taking account of the specific conditions of British
colonialism. Although it had its critics, this book proved to be very popular and went
through numerous reprints. Among the other themes that A.R. Desai worked on were peasant
movements and rural sociology, modernisation, urban issues, political sociology, forms of
the state and human rights. Because Marxism was not very prominent or influential within
Indian Sociology, A.R. Desai was perhaps better known outside the discipline than within
it. He received many honours and was elected President of the Indian Sociological Society.
The modern capitalist state was one of the significant themes that interested A.R.
Desai. As always, his approach to this issue was from a Marxist perspective. In an essay
called “The myth of the welfare state”, A.R. Desai provides a detailed critique of this
notion and points to it many shortcomings. After considering the prominent definitions
available in the sociological literature, A.R. Desai identifies the following unique features
of the welfare state:
(i) A welfare state is a positive state. This means that, unlike the ‘laissez faire’ of
classical liberal political theory, the welfare state does not seek to do only the
minimum necessary to maintain law and order. The welfare state is an interventionist
state and actively uses its considerable powers to design and implement social
policies for the betterment of society.
(ii) The welfare state is a democratic state. Democracy was considered an essential
condition for the emergence of the welfare state. Formal democratic institutions,
especially multi-party elections, were thought to be a defining feature of the welfare
state. This is why liberal thinkers excluded socialist and communist states from this
definition.
(iii) A welfare state involves a mixed economy. A ‘mixed economy’ means an economy
where both private capitalist enterprises and state or publicly owned enterprises
coexist. A welfare state does not seek to eliminate the capitalist market, nor does it
prevent public investment in industry and other fields. By and large, the state sector
concentrates on basic goods and social infrastructure, while private industry
dominates the consumer goods sector.
A.R. Desai then goes on to suggest some test criteria against which the performance of the
welfare state can be measured. These are:
(i) Does the welfare state ensure freedom from poverty, social discrimination and
security for all its citizens?
(ii) Does the welfare state remove inequalities of income through measures to redistribute
income from the rich to the poor, and by preventing the concentration of wealth?
(iii) Does the welfare state transform the economy in such a way that the capitalist profit
motive is made subservient to the real needs of the community?
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iv) Does the welfare state ensure stable development free from the cycle of economic
booms and depressions?
v) Does it provide employment for all?
Using these criteria, A.R. Desai examines the performance of those states that are
most often described as welfare states, such as Britain, the USA and much of Europe, and
finds their claims to be greatly exaggerated. Thus, most modern capitalist states, even in
the most developed countries, fail to provide minimum levels of economic and social
security to all their citizens. They are unable to reduce economic inequality and often
seem to encourage it. The so-called welfare states have also been unsuccessful at enabling
stable development free from market fluctuations. The presence of excess economic
capacity and high levels of unemployment are yet another failure. Based on these arguments,
A.R. Desai concludes that the notion of the welfare state is something of a myth. A.R.
Desai also wrote on the Marxist theory of the state. In these writings we can see that A.R.
Desai does not take a one-sided view but openly criticizes the shortcomings of Communist
states. He cites many Marxist thinkers to emphasize the importance of democracy even
under communism, arguing strongly that political liberties and the rule of law must be
upheld in all genuinely socialist states.
The prominent writings of A.R. Desai are:
• The Social Background of Indian Nationalism (1948)
• Currently operating (1973)
• Immanent features of Indian nationalism (1975)
• The issue and problems of Rural Sociology in India (1969)
• Slums and Urbanization of India (1970, 1972)
• The implications of the modernization of Indian society in the world context (1971)
• State and Society in India (1975)
• Peasant Struggle in India (1979)
• Rural India in Transition (1979)
• India’s Path of Development (1984)
A.R. Desai also developed the field of Political Sociology in 1960s. In an anthology,
A.R. Desai (1979) included the studies on peasant struggles, which have also been carried
out by historians and social scientists of diverse orientations.
Like D.P. Mukherjee, A.R. Desai studied Indian society from Marxian perspective
and also used history fruitfully. The important contributions of A.R. Desai on major themes
are villages structure, transformation of Indian society, social background of Indian
nationalism, peasant struggles, state and society
It is viewed that Indian village was a self-sufficient unit in Pre-British period. The
village population was mainly composed of peasants. The peasant families enjoyed
traditional hereditary right to possess and cultivate his holding from generation to
generation. Therefore, village was based on agriculture carried on with the primitive plough
and bullock-power and handicraft by means of the primitive equipment. The culture of
Pre-British India was feudal in nature, which was predominantly mystical in character.
This was due to the fact that the society was economically on a low level, stationary and
socially rigid. Whatever changes occurred was quantitative and not qualitative in character.
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The transformation of the Pre-British India from feudal economy to capitalist
economy was a result of the British conquest of India. The British government adopted
the capitalist path of development in their political and economic policies at three levels,
Viz., trade, industry and finance.
The introduction of new economic reforms of the British government disrupted the
old economic system. Consequently, it decayed the old land relations and artisans with
the emergence of new land relations and modern industries. In place of village community
appeared modern peasant proprietors or zamindars, as private owner of land. The class of
artisans disappeared with modern industry. New classes like the capitalist, industrial
workers, agricultural labourers, tenants, merchants etc. emerged, thus, the British impact
not only led to the transformation of the economic anatomy of Indian society, but also its
social physiology. Further, the new land revenue system, commercialization of agriculture,
fragmentation of land etc. also led to the transformation of Indian village. The British
government also introduced railways, postal services, centralized uniform law, english
education, modern industry and many more, which brought qualitative change in Indian
society. It is said that although the British government had various exploitative mechanisms
in India, but unintentionally these efforts led to unification of Indian society. The role of
railways and press is significant in this direction. It has brought the scattered and
disintegrated Indians into the mainstream. The implication was social movements, collective
representations, national sentiments, and consciousness among Indian people and formation
of unionism at various levels. Such a social infrastructural set-up gave rise to nationalist
freedom movement and awakening of Indian nationalism.
A.R. Desai applies the Marxist approach to the study of ‘Nationalism’ in India during
the British rule. He spells out historical dialectical materialism and applies it to the study
of various types of movements rural and urban, caste and class structure, social mobility,
education and other aspects of Indian society. Though A.R. Desai’s book was published in
1948, it became more popular in the late sixties and the seventies perhaps due to the
increased consciousness of Indian social scientists towards social self-consciousness. A.R.
Desai’s first full-length work The Social Background of Indian Nationalism was a
trendsetter not only for its Marxist academic orientation, but also for the way in which it
cross-fertilized sociology with history.
According to A.R. Desai, India’s nationalism is the result of the material conditions
created by the British colonialism. A.R. Desai thinks that when traditions are linked with
economic relations, the change in the latter would eventually change the traditions. It is in
this context that he thinks that caste will disintegrate with the creation of new social and
material conditions, such as industries, economic growth, education, etc.
A.R. Desai’s works include a number of edited volumes on rural sociology,
urbanization, labour movements, peasant struggles, modernization, religion, and democratic
rights. They are a rich source of reference material for students, researchers and activists.
In his two volumes entitled Peasant Struggles in India (1979) and Agrarian Struggles
in India after Independence (1986), A.R. Desai has compiled excellent material on peasant
struggles in India during colonial rule and after independence. The difference in the
character of struggles then and now is highlighted. Agrarian struggles, at present, A.R.
Desai suggests, are waged by the newly emerged propertied classes as well as the agrarian
poor, especially the agrarian proletariat, whereas the former fight for a greater share in the
fruits of development.
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In many of his later works he pursued the theme of the repressive role of the state
and the growing resistance to it. In violation of democratic Rights in India (1986),
Repression and Resistance in India (1990), Expanding governmental Lawlessness and
Organized Struggles (1991) and State and Repressive Culture (1994), jointly with Wilfred
D’Costa, he highlights the violation of the democratic rights of minorities, women, slum
dwellers in urban India, press and other media by the state. According to Desai, the
polarization of class interest, especially of the bourgeoisie, is the foundation of modern
society in India. It has thus inherent in it the class contradictions and the logic of its
dialectics. This has been thoroughly exposed by A.R. Desai in his several writings.
In his presidential address to the XV All India Sociological Conference, A.R. Desai
narrates about twenty seven points referring to the assessment of Indian sociology. He
finds that the dominant sociological approaches in India are basically non-Marxist, and
the Marxist approach has been rejected on the pretext of its being rigid, value-loaded and
deterministic in nature. The relevant approach, according to A.R. Desai is the Marxist
approach as it could help the study of government policies, the classes entrenched into
state apparatus and India’s political economy.
A.R. Desai argues that property relations are crucial because they shape the purpose,
nature, control, direction and objectives underlying the production. Further, property
relations determine the norms about who shall get how much and on what grounds. For
understanding the post-independence Indian society, the Marxist approach will focus on
the specific type of property relations, which existed on the eve of independence and
which are being elaborated by the state as the active agent of transformation both in terms
of elaborating legal-normative notions as well as working out actual policies pursued for
development and transformation of Indian society into a prosperous developed one.
Check Your Progress

6. What are the unique features of Welfare state as proposed by A.R.Desai?
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7. According to Desai, why are property relations important in Marxist Perspective.
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5.3. SUMMARY
Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different
perspectives. From concrete interpretations to sweeping generalizations of society and
social behaviour, sociologists study everything from specific events (the micro level of
analysis of small social patterns) to the “big picture” (the macro level of analysis of large
social patterns).
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The Marxist approach which is a macro approach in sociology in India gained
prominence as Marxist sociologists became critical of structural-functionalism and the
kind of research it emanated. They felt there was an overemphasis on the role of traditional
factors as caste, kinship and religion, which underplayed the role of class, and focus of
change and contradictions in the society.
5.4. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-MODEL ANSWERS

1. Marxist perspective attempts to understand the society in following ways:
I. Marxists approach understands society in terms of a process of historical developments
in dialectical materialistic terms. For example, A R Desai in his book ‘Social Background
of Indian Nationalism, 1946’ takes historic materialistic view and understands the process
of historical change in Indian society in terms of changing economic activities.
II. The social structure and institutions are seen as rooted in productive relations.
III. While understanding society, primacy is given to economic infrastructure; culture is
seen as rooted in economic infrastructure.
IV. Society is seen in systemic terms conforming to model of economic interpretation of
superstructure. For example Marxist village studies emphasize more on understanding of
socio-political setup on the basis of network relations woven around land.
V. Indian society is studied in terms of conflict and social institutions are seen as exploitative
and existing for the benefit of the few.
2. The study of Indian social reality from the Marxian perspective has been conducted by
scholars such as, M.N. Dutta, S.A. Dange, D.D. Kosambi, A.R. Desai, D.P. Mukherjee,
P.C. Joshi, R.S. Sharma, Irfan Habib, D.P. Chattopadhyay and others. Among the early
sociologist who emphasized the significance of the dialectical model were D.P. Mukherjee,
A.R. Desai and Ramkrishna Mukherjee.
3. D.P. Mukherjee was a Marxist but preferred to call him a Marxiologist, i.e., a social
scientist of Marxism. He analysed Indian society from Marxian perspective of dialectical
materialism. Dialectical materialism is a strand of Marxism, synthesizing Hegel’s dialectics,
which proposes that every economic order grows to a state of maximum efficiency, while
simultaneously developing internal contradictions and weaknesses that contribute to its
systemic decay.
4. D.P. Mukherjee tried to provide a classification of Indian traditions under three heads,
Viz., primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary traditions have been primordial and
authentic to Indian Society. The Secondary traditions were given second ranking, when
the Muslims arrived in the country. The tertiary traditions are from the time of the British
arrival.
5. D.P. Mukherjee expressed doubts about the efficacy of the analysis of the Indian social
phenomena by the Marxists. He gave three reasons for it: (1) the Marxists would analyse
everything in terms of class conflict. But, in our society, class conflict has for a long time
been covered by the caste traditions and the new class relations have not yet sharply
emerged. (2) Many of them are more or less ignorant of the socio-economic history of
India. (3) the way economic pressures work is not that of mechanical force moving a dead
matter. Traditions have great powers of resistance.
6. Desai identifies the following unique features of the welfare state:
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(i) A welfare state is a positive state. The welfare state is an interventionist state and
actively uses its considerable powers to design and implement social policies for the
betterment of society.
(ii) The welfare state is a democratic state. Democracy was considered an essential
condition for the emergence of the welfare state.
(iii) A welfare state involves a mixed economy. A ‘mixed economy’ means an economy
where both private capitalist enterprises and state or publicly owned enterprises co-exist.
However he points that welfare state has also been unsuccessful at enabling stable
development free from market fluctuations.
7. Desai argues that property relations are crucial because they shape the purpose, nature,
control, direction and objectives underlying the production. Further, property relations
determine the norms about who shall get how much and on what grounds. For understanding
the post-independence Indian society, the Marxist approach will focus on the specific
type of property relations, which existed on the eve of independence and which are being
elaborated by the state as the active agent of transformation both in terms of elaborating
legal-normative notions as well as working out actual policies pursued for development
and transformation of Indian society into a prosperous developed one.

1. Explain about Marxist Perspective for the study of Indian society.
2. Describe the contributions of D.P. Mukherjee and A.R. Desai to understand Indian
society.
1. Highlight the important works of D.P. Mukherjee.
2. Briefly write about the works of A.R. Desai.
5.6 GLOSSARY
Perspective : A perspective is a way in which social facts, social phenomenon or social
behaviors etc. is viewed.
Marxist Perspective : It is a macro perspective which emphasizes the idea that social life
is based upon “conflicts of interest”.
Dialectical Materialism : Dialectical materialism is a strand of Marxism, synthesizing
Hegel’s dialectics, which proposes that every economic order grows to a state of maximum
efficiency, while simultaneously developing internal contradictions and weaknesses that
contribute to its systemic decay.

1. Madan, T.N. : Pathways: Approaches to the Study of Society in India (1994)
2. Mukherjee, D.P. : Diversities (1958)
3. Nagla, B.K. : Indian Sociological Thought (2008)
4. Saxena, R.N. : Sociology in India (1965)
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UNIT-6 : SUBALTERN PERSPECTIVE:
JYOTHI RAO PHULE,
Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR, DAVID HARDIMAN
Contents
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Subaltern Perspective
6.2.1 Jyothi Rao Phule
6.2.2 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
6.2.3 David Hardiman
6.3 Summary
6.6 Glossary
6.0 OBJECTIVES
• The Subaltern Perspective with regard to Indian society.
• Contributions of Jyothi Rao Phule, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and David Hardiman.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The word ‘subaltern’ is the general characteristic of subordination, which is expressed
in terms of a caste, class, age, gender, office or any other way. It includes the characteristics
of defiance (disobedience) and submission. Thus, in literal sense, it conveys ‘view from
below’, i.e., a view or understanding from the bottom of society or the flow of knowledge
from below.
‘Subaltern’, meaning ‘of inferior rank’ is a term adopted by Antonio Gramsci (1891-
1937), an Italian Marxist and Communist Party Leader. It refers to those groups in society
who are subject to the hegemony (domination) of the ruling classes. A subaltern is someone
with a low ranking in a social, political, or other hierarchy. It can also mean someone who
has been marginalised or oppressed. From the Latin roots sub-‘‘below”, and alternus “all
others”, subaltern is used to describe someone of a low rank (as in the military) or class
(as in a caste system). Subalterns occupy entry-level jobs or occupy a lower rank of the
“corporate ladder.” But the term is also used to describe someone who has no political or
economic power, such as a poor person living under a dictatorship. Different kinds of
synonyms are used for the word ‘Subaltern’ likes: common people, lower-class,
underprivileged, exploited, inferiors, minors, weak etc.
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6.2 SUBALTERN PERSPECTIVE
Subaltern perspective brought new genre to the analysis of Indian nationalism. This
school of thought adopted the “history from below” approach (like European Marxist
scholars) for the analysis of Indian nationalism. Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937) who
popularised the term subaltern was imprisoned for a long time by Mussolini’s police (from
1926) until his death at age 46. In prison, he wrote notebooks on politics and history and
philosophy. He declared that the subaltern was the subjected underclass in a society on
whom the dominant power exerts its dominating influence. Gramsci used the word
‘Subaltern’ for the “subordinate class in terms of class, gender, race, language and culture.”
It can also be viewed within the frame of composite and integral world view and life
ways. In this frame one can observe the possible clash between self and society, unity and
diversity and holistic understanding and individuality.
Ranjit Guha is considered as the founder of the subaltern studies in India. The trend
of ‘Subaltern studies’ prevailed in India, in the last twenty years of the 20th century. This
new trend gave a way to new challenges by crossing the traditional writing of history. It
provided a new direction and helped to begin a new chapter. Indian point of view of
Subaltern history is similar to the trend of writing in England, which became famous as
‘History from Below’. The ‘Centre of South Asian Cultural Studies’ was established with
the assumption without knowing the work of downtrodden people, it is not possible to
obtain the true sight of the contemporary history.
It is an important approach to the study of tribal peasant movement. This perspective
seeks to restore a balance by highlighting the role of politics of the ‘masses’ as against the
elite politics. The whole thrust of subaltern perspective is on reconstructing the other
history, i.e., the history of people’s politics and movement and their attempt to make their
own history. This perspective emphasizes not to view peasant or tribal insurgents merely
as ‘object’ of history but to treat them as makers of their own history endowed with a
transformative consciousness of their own. The important proponents of this perspective
in India are David Hardiman, B.R. Ambedkar, Ranjit Guha, Kapil Kumar and others.
These subalternists claim that the voices of the weak were suppressed in
understanding Indian history. Subalternists focused their attention on the circle of elite
politics. They have emphasized the revolutionary activities and potential of the ‘subaltern’
classes (artisans, poor peasants, landless labourers, tribals etc.)
Check Your Progress
1. What do you mean by Subaltern Perspective?
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6.2.1 Jyothi Rao Phule
Jyothi Rao Phule (Jyothiba) born on 11th April, 1827 in Katgun, a village in Satara
district of Maharashtra was a prominent social reformer and thinker of the nineteenth
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century India. He led the movement against the prevailing caste-restrictions in India. He
revolted against the domination of the Brahmins and struggled for the rights of peasants
and other lower caste people. Mahatma Jyothiba Phule was also a pioneer for women
education in India and fought for education of girls throughout his life. He is believed to
be the first Hindu to start an orphanage for the unfortunate children.
Jyothi Rao was an intelligent boy but due to the poor financial condition at home,
he had to stop his studies at an early age. He started helping his father by working on the
family’s farm. Recognizing the talent of the child prodigy, a neighbor persuaded his father
to send him to school. In 1841, Jyothi Rao got admission in the Scottish Mission’s High
School, Poona, and completed his education in 1847. There, he met Sadashiv Ballal
Govande, a Brahmin, who remained his close friend throughout his life. At the age of just
thirteen years, Jyothi Rao was married to Savitribai. Phule was strongly influenced by his
teachers and his reading of Thomas Paine’s -The Rights of Man.
In 1848, an incident sparked off Jyothiba’s quest against the social injustice of caste
discrimination and incited a social revolution in the Indian society. Jyothi Rao was invited
to attend the wedding of one of his friends who belonged to an upper caste Brahmin
family. But at the wedding the relatives of the bridegroom insulted and abused Jyothiba
when they came to know about his origins. Jyothi Rao left the ceremony and made up his
mind to challenge the prevailing caste system and social restrictions. He made it his life’s
work to hammer away tirelessly at the helms of social majoritarian domination and aimed
at emancipation of all human beings that were subjected to this social deprivation. He was
the first to publish critiques in his mother tongue Marathi of the ways in which the powerful
Peshwas of Maharashtra oppressed and exploited in every way the common hardworking
peasants and workers of the country. He taught his wife to read, trained her to teach, and
eventually the couple started a number of schools for girls, ran an orphanage, organized
the first civil marriage in the country, and set up a discussion group called the Satya
Shodhak Samaj, with the objective of interrogating the unjust practices of the day.
Satya Shodhak Samaj
On 24th September 1873, Jyothi Rao Phule formed Satya Shodhak Samaj (Society
of Seekers of Truth) with the objective of liberating the Sudras to prevent their
“exploitation” by Brahmins. He was the first president and treasurer of Satya Shodhak
Samaj. He undertook a systematic deconstruction of existing beliefs and history, only to
reconstruct an equality promoting version. Jyothi Rao vehemently condemned the Vedas,
the ancient holy scriptures of the Hindus. He traced the history of Brahmanism through
several other ancient texts and held the Brahmins responsible for framing the exploitative
and inhuman laws in order to maintain their social superiority by suppressing the “shudras”
and “atishudras” in the society. The purpose of the Satya Shodhak Samaj was to
decontaminate the society from caste discrimination and liberate the oppressed lower-
caste people from the stigmas inflicted by the Brahmins. Jyothi Rao Phule was the first
person to coin the term ‘Dalits’ to apply to all people considered lower caste and
untouchables by the Brahmins. Membership to the Samaj was open to all irrespective of
caste and class. Some written records suggest that they even welcomed participation of
Jews as members of the Samaj and by 1876 the ‘Satya Shodhak Samaj’ had about 316
members. In 1868, Jyothi Rao decided to construct a common bathing tank outside his
house to exhibit his embracing attitude towards all human beings and wished to dine with
everyone, regardless of their caste.
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Fighting Caste Discrimination
Phule, through the organization refused to regard the Vedas as sacrosanct. He also
opposed the idea and even rejected the Caste system. This organization also propounded
the spread of rational thinking and refused the need for Brahmin priestly class as educational
and religious leaders. He was also against those particular Brahmins who were using
religion and blind faith of masses for their own monetary gains.
Jyothi Rao attacked the orthodox Brahmins and other upper castes and termed them
as “hypocrites”. He campaigned against the authoritarianism of the upper caste people
and urged the “peasants” and “proletariat” to defy the restrictions imposed upon them. He
opened his home to people from all castes and backgrounds. He was a believer in gender
equality and he exemplified his beliefs by involving his wife in all his social reform
activities. He believed that religious icons like Rama are implemented by the Brahmin as
a means for subjugating the lower caste.
The orthodox Brahmins of the society were furious at the activities of Jyothi Rao.
They blamed him for vitiating the norms and regulations of the society. Many accused
him of acting on behalf of the Christian Missionaries. But Jyothi Rao was firm and decided
to continue the movement. Interestingly, Jyothi Rao was supported by some Brahmin friends
who extended their support to make the movement successful.
Women’s Education and Emancipation
After educating his wife, Jyothi Rao Phule opened a school for girls in India in
August 1948. This was actually the second school for girls in India. He supported widow
remarriage and started a home for upper caste widows in 1854. In the same year, he also
started a home for new-born infants to prevent female infanticide. Jyothi Rao Phule had
devoted his 40 years of life to social service fighting for the rights of the ‘bahujans’. To
mark this accomplishment, the bahujans, Satyashodhak leaders and workers decided to
felicitate Jyothi Rao Phule. Hence on 11th May 1888, he was honoured with the title of
‘Mahatma’ by another social reformer from Mumbai, Rao Bahadur Vithalrao Krishnaji
Vandekar.
Jyothiba’s quest for providing women and girls with right to education was supported
by his wife Savitribai Phule. One of the few literate women of the time, Savitribai was
taught to read and write by her husband Jyothi Rao. In 1851, Jyothiba established a girls’
school and asked his wife to teach the girls in the school. Later, he opened two more
schools for the girls and an indigenous school for the lower castes, especially for the
Mahars and Mangs. Jyothiba realised the pathetic conditions of widows and established
an ashram for young widows and eventually became advocate of the idea of Widow
Remarriage.
Around his time, society was a patriarchal and the position of women was especially
abysmal. Female infanticide was a common occurrence and so was child marriage, with
children sometimes being married to men much older. These women often became widows
before they even hit puberty and were left without any family support. Jyothiba was pained
by their plight and established an orphanage in 1854 to shelter these unfortunate souls
from perishing at the society’s cruel hands.
Some of the notable published works of Jyothi Rao Phule include Powada: Chatrapati
Shivajiraje BhosleYancha (1869); Shetkarayacha Aasud (1881); Tritiya Ratna (1855);
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BrahmanancheKasab; Gulamgiri; Ishara; Gramjoshyasam bhandijahirkabhar; Akhandadi
Kavyarachana, etc. He wrote dramas like ‘Satsar’ Ank 1 and 2, which were enacted under
his directives to spread awareness against social injustice. He also wrote books for the
Satyashodhak Samaj that dealt with history of Brahminism and outlined Puja protocols
that the lower caste people were not allowed to learn.
Jyothiba Phule devoted his entire life for the liberation of untouchables from
exploitation. Apart from being a social activist and reformer, he was also a businessman.
He was also a cultivator and contractor for the Municipal Corporation. He served as
Commissioner of the Poona Municipality between 1876 and 1883. Jyothiba suffered a
stroke in 1888 and was rendered paralyzed. On 28 November, 1890, the great social
reformer, Mahatma Jyothi Rao Phule, passed away.
Perhaps the biggest legacy of Mahatma Jyothi Rao Phule is the thought behind his
perpetual fight against social stigma that are enormously relevant still. In the nineteenth
century, people were used to accepting these discriminatory practices as social norm that
needed to be enforced without question but Jyothiba sought to change this discrimination
based on caste, class and colour. He was the harbinger of unheard ideas for social reforms.
He started awareness campaigns that ultimately inspired the likes of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
and Mahatma Gandhi, stalwarts who undertook major initiatives against caste
discrimination later.
A biography of Jyothiba was penned by DhananjayKeer in 1974 titled, ‘Mahatma
Jyothibha Phule: Father of Our Social Revolution’. The Mahatma Phule Museum in Pune
was set-up in honour of the great reformer. The Government of Maharashtra introduced
the Mahatma Jyothiba Phule Jeevandayeeni Yojana which is a cashless treatment scheme
for poor. A number of statues of the Mahatma have been erected as well as several street
names and educational institutes have been rechristened with his name-eg. Crawford Market
in Mumbai is rechristened as Mahatma Jyothiba Phule Mandai and the Maharashtra
KrishiVidyapeeth at Rahuri, Maharshtra was renamed Mahatma Phule KrishiVidyapeeth.
Check Your Progress
2. Write about Satya Shodhak Samaj.
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3. What was the contribution of Phule for women’s education?
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6.2.2 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Dr.Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, Father of Indian Constitution was born on 14th April,
1891 in a small town at Mhow near Indore in Mahar caste, which was considered as
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untouchable caste in Maharashtra. His father was Ramji Sakpal, who was the follower of
Saint Kabir. Ambedkar adopted Buddhism along with 5 lakh people in a historical
congregation on 14th October, 1956 at Nagpur.
He was the first Indian among backward castes who went abroad for higher education.
He got Ph.D in 1917 from Columbia. In 1916, after submission of his Ph.D thesis, he went
to London for the study of law and also took admission in London School of Economics
and Political Science for the study of Economics. In 1921, he got the degree of Master of
Science and also Ph.D on his thesis entitled, “The Problem of the Rupee” from London
University. Simultaneously, he did Law. In 1923, Ambedkar started his law practice and
also devoted himself for the upliftment of Dalits (depressed class) and poor. In 1930, he
became the president of the All India Depressed Class Association. In 1936, he formed an
Independent Labour Party, which later on turned into All India Scheduled Castes Federation.
Writings of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar:
1. The Untouchables, Who are they?
2. Who were the Shudra?
3. States and Minorities
4. Emancipation of the Untouchables
5. Annihilation of Caste
He wanted to liberate the Dalits by building an egalitarian social order. He believed
this was not possible within the fold of Hinduism whose very structures were hierarchical
which lowered the Dalits to the bottom. He asserted that the Dalits should come forward
and assert for their own cause. He gave them a mantra – educate, organize and agitate.
With the advent of Ambedkar into the Indian political arena during 1920s, the issue
of social reforms achieved a new dimension. He was of the opinion that until and unless
the downtrodden themselves came forward to fight their battle, no one else could alleviate
their grievances. No one else could know better than them about their own state of affairs.
The involvement of Ambedkar in the field of politics, created the new dimensions
for social reforms. According to him unless and until the downtrodden do not fight for
their rights and for themselves then no one could bring them out of their problems. Self-
awakening, is the best way to remove the evils in society. Ambedkar in his subaltern
approach used to preach that liberty cannot be received as a gift rather it has to be fought
for. Self-elevation is not achieved by the blessings of others but only by one’s own struggle
and deed. Ambedkar provided the mission and vision to the people who were lacking the
courage within themselves.
Hindu Religion and Caste System
According to Ambedkar in Hindu religion the Vedas, smritis and shastras were used
as a tool to inflict severe punishment against the dalits or untouchables. So he viewed that
these Vedas, smritis and shastras are just a system of rule, which deprived the untouchables
from their basic needs and creates the discrimination in the society.
One of the Ambedkar’s most important arguments against Hinduism was that caste
and untouchability did not let Hindus act as a community. There is an emphasis on moral
order. He rarely gave a deductive picture of religions but went into the sociological moorings
that threw up a diversity of beliefs and practices.
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Ambedkar undertook different types of studies, some involving the collection of
sizeable data and the other processing such as the election studies of 1937 and 1945,
focusing on the constituencies reserved for Scheduled Castes. He undertook several case
studies, often to drive home a point better.
There are studies such as ‘Who were the Shudras?’(1949) in which Ambedkar citing
Rigveda, Mahabharata and other ancient Vedic scriptures, estimates the Shudras were
originally Aryans. They were a part of the Kshatriya Varna belonging to the Solar race
(Suryavansha).
Ambedkar writes in the preface of the book, undoubtedly the conclusions which I
have reached as a result of my investigations. Two questions are raised in this book: (1)
Who were the Shudras? and (2) How they came to be the fourth Varna of the Indo-Aryan
society? My answers to them are summarised below.
1 The Shudras were one of the Aryan communities of the solar race.
2. There was a time when the Aryan society recognised only three Varnas, namely.
Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.
3. The Kshatriyas (Shudras) did not form a separate Varna. They ranked as part of the
Kshatriya Varna in the Indo-Aryan society.
4. There was a continuous feud between them. Kshatriyas kings (Shudra kings) and the
Brahmins in which the Brahmins were subjected to many tyrannies and indignities.
5. As a result of the hatred towards the Shudras kings (Kshatriyas kings) generated by
their tyrannies and oppressions, the Brahmins refused to perform the Upanayana of
the Kshatriyas kings (Shudras).
6. Owing to the denial of Upanayana, the Shudras who were Kshatriyas kings became
socially degraded, fell below the rank of the Vaishyas and thus came to form the
fourth Varna.”
The book delves into texts but propose an alternative thesis because the existing
explanations of these texts do not account for certain known details or passages.
Studies, such as The Untouchables (1948) state that the untouchability originated in
the practices of separation and denigration imposed on those who remained Buddhists
during an earlier period of renascent Hinduism. Despite the repressive role attributed to
Hindus, Ambedkar’s attitude toward Hinduism remained ambivalent for much of his life.
From 1927 to 1935 Ambedkar helped organize campaigns to force the opening of Hindu
temples to untouchables. This also proved to be ineffective and in 1935 Ambedkar decided
to reject all claims to Hinduism and to convert to Buddhism.
Ambedkar found that the Hindu scriptures do not lend themselves to a unified and
coherent understanding. There are strong contentions built into them within and across
trends and traditions. There are cleavages within the Vedas; the Upanishadic thought is in
contentions with the Vedic thought. Ambedkar repeatedly asserted that Buddha has a social
message. Further, he constructed Buddhism in opposition to Hinduism arguing that if
there are some traces of Hinduism in Buddhism, they could be attributed to Brahminical
interpolations. Ambedkar also upheld the superiority of Buddhism over other religions,
particularly Islam and Christianity.
Ambedkar understands of caste and the caste system underwent certain significant
changes over the period of his writings. Initially, he had argued that the characteristic of
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caste was endogamy, super-imposed by exogamy in a shared cultural ambience. He
suggested that evils such as sati, child marriage and prohibition on widow remarriage
were the outcome of caste. Further, if a caste closed its boundaries; other castes were also
forced to follow the suit. The Brahmins closing themselves socially first gave rise to the
system of castes. Ambedkar continued to emphasize the endogamous characteristic of
caste but roped in other features such as the division of labour, absence of inter-dinning
and the principle of birth, which he had earlier largely absorbed within endogamy.
He also found that the caste name is an important feature, which keeps inequality in
the normative anchor of the caste system. Graded inequality restricts the reach of equality
to members of the caste at the most. Ambedkar thought that caste is an essential feature of
the Hindu religion.
For Ambedkar, literature, which legitimized and instituted the counter-revolution,
was Smriti literature in general and Manusmriti in particular. It gave birth to the principle
of assigning human beings to social roles, reduced the Shudra to servitude and condemned
women to ignominy (humiliation and dishonor).
Although a few reformers may have denounced it, for the vast majority of Hindus
breaking the codes of caste in a clear violation of deeply held religious beliefs. He found
Gandhi subscribing to caste initially and later opposing it but upholding Varna instead.
Gandhi’s conception of Varna is the same as that of caste that is, assigning social agents
on the basis of birth, rather than worth. It led to upholding graded inequality and the
denial of freedom and equality, social relations that cannot beget community bonds. The
solution that Ambedkar proposed was the annihilation (eradication) of caste. He suggested
inter-caste marriage and inter-dinning for the purpose although the latter by it is too weak
to forge any enduring bonds.
Further, he felt that hereditary priesthood should go and it should remain open to all
the co-religionists endowed with appropriate qualifications as certified by the state.
Ambedkar, however, felt that these suggestions would not be acceptable to Hindus. After
the early 1930s he gave up any hope of reforming Hinduism except for a belief while with
the Hindu Code Bill which was, in a way, the continuation of the agenda he had set for
himself in the 1920s.
Indian Nationalism
Another major aspect of Ambedkar’s subaltern approach is the formulation of Indian
nationalism. It included the national perception and aspirations of the downtrodden.
Ambedkar’s alternative form of nationalism, in opposition to the dominant discourse of
Hindu nationalism as represented by Raja Rammohan Roy, B.G. Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi,
Jawahar Lal Nehru and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee on the one hand. On the other hand
was Communist-secular-socialist nationalism represented by M.N. Roy, R.P. Duta, T. Nagi
Reddy and E.M.S. Namboodri on the other, are not only distinct but are also original.
Therefore, Ambedkar’s ‘Dalit-Bahujan-Samaj’ formed an anti-hindu and anti-brahminical
discourse of Indian nationalism. The main aim of this nationalism was to form a casteless
and classless society where there will be no discrimination on the basis of birth and
occupation.
Ambedkar on Buddhism and Marxism
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar showed an extraordinary interest in Marxism, particularly in the
1950s. All his major writings during this period, viz., Buddha and the Future of his Religion,
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The Buddha and his Dhamma and Buddha and Karl Marx, refer to Marx as the central
figure. He identified certain crucial areas on which he agreed with Karl Marx: the task of
philosophy is to transform the world; there is conflict between class and class; private
ownership of property begets sorrow and exploitation; and good society requires that private
property be collectivized.
He found that on all these four issues Buddha and Marx are similar. He, however,
rejected the inevitability of socialism, the economic interpretation of history, the thesis on
the pauperization of the proletariat, dictatorship of the proletariat, withering away of the
state and the strategy of violence as a means of seize power. He felt that the Buddhism,
which called for self-control and a moral foundation for society, could provide the missing
dimensions for a socialist project and for the purpose, called for a dialogue between
Marxism and Buddhism.
A large part of Ambedkar’s writings had a direct bearing on Hinduism, most of
which remained unpublished and in the initial draft form during his lifetime. In these
studies, which he undertook mainly from the second half of the 1940s, Ambedkar argued
that Buddhism, which attempted to found society on the basis of reason and morality, was
a major revolution, both social and ideological, against the degeneration of the Aryan
society.
It condemned the Varna system and gave hope to the poor, the exploited and the
women. It rallied against sacrifices, priestcraft and superstition. The Buddhist Sangha
became the platform for the movement towards empowering and ennobling the common
man.
Ambedkar on Untouchability
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s engagement with untouchability, as a researcher, intellectual
and activist, is much more nuanced, hesitant but intimate as compared to his viewpoint on
caste, where he is prepared to offer stronger judgments and solutions. However, with
untouchability, there is often a failure of words. Grief is merged with anger.
He often exclaims how an institution of this kind has been tolerated and even
defended. He evinces deep suspicions about the bonafides of others in terms of their
engagement with it. He distinguished the institution of untouchability from that of caste,
though the former is reinforced by the latter, and Brahminism constituted the enemy of
both. He felt that it was difficult for outsiders to understand the phenomena. He thought
human sympathy would be forthcoming towards alleviating the plight of the untouchables,
but at the same time anticipated hurdles to be crossed made of age-old prejudices, interests,
religious retribution, the burden of the social pyramid above and the feeble resources that
the untouchables could muster.
He found that the colonial administration did little to ameliorate the lot of the
untouchables. He argued that the track-record of Islam and Christianity, in this regard, is
not praiseworthy either, although they may not subscribe to untouchability as integral to
their religious beliefs.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar felt that untouchables have to fight their own battle and if others
are concerned about them, then, such a concern has to be expressed in helping them to
fight rather than prescribing solutions to them. He discussed attempts to deny the existence
of untouchables and to reduce the proportion of their population in order to deny them
adequate political presence.
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He resorted to comparison with what he called the parallel cases, such as the treatment
meted out to slaves and Jews but found the lot of the untouchables worse than theirs. He
argued that in spite of differences and cleavages, all untouchables share common
disadvantages and treatment from caste Hindus: they live in ghettos; they were universally
despised and kept outside the fold. He maintained a detailed account of the course of the
movement of the untouchables, although this was much more specific about the movement
in the Bombay Presidency. He disagreed with the Gandhian approach to remove
untouchability and termed it as a mere facade aimed at buying over the untouchables with
kindness.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar rarely went into the question of the origin of untouchability in
history. He rebutted the suggestion that race has anything to do with it, and did not subscribe
to the position that caste has its basis in race either. However, in one instance, he proposed
a very imaginative thesis that untouchables were broken men living on the outskirts of
village communities who, due to their refusal to give up Buddhism and beef-eating, came
to be condemned as untouchables.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was fighting for the recognition that untouchables were a separate
element in India and, therefore, should be constitutionally evolved with appropriate
safeguards. While the colonial administration and Gandhian leadership was prepared to
recognize only the Muslims and Sikhs as distinct communities.
As in the case of the untouchables, Ambedkar attempted to construct a separate
identity of Shudras as well and this too during the second half of the 1940s. He identified
himself with the non-Brahmins and attempted to build a non-Aryan Naga identity ascribing
to it the signal achievements of Indian civilization. He also proposed to write on the clash
of the Aryans and the Nagas much more elaborately than he was to do. However, his
exploration of the Naga identity remained quite thin. Ambedkar said that both Nagas and
Dravidas are the one and the same people. They are only two different names for the same
people. Nagas was a racial or cultural name and Dravida was their linguistic name.
Constitutional Democracy
The major area of Ambedkar’s work was on constitutional democracy. He was a key
player in the constitutional developments of India from the mid-1920s and on certain
issues such as Uniform Civil Code he was to anticipate some of the major issues that have
been the topics of debate in India. Ambedkar evolved certain basic principles of
constitutionalism for a complex polity like India but argued that ultimately their resilience
would depend on constitutional ethics.
He saw the Directive Principles of State Policy of the Indian Constitution as
upholding economic democracy. His notion of liberty was avowedly that of the T.H. Green
(English philosopher, political radical and a member of the British idealism movement.)
kind. Although he talked of equality before law and considered it as a major contribution
of the British rule in India, he was not satisfied with this notion and advanced stronger
notions such as equality of consideration, equality of respect, and equality of dignity.
He felt that law was definitely influenced by customs and popular beliefs but stressed
that customs may defend parochial interests, but may not uphold fairness, and may be
based on their usefulness for the dominant classes. They may not be in tune with the
demands of time or in consonance with morality and reason.
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Ambedkar also admitted the possibility of customs having the upper hand over law
when they begin to defend vested interests, but that with its emphasis on freedom and
democracy, law could be placed in the service of the common good. On the other hand,
customs, while promoting healthy pluralism, may give rise to a highly inegalitarian order.
At the same time, he defers to pluralism, if it can uphold rights.
One of the issues that Ambedkar paid close attention to was power and governance.
He thought that governance must reflect sociological reality as closely as possible lest
those wielding power to their advantage suppress the excluded groups.
Ambedkar spent a great deal of his time and energy in advancing proposals for the
purpose stressing the need to respect justice and equity. While he was opposed to
overrepresentation to Muslims as expressed in the constitutional reforms of 1909, he did
not accept that minority representation should be exactly in proportion to its population.
Ambedkar made two major contributions in terms of evolving a polity, which would
extend special considerations to the disadvantaged. He was the first major theoretician in
India who argued that consideration for the disadvantaged should be the constitutive basis
of the state. He developed a complex set of criteria to determine disadvantaged and
attempted to specify its various gradations.
Untouchability was only one of the disadvantages, although one of the most degrading
and poignant. Further, he concentrated on the socially engendered disadvantaged, but
because he felt that most disadvantaged are engendered by dominant social relations that
attempted to convert them into natural disadvantaged.
His second contribution was to develop a system of safeguards for the disadvantaged
in general and the untouchables in particular, which could be enforceable, quantifiable
and accountable a system that he evolved from early on but found its shape at the time of
his deputation before the Simon Commission.
To conclude, it can be stated that both in his training and in his vision of life,
Ambedkar was deeply aware of the larger dynamics of the world, its complexity and
differential bearing on social groups, localities and nations.
Check Your Progress
4. What is the basis of subaltern approach of Ambedkar?
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5. What are the views of Ambedkar on Untouchability?
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6.2.3 David Hardiman
David Hardiman was born in Rawalpindi (Pakistan) in October 1947. He has taught
at the University of Leicester, the School of Oriental and African Studies in London, the
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University of Newcastle upon Tyne, and the University of Oxford. Presently he is attached
to the University of Warwick, UK. In 1980, he was a fellow of the Centre for Social
Studies in Surat. In 1981, he was also visiting fellow of the Centre for Studies in Social
Sciences, Calcutta. Hardiman is one of the many prolific writers who participated in the
creation of the subaltern perspective. He is a founding member of the Subaltern Studies
group. Noteworthy is the fact that since 1982 at least all his articles and books were
illustrative of the practice of subaltern studies.
Writings of Hardiman:
1. The Quit India Movement in Gujarat (1980)
2. Peasant Nationalists of Gujarat: Kheda District, 1917-1934 (1981)
3. The Coming of Devi: Adivasi Assertion in Western India (1987)
4. Peasant Resistance in India: 1858-1914 (1992)
5. Subaltern Studies VIII: Essays in Honour of Ranajit Guha (1994)
6. Feeding the Baniya: Peasants and Usurers in Western India (1996)
7. Gandhi in his Time and Ours (2003)
8. Histories for the Subordinated (2006)
9. Missionaries and their Medicine: Christian Modernity for Tribal India (2008)
Hardiman is a sociologically sensitive historian, who participated in the creation of
the subaltern perspective. As a historian, he specialises in the history of Modern India.
Since the late 1960s, he has studied and written on South Asian History and during this
period he has spent over a decade in all actually working in India.
The main focus of his work has been on the colonial period in South Asian history,
concentrating in particular on the effects of colonial rule on rural society, relationships of
power at various levels, the Indian independence movement with a specific focus on the
popular bases to Indian nationalism, and environmental and medical history. In the late
1970s he became involved with a group of historians studying the social history of
subordinate groups in South Asia. The Gramscian term ‘subaltern’ meaning ‘subordinate
group’ was chosen to emphasize the centrality of relationships of domination and
subordination in a society in which class divides had not developed as in the industrialized
world. He has carried out a detailed examination of the Indian nationalist movement at the
local level in Gujarat Gandhi’s home region bringing out the disjuncture between the aims
and agendas of the Gandhian leadership and local peasant activists. He has examined the
power-structures of rural society, carrying out for example a detailed study of the hegemonic
controls exercised by usurers and the limits to that hegemony, as seen in particular in
revolts. He has also studied a movement of assertion by adivasis (tribal people) against
liquor dealers who had been granted a monopoly right of supply by the British and who
had enriched themselves at the expense of the adivasis.
Hardiman’s interest in perspective of Subaltern was stimulated by his participation
in the subaltern studies project under the inspiration of Ranjit Guha. One of its chief
objectives is the study of relationships of domination and subordination in India. He was
inspired also by the work of western Marxist historians, notably E.P. Thompson on systems
of moral economy, and Eugene Genovese and Elizabeth Fox-Genovese on the blend of
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ruthless exploitation with paternalism in the slave system of the American south. These
influences, coupled with insights gained from the writings of Karl Marx, Antonio Gramsci,
Michel Foucault, and Pierre Bourdieu and, in the context of western India D.D. Kosambi,
Jairus Banaji and Frank Perlin, have provided some of the main foundations for his work.
Devi Movement
“The Coming of Devi” is basically based on a movement among adivasis of western
India to change their established way of life. Such movements, although, have been reported
from almost all Adivasi tracts of India over the past century, they have until now been
relegated to the margin of modern Indian history.
Hardiman tried to look at subaltern perspective from his study of the Devi movement
in south Gujarat (Western Maharashtra region). He observes the mass movement in south
Gujarat in early 20th century by the native masses and it was termed as ‘Devi movement’.
It was peaceful, led by tribals themselves, spread over a large region, involved a
considerable number of people and focused on bringing social reform among the tribals.
He noticed that this movement among the adivasis was virtually ignored by the
contemporary government, the newspapers, the nationalists and subsequently the historians.
There is no full-length monograph on such movements, he remarked, nor were they
documented adequately.
Hardiman notices that the existing observers of the tribal life had completely denied
the tribals any initiative, any decision-making capacity or any ability to decide what is
good for them. Such denial of existence to the tribals (or, as a general case, to other
subaltern groups) is what Hardiman and others following the subaltern perspective
criticized.
There were many individual and group efforts to warm the adivasis to take liquor. It
included rural elite and Bhajan Mandal groups of the village, but the remarkable change
in the consciousness of the adivasis came with Devi movement. The Coming of Devi by
Hardiman is a work on the assertion of the adivasis in western India against the Shaukars
(moneylenders). The Devi movement started as a small appeasement ceremony among the
fisher-folk of Palghar taluk in late 1921. Later, it spread in other parts of Gujarat. In the
case of Devi movement, Hardiman noticed that the tribals had involved themselves in a
social reform movement not merely as an effort of reforming themselves, by getting rid of
the drinking habit, but also as a rebellion against the domination of Parsi liquor vendors
who had brought them into debt bondage and also against the domination by large landlords.
This ‘Devi’ was supposed to have come from the mountains to the east, and she
expressed her demands through the mouth of spirit mediums. The medium sat before the
crowd, holding red clothes in their hands, they began to shake their heads.
Then, they pronounced the commands of Devi:
i. Stop drinking liquor and toddy.
ii. Stop eating meat and fish.
iii. Live a clean and simple life.
iv. Man should take bath twice a day.
v. Women should take bath thrice a day.
vi. Have nothing to do with Parsis.
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When they finished, the girl who was dressed as Devi was offered coins or gifts.
Later, they sat for a common dinner (Bhandara). The collective and ‘Devi’ words have
brought remarkable change in the consciousness among the adivasis. This led to their
political mobilization and ultimately to raise their standard of living by going away from
the clinches of Shahukars and Parsis.
But, what was the result of this kind of quite rebellion, Hardiman asked. It did not
result in the total emancipation of the adivasis, he conceded. For, the domination of the
Parsis was replaced by the more domination of the elite among the adivasis over all others.
But it did result in other kinds of benefits.
In the region where the Devi movement spread the far more exploitative capitalist
farmer could not find roots. The adivasis managed to retain a degree of dignity and self-
control in the face of ever increasing intrusions of capitalist relations protected by the
colonial government. Even after the movement dissolved it still left a lingering impression
on the tribals of this region by making them more assertive and giving them memories,
which involves self-help and action for the collective good.
Feeding the Baniya
The book entitled, "Feeding the Baniya" represents an attempt to understand
something of the quality of power which usurers (moneylenders) have exercised over
subaltern classes in rural India over several centuries. As well as the obvious economic
element, this power had strong political and cultural dimensions to it. It was very difficult,
not only surviving the transition to colonial rule, but thriving in the new environment.
Even when resisted in popular revolt, usurers personified in popular imagination by the
figure of the Baniya merchant seemed to have a remarkable ability to bounce back,
redefining the terms of their relationship with the subaltern to their perpetual advantage.
Hardiman attempts to see how such a domain of power was forged; how, over the
centuries, usurers managed to adapt their practice so effectively within succeeding state
formations; and how the classes whom they exploited related to them, and also resisted
them. A peasant proverb in western India gives expression to the hegemony of Baniya
usurers over the peasants: “I love the Sheth-Baniya so much that I have given him a fat
belly.” The indebted peasantry feeds the Baniya merchants’ never ending demands for
agrarian produce, enriching the usurers while being itself trapped in a cycle of poverty.
The book reflects the integration of a small-scale agrarian society with a larger
capitalist economy. Hardiman investigated the deep meanings involved in the relationship
between the villager and the moneylender. Anyone who has had any experience of the
borrowing practices in villages knows how is the village moneylender is yet it has often
puzzled observers that the villagers prefer going to him for help in times of need rather
than visit the local branch of the State Bank of India or other banks even though they
provide loans at much cheaper rates and without much difficulty. A crucial part of the
answer to this puzzle was provided by Hardiman’s study.
The study is rich in historical and sociological details. It points out that the
moneylender was located in a complex web of domination exercised by the local dominant
classes. The moneylender himself might not always be the dominating person, but he
definitely was the front for the other dominant sections of local society. In so far that here
was a society not sufficiently immersed in capitalist relations and institutions, the
moneylender provided the small-scale agrarian producer with adequate means to relate to
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the wider capitalist world. In this detailed and comprehensive study of the relationship
between peasants and Baniya usurers in western India, Hardiman examines how and why
usurers have, over the centuries, managed to exert their power over the peasantry. An
explanation purely in terms of economics of the relationship is, he argues, not adequate.
Crucial also has been the support extended to the Baniyas by successive states from
pre-colonial to colonial times. But, over and above, this is the ideological or hegemonic
power that Baniyas have been able to exert over their clients. Applying insights derived
from the works of Gramsci, Foucault and Bourdieu, Hardiman explores the nature of this
hegemony, seeing how a shared set of beliefs could help the Baniyas consolidate their
power. Despite this, the relationship was by no means a harmonious one. There was a
whole range of tensions which at times gave rise to protest and resistance.
Feeding the Baniya was conceived initially as a study of usury in Gujarat, which
has been his chief area for historical research. However, in the course of the investigations,
the project expanded to include other parts of western India. Rajasthan is also included in
part because it was the heartland of the Marwadi Baniya a critical group for any study of
usury. Feeding the Baniya spans the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods of
Indian history. The role of merchant and usurer capital in the appropriation of the peasants’
surplus is examined, revealing crucial changes over time and it is argued that the institution
of usury has undergone a metamorphosis in the period since Indian independence.
Once again, as in the case of his study of the Devi movement, Hardiman had provided
an additional perspective into the changing world of the villagers as they tried to cope
with the changes in the wider society around them. And it was creating special knowledge
that the subaltern perspective has been useful to any student of society.
Check Your Progress
6. What is Devi movement of South Gujarat?
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6.3 SUMMARY
The word ‘subaltern’ implies subordination, which is expressed in terms of a caste,
class, age, gender, office or any other way. It includes the characteristics of defiance and
submission. Thus, in literal sense, it conveys ‘view from below’, i.e., a view or
understanding from the bottom of society or the flow of knowledge from below.The
important proponents of this perspective in India are David Hardiman, B.R. Ambedkar,
Ranjit Guha, Kapil Kumar and others.
Subalternists focused their attention on the circle of elite politics and have
emphasized the revolutionary activities and potential of the ‘subaltern’ classes (artisans,
poor peasants, landless labourers, tribals etc.) to make these classes possessed self-
conscious and coherent conception of resistance that was directed against rich peasants,
urban traders or the colonial revenue administrators.
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1. The word ‘subaltern’ is the general attribute of subordination, which is expressed in
terms of a caste, class, age, gender, office or any other way. It includes the characteristics
of defiance and submission. It was the Antonio Gramsci who used the word ‘subaltern’ for
the “subordinate class in terms of class, gender, race, language and culture.”
2. On 24th September 1873, Jyothi Rao Phule formed Satya Shodhak Samaj (Society of
Seekers of Truth) with the objective of liberating the Sudras to prevent their “exploitation”
by Brahmins. The purpose of the Satya Shodhak Samaj was to decontaminate the society
from caste discrimination and liberate the oppressed lowercaste people from the stigmas
inflicted by the Brahmins. Jyothi Rao Phule was the first person to coin the term ‘Dalits’
to apply to all people considered lower caste and untouchables by the Brahmins.
Membership to the Samaj was open to all irrespective of caste and class.
3. Jyothiba’s quest for providing women and girls with right to education was supported
by his wife Savitribai Phule. One of the few literate women of the time, Savitribai was
taught to read and write by her husband Jyothi Rao. In 1851, Jyothiba established a girls’
school and asked his wife to teach the girls in the school. Later, he opened two more
schools for the girls and an indigenous school for the lower castes, especially for the
Mahars and Mangs. Jyothiba realised the pathetic conditions of widows and established
an ashram for young widows and eventually became advocate of the idea of Widow
Remarriage. He established an orphanage in 1854 to shelter these unfortunate souls from
perishing at the society’s cruel hands.
4. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar impressed upon the people to understand their own affairs themselves.
Self-awakening, he believed, could provide them necessary strength to fight against evils
in society. He traced the genesis of the oppressive nature of the caste-dominated Indian
society to the ‘sacred’ Shastras of the Hindus. According to Ambedkar, the Vedas, Smritis
and Shastras were all instruments of torture used by Hinduism against the untouchables.
In fact, it was Ambedkar’s subaltern perspective, which pierced through the Shastras to
reveal their true face.
5. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar felt that untouchables have to fight their own battle and if others are
concerned about them, then, such a concern has to be expressed in helping them to fight
rather than prescribing solutions to them. He discussed attempts to deny the existence of
untouchables and to reduce the proportion of their population in order to deny them adequate
political presence. He resorted to comparison with what he called the parallel cases, such
as the treatment meted out to slaves and Jews but found the lot of the untouchables worse
than theirs. He argued that in spite of differences and cleavages, all untouchables share
common disadvantages and treatment from caste Hindus: they live in ghettos; they were
universally despised and kept outside the fold.
6. Hardiman tried to look at subaltern perspective from his study of the Devi movement in
south Gujarat (Western Maharashtra region). He observes the mass movement in south
Gujarat in early 20th century by the native masses and it was termed as ‘Devi movement’.
It was peaceful, led by tribals themselves, spread over a large region, involved a
considerable number of people and focused on bringing social reform among the tribals.
He noticed that this movement among the adivasis was virtually ignored by the
contemporary government, the newspapers, the nationalists and subsequently the historians.
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There is no full-length monograph on such movements, he remarked, nor were they
documented adequately.

1. Explain about Subaltern Perspective for the study of Indian society.
2. Describe the contributions of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar to understand Indian society
from subaltern perspective.
1. Contribution of Jyothi Rao Phule.
2. Highlight the contribution of Hardiman to understand Indian society from
subaltern perspective.
6.6 GLOSSARY
Subaltern : It means subordinate class in terms of class, gender, race, language and culture
Sathya Shodak Samaj: Society of seekers of Truth

1. Dhanagre, D.N. : Themes and Perspectives in Indian Sociology (1998 )
2. Nagla, B.K. : Indian Sociological Thought (2008 )
3. Shah, Ghanshyam : Dalit Identity and Politics (2001)
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BLOCK-III: SOCIAL STRUCTURE
The concept of society has always been a central one is sociological concern.
Nonetheless what sociologists mean by society has not always been clearly stated. It has
sometimes been a symbolic term, connecting the range of social phenomena that concerns
sociology and signifying the web of relationships within which are interact with others.
But it has also been given more specific meaning in which stands for the largest social
group that encompasses all the other social groups organized by the people. Societies
are understood in terms of their size, culture, phase of material practice, distinctive
mode of operation. Societies depend on parts of division, which one inseparable and
mutual dependable parts envisioning as social structures. Hence, societies manifest the
structure of tribal, agrarian and industrial, social structure appear in the form of caste,
class and their distinctive parts of which they are made. This Block depicts all those
forms of social structure.

Unit - 7 : Tribal, Agrarian and Industrial Social Structures
Unit - 8 : Family, Marriage and Kinship in India
Unit - 9 : Religious Composition in India-Communalism, Social Tensions,
Problems of Religious Minorities
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UNIT-7 : TRIBAL, AGRARIAN AND INDUSTRIAL
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Contents
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Tribal Social Structure
7.3 Agrarian Social Structure
7.4 Industrial Social Structure
7.5 Summary
7.8 Glossary
7.0 OBJECTIVES
• The features of Agrarian Social Structure
• The characteristics of Tribal Social Structure
• The features of Industrial Social Structure
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines Social Structure as the distinctive, stable
arrangement of institutions whereby human beings in a society interact and live together.
The major components of social structure include culture, social class, social status, roles,
groups, and social institutions. Social structure guides people’s behaviors. A person’s
location in the social structure (his or her social class, social status, the roles he or she
plays, and the culture, groups, and social institutions to which he or she belongs) underlies
his or her perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. People develop these perceptions, attitudes,
and behaviors from their place in the social structure, and they act accordingly. All of
these components of social structure work together to maintain social order by limiting,
guiding, and organizing human behaviour.
Social structure is not static. It responds to changes in culture, technology, economic
conditions, group relationships, and societal needs and priorities. The structure of societies
has changed greatly throughout the centuries. This becomes clear when we consider the
fundamental differences between hunting and gathering, pastoral and horticultural,
agricultural, industrial, postindustrial (information), and biotech societies. In the succeeding
sections we will discuss about Tribal, Agrarian and Industrial Social Structure.
7.2 TRIBAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE

The Scheduled tribe population according to 2011 census is: 84,326,240 which
constitutes 8.2% of the population. This was almost equal to the population of Britain. At
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present, India has the second largest tribal population in the world next only to Africa.
Tribals in India are spread over the length and breadth of the country. D.N. Majumdar
defines a tribe as ‘‘a collection of families bearing a common name, members of which
occupy the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding
marriage, profession or occupation and have developed a well assessed system of reciprocity
and mutuality of obligation.” The important characteristics of tribes are briefly explained
below which shape the tribal social structure:
Common Territory: A tribe is a territorial community. It means the tribe has a
definite territory in which its members reside. For example, the Naga, Rengma Naga,
Sema Naga and other aboriginals reside in Nagaland; Garos, Khasis, live in Assam; Bhils
in Madhya Pradesh; Soligas in Mysore; Todas in Niligiri Hills of Tamilnadu, and so on. In
the absence of a common locality or territory a tribe would lose its uniqueness.
Collection of Families: As the definitions of tribe cited above clarify, tribes
constitute a collection of families. These collections may have various sizes. These families
which normally have blood relationships among themselves could be matriarchal or
patriarchal in nature.
Common Name: Every tribe has its own name. Each tribe is known to other tribes
by its distinctive name. Examples are Khasi, Naga, Rengma Naga, Sema Naga, Limbu,
Santal, Munda, Gond, Kota, Badaga, Urali, Thodas, etc.
Common Language: The members of a tribe speak a particular language. Different
tribes speak different languages. These languages are not only different from the language
of the civilized people, but they themselves differ from one another. Common language
contributes much to the development of community feeling. Since these languages do not
have a script of their own, education of the tribals has become problematic.
Common Ancestor: The tribals claim that they have a common ancestor. A major
cause of the sense of communal unity in the tribe is ‘the tie of blood relationships’ between
its members arising out of common ancestry. The tribals are bound by kinship bonds.
Common Religion: Religion plays an important role in the tribal organization. The
members of a tribe usually worship a common ancestor. Also, nature worship is common
among them. The tribals practice faiths such as -animalism, animism, Fetishism and
Totemism. Magic is also widespread among them and political organizations are based on
this religion. A sizeable proportion of Nagas, Mizos, Santhals, Oraons and Munda, etc.,
have embraced Christianity while some tribes such as Butia, Lepcha, Chakma have largely
identified with Buddhism.
Common Culture: Each tribe has a way of life of its own. Each tribe has its own
way of behaving, thinking, feeling and acting. Each has its own customs, traditions, morals,
values, and its own peculiar institutions in brief, its own culture. The very peculiarities of
a tribe reveal that it has a distinctive culture of its own.
Common Political Organization: Each tribe has its own political system. The
chieftainship is normally hereditary. Chief normally exercises authority. He occupies an
important position in the tribal society. The tribals do not possess a government in the
modern sense of the term. But they do have their own tribal government, tribal council
and tribal judicial system.
Feeling of Unity: The members of a tribe always feel that they are united. This
sense of unity for them is to retain their identity. Tribals are normally cohesive.
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Common Economic Organization: As against 73% national average, 91% of the
tribal workers are engaged in agriculture. About 3% of tribals are engaged in manufacturing
against the national average of 11%; and 5% in tertiary servicing against the national
average of 16%. Just 1% tribals are engaged in forestry find food gathering. Their economic
position is very poor. Though they are poor, against the national average of 43%, nearly
57% of tribals are economically active. In spite of that, they get very poor returns for their
efforts.
Organization of clans: The Clan or sib is an important part of tribal organisation.
The clan includes all the relatives of mothers or fathers and the children of one ancestor.
People belonging to a clan trace their origin through ancestor. The descendants of a clan
are of either matrilineal or patrilineal lineage. The tribal society may include in itself
many clans. There exists mutual helpfulness among the members of different clans.
Prevalence of Dormitories: Tribal community has a peculiar feature which is evident
in the form of common sleeping chambers or dormitories. Such organizations train the
youth in the tribal ways of life. These are the centres which preserve tribal legends, music,
dance, paintings, etc. Young boys and girls spend much of their time in the night in these
dormitories and often they are vested with the responsibility of giving protection to the
community people
Simplicity and Self-sufficiency: A tribal society is simple in character. Hunting,
fishing and collection of roots, fruits, nuts, honey and forest products are their main means
of subsistence. Some have taken to cultivation also.
The Need for Protection: There is need for protection of the tribals. Hence they
are a cohesive group. The tribe is a homogeneous group also. There is less diversity and
more unity and uniformity. Ethnic, political, religious and other kinds of prejudices and
mutual distrust between the civilized and the tribal people have made the tribals feel
insecure. Hence they experience the need for protection.
D.G. Mandelbaum mentions the following features of tribal social structure:
(1) Kinship as an instrument of social bonds;
(2) Lack of hierarchy (rigid status distinctions) among men and groups (clans and
lineages);
(3) Absence of strong, complex, formal organisations;
(4) Communitarian basis of landholding;
(5) Segementary character;
(6) Little value on surplus accumulation, on the use of capital, and on market-trading;
(7) Lack of distinction between form and substance of religion; and
(8) A distinct psychological make-up for enjoying life.
Geographical, Racial and Linguistic Features
B.K. Roy Burman (1972) divides tribal communities into five territorial groupings,
taking into account their historical, ethnic and socio-cultural relations. These are as follows:
• North-east India, comprising Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and
Tripura;
• The sub-Himalayan region of north and north-west India, comprising hill districts
of Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh;
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• Central and East India, comprising West Bengal, Bihar (now Jharkhand), Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh (now Chhattisgarh) and Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana);
• South India comprising Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka; and
• Western India, comprising Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
The racial features and linguistic affiliations of Indian tribes also are important
elements of tribal social structure. On the basis of racial features, Guha (1935) considers
that they belong to the following three races.
• The Proto-Australoids: This group is characterised by dark skin colour, sunken
nose and lower forehead. These features are found among the Gond (Madhya Pradesh),
the Munda (Chotanagpur), the Ho (Bihar) etc.
• The Mongoloids: This group is characterised by light skin colour; head and face
are broad; the nose bridge is very low and their eyes are slanting with a fold on the upper
eye lid. These features are found among the Bhotiya (Central Himalayas), the Wanchu
(Arunachal Pradesh), the Naga (Nagaland), the Khasi (Meghalaya), etc.
• The Negrito: This group is characterised by dark skin colour (tending to look like
blue), round head, broad nose and frizzle hair. These features are found among the Kadar
(Kerala), the Onge (Little Andaman), the Jarwa (Andaman Islands), etc.
Linguistically the situation is far more complex. According to a recent estimate the
tribal people speak 105 different languages and 225 subsidiary languages. This itself
indicates what great variety is found among them. The languages spoken by the tribes in
India can be classified into four major families of Languages. They are as follows:
• Austro-Asiatic family: There are two branches of this family, namely, Mon- Khmer
branch and Munda branch. Languages of the first branch are spoken by Khasi and Nicobari
tribals. Languages of Munda branch are Santhali, Gondi, Kharia etc.
• Tibeto-Chinese family: There are two sub-families of this type, namely Siamese-
Chinese sub-family and Tibeto-Burman sub-family. In extreme North-Eastern frontier of
India Khamti is one specimen of the Siamese- Chinese sub-family. The Tibeto-Burman
sub-family is further sub-divided into several branches. Tribals of Nagaland and Lepcha
of Darjeeling speak variants of Tibeto-Burman languages.
• Indo-European family: Tribal languages such as Hajong and Bhili are included
in this group.
• Dravidian family: Languages of Dravidian family are, Yeruva of Mysore, Oraon
of Chotanagpur.
Economic Structure
The main occupations of the tribes are forestry and food gathering; Shifting
cultivation; Settled agriculture; Agricultural labour; Animal husbandry; and Household
industry.
The following are the important characteristics of Indian tribal economic
organization.
Production without technological aids and for Consumption: The production is
without adequate technological aids with the result that there is much loss of material
with very little production. The tribals are, therefore, generally very poor inspite of working
very hard. In the absence of sufficient technological aids and scientific knowledge regarding
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agricultural and other production, the tribals generally produce only to consume
(subsistence economy).
Mixing economic activities with religion and magic: The tribals live in a natural
environment where there is no distinction of economic, religious and magical activities.
There is, therefore, a tendency to mix all these. In the economic activities also religious
and magical activities are utilized to attain economic ends.
Absence of currency, Regular Markets and Profits: The tribal people do not use
currency in deciding the price of commodities and in exchange. There are no banks of
economic exchanges in their societies. They hardly carry out any exchange of economic
goods with outside groups.There are no regular markets found in tribal societies and,
therefore, there is no competition, monopoly, business or trade in their economic
organization. There is absence of profiteering in tribal economic organization due to two
important causes. Firstly, the absence of currency to fix the price of commodities and
secondly the connection of unity sentiments with economic activities.
Community basis of economic activities: The chief aim of economic activities in
a tribal society is to fulfil the community duties. The organization of most of the economic
activities is cooperative and communal.
Absence of specialists: There are no specialists in different branches of economic
organization in tribal societies, with the result that there is no division of labour and
specialization.
Concept of property: Some conception of personal property is found in almost
every tribal society. A person is allowed a right over the things produced by him or his
family. There is, however, group ownership over the ponds, the land and the forests, etc.
Social organization
In tribal life the principal links for the whole society are based on kinship. Kinship
is not simply a principle of social organisation, it is also a principle of inheritance, division
of labour and distribution of power and privileges. Tribal societies are small in size. They
possess a worldview of their own, corresponding to their social relations. However, some
tribes such as Santhals, Gonds and Bhils are quite large. The tribal social structure is
based on ‘segmentary systems’. The segmentary systems have relations on a small scale.
They enjoy autonomy, and are independent of each other in a given region.
The life of tribals evolves around social groupings from the family level to the tribe
itself. The family, which comprises parents and unmarried children, forms the smallest
social unit. There are several types of families such as the nuclear family, comprising
parents and unmarried children, the joint family, comprising parents and married children,
and the extended family, comprising parents and the families of the male members.
A group of families which are related to one another by blood forms a lineage. If
lineage being traced from father side, it is Patrilineal and if from mother side it is
Matrilineal. In some cases a tribal village comprises members of a single lineage or it may
be a village of multilineage.
The next higher social group is the clan which comprises members of many blood
related lineages. The clan may be totemic or non-totemic. The clan organization regulates
marriage which means that the clan is exogamous. A clan may have sub-clans. Several
clans grouped together form a phratry or a territorial group. Multiple phratries form a
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moiety or an exogamous division of a tribe. The largest social unit is the tribe itself. Some
tribal communities’ are split up into sub-tribes whilst others are not.
Kinship is the social relationships deriving from blood ties and marriage. It is the
most important aspect of tribal social structure.
Every relationship involves a particular type of behaviour. There are some usages,
which regulate the behaviour of the different kins. These usages are called kinship usages.
Some of these usages are:
Avoidance: In all societies the usage of avoidance is observed in one form or another.
It means that two kin should remain away from each other. For instance father-in-law and
daughterin- law. They are important to reinforce incest taboo. Among the tribes of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, the elder brother does not talk with his younger brother’s wife.
Radcliffe-Brown has given one of the most reasonable of contemporary explanations.
Joking Relationships: It is reverse of avoidance relationship and is permitted to
tease or make fun. It is reverse of the avoidance relationship and is an extreme degree of
familiarity expressed through joking relationships. Such joking may amount to exchange
of abuse, obscene and vulgar reference to sex, ridicule and so on. Apart from joking
relationship between sisterin- law and brother-in-law and between a wife and her husband's
brother, such relationships have also been reported between grandparents and grandchildren
among the Orans and the Baigas.
The Ho tribes of Chotanagpur also indulge in a variety of joking relationships.
Majumdar opines that joking relationships may be indicative of equality and mutual
reciprocity. They may also be indicative of a potential sexual relationship. Thus is explained
the joking relationship between a man and his wife’s younger sister. In each case the two
may be potential mates. A joking relationship, when not mutual, assumes the role of social
control. It becomes indicative of correction through ridicule.
Teknonymy: It has been taken from the Greek word and was used in Anthropology
for the first time by Tylor. A kin is not referred directly but through the other kin. A kin
becomes the medium of reference between two kins. In traditional societies/families, wife
does not utter the name of her husband, she calls him through son or daughter i.e. father of
so and so.
Avunculate: It is a peculiar feature of matriarchal family system. It gives to the
maternal uncle a prominent place in life of nephews/nieces. There are special obligations
exceeding that of father.
Amitate: A very special role is given to father’s sister.
Couvade: The husband is made to lead the life of an invalid along with his wife
whenever she gives birth to a child. He observes the same taboos observed by his wife.
Also signifies strong marital bond between husband and wife.
Religious life
The tribal world is characterized by the belief in the existence of supernatural powers.
Experiences of certain day-to-day happenings such as illnesses, death, and sudden
calamities, have led the tribal people to believe that spirits, which bring in mishap, disease,
death and other sorrowful events, are Omni-present. In order to control them and neutralize
their actions, it is necessary to overpower them by offering worships and appeasing them
through various magic and religious techniques.
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Tribal religion in India is animistic and magic plays a central role. The tribal people
believe that everything, whether living or dead, is possessed by different spirits. Thus
every mountain, river, rock, tree, waterfall and every type of disease, like cholera, smallpox,
and fever, are possessed by different spirits and supernatural powers, and it is necessary
to worship and offer sacrifices to these spirits so that the life is safeguarded from the evil
effects of spiritual influence. Out of this necessity has grown many magic-religious
performances and various methods of propitiation, rituals, worship and offerings. Tribal
people also believe” in reincarnation or rebirth. The Bhils believe that when a person dies
his soul continues to exist as a spirit.
Another important feature of tribal religion is Bongaism. The concept of Bongaism
is present among the tribes of central India such as the Ho, Munda, Santal and other tribes
of the same region. Bonga is conceived by the Ho as a power that pervades all space. This
power, it is believed, gives life to animals and plants. It helps plants grow, brings rain,
storms; floods and drought. It is also believed that other natural phenomena such as currents
in rivers, venom in snakes, strength in tigers, honey in beehives and fragrance in flowers,
are also provided by the Bongas.
Nature worship is another significant feature of the tribal religion. The sun, moon,
earth and trees are worshipped by tribal people. The Santal, Munda, Ho, Maler, Birhor
and many other tribal people of middle India worships these heavenly bodies and offer
prayers to Mother Earth, who represents the axis of tribal religion among various groups
of Gonds living in Madhya Pradesh. They believe that the ultimate source of all life is
Mother Earth. The Garos of Meghalaya consider the sun, moon and stars as spirits. The
Todas and the Koyas of southern India hold the sun with great reverence.
The tribal people all over the country observe taboos of some kind or other. When a
taboo is violated the tribes believe that it may result in disaster. Magic is an integral part
of tribal religion. Magical practices include both the beneficial white magic and the dubious
black magic. Witches and sorcerers can cause illnesses through black magic and diviners
and medicine men practice white magic and can cure diseases by performing counter
magic.
Ancestor worship is most common among the tribal people. They believe that their
ancestors live with them. It is therefore necessary to meet their heeds of food and drink
otherwise they will get angry and create trouble for them. It is also believed that their
ancestors always find place in the kitchen of the house. It is for this reason that the outsiders
are not allowed to enter the kitchen.
Fetishism has been defined both as religion and as magic. In origin, it is the most
primitive form of religion. It endows objects with supernatural or mystical powers for
good or evil. The person who possesses the fetish can ward off bad luck and will have
good fortunes. Hence, fetishism is nothing but the adoration of material things because of
their mysterious power. A leaf, a feather, a horn, a stone or any such thing with unusual
shape is adored in the same manner as a carved figure.
The theory of animism is the work of E.B. Taylor and may be found in his “Primitive
Culture” first published in 1871. Animism is essentially a belief in the spirit of the dead.
Tylor argued that early men had a need to explain dreams, shadows, hallucinations, sleep
and death. The need to understand such phenomenon led to the belief in the existence of
the soul.
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Totemism is an extension of fetishism. “A totem is a species of animal or plant. A
totem is generally an animal, rarely a plant which given in names to clan or may be otherwise
associated with it. Totem is associated with tribal organization, and it becomes the name
of the tribe, an image of the totemic spirit, and animal or plant with which the tribe
identifies. The tribe, the spirit and the animal are united in a trinity which cannot be
separated into parts.
Check Your Progress
1. Write about Tribal Religion.
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2. What is the Social organisation of the Tribes?
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7.3 AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Agrarian and Industrial centres show interdependence. Despite this interdependence
between the two there are certain distinctive features which separate them from each other
in terms of their size, demographic composition, cultural moorings, style of life, economy,
employment and social relations.
Rural people live in settled villages. Three main types of settlement patterns have
been observed in rural areas:
i) The most common type is the nucleated village found all over the country. Here, a
tight cluster of houses is surrounded by the fields. An outlying hamlet or several
satellite hamlets are also found to be attached to some villages in this case.
ii) Secondly, there are linear settlements in some parts of the country, e.g. in Kerala, in
Konkan and in the delta lands of Bengal. In such settlements, houses are strung out,
each surrounded by its own compound. However, there is little to physically
demarcate where one village ends and another begins.
iii) The third type of settlement is simply a scattering of homesteads or clusters of two
or three houses. In this case also physical demarcation of villages is not clear. Such
settlements are found in hill areas, in the Himalayan foothills, in the highlands of
Gujarat and in the Satpura range of Maharashtra.
The size of village population is small and density of population is low in comparison
with towns and cities. India is rightly called a country of villages. The rural life is
characterized by direct relationship of people to nature i.e., land, animal and plant life.
Agriculture is their main occupation.
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Long enduring rural social institutions which shape the rural social structure is the
family, kinship, caste, class, and village. They have very old historical roots and structures.
They include the entire field of life: social, economic, political and cultural of the rural
people. The complexity of social norms and values, statuses and roles, rights and obligations
is reflected in them. Family is the basic unit of almost all societies. It is especially true in
India where the very identity of a person is dependent on the status and position of his or
her family and its social status.
Family is one of the most important social institutions which constitute the rural
social structure. It caters to needs and performs functions, which are essential for the
continuity, integration and change in the social system, such as, reproduction, production
and socialisation.
Broadly speaking there are two types of family: (a) nuclear family consisting of
husband, wife and unmarried children, and (b) joint or extended family comprising a few
more kins than the nuclear type.
Rural families are mostly joint in nature. Important dimensions of ‘jointness’ of
family are coresidentiality, commensality, coparcenary, generation depth (three), and
fulfillment of obligation towards kin and sentimental aspect. Coresidentiality means that
members of a family live under the same roof. Commensality implies that they eat together
i.e., have a common kitchen. Coparcenary means that they have joint ownership of property.
Further, generation depth encompasses three generations or more, i.e., grandfather, father
and the son or more. Members of the family also have obligations toward their kin.
Moreover, they have a sentimental attachment to the ideal of joint family.
Rural family works as the unit of economic, cultural, religious, and political activities.
Collectivity of the family is emphasized in social life, and feelings of individualism and
personal freedom are very limited. Marriage is considered an inter-familial matter rather
than an interpersonal affair. It is governed by rules of kinship.
Lineage and Kinship
Lineage and Kinship are significant aspects to understand rural social structure.
Within the village, a group of families tracing descent from a common ancestor with
knowledge of all the links constitute a lineage; and the children of the same generation
behave as brothers and sisters. They form a unit for celebrating major ritual events.
Sometimes the word Kul is used to describe these units. Usually these families live in
closeness and a guest of one (e.g. a son-inlaw) could be treated as such in all these families.
These bonds of families may go back to 3 to 7 generations. People do not marry within
this group.
Caste
Caste System is one of the most important aspects of rural social structure. The
caste system is based on endogamy and sometimes has common economic position or
linkage. Sir Herbert Risely defines caste as a “Collection of families, bearing a common
name claiming common descent from a mythical ancestor human or divine, professing to
follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an
opinion as forming a single homogeneous community”. The important characteristics of
caste system are:
• Caste is a hierarchical division of society whereby there is arrangement of various
castes with Brahmins at the top.
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• Caste is hereditary in nature and thus is example of ascribed status. Ascribed status
is that status which individual attains by birth.
• Caste is a segmental division of society: Caste divides the whole society in to separate
groups in which the status, social duties and rights are different. Each caste had its
own rules and regulations and if a member breaks, he is expelled from the caste.
The moral allegiance to caste came first and then community. In the urban,
industrialized societies, this has lost its rigidity, in rural India it still persists. Each
caste has its own customs, traditions, practices and rituals. There were caste
panchayats/councils to regulate the conduct of the members. The functions of caste
panchayats are:
To make members comply with caste rules and regulations,
Settling caste disputes
Giving punishments to those who violated caste rules and obligations like arranging
dinner party for fellow caste men, imposing fine, purification, pilgrimage, out casting
etc.
Working for the welfare of caste members.
• Restrictions on food habits: A Brahmin would accept pakka food (cooked in ghee)
only from some castes lower than his own. But he would accept kaccha food (cooked
in water) from people belonging to his own caste. Any kind of food that is prepared
by Brahmins is acceptable to all the caste people.
• Restrictions on social relations: The idea of pollution is an inherent characteristic
of caste system. Touch of a lower caste man would pollute a man of higher caste.
Even their shadow is considered enough to pollute a higher caste man. This led to
untouchability over a period of time.
• Social and Religious Factors: Some lower castes people suffered from certain civil,
social and religious disabilities, some higher caste people enjoy certain privileges.
Generally the lower castes are made to live on the outskirts of the city. During
Peshwa rule- Mahars and Mangs were not allowed within the gates of Puna before 9
AM and after 3 PM (bodies would cast long shadows). They were not even allowed
in temples and other public places. On the other hand Brahmins had monopoly on
the education and teaching.
• Restrictions on occupational choice: Some occupations are considered to be superior
and sacred while certain others degrading and inferior. Occupations were almost
hereditary. Thus individual talents, aptitudes, interests, enterprises, abilities were
neglected. There were strong notions of purity and pollution associated with the
caste system.
• Restrictions on marriage: Caste is an endogamous group (marriage of an individual
to take place within his/her caste. Intercaste marriages are prohibited)
Sapinda and Sagotra Exogamy: Pinda means common parentage. 5 maternal and 7
paternal generations are considered Sapinda and they cannot intermarry. Sagotra
exogamy i.e. marriage within Gotra is prohibited. Sapravara exogamy- Pravara means
uttering the name of same saint at religious functions are believed to belong to same
pravara; a kind of spiritual and religious bond.
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Caste system in rural areas has undergone lot of changes in the contemporary period
due to the new forces of industrialisation, urbanisation, politicization, modern education
and legal system, land reforms, development programmes and government policy of positive
discrimination in favour of the lower castes.
There is a change in rural power structure in the period since Independence, which
has led to some changes in inter-caste relationship. The Brahmins have lost their traditional
dominance in South India. Kamma and Reddi in Andhra, Lingayat and Okkaliga in
Karnataka, and Ahir, Jat and Kurmi in North India have emerged as the new dominant
castes at local and regional levels through acquisition of economic and political power.
Some traditional backward castes e.g. Nadar, Vanniyar of Tamil Nadu and Mahar of
Maharashtra also have improved their social status.
The Jajmani System is a very important feature of traditional village life and social
structure in India strongly associated with the caste system. The term ‘jajman’ refers to
the patron or recipient of specialized services and the term ‘jajmani’ refers to the whole
relationship. In fact, the jajmani system is a system of economic, social and ritual ties
among different caste groups in a village. Under this system some castes are patrons and
others are serving castes. The serving castes offer their services to the land-owning upper
and intermediate caste and in turn are paid both in cash and kind. The patron castes are the
land-owning dominant castes, e.g., Rajput, Bhumihar, Jat in the North, and Kamma,
Lingayat and Reddi in Andhra Pradesh and Patel in Gujarat. The service castes comprise
Brahmin (priest), barber, carpenter, blacksmith, water-carrier, leatherworker etc.
The Jajmani relations essentially operate at family level. A Rajput land-owning family
has its jajmani ties with one family each from Brahmin, barber, carpenter etc., and a family
of service caste offers its services to specific families of jajmans. However, jajmani rules
are enforced by caste panchayats.
The Jajmani system involves interdependence, reciprocity and co-operation between
jati and families in villages.
However Jajmani system has weakened over the years due to market forces, increased
urban contact, migration, education and social and political awareness on the part of the
service castes.
The process of social mobility and transformation in rural social structure has been
explained by sociologists by the terms embourgeoisement and proletarianisation.
Embourgeoisement refers to the phenomenon of upward mobility of the intermediate class
peasantry i.e., their emergence as new landlords. Proletarianisation describes the process
of downward mobility, i.e., depeasantisation of small and marginal peasants and a few
landlords and their entry into the rank of the rural landless agricultural labourers.
Religion and the internal organisation
This internal organisation governs and determines the social and individual life of
the people living in a particular village. Normally every village has a Panchayat and its
head; it is elected with the consent of almost all the adult members of the village. Such as
revenue, law and order etc, generally there is a village Panchayat, a village Nyay Panchayat,
Panchayat of different castes and certain other social, religious and political group’s
voluntary groups.
Like caste, family internal organisation etc., religion is an important unit of the
village social structure of organisation. Villages have their own gods and deities. Religion
helps in removing uncertainties of man’s everyday life.
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Economic system
Economic system has now come to occupy an important place in every social
structure. In fact economic system determines not only the social structure but various
other aspects of social life. It includes the means and the system of production system of
distribution, sharing of profit etc. Social and economic activities are inter-related have a
mutual relationship. The economic system of the villages is based on two factors:-a)
Functional specialisation and b) Inter-dependence. Jajmani System as discussed above
clearly reflects these two factors.
India is known as an agricultural country, as most of the population of villages
depends on agriculture. Agriculture forms the backbone of not only the rural economy but
also the country’s economy. The agrarian structure refers to the institutional framework
of agriculture relating to distribution, control and use of land. According to Daniel Thorner
agrarian social structure denotes the interrelationship among groups engaged in agricultural
operations.
The agrarian class structure in India has been interpreted by employing different
theoretical orientations by the Indian Sociologists. Sociologists like A.R. Desai has utilized
Marxian theory while analyzing the Indian class structure in agrarian relation. However,
attributes such as income, occupation, non-agricultural modes of earning are used for the
studies on caste, class is not substantial. The reason is partly historical and more
importantly, it is because of the continued overlapping between the caste and class status
situations or interactions. Caste and class are two principles of stratification which have
persisted in the Indian social systems in dialectical relationship.
The Zamindari, the Ryotwari and the Mahalwari system were introduced by the
British for the revenue assessment on the land. All three systems generated more or less
similar agrarian class structure in the villages. The zamindari system had the zamindars,
tenants and agricultural laborers as the main agrarian classes. The ryotwari system consisted
of two types of peasants; the ryot landlord and the ryot peasants. The agrarian class structure
everywhere in India had a feudal character; the zamindars collected taxes and were non-
cultivating owners of land, the tenants were the real cultivators often without security of
land tenure and the agricultural labourers in most parts of the country, had the status of
bonds-men and laborers. With the support of the British this highly exploitative system
continued to persist all over due to which many peasant movements occurred in the Indian
soil.
P.C. Joshi highlighted the trends in the agrarian class structure and relationship of
these agrarian classes in the following ways
• The decline in feudalistic and customary tenancy.
• Increasing importance commercial tenancy based on the rich and middle state of the
peasantry. Decline of feudal landlords and the rise of commercially oriented
landlords.
• The socio-economic consequences of these commercial peasants, that, it increased
the efficiency and productivity of agricultural but conflicts between the poor
peasantry and agricultural labourers has been on the rise.
T.K. Oommen lists the following five categories.
(i) Landlords, who own but do not cultivate land, either employing intermediaries or
leasing out land.
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(ii) Rich farmers, who look upon agriculture as a business proposition, produce for the
market and for profit, employ wage labour, and supervise rather than cultivate.
(iii) Middle peasants, who cultivate their own land and hire labourers only for certain
operations or at certain points of time.
(iv) Poor peasants, who own small and uneconomic holdings and often have to work as
part-labourers or as share-croppers or tenants.
(v) Landless agricultural workers who sell their labour and fully depend on the first
three categories for their livelihood.
Broadly Sociologists have classified the agrarian class in India as follows;
a) Landlords: Under permanent settlement, a new type of landlordism was created i.e.
Zamindar. Under the terms of this settlement, the right of ownership was conferred on
Zamindar. There were two types of landlords-The Zamindar Taluqdars and Money lenders
b) Tenants: The creation of Zamindari settlement transformed the owner-cultivator
relationship of pre-British India in to class of tenants. Broadly there were two categories
of tenants in Zamindari areas- tenants under Zamindars and tenants under lease tenure
holders during British period
c) Agricultural Laborers: There are three types of agricultural labourers. They are:
• Owners of small plot of land in addition to drawing their livelihood from sale of their
labour.
• Landless and lived exclusively on hiring out of their labours.
• Landless and their status almost that of bondage or semi-bondage
d) Artisans: They form integral part of village community contributing to the general self
sufficient image of Indian villages.
The emerging class structure shows four main class groups. They are: (1) ex-jagirdars
and Zamindars, (2) merchants, (3) peasants and artisans, and (4) agricultural and manual
laborers. These classes constitute a hierarchy with the laborers at the bottom and the ex-
landlords at the top.
Check Your Progress

3. What are the various Agrarian Classes in India?
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4. What are the main types of settlement patterns in rural areas?

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5. What are the important aspects of Rural family?
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7.4 INDUSTRIAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Industrial Revolution has brought about far-reaching consequences in the structure
of societies. It led to the establishment of Industrial Society. In the simplest sense, an
industrial society is a social system whose mode of production focuses primarily on finished
goods manufactured with the aid of machinery. The basic elements of Industrial social
structure are:
• The economy is industry-based. The society is divided into a number of classes for
example, the capitalist, the workers and the petty shopkeepers.
• Emergence of a number of professional and technical jobs requiring special
knowledge and training.
• Rapid means of transport and a wide network of communications has been developed.
• The system of production, distribution and exchange is different. It is based on use
of mechanical power. Large scale production of goods and use of new technology in
the system of production is the most important feature of an industrial society.
• Migration to cities has led to the breakdown of agricultural economy and also the
disappearance of the joint family system. A system of nuclear families has emerged.
The other important features of social structure of Industrial Society are:
(i) Emergence of Modern Family: The emergence of modern family in place of
traditional patriarchal family is the first feature of industrial society. The family in industrial
society has moved from an institution to companionship; from a production to consumption
unit. It now no longer performs the functions which it did in the pre-industrial society.
Even the functions of child bearing and rearing are differently performed in the industrial
society. The family members of industrial society are individualized in their outlook
(ii) Economic Institutions: The most important difference between the industrial
society and pre-industrial society can be seen in the structure of economic institutions.
The industrial society is marked by a new system of production, distribution, and exchange.
In place of house-holds there are factories where the work is divided up into little pieces.
Large plants have been set up. Corporations have come into existence. Ownership has
been separated from control. The large industrial business, such as Tata’s and Birla’s is
owned not by one man but by millions of people. The stockholders among whom this
diversified ownership is spread do own their companies. But they delegate control of the
corporation to salaried management.
As a matter of fact, we have a sort of collectivization of ownership in an industrial
society. Capitalism with all its necessary features is an important aspect of industrial society.
Thus it is marked by the institutions of private property, division of labour, profit,
competition, wage and credit. The growth of trade unions is also an important feature of
industrial society.
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(iii) Occupational Sub-cultures: There is extreme division of labour in industrial
society. As industrialism spreads and population grows, division of labour becomes highly
complex. Industrial society creates new specialized jobs. More and more statuses are
achieved rather than ascribed. These occupational sub-cultures insulate their participants
from the members of another status. The industrial society as it is marked by extreme
occupational specialization is thus fragmented by occupational sub-cultures.
(iv) Impersonality of Relationship: An industrial society is marked by impersonal
rather than personal relationships. Occupational specialization contributes a good share
to impersonality of industrial life. The secondary character of association, the multiplicity
of occupations, the specialization of functions and areas and competitiveness narrow the
attachments and detract the individual from a feeling of identification with the entire
society. Capitalism, exploitation, class conflicts, cultural lags, impersonality of
relationships, predominance of individualism and mechanical life are the attributes of
industrial social structure which create mental and emotional disorders. The members of
industrial society suffer from neurosis, psychosomatic disorders and psychosis. The
incidence of suicide and drug addiction is also higher in industrial society.
(v) Status to Contract: In an industrial society most people work for big
organizations and contracts are substituted for status system. There is a wage contract, a
social security contract, an unemployment insurance contract and so on. In place of mutual
obligation system there is found contract system in industrial society.
(vi) Social Mobility: Industrial social structure is marked by social mobility. The
member of industrial society can by his achievement raises or lowers his status during his
life time. The role of caste as a factor in determining status gets minimized in an industrial
society.
(vii) Position of Women: Industrialization and specialization have brought women
to workshop and factory. They have entered into the wider life which has altered their
outlook and liberated them from the exclusiveness of domesticity.
(viii) Deviance and Anomie: The industrial society is a mass society with differing
subcultures. Its members live under stress and strains caused by acute competitiveness.
The factories run day and night. People indulge in too many activities and work at
tremendous speed. They are surrounded by complex and heterogeneous rules of behaviour
laid down by various agencies which impose an enormous number of constraints on human
behaviour.
(ix) Increasing importance of science and education: For the first time, science
emerges out as a new and very important social institution. All technological innovations
depend on the growth and refinement of scientific knowledge. Science is looked upon as
a promising and an effective means of socio-economic progress. Similarly, education has
evolved into an independent and distinct institution. Any industrial society for that matter
requires a literate population to understand and make use of the modern technological
innovations. Formal education becomes very significant
(x) Increasing role of the State: Hereditary monarchies are replaced by democratic
institutions. State which assumes the central power in the industrial society is more known
for its welfare activities than for the regulative functions. State is increasingly involved in
the economic, educational, medical, military and other activities.
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The industrial society is becoming more and more dominant in the modern world
extending its influence on the other types of societies such as agricultural, horticultural,
etc. It has become highly successful in exploiting the natural environment in an effective
manner. But this success has caused “a variety of problems as we witness in the form of
environment pollution, exhaustion of scarce resources, over population, the destruction
of traditional communities, the disruption of kinship systems, mass anonymity, and a
breakneck rate of social change that constantly threatens to disorganize the existing social
structure”.
The effects of industrialisation have been:
(1) The percentage of workers engaged in agriculture has come down while that of workers
engaged in individual activities has gone up.
(2) The process of social mobility has accelerated.
(3) Trade unions have organised industrial workers to fight for their rights.
(4) Since industrial workers maintain continued and close relationship with their kin-
groups and castes, caste stratification has not affected class character.
(5) The traditional and charismatic elite have been replaced by the professional elite.
Check Your Progress
6. What are the effects of Industrialisation?
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7. What are the basic elements of Industrial Social Structure?
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7.5 SUMMARY
Social structure is the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby human
beings in a society interact and live together. The major components of social structure
include culture, social class, social status, roles, groups, and social institutions.
Tribal, Agrarian and Industrial social structure share some common facets of life.
They show interdependence. Despite this interdependence between the two there are certain
distinctive features which separate them from each other in terms of their size, demographic
composition, cultural moorings, style of life, economy, employment and social relations.
A very important factor in the history of society has been the Industrial Revolution
which has brought about far-reaching consequences in the structure of societies. As a
result of this economic revolution, several important alterations occurred in the social
structure and a new type of society called industrial society was born.
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The economy is industry-based. The society is divided into a number of classes for
example, the capitalist, the workers and the petty shopkeepers. There is emergence of a
number of professional and technical jobs requiring special knowledge and training. Rapid
means of transport and a wide network of communications has been developed. The system
of production, distribution and exchange is different. It is based on use of mechanical
power. Large scale production of goods and use of new technology in the system of
production is the most important feature of an industrial society. Migration to cities has
led to the breakdown of agricultural economy and also the disappearance of the joint
family system. A system of nuclear families has emerged.
Capitalism, exploitation, class conflicts, cultural lags, impersonality of relationships
predominance of individualism and mechanical life are the attributes of industrial society
which create mental and emotional disorders.
Religious institutions are no longer playing an important role in controlling the
behaviour of the people. There is increasing importance of science and education. Industrial
societies give rise to a number of secondary groups such as corporations, political parties,
business houses, government bureaucracies, cultural and literary associations and special
purpose organisations of various kinds.

1 Religion plays an important role in the tribal organization. The members of a tribe usually
worship a common ancestor. Also, nature worship is common among them. In addition to
the ancestral worship and nature worship the aboriginals practice other types of faith. The
tribals practice faiths such as-Buddhism, animism, Fetishism and Totemism. Magic is
also widespread among them and political organizations are based on this religion.
Fetishism endows objects with supernatural or mystical powers for good or evil. The
person who possesses the fetish can ward off bad luck and will have good fortunes. Hence,
fetishism is nothing but the adoration of material things because of their mysterious power.
Animism is essentially a belief in the spirit of the dead. A totem is a species of animal or
plant and totemism is belief that animal or pant has some mysterious power.
2. The life of tribals evolves around social groupings from the family level to the tribe
itself. The family, which comprises parents and unmarried children, forms the smallest
social unit. A group of families which are related to one another by blood forms a lineage.
The family lineage may be patrilineage or matrilineage. In some cases a tribal village
comprises members of a single lineage or it maybe a village of multilineage. The next
higher social group is the clan which comprises members of many blood related lineages.
It also means group of people claiming common descent. The clan may be totemic or non-
totemic. The clan organization regulates marriage which means that the clan is exogamous.
A clan may have sub-clans. Several clans grouped together form a phratry or a territorial
group. Multiple phratries form a moiety or an exogamous division of a tribe. The largest
social unit is the tribe itself.
3. Broadly Sociologists have classified the agrarian class in India as follows.
Landlords: Under permanent settlement, a new type of landlordism was created i.e.
Zamindar. Under the terms of this settlement, the right of ownership was conferred on
Zamindar. There were two types of landlords-The Zamindar Taluqdars and Money lenders
121
Tenants: The creation of Zamindari settlement transformed the owner-cultivator
relationship of pre-British India in to class of tenants. Broadly there were two categories
of tenants in Zamindari areas tenants under Zamindars and tenants under lease tenure
holders during British period
Agricultural Labourers: There are three types of agricultural labourers. They are:
• Owners of small plot of land in addition to drawing their livelihood from sale of their
labour.
• Landless and lived exclusively on hiring out of their labours.
• Landless and their status almost that of bondage or semi-bondage
Artisans: They form integral part of village community contributing to the general self
sufficient image of Indian villages.
The emerging class structure shows four main class groups. They are: (1) ex-jagirdars and
Zamindars, (2) merchants, (3) peasants and artisans, and (4) agricultural and manual
labourers. These classes constitute a hierarchy with the laborers at the bottom and the ex-
landlords at the top.
4. Three main types of settlement patterns have been observed in rural areas:
i) The most common type is the nucleated village found all over the country. Here, a tight
cluster of houses is surrounded by the fields. An outlying hamlet or several satellite hamlets
are also found to be attached to some villages in this case.
ii) Secondly, there are linear settlements in some parts of the country, e.g. in Kerala, in
Konkan and in the delta lands of Bengal. In such settlements, houses are strung out, each
surrounded by its own compound. However, there is little to physically demarcate where
one village ends and another begins.
iii) The third type of settlement is simply a scattering of homesteads or clusters of two or
three houses. In this case also physical demarcation of villages is not clear. Such settlements
are found in hill areas, in the Himalayan foothills, in the highlands of Gujarat and in the
Satpura range of Maharashtra.
5. Family is one of the most important social institution which constitutes the rural society.
Rural Family is a Joint Family. Important dimensions of‘jointness’ of family are
coresidentiality, commenality, coparcenary, generation depth (three), and fulfillment of
obligation towards kin and sentimental aspect. Rural family works as the unit of economic,
cultural, religious, and political activities. Collectivity of the family is emphasized in
social life, and feelings of individualism and personal freedom are very limited.
6. The effects of industrialisation have been:
(1) The percentage of workers engaged in agriculture has come down while that of workers
engaged in individual activities has gone up.
(2) The process of social mobility has accelerated.
(3) Trade unions have organised industrial workers to fight for their rights.
(4) Since industrial workers maintain continued and close relationship with their kin-
groups and castes, caste stratification has not affected class character.
(5) The traditional and charismatic elite have been replaced by the professional elite.
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7. The basic elements of Industrial social structure are:
• The economy is industry-based. The society is divided into a number of classes for
example, the capitalist, the workers and the petty shopkeepers.
• Emergence of a number of professional and technical jobs requiring special knowledge
and training.
• Rapid means of transport and a wide network of communications has been developed.
• The system of production, distribution and exchange is different. It is based on use of
mechanical power. Large scale production of goods and use of new technology in the
system of production is the most important feature of an industrial society.
• Migration to cities has led to the breakdown of agricultural economy and also the
disappearance of the joint family system. A system of nuclear families has emerged.
7.7. MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Explain Social Structure of Tribal society.
2. Explain about Agrarian Social Structure.
3. Discuss about Industrial Social Structure.
1. Highlight the important features of Tribal Social Structure.
2. Write about the agrarian class structure.
3. Explain about Caste and Jajmani System.
7.8. GLOSSARY
Social Structure :It is the organized pattern of the inter-related rights and obligations of
persons and groups in a system of interaction as seen in terms of statuses, roles, institutions
governed by social norms and values.
Coresidentiality :It means that members of a family live under the same roof.
Commenality :It implies that they eat together i.e., have common kitchens.
Coparcenary :It means that they have joint ownership of property.
Embourgeoisement :It refers to the phenomenon of upward social mobility of lower class
people, e.g., entry of a working class individual into the elite class through acquisition of
wealth or power.
Jointness of Family :It refers to various dimensions of jointness in family structure, e.g.,
coresidentiality, commenality, coparcenary, obligation towards kin and sentiment of
jointness.
Kindred of Cooperation :The kindred of cooperation are that population, within a village,
in which most economic and ritual activities take place without any formalities. This is a
smaller unit, referring to the actual ties of kin.
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Kindred of Recognition :The kindred of recognition refer to that population in which
cooperation in economic and ritual activities is through information and invitation. This
is a larger unit, spread over several villages for each caste.
Proletarianisation :It refers to the process of downward social mobility of upper class
people, e.g., a landlord becoming landless labourer.
‘Jajmani’ System :It is an age-old social institution that refers to the inter-caste and inter
family social, economic, political and ritual ties prevalent in villages.
Village Exogamy and ‘Gotra’ Exogamy :Exogamy means marrying outside the group.
Village exogamy refers to the tradition of prohibiting marriage within the village in North
India. Similarly, ‘gotra’ exogamy prohibits marriage within one’s own gotra (clan).
7.9. FURTHER READINGS

2. Ahuja, Ram : Society in India (2004)
3. Rao, Shankar, C.N. : Sociology of Indian Society (2004)
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UNIT - 8 : FAMILY, MARRIAGE AND KINSHIP IN INDIA
Contents
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Definition of Family
8.3 Types of Family
8.4 Functions of the Family
8.5 Nature of family in India
8.6 Definition of Marriage
8.7 Forms of Marriage
8.8 Marriage among Hindus
8.9 Marriage among Muslims
8.10 Marriage among Christians
8.11 Forms and Functions of Kinship
8.12 Terms and Usages of Kinship
8.13 Summary
8.14 Check your progress-Model Answers
8.16 Glossary
8.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we will discuss the definition of family, types and functions of family,
nature of family in India, Indian family in transition, forms and functions of kinship and
its terms and usages. By the end of this unit you will be able to
• Discuss the meaning of family, its types and functions
• Understand the nature of family in India
• Explain the importance of marriage
• Explain the different forms of marriage
• Explain the age at marriage
• Discuss forms and functions of kinship and its terms and usages.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In human context, a family (derived from Latin word 'familia') is a group of people
affiliated by consanguinity (by recognized birth), affinity (by marriage) or co-residence/
shared consumption. Christopher Harris notes that the Western conception of family is
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ambiguous and confused with the household, as revealed in the different contexts in which
the world is used.
8.2 DEFINITION OF FAMILY

The family is an intimate domestic group made up of people related to one another
by bonds of blood, sexual mating or legal ties. It is the smallest and the most basic social
unit, which is also the important primary group found in any society.
It is simplest and most elementary group found in a society. It is social group
consisting of a father, mother and one or more children. It is the most immediate group a
child is exposed to in fact, it is the most enduring group, which has tremendous influence
on the life of an individual, from birth until death. It also accounts for the most enduring
social relationship found in society. Family has been defined by different social scientists.
“Family is a group defined by sexual relationship, sufficiently precise and enduring
to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children” - MacIver.
“The family, almost without question, is the important of any groups that human
experience offers the family is with us always, or more precisely, we are with it”- Robert
Bierstedt.
“Family more or less durable association of husband and wife, with or without child,
or of a man or woman alone, with children”- M.F. Nimkoff.
“Family is group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption constituting
a simple household interacting and intercommunicating with each other in their respective
social of husband and wife, father and mother, son and daughter, brother and sister, creating
a common culture”- Burgess and Locke.
“Family is the biological social unit composed of husband, wife and children”- Eliott
and Merrill.
“Family is group of persons whose relations, to one another or based upon
consanguinity and who are therefore kin to one another” - Kingsley Davis.
8.3 TYPES OF FAMILY

The diverse date coming from ethnography, history, law and social statistics establish
that the human family is an institution and not a biological fact founded on the natural
relationship of consanguinity. The different types of families occur in a wide variety of
setting and their specific functions and meanings depend largely on their relationship to
other social institutions. Although the concept of consanguinity originally referred to
relations by “blood”, Cultural Anthropologists have argued that one must understand the
idea of blood metaphorically and that many societies understand family through other
concepts rather than through genetic understand.
Sociologists have a specific interest in the function and status of these forms in
stratified (especially capitalist), societies. According to the work of the scholars like Max
Weber, Alan Macfarlane, Steven Ozment, Jack Goody and Peter Laslett the huge
transformation that led to modern marriage in western democracies was “fueled by the
religio-cultural value system provided by elements of Judaism, early Christianity, Roman
Catholic canon law and the Protestant Reformation”.
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Much sociological, historical and anthropological research dedicates itself to the
understanding of this variation and of changes in the family that over time. Times have
changed it is more acceptable and encourages for fathers to work and mothers to spend
more time at home with the children. The way roles are balanced between the parents, will
help children’s grow and learn valuable life lessons. There is great importance of
communication and equality in families, in order to avoid roles strain.
Conjugal (Nuclear) Family
The term ‘nuclear family’ is commonly used, especially in the United States to refer
to conjugal families. A conjugal family includes only the wife and unmarried children.
Sociologists distinguish between conjugal families and nuclear families.
Joint Family
In joint families 3 or more generations of people stay together, cook and have the
food at one place, collective prayers, joint economy and elder member of family usually
exercise the power in the house.
Matrilocal Family
A ‘matrilocal’ family consists of a mother and her children. Generally, these children
are her biological offspring, although adoption of children is a practice in every society.
This kind of family is common where the resources to rear their children by themselves
have or where men are more mobile than women.
Extended Family
The term ‘extended family’ is also common, especially in the United States. The
term has distinct meanings. First, it serves as a synonym of “consanguine family”
(consanguine means of the same blood). Second, in societies dominated by the conjugal
family, it refers to “kindred” (an egocentric network of relatives) that extends beyond the
domestic group, who do not belong to conjugal family. These types refer to ideal or
normative structures found in particular societies. Any society will exhibit some variation
in the actual composition and conception of families.
Blended Family
The term blended family or step family describes families with mixed parents. One
or both parents remarried, bringing children of the former family into the new family.
Also in sociology, particularly in the works of social psychologist Michael Lamb traditional
family refers to ‘a middle class family’ with a bread-winning father and a stay-at-home
mother, married to each other and raising their biological children and non-traditional to
exceptions from this rule. Most of US households are now non-traditional under this
definition.
In terms of communication patterns in families, there are a certain set of beliefs
within the family that reflects how its members should communicate and interact. These
family communication patterns arise from two underlying sets of beliefs. One being
conversation orientation (the degree to which the importance of communication is valued)
and two, conformity orientation, the degree to which families should emphasize similarities
or differences regarding attitudes, beliefs and values.
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Check Your Progress
1. Why a “Family” is considered a principle institution of the society?
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2. What are different types of families?
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8.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY

A functional family is one in which family members fulfil their agreed upon roles
and responsibilities treat each other with respect and affection, and meet each other’s
needs The six primary functions of a family are:
1. Socialization: The process by which children learn to become human and adopt certain
behaviour. Children learn from what they see and experience in their developing years.
Since children spend most of their early years interacting with their family members, the
family unit has the greatest impact on development.
a. Socialization and language: The ability to speak language is one way to prove the
impact a family can have on socialization. Children pick up language of their parents by
imitating sounds of their parents. If no language is developed at a young age, it is very
difficult to establish communication skills later.
b. Socialization Proof-Feral Children: Another way to prove that children learn language
and behaviour from families is through studying feral children. Feral children are those,
who have been deprived of human contact during their early developing years.
One case involves two girls in India that were said to be raised by wolves. They had no
language but growled, yelped and murmured. They could not stand erect. They did not use
their hands to eat but lowered their hands instead. These types of cases show that human
interaction is required for children to acquire human behaviour.
2. Rules of Behaviour: These types of cases show that human interaction is required for
children to acquire human behaviour. The family teaches appropriate behaviour, what to
expect and how to interact in everyday life.
Charles Cooley argued that we learn emotions such as love, pity, pride, sympathy,
generosity, guilt and a sense of right and wrong, are taught to us by our family. One study
showed that the emotional health of students was directly related to the relationship between
parents. So even emotional health is taught to the children by their parents.
3. Patterns of interaction: Studies also show that children that have deprived of close
family relationships which lead to emotional problems as adults. This form a cycle as
these adults may have abusive relations is prone to more abusive behaviour. Studies have
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shown that as children grow if they are taught to express violence when angry, they will
continue this behaviour throughout their lives unless they are re-socialized by choice.
Children also learn how to deal with problems from the example of their parents. For
example, children with parents that smoke are also more likely to smoke. Parents are role
models for their children, both positive and negative.
4. Emotional Support: Childrens from parents that have a loving relationship and are
supportive, have a more positive self image and were also more confident. Children’s
from families that have distrust and hostility are more likely to have a negative self image
and emotional problems.
5. Reproductive Function: In order for a society to continue to exit it must replace people
that die. The family is responsible for raising children to become contributing members of
society. In many advanced countries, families are choosing to have less children. Birth
control has made choice possible since the 1970’s. In Canada, we have an aging population.
This means less young people than older people. We will need to increase immigration to
fulfil jobs such as doctors, nurses etc. There will be greater demand for health care since
most people will be older. Younger people will have to pay more taxes to maintain standard
of living.
6. Economic Function: Families are the means whereby children are supplied with the
necessities like food, shelter and clothing. In the past, children were needed to work on
farms and help provide for the family at an early age. Today children are normally dependent
on the family until high school education.
Characteristics of Family
1. A family is universal group. It is found in some form or the other, in all types of
societies whether primitive or modern.
2. Family is based on marriage which results in a mating relationship between two
adults of opposite sex.
3. Every family provides an individual with a name, and hence, it is source of
nomenclature.
4. Family is the group through its decent or ancestry we can be treated.
5. Family is the most important group in any individual life.
6. Family is the most basic and important group in primary socialization of an
individual.
7. A family is generally limited in size, even large, joint and extended families.
8. The family is the most important group in society it is the nucleus of all institutions,
organizations and groups.
9. Family is a unit of emotional and economic co-operation.
10. Each member of family shares duties and responsibilities.
11. Each family is made up of different social roles, like those of husband, wife, mother,
father, children, brothers or sisters.
Family Dysfunction
When families fail to provide any of the necessary elements of these functions over
time or repeatedly, they are considered to be dysfunctional. This can lead to emotional,
social and or developmental difficulties for the family functions- providing love and support
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and sharing responsibilities are absent. This can occur when an alcoholic or neglectful, a
teenager steals to support a drug habit, or everyone in the family screams or is physically,
emotionally, sexually or psychologically abusive to each other.
Check Your Progress
3. What is a functional family?
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4. Who are called feral children?
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8.5 NATURE OF FAMILY IN INDIA

In India people learn the essential themes of cultural life within the bosom of a
family. In most of the country, the basic units of society are the partilineal family unit and
wider kinship groupings. The most widely desired residential unit is the joint family, ideally
consisting of three or four patrilineally related generations all living under one roof,
working, eating, worshipping and co-operating together in mutually beneficial social and
economic activities. Patrilineal joint families include men related through the male line,
along with their wives and children. Most young women expect, to live with their husband’s
relatives after marriage, but they retain important bonds with their natal families.
Despite the continuous and growing impact of urbanization, secularization and
westernization, the traditional joint household, both in ideal and in practice, remains the
primary force in the lives of most Indians. Loyalty to family is a deeply held ideal for
almost everyone. Large families tend to be flexible and well suited to modern Indian life,
especially for the 67 percent of Indians who are farmers or agricultural workers or work in
related activities. As in most primarily agricultural societies, few individuals can hope to
achieve economic security without being part of a co-operating group of Kinsmen. The
joint family is also common in cities, where kinship ties can be crucial to obtaining scarce
jobs or financial assistance.
The joint family is an ancient Indian institution, but it has undergone some change
in the late twentieth century. Although several generations living together is the ideal,
actual living arrangements vary widely depending on region, social status and economic
circumstance. Many Indians live in joint families that deviate in various ways from the
ideal, and many live in nuclear families (a couple with their unmarried children) as is the
most common pattern in the west. However, even where the ideal joint family is seldom
found (as, for example, in certain regions and among impoverished agricultural laborers
and urban squatters), there are often strong networks of kinship ties through which economic
assistance and other benefits are obtained. Not infrequently, clusters of relatives live very
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near each other, easily available to respond to the give and take of kinship obligations.
Even when relatives cannot actually live in close proximity, they typically maintain strong
bonds of kinship and attempt to provide each other with economic help, emotional support
and other benefits.
As joint families grow ever larger, they inevitably divide into smaller units, passing
through a predictable cycle over time. The break-up of a joint family into smaller units
does not necessary respect the rejection of the joint family ideal. Rather, it is usually a
response to a variety of conditions, including the need for some members to move from
village to city or from one city to another to take advantage of employment opportunities.
Splitting of the family is often blamed on quarrelling women typically the wives of co-
resident brothers. Although women’s disputes may, in fact, lead to family division, men’s
disagreements do so as well. Despite cultural ideals of brotherly harmony, adult brothers
frequently quarrel over land and other matters, leading them to decide to live under separate
roofs and divide their property. Frequently, a large joint family divides after the demise of
elderly parents, when there is no longer a single authority figures to hold the family
functions together. After division, each new residential unit, in its turn, usually becomes
joint when sons of the family marry and bring their wives to live in the family home.
Variations in Indian family structure
Some family types bear special mention because of their unique qualities. In the
sub- Himalayan region of Uttar Pradesh, Polygyny is commonly practiced. There among
Hindus, a simple polygyny family is composed of a man, his two wives, and their unmarried
children. Various other family types occur there, including the supplemented subpolygynous
household a women whose husband lives elsewhere (perhaps with his other wife), her
children plus other relatives.
Polygyny is also practiced in other parts of India by a tiny minority of the population,
especially in families in which the first wife has not been able to bear children. Among the
Buddhist people of the mountainous Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir, who have
cultural ties to Tibet, fraternal Polyandry is practiced, and a household may include a set
of brothers with their common wife or wives. This family type, in which brothers also
share land, is almost certainly linked to the extreme scarcity of cultivable land in the
Himalayan region, because it discourages fragmentation of holdings.
The people of the northern hill areas are known for their matriliny, tracing descent
and inheritance in the female line rather than the male line. One of the largest of these
groups, the Khasis an ethnic or tribal people in the state of Meghakaya are divided into
matrilineal clans. The youngest daughter receives almost all of the inheritance including
the house. A Khasi husband goes to live in his wife’s house. Khasis, many of whom have
become Christians, have the highest literacy rate in India, and Khasi women maintain
notable authority in the family and community.
Perhaps the best known of Indian’s usual family types is the traditional Nayar taravad.
The Nayars are a cluster castes in Kerala. High ranking and prosperous, the Nayars
maintained matrilineal households in which sisters and brothers and their children were
the permanent residents. After an official prepuberty marriage, each woman received a
series of visiting husbands in her room in the taravad at night. Her children were all
legitimate members of the taravad. Property, matrilineally inherited was managed by the
eldest brother of the senior woman. This system, the focus of much anthropological interest,
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has been disintegrating in the 20th century. In 1990s probably fewer than 5 percent of the
Nayars live in matrilineal taravads. Like the Khasis, Nayar women are known for being
well-educated and powerful within the family.
Check Your Progress
5. What is a polygynous family?
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6. In which part of Indian is fraternal polyandry practiced.
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8.6 DEFINITION OF MARRIAGE

Marriage is one of the social institutions. It is established by the human society to
control and regulate the sex life of man in a culturally defined and socially approved way.
It permits a man and woman to live together as husband and wife. Marriage is not a
biological affair but also a social affair. It is a social permission given to a man and a
woman to live together with certain rights and obligations.
According to Malinowski, “marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance
of children.”
According to Gillin and Gillin, “marriage is a socially approved way of establishing
a family for production.”
H.M. Jhonson viewed, “Marriage as a stable relationship in which a man and a
woman are socially permitted, without a loss of standing in community, to have children.”
A dictionary of sociology defines marriage as “an institution that sanctions the
relationship of a man and woman and binds them in a system of mutual obligation as
husband and wife and rights essential to the functioning of family life.”
Westermark defined marriage as a more or less durable union between male and
female lasting till after the birth of offspring. The union is permanent in nature unless
dissolved by death or divorce of either of the partners.
Marriage is universal but the way it is performed varies from one society to other.
The marriage ceremony is essential for the establishment of family, the union of man and
woman who live together. Marriage is a socially sanctioned union of man and woman for
procreation and for the satisfaction of sexual desire.
Marriage implies a ceremony a union sanctioned by a society, a recognition of
obligations to the community assumed by those entering it. Marriage in general performs
certain important functions:
1. It is the basis for formation of family.
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2. The sexual desire of individuals is regulated through marriage.
3. It fixes the responsibility of bringing up of children upon the parents and assigns the
child a definite place in society.
8.7 FORMS OF MARRIAGE

Marriage is a universal social institution. It puts restrictions on premarital and
extramarital sex relationships. The form of marriage varies from society to society. The
main forms of marriage are:
a. Monogamy
b. Polygamy
c. Group Marriage
d. Preferential Marriage
A) Monogamy
Monogamy, the most widespread form of marriage is found among the primitive as
well as the civilized people. Monogamy is a form of marriage in which one man marries
one woman. This marriage lasts till death. The union is unbreakable. monogamy is regarded
as the most ideal form of marriage.
B) Polygamy
Polygamy is a plural marriage including more than one spouse at the same time. It is
also divided into two types
a) Polyandry
b) Polygyny
a) Polyandry: Polyandry is the marriage of one woman with several men. It is practiced
among the Tibetans, the Bahamas of Africa, the tribals of Sarcoa and others. The Nayars
of Kerala were polyandrous previously. Polyandry is often practiced due to poverty and
heavy bride price. Among the Jodo, property considerations have also caused polyandry.
This polyandrous from of marriage is of two types.
1. Fraternal Polyandry
2. Non-fraternal Polyandry
1. Fraternal Polyandry: when several brothers share the same wife, it is called fraternal
polyandry. The wife goes to spend some time with each husband. The marriage of Draupadi
with the Pandava brothers is an example of fraternal polyandry.
2. Non-Fraternal Polyandry: when a woman marries several men who are not brothers it
is called non-fraternal polyandry. They may be even persons living in different villages.
b) Polygyny: Polygyny is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one
woman at a time. Polygyny is more popular than polyandry. It exists in all parts of the
world.
A number of women not only increase man’s wealth but also his importance,
reputation and authority. Barrenness of women, limited male population, index of social
position etc. are regarded as the main causes of polygyny. Polygyny is also of two types.
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1) Sororal Polygny and
2) Non-Sororal Polygyny
1) Sororal Polygyny: It is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters.
it is found among the tribes which pay a high bride price.
2) Non-Sororal Polygyny: It is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related as
sisters.
C) Group Marriage
Group marriage means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men.
This form of marriage is described as the worst form of marriage because it only occurs
for sexual relationship.
D) Preferential Marriage
Preferential Marriage is of two types.
a. Levirate marriage
b. Sororate marriage
a. Levirate Marriage: Levirate marriage is popularly known as “Devar Vivah”. In this
type of marriage after the death of the husband, the wife marries her husband’s brothers. It
is found among the Gond, Munda and the Oranon etc
b. Sororate Marriage: In this type after the death of wife, the husband marries one of the
sisters of his wife. When a man marries his wife’s younger sister, it is called junior sororate
and when he marries elder sister of his wife, it is called senior sororate.
Forms of Hindu Traditional Marriages
Among the Hindus a bride can be aquired in any of the eight forms of mate selection
given in the scriptures. They are Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Prajapatya, Asura, Gandgharva,
Rakshasa and Paisacha. According to Manu, the first four forms of marriage are desired
by the society are called as 'Prashastya' vivah and the other four forms of marriages are
undesired by the society are 'Aprashastya' vivah forms of marriage.
According to the majority of the Griyah Sutras, the first four bring merit to the
families and their ancestors, while the other four bring none. Hence the first four forms
namely Brahma, Daiva, Arsha and Prajapatya are cherished forms of Hindu marriage. In
these four forms the father of the girl gives his daughter as a gift to the groom. In the other
four forms, the groom has to buy the girl by paying bride price or the acceptance of the
girl’s father is not obtained.
According to the Vedas and also dharma sutras including Vatsayana’s Kamasutra, a
boy should marry after completing his studies. The girl selected for marriage should be a
virgin and should not have been loving else. Vatsayana, Narada and Yajnavalkya gave the
necessary features of a good bridegroom. According to them, a bridegroom should have a
majestic figure full of vigour and virility.
8.8 MARRAIGE AMONG HINDUS

According to Hindu scriptures, marriage is considered a sacrament. The Hindus
desire marriage not so much for sex but to perform the duty of the household to offer
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panchamaha yajnas daily in the company of wife. Among the three aims of Hindu marriage,
Dharma occupies the first place. The aim of marriage is to permit the man to perform his
righteous duties. The other two aims, Praja or acquiring progency and rati or satisfying
the sexual urge is subordinated to Dharma.
Marriage among Hindus is monogamous to very large extent. It is thought that wife
and husband once married should remain so till at least one of them departs from this
world. Hindu society is divided into both exogamous and endogamous divisions.
Endogamous divisions are called “jatis” and numerous exogamous groups are made up
one ‘jati’. The popular English term ‘caste’ is equivalent to ‘jati’. Hence when a marriage
is fixed the choice of girls is to be limited to a man’s jati group. But the girl should not
belong to any exogamous group to which the man belongs.
8.9 MARRIAGE AMONG MUSLIMS

Marriage among Muslims is a contract. It is a Sunnah and an obligation to be fulfilled.
It is a purely secular ceremony and there is nothing sacrosanct about it. According to
prophet Mohammed marriage is a means of producing progeny and assuming the
responsibility for the continuance of the human life and also to enjoy woman’s love . The
main objective of marriage among Muslims, which is known as ‘Nikah” is procreation
and legalization of children.
The Rules of Marriage
Among Muslims there is a preferential code enjoining marriage to a particular relative
as being desirable or obligatory. Likewise there are certain restrictions prohibiting marriage
to certain relatives or between groups as they are considered incestuous or undesirable.
Muslims are divided into two major groups on the basis of their sectarian affiliations:
the Shias and Sunnis. They are again divided into a number of subgroups each bearing a
distinct identity and name. The Muslims place great emphasis on purity of blood and even
those who came to India tried to maintain it by not mixing with the local population. Each
member generally likes to marry within his or her own group. Muslims in Northern India
practice village exogamy. A boy and a girl from the same village are not permitted to
marry because the villagers consider themselves to be belonging to one large family having
a common ancestry. They consider marriage within village incestuous.
The Mohammedan Law provides certain restrictions and prohibitions in so far as
marriage is concerned. The Quran prohibits a man from marrying his mother, daughter,
sister’s daughter and son’ wife and wife’ daughter. It is also stated that a man may not
marry two sisters at the same time. He should not marry a foster mother who has suckled
him. A muslim woman can not marry a non-muslim.
Types of marriage
The Quran strongly recommended monogamy. Among the Indian muslims it became
popular during the period of Muslim rule when the royal families used to have harems
consisting of number of wives drawn from both Muslim and Hindu communities. The
Quran has sanctioned polygamy but it restricted the number of wives to four.
The early Arab marriages are characterized by three features
1. Bina marriage: In this type a woman was free to choose her husband. She received
him in her own tent and dismissed him at her pleasure. The children born belonged to the
woman’s kin and grew up under her protection.
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2. Baal Marriage: In this the woman came to live with her husband and the children
belonged to the husband’s clan. The woman lost her original freedom to dismiss her husband
at her pleasure.
3. Muta Marriage: The contract was stipulated for a specific period and during
that period the woman could not divorce her husband. The woman was not deprived of her
original freedom though it came to be limited and her kin continued to own her children.
Age at marriage
In Islam no age limit is fixed for marriage. It was often seen that quite young girls
may be legally married but a girl is sent to her in-law’s house after attaining puberty.
Arrangement of marriage
In Muslim community the arrangement of marriage remains the responsibility of
the parents. The bride and groom have no role to play in selecting their partners. Marriage
is settled by the guardians for two reasons
1. To achieve the end proposed in marriage i.e. procreation
2. Marriage to be contracted only with a woman who equals the man in birth,
profession and faith.
At the marriage, the presence of proxy and male witnesses is considered essential.
No marriage is solemnized without the presence of the witnesses.
Mehr
The Mehr has become an integral part of the Muslim marriage and is even mentioned
in the ‘Nikhanama’, the certificate which the lady receives at the time of marriage. Mehr
is payment of certain amount of money by Muslim groom to his wife. It is obligatory in
every Muslim marriage. Payment of Mehr is token of the man’s respect for his wife and
means the realization that she is someone who has come to him for nothing. It is meant to
give her status and raise her in the esteem of her husband and world.
Talaq
Divorce in Islam is known as Talaq, which means “I divorce you’’. If a wife asks
“talaq” to her husband, then the term could be interpreted as “please divorce me”. Many
non- Muslims view that a Muslim men (who married) can dissolve the marriage at any
time by telling his wife “talaq, talaq, talaq” also (known as triple talaq) on his own. But
that is not easy and simple in Islam because there are several processes that must be done
as a form of responsibility of both parties according to the rules of Islamic Law.
Divorce in Islam is legitimate even though God hates it. If there has been a divorce
between a pairs of households (same partner) three times (talaq and ruju) then is no “ruju”
(reunited) until one of them has remarried. If a husband says “talaq” three times “the law
remains the one time and they can do a “ruju”(unified return) until the limit of three times
the divorce with the same partner.
“Talaq” a husband in Islam is not legally valid if the husband said when drunk or
under emotionally charged state. Divorce will only be considered valid and correct if in
accordance with the rules of Islam Law and not according to their own passions and desires.
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8.10 MARRIAGE AMONG CHIRISTIANS
Among Christians marriage is considered to be a socially sanctioned union of male
and female, a license for parenthood. It is primarily a means of legalizing sex relations.
Christians also consider marriage as a sacrament. Marriage from the societal point of
view is given the hallmark of social approval and made legal contract which defines the
relationship between husband and wife and between parents and children.
Rules of Marriage
Among Christians an endogamous norm requires that marriage parents be of the
same race. Another endogamous norm concern religion. People raised in the Jewish faith
are under pressure to marry only those ones from the same religious background. Exogamy
refers to mate selection norms requiring individuals to marry someone outside of their
group. Exogamous norms are usually referred to as incest taboos.
Among Christians marriage is prohibited within the seventh degree which is to count
from one of the parties up to a common ancestor and then down to the other party. First
cousins were related in the fourth degree and uncle and niece in the third degree. Seven
degrees are equivalent to seven generations. In order to forbid marriage between Kinsfolk
the seventh degree was chosen. The common law of the English church forbids marriage
with a deceased wife’s sister and also marriage with a deceased brother’s widow. A Christian
marriage which consummated is a sacrament and as such valid forever. According to the
law of nature it is permanent and because of this permanency it can fulfill its objective.
Forms of Marriage
Monogamy is the only form of marriage that is legal among Christians. Jesus
condemned polygamy. Any person who marries for the second time is said to commit
adultery. A Christian marriage takes place with the consensus of the partners. According
to the religious doctrines, no girl should be compelled to marry a person whom she dislikes.
A father cannot force his son or daughter into marriage but he has right of voice in his
children’s marriage.
Divorce
Through the Christian marriage is considered a sacrament, it is revocable. According
to the 1896 Divorce Act, divorce maybe taken on the following grounds
1. If the husband changes his religion
2. Marries for the second time
3. Has sexual relations with another woman
4. Stays away from the wife for a very long period
5. Is cruel to the wife.
In the same way, a husband can divorce his wife when she is having illegitimate
contacts with other men.
Check Your Progress
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7. List the main forms of marriage.
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8. What similarities and differences have you noticed in Hindu and Muslim Marriage
system?
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8.11 FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF KINSHIP

Anthropologist Robin Fox states that “the study of kinship is the study of whatman
does with these basic facts of life-mating, gestations, parenthood, socialization, sibling-
manship”. Human society is unique, he argues, in that we ‘are working with the same raw
material as exists in the animal world, but (we) can conceptualize and categorize it to
serve social ends’. These social ends include the socialization of children, and the formation
of basic economic, political and religious groups.
Within anthropology, kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships
themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of social relationships themselves,
or it can refer to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human
cultures. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and
terms in the study of kinship, such as descent, descent group and lineage, affine, cognate
and fictive kinship. Further, even within these two broad usages of the term, there are
different theoretical approaches.
Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent
(one’s social relations during development) and by marriage. Human kinship relations
through marriage are commonly called “affinity” in contrast to the relationships that arise
in one’s group of origin, which may be called one’s “descent group”. In some cultures,
kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual as economic
or political relationships with or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some
descent groups may be considered to lead back to gods or animal ancestors (totems). This
may be conceived of on a more or less literal basis.
Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals
are organized into social groups, roles categories and genealogy by means of kinship
terminologies. Family relations can be represented concretely or abstractly by degrees of
relationship (or kinship distance). A relationship may be relative (e.g. One is a father in
relation to a child) or reflect an absolute (e.g. status difference between a mother and a
childless woman). Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession.
Many codes of ethics the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related
persons stronger than those between strangers.
In a more general sense, kinship may refer to a similarity or affinity between entities
on the basis of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to
a shared ontological origin, a shared historical or cultural connection, or some other
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perceived shared features that connect the two entities. For example, a person studying
the ontological roots of human languages (etymology) might ask whether there is kinship
between the English word “seven”. It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for example,
the news headline “Madonna feels kinship with vilified Wallis Simpson”. To imply a felt
similarity or empathy between two or more entities. In Biology, it typically refers to the
degree of genetic relatedness or coefficient of relationship between individual members
of a species. It may also be used in this specific sense when applied to human relationships.
In which case its meaning is close to consanguinity or genealogy.
8.12 TERMS AND USAGES OF KINSHIP

Different societies classify kinship relations differently and therefore use different
systems of kinship terminology-for example some languages distinguish between affinal
and consanguine uncles, whereas others have only word to refer to both a father and his
brothers. Kinship terminologies include the terms of address used in different languages
or communities for different relatives and the terms of references used to identify the
relationship of these relatives to ego or to each other.
Kin terminologies can be either descriptive or classificatory. when a descriptive
terminology is used; a term refers to only one specific type of relationship, while a
classificatory terminology groups, many different types of relationships under one term.
For example, the word ‘brother’ in English speaking societies indicates a son of one’s
same parent, thus English speaking societies used the word ‘brother’ as a descriptive term
referring to this relationship only. In many other classificatory kinship terminologies, in
contrast, a person’s male first cousin (whether mother’s brother’s son mother’s sister’s
son, father’s brother’s son , father’s sister’s son) may also be referred to as brothers.
These major patterns of kinship system which Lewis Henry Morgan identified
through kinship terminology in his 1871 work systems of consanguinity and affinity of
the human family are:
- Iroquois kinship (also known as “bifurcate merging”)
- Crow kinship (an expansion of bifurcate merging)
- Omaha kinship (also an expansion of bifurcate merging)
- Eskimo kinship (also referred to as “lineal kinship”)
- Hawaiian kinship (also referred to as the ‘generational system’)
- Sudanese kinship (also referred to as the “descriptive system”)
There is a seventh type of system only identified as distinct later:
- Dravidian kinship (the classical type of classificatory kinship with bifurcate merging
but totally distinct from Iroquois)
The Australian Aboriginal kinship is also classificatory. The six types Iroquois, Crow,
Omaha, Hawaiian and Sudanese are not fully classificatory. Dravidian and Australian are
those identified by Murdock (1949) prior to Lounsbury’s (1964) rediscovery of the linguistic
principles of classificatory kin terms.
Anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) performed the first survey of
kinship terminologies in use around the world. Although much of his work is now
considered dated, he argued that kinship terminologies reflect different sets of distinctions.
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For example, most kinship terminologies distinguish between sexes like the difference
between a brother and sister and between generations as the difference between a child
and parent. Moreover, he argued, kinship terminologies distinguish between relatives by
blood and marriage.
Morgan made a distinction between kinship systems that use classificatory
terminology and those that use descriptive terminology. Classificatory systems are generally
and erroneously understood to be those that “class together” with a single term relatives
who actually do not have the same type of relationship. What Morgan’s terminology actually
differentiates are those kinship systems that do not distinguish lineal and collateral
relationships and those kinship systems that do.
Father : a male parent
Mother : a female parent
Son : a male child of the parent (s)
Daughter : a female child of the parent (s)
Brother : a male child of the same parent (s)
Sister : a female child of the same parent (s)
Grandfather : Father of a father or mother
Grandmother : Mother of a mother or father
Cousins : two people (commonly children) that share the same grandparents(s)
Such systems generally assume that the mother’s husband has also several others as
the biological father. In some families, a woman may have children with more than one
man or a man may have children with more than one woman. The system refers to a child
who shares only one parent with another child as a “half-brother” or “half-sister”. For
children who do not share biological or adoptive parents in common, English-speakers
use the terms “step brother’ or “step sister” to refer to their new relationship with each
other when one of their biological parents marries one of the other child’s biological
parents. Any person (other than the biological parent of a child) who marries the parent of
that child becomes the “step parent” of the child, either the “step mother” or “step father”.
The same terms generally apply to children adopted into a family as to children born into
the family.
Typically, societies with conjugal families also favor neolocal residence, thus upon
marriage a person separates from the nuclear family of their childhood (family of
orientation) and forms a new nuclear family (family of procreation). However in the western
society the single parent family has been growing more accepted and has begun to truly
make an impact on culture. The majority of single parent families are more commonly
single mother families than single father. Members of the nuclear families of members of
one’s own (former) nuclear family may called as lineal or as collateral. Kin who regard
them as lineal refer to them in terms that are built on the terms used within the nuclear
family.
*Grand parent
Grandfather : a parent’s father
Grandmother : a parent’s mother
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*Grand child
Grandson : a child’s son
Granddaughter : a child’s daughter
For collateral relatives, more classificatory terms come into play, terms do not build on
the terms used within the nuclear family:
Uncle : Father’s brother, (or) Mother’s brother (or)
Father’s sister’s husband (or) Mother’s sister’s husband.
Aunt / Aunty : Father’s sister (or) Mother’s sister (or)
Father’s brother’s wife (or) Mother’s brother’s wife.
Nephew : Brother’s son, Sister’s son
Husband’s brother’s son, Husband sister’s son
Wife’s brother’s son, Wife’s sister’s son.
Niece : Brother’s daughter, Sister’s daughter
Husband’s brother’s daughter, Husband sister’s daughter
Wife’s brother’s daughter, Wife’s sister’s daughter.
When additional generations intervene (in other words, when one’s collateral
relatives belong to the same generation as one’s grandparents or grandchildren), the prefixes
“great” or “grand”modifies these terms. Also, as with grandparents and grand children, as
more generations intervene the prefix becomes ‘great-grand’, adding an additional ‘great’
for each additional generation. Most collateral relatives have never had membership of
the nuclear family of the member of one’s own nuclear family.
Cousin: The most classificatory term: the children of uncle and aunty. One can
further distinguish cousins by degrees of co-laterality and by generation. Two persons of
the same generation who share a grandparent count as ‘first cousins’ (one degree of co
laterality); if they share a great grandparent they count as ‘second cousins’ (two degrees
of collterality) and so on.
Cousins of older generation (in other words, one’s parent’s first cousins although
technically first cousins one’s removed are often classified with “aunty” and “uncle”.
Similarly, a person may refer to close friends’ of one’s parents “aunt/aunt’s or “uncles” or
may refer to close friend as ‘brother’ using the practice of “fictive kinship” English speakers
mark relationships by marriage (except for wife/husband) with the tag “-in-law”. The
mother and father of one’s spouse becomes one’s mother-in-law and father-in-law the
female spouse of one’s child becomes one’s daughter-in-law and the male spouse of one’s
child becomes one’s son-in-law. The term “sister-in-law” refers to three essentially different
relationships, either the wife of one’s sibling, or the sister of one’s spouse or in some uses
the wife of one’s spouse’s sibling. The term brother-in-law expresses a similar ambiguity.
The term “half brother” and “half sister” indicate siblings who share only one biological
or adoptive parent.
Check Your Progress
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9. What is kinship?
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8.13 SUMMARY
A Family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity or co-residence.
Family is the principle institution for the socialization of children. It is a “family of
procreation” the goal of which is to produce and acculturate and socialize children. The
different types of families occur in a wide variety of settings and their specific functions
and meanings depend on their relationship to other social institutions. A functional family
is one in which family members fulfill their agreed upon roles and responsibilities; treat
each other with respect and affection, and meet each other’s needs. Despite the continuous
and growing impact of urbanization, secularization and westernization, the traditional
joint family, both in ideal and practice, remains the primary force in the lives of most
Indians. More recent crises in Indian families encompass marital strain and dissolution
parent-child conflicts, and various forms of family violence. Kinship refers both to the
patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.

1. Family is the principle institution for the socialization of children. It is the basic unit
for raising children. One of the primary functions of a family is to produce and reproduce
persons biologically and or socially. That is why a family is considered a principal
institution in the society.
2. Different types of families are 1) Conjugal (Nuclear) family, 2) Joint Family,
3) Matrilocal family, 4) Extended family, 5) Blended family
3. A Functional family is one in which family members fulfill their agreed upon roles and
responsibilities, treat each other and affection, and meet each other’s needs.
4. Feral children are those, who have been deprived of human contact during their early
developing years.
5. A Polygynous family consists of a man, his wives and their unmarried children.
6. Fraternal polyandry is practiced in Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir
7. The main form of the marriage are
1) Monogamy 2) Polygamy 3) Group Marriage 4) Preferential Marriage
8. In Hindus Marriage is a sacrament, but in Muslims it's a contract. Monogamy is practiced
in societies. Hindu Marriage has three aims Dharma, Praja and Rati. The objective of
Muslim marriage is procreation and legalization of children.
9. Kinship refers to a principle by which an individual or groups of individuals are organized
into social groups.
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8.15 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION
1. Define family and explain various types of families.
2. Discuss the functions of family.
3. Explain the history of early marriages in India and the reasons for early
marriages.
4. Discuss various terms and usages of kinship.
1. Under which laws child marriages are prohibited in India
2. Expalin the term “Kinship” in detail
3. Discuss in brief the variations in Indian family structure
8.16 GLOSSARY
Conjugal (Nuclear) family : a family consisting of husband, wife and their children
Matrilocal family : a family, which includes a mother and her children
Extended family : family with mixed people from both conjugal and consanguine family
Blended family : family with mixed parents
Monogamy : A form of marriage in which one man marries one woman
Polygamy : A plural marriage, includes more than one spouse at the same time
Polyandry : A marriage of one woman with several men
Polygyny : A marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a time
Levirate marriage : In this type of marriage, after the death of the husband the wife
marries her husband’s brother
Sororate marriage : In this type of marriage, after the death of wife, the husband marries
one of the sister’s of his wife
Mehr : Payment of a certain amount of money by Muslim groom to his wife
Talaq : Divorce in Islam is known as Talaq

1. Venkatraman : A Treatise on Hindus Law
2. P.N.Prabhu : Hindu Social Organization
3. K.M.Kapadia : Marriage and Family in India
4. Ram Ahuja : Indian Social System
5. Kingley Davis : Human Society
6. C.N.Shanker Rao : Principles of Sociology
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UNIT - 9 : RELIGIOUS COMPOSITIONS IN INDIA:
COMMUNALISM, SOCIAL TENSIONS,
PROBLEMS OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES
Contents
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Major Religions in India
9.2.1. Hinduism
9.2.2 Buddhism
9.2.3 Islam
9.2.4 Christianity
9.2.5 Sikhism
9.3 Religion in Contemporary India
9.3.1 Secularism Challenges
9.4 Communal Tensions in India
9.5 Issues of Minorities in India
9.6 Summary
9.9 Glossary
9.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit you will be able to
• Identify and explain the components of various Religions in India
• You will explain the influence of the religion on Indian society.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Religion is one of the oldest social institutions that form a basic element in the
Social Structure. It is a prescribed way of living and a sacred path to reach god with a set
of belief systems and rituals with an indomitable faith on a supreme power. Religion is
born out of Awe. The mystery of nature has always intrigued the primitive mankind.
Changing days and nights, seasons, climate, the sun, the moon, the wind, the rain and
breeze, the plants and animals all had instilled in his psyche a kind of awe and fear for the
unknown. He believed that there is an invisible power “god” that is manifesting in each
form of the nature. He started to admire the creation of the nature when it is beautiful and
feared when it is terrifying. He felt that the occurrence of natural calamities like floods,
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famines, wind, and every kind of natural conditionthat make him fearful are the result of
that invisible power’s angry. In order to satisfy the god, he started to practice certain
rituals constituting worshipping, prayers, offerings and other stuff. Out of which emerged
a prescribed way of living that have a set of beliefs, rituals, practices and values. When
the societies grew from simple to complex, from nomadic to settled agricultural economic
societies, the societies required a normative behaviour of its members that requires less
physical power to exert in order to control the community. The fear of god, and value
systems in the communities helped societies to stabilize and regulate the members of the
community. Thus according to the physical, social and environmental conditions evolved
a unique set of beliefs, rituals and practices for each community that were deeply ingrained
in to one’s own culture.Every member of the community has to follow these rituals and
live in accordance with their culture. This set of beliefs, rituals and practices and the fear
for god the super natural power together formed the basis for the religion.
God is the ultimate being and source for all living and non-living beings in his
creation. Almost all world religions teach the sacred paths to reach that god. The path to
reach god is sacred, disciplined and requires devotion.
In India Religion is a way of living. India has been the soil for the birth and rise of
world’s major religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Besides, there
are many tribal religions but are greatly influenced by the major religions. Though initially
introduced by the invaders of India, the foreign religions like Islam, Christianity and Parsi
are also being deeply planted, nourished and propagated on the soil of India. Across its
enormous length and breadth various religious cultures in India have been sustained
harmoniously side by side. Throughout the history of India, the religion has played an
importantrole in its culture and contributed much for its cultural diversity. Apart from the
native religions, the impact of foreign religions and their assimilation and social integration
in the Indian society has been deep rooted and resulted in a great mosaic of Indian religious
traditions.
9.2 MAJOR RELIGIONS IN INDIA

The major religions in India are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam and
Christianity. Out of the six major religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism
are born in India. Other two religions have made their way into India through foreign
Invaders. Apart from the above religions we find Parsis, Zorastrians, Bahais and other
aboriginal tribal religions in India. Owing to its cultural and religious diversity, it is difficult
to discuss about all the religions here. It is therefore, the discussion is limited to major
religions in this unit.
9.2.1 HINDUISM
Hinduism is the major religion in India. It is the third largest religion in the world.
About 80 per cent of the Indian population follow Hindu religion. In fact Hinduism in
India is not entirely related to those who are Hindus but is a way of living for all Indians
and is an interconnecting thread of the Indians across the country. People belonging to
different religions and cultures have similar patterns of practices as does the Hindus.
Wearing Sindhur, Mangala Sutras, Black Beads, Toe Ringlets, by women and breaking
coconuts during festivals, ceremonies etc., are some Hindu rituals that are commonly
found in the other Indian religious communities.
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TABLE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY RELIGION
Religion Number Percentage
All religious communities 1,210,854.977 100.0
Hindus 966,257,353 79.80
Muslims 172,245,158 14.23
Christians 27,819,588 2.30
Sikhs 20,833,116 1.72
Buddhists 8,442,972 0.70
Jains 4,451,753 0.37
Others 7,937,734 0.66
Religion Not Stated 2,867,303 0.24
Source: Religion, Census of India 2011

Origin of Hindu Religion
In fact the Hindu Religion is the oldest living religion in the world. The Origins of
the religion is unknown. Its references are seen in Sacred Texts like Vedas and Upanishads.
The major source of our knowledge about the religion comes from the body of sacred
literature called the Veda (Knolwedge, Wisdom) but then the religion is considered as
“Sanatana Dharma” or “Vaidika Dharma” that means “which is ever existent. The term
Hindu is of later origin. This term is used by the people who differentiate themselves from
the other religious communities. This word is originated from the word Sindhu which is a
name of the river. The foreign travelers and turks used to call the people living on the
banks of the river sindhu as Sindhus which later on transformed into Hindu.
Characteristics of Hinduism
Founder of the Religion
The founder of the religion is unknown. Unlike other Religions, Hinduism is not
founded by a single person. There is no single messiah.
Sacred Text
The uniqueness of the Hindu Religion is that there is no single sacred text but has
several. Rich scientific knowledge and philosophy embedded in Vedas and Upanishads
are considered to be the sacred texts for Hindus. Apart from Vedas and Upanishads the
Religion has another significant sacred text Bhagavadgita which prescribes Hindu
Philosophy and way of living. We find different teachings given by several Gurus with
their own distinctive perspectives for example Advaita Vaadam (there is no difference
between god and Individual), Dvaitam (God and Individual both are two different entities).
Polytheism
Hinduism is characterized by Polytheism meaning worshipping several gods. As
said earlier, beginning with Harappans the religion has been evolving and encapsulating
indigenous tribal religious practices and beliefs. Worshipping of several gods is the result
of this confluence of several tribal religions each bringing into the main stream their own
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local deities and rituals. It is no exaggeration that there were about Three (3) Crores of
deities worshipped by the Hindu followers. The beauty of the religion is that, it does not
require worshiping entire clan of gods. Every individual or community will have their
specific choice of worshipping the gods according to their local traditions. Besides major
gods like Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva that are being worshipped by everyone, sammakka,
saaralamma, ankaalamma, maisamma, pochamma, etc., are some local deities being known
and worshipped only at that particular region. Saivism, Vaishnavism, Sakthism, Lingayats
and other such sects that maintain different belief system and culture of worship are found
in Hindu religion with little or more variance with the main culture.
Rina: Every individual born with certain Rinas (debts) which he has to repay in his
life time for his salvation.
1. Deva Rina owes to gods and goddesses. It shall be repaid through recitation of
2. Rishi Rina owes to Rishis and Gurus who impart knowledge to the individual and
enlighten his mind and soul.
3. Pitru Rina is the debt towards one’s parents. This debt can be repaid by offering to
dead parents made by sons of the families frees the souls of the parents facilitating
the souls journey towards heaven.
4. Atithi Rina owes to the guests or Atithis who are equal to gods
Karma: Karma is the belief in efficacy of the actions of the individual. What you
sow, so you reap is the inherent meaning of Karma Siddanta. It is the action and the result
of such action. It fixes the responsibility for the actions of an individual. It is the individual
who finally at the receiving end for his deeds either good or bad.
Reincarnation: Punarjanma or rebirth is ordained according to one’s deeds during
the lifetime. The concept of rebirth is based on the concept of immortal nature of the soul
‘Atma’. It is part of the Brahma and it transmigrates from one body to another form of
body not only human in accordance with the good or bad karma when alive in the human
body.
Rituals and Religious Practices:
The Life of Hindu is full of rituals. From cradle to grave every important occasion
is associated with the rituals. Every diety is being worshipped on certain points of time in
the year. Almost all days in a week is being observed to worship a god or goddess. Apart
from the days there are seasons, moon cycles, celestial phenomenon and each event is
being observed with reverence and worshipping. Rituals to pay homage to ancestors have
been the important duty of the sons of the family.
Varna system
The Chaturvarna System consisting of four Varnas namely Brahmana who born out
of the head of the God, Kshatriya from the shoulders, Vaisyas from the thigh and Shudras
from feet. In fact in its early form it is a kind of social stratification for the sake of division
of labour. Later it assumed an awkward position as it created cleavages in the social fabric
with severe inequalities. People belonging to Shudra varna have been looked down upon
by the higher varnas. Kshatriyas are the kings that rule the territory, Brahmans enjoyed
respectable position in the court of the king and acted as chief guides and counselors in
the governance. Vaishyas are the business class. Among all the Varnas, Shudras were in
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the lower strata who owns nothing but have the duty to serve the people of the other three
varnas and were engaged in occupations that are associated with impurities.
Caste System
Many modern researchers argue that caste system is a form of social stratification
in India but not directly associated with Hindu Religion. Since majority of people follow
Hinduism it is believed that caste system is inherent quality of Hindu religion. It is a
peculiar kind of division of labour. People are stratified according to their occupations.
Each occupation or a group of similar kind of occupations is identified with a caste. In its
earliest form caste system is the one to facilitate the economic and social functions of the
society. The caste system evolved over a period of time according to the needs of the
society. With time grew complexities in the caste system compounded by inequalities,
Casteism, and caste based divisions in the country. These days caste has become a political
fielding ground, where in the political party leaders are gaming on the caste based equations
to win elections.
Marriage system
For Hindus Marriage is a sacrament. It is a sacred union of two souls bonded together
through marriage to perform the righteous duties towards family, one’s ancestors, and
towards society. The three major aims of Marriage are Dharma, Praja and Rati. Leading
dharmic way of life by fulfilling the traditional and religious duties assumes importance
over the other two aims. Procreation is the second aim. Marriage is to fulfil the duty of
ensuring the society and family its continuity. Male child is given importance because
through the rites by him along with his wife, the souls of ancestors and parents will be
satisfied and liberated after life. The third aim Rati means sexual pleasure. Since procreation
is the second important aim, sexual pleasure is regarded as a means for procreation and
not an end in itself. Sexual pleasure is to be sought within the marriage, thus it is strictly
regulated and ensured a high moral conduct in the society.
There are eight forms of marriage namely Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Prajapatya, Asura,
Gandharva, Rakshasa and Paisacha. The first four forms of the marriage are cherished as
they are conducted with the consent and blessings of the elders on both sides. The rest of
the four considered as undesirable since the use of force and brutality is associated with
Asura, Rakshasa and Paisacha form of marriages. But in case of Gaandharva the mutual
consent of bride and bridegroom is enough to enter into the marriage. Since the latter four
forms of marriage does not bind the couple through sacramental rituals, and the consent
of the parents these are undesirable.
The marriage is always endogamous. However, in certain special circumstances
Boy from upper strata can marry a girl from the immediate next lower strata. This kind of
arrangement of marriage is called Anuloma Vivaha. If a girl from upper caste marries
lower caste boy it is Pratiloma Vivaiha. Limited legal or social sanction is given for Anuloma
Vivaha but Partiloma Vivaha is always despised and looked down upon by the society.
But in this modern era, many marriages are happening out of one’s caste, religion and
region.
Religious Tolerance and Religious Conversions
The Indian spirit of tolerance, accommodation, belief in the doctrine of seeing god
in every element is clearly reflected in Hindu religion. Hinduism is one such great religion
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that has great religious tolerance. Indian soil has witnessed several Invasions, insurgencies
throughout its history. Islam was introduced in India through Muslim invaders. Later in
eighteenth century Christianity was brought into India through missionaries with the support
of Portuguese, East India Company and other European countries. Yet India sustained the
insurgency on its land, its religion and its culture so does Hinduism sustained all injuries
and invasions and maintained its cultural identity.
Major setback of the Hindu religion is discriminating certain sections of people
from the mainstream as untouchables. This has led to Religious conversions that took
place sponsored by Muslims and Christian Missionaries either through brutal force or by
banking on these cleavages in the religion itself. Buddhism, Sikhism are the Indian religions
that are formed in resentment of the sectoral differences and inequality of the social order
in the Hindu Religion. Bhakti Movements, revival movements surged to bring about the
reforms in the Hindu religion and to protect it from decadence and retain its glory and
uniqueness.
Check Your Progress
1. Write about Varna system.
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9.2.2 Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion to about 520 million people or over 7% of population around
the world. The word comes from ‘buddhi’ meaning ‘to awaken’. It is the 4th largest religion
in the world with its origins in ancient India about 2,500 years ago and later spread to
most parts of Asia. It is based on the teachings of the Buddha, when at the age of 35 he
was himself awakened (enlightened).
Though various schools of Buddhism vary on the exact nature of path for liberation,
the primary canon of the Buddhist teaching is about the path to liberation, i.e. liberation
from sorrow, from desires, from greed and attaining nirvana a transcendent state in which
there is neither suffering, desire, nor sense of self and the persons will be freed from the
cycle of the birth and death. Faith in Buddhism is a trust, a serene commitment to the
Buddhist teachings and enlightened and evolved beings such as Buddha and bodhisattvas.
The Meditation is central for all the schools of Buddha dharma. The Buddhist Dharma
and Sangha, love, compassion, moral conduct, scriptural study and renunciation of desires
are some important elements in the practice of Buddhism.
Gautama Buddha
Buddhism is founded on the basis of the teachings of Buddha also known as
Thathagatha, Gautama Buddha, and Sakhyamuni. The evidence of early texts suggests
that he was born Siddhartha Gautama in Lumbini and grown in Kapilavastu that lies in the
modern Indo Nepal Border. He spent his later life in Modern Bihar of India. According to
Buddhist texts, Gautama Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of the humanity and
its repetition through endless cycles of rebirth. He set out on a quest to find a solution to
the sufferings of the humanity.
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Finding the existing knowledge and teachings to be insufficient to attain his goal he
turned to the practice of dhyana, meditation. He used to sit in meditation under Bodhi
Tree (Focus religious) in the town of now Bodh Gaya in the Gangetic plains region of
South Asia. It is claimed that he gained insight into the karma and his former lives, and
attained enlightenment under this tree. Later he founded a monastic order namely Sangha
and spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma he had discovered. He died at the age of
80 in Kushinagar, India. The teachings of the Buddha over time evolved into many traditions
of which the better known and widespread in the modern era are Theravada, Mahayana
and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Schools of Buddhism
There are three distinct sects in Buddhism. A) Theravada B) Mahayana and C) The
third being Vajrayana or Tantrayana is considered as subsect of Theravada by some Buddhist
Scholars. However, these three schools of thought are regarded as paths or Vehicles of
Buddhism.
Theravada: The Meaning of Theravada in Pali Language is The School of Elders.
It is the path for renunciation. Nirvana the primary goal of this path is attained by practicing
the Noble Eightfold Path also known as the Middle Way, while ceasing the Kleshas i.e.
difficulties in life. The ultimate goal is to escape from the cycle of suffering and rebirth. It
is widespread in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia most importantly in Ceylon, Burma,
Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.
Mahayana: The Sanskrit meaning of Mahayana is the great Vehicle which implies
that the Bodhisattva path is considered as a vehicle to carry the individual to attain Buddha-
hood which is a state where in one chooses to remain in the cycle of rebirth instead of
Nirvana to enlighten or bring awakening among others. This path enshrines recognition or
realization of self and is known for its higher understanding of emptiness and compassion.
This path teaches how to help others; then you automatically don’t harm others.
The traditions of Mahayana that include Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism,
Shingon and Tiantai (Tendai) are found throughout East Asian countries like Nepal, Sikkim,
China, Korea, and Japan.
Vajrayana: This is considered by many scholars as third branch of Buddhism and
for some it is merely a part of Mahayana. This third path is transformation that teaches us
how to be happy ourselves; then we automatically help others. Vajrayana the Diamond
Vehicle is also called Tantrayana,. The reason is that through its practices we transform
our body, speech and mind to be like a diamond strong, clear and indestructible. We can
use the body as a vehicle to work with the mind and develop on the spiritual path.
Tibetan Buddhism that preserves Eighth Century of Indian Siddha teachings of
Vajrayana is followed in surroundings of the Himalayas, Mongolia and Kalmykia. The
goal of Tibetan Buddhism is to attain Buddha-hood or Rainbow body.
The Dhamma, the truth taught by the Buddha, is uncovered gradually through
sustained practice. Buddha says that awakening happens to the trained and prepared mind.
It culminates a long journey of many stages:
Buddha’s six-stage gradual training
Generosity (dana), Virtue (sila) The 5 Precepts, The 8 Precepts, The 10 Precepts,
Uposatha observance days, Heaven (swarga) The Thirty-one Planes of Existence,
Drawbacks (adinava), Renunciation (nekkhamma)
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The Four Noble Truths (cattari ariya saccani)
1. The Noble Truth of Dukkha (dukkha ariya sacca)- Dukkha- The round of rebirth
(samsara)
2. The Noble Truth of the Cause of Dukkha (dukkha samudayo ariya sacca) are Craving
(tanha) and Ignorance (avijja)
3. The Noble Truth of the Cessation of Dukkha (dukkha nirodho ariya sacca) - Nibbana
4. The Noble Truth of the Path Leading to the Cessation of Dukkha (dukkha nirodha
gamini patipada ariya sacca) - The Noble Eightfold Path.
The eight fold path can be factored into three divisions
Discernment (panna):
1. Right View (samma-ditthi) includes Intentional action (kamma) and Admirable
friendship (kalyanamittata)
2. Right Resolve (samma-sankappo)
Virtue (sila):
3. Right Speech (samma-vaca)
4. Right Action (samma-kammanto)
5. Right Livelihood (samma-ajivo)
Concentration (samadhi):
6. Right Effort (samma-vayamo)
7. Right Mindfulness (samma-sati)
8. Right Concentration (samma-samadhi) - Jhana
Three Jewels of Buddhism
The Buddha, the Dharma (the Buddha’s teachings), and the Sangha (the religious
community) are the Three Jewels and are also known as the Three Refuges.
Rituals
Ordination to the monastic life and funeral rites are strictly followed and highly
ritualistic in Buddhism. For most of the Buddhist cultures the rest of the life cycle events
were regarded as secular affairs.
However, a variety of rituals have come to be associated with marriage, ordination,
and death, which vary significantly between Buddhist schools and geographical regions
that are based on regional cultural practices but not on Buddhism.
Marriage and family relationships
The basic premises such as renunciation, detachment, and the pursuit of
enlightenment in Buddhism favour monastic life. Hence, it does not possess doctrinal
standards or institutionalized models of the family.
However, most of Buddhist followers have immediate and extended families that
reflect the pre-existing cultural and religious values.
Buddhism’s five ethical precepts governs social and interpersonal relationships and
indirectly provide a framework for the family that include family life, marriage, roles and
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expectations, sexuality, children, and divorce. They are (1) abstaining from harming living
beings; (2) abstaining from taking what is not given; (3) abstaining from sexual misconduct;
(4) abstaining from false speech; and (5) abstaining from intoxicants.
Divorce, although uncommon for Buddhists, is not prohibited in cases such as
adultery or violence.
Check Your Progress
2. Explain the three distinct traditions of Buddhism.
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9.2.3 Islam
Islam is the largest minority religion in India. It is the youngest and simple religion.
Its origins are rooted in Arabia and have spread over three continents Asia, Africa and
Europe within a hundred years span. The history of Islam can be divided into 3 periods.
The period from Seventh to Twelfth centuries was the Classical period. Mohammed Prophet
was born in this period. The Medieval period ranging from Twelfth Century to Eighteenth
Century has witnessed the rise of the Great Muslim empires and the clashes with the
European Imperialists. The Muslim empires were either affected or collapsed and
institutions got influenced with Western ideologies.
Islam in India
Islam was first introduced in India when Arab invasion under Muhammad-bin-Qasin
(712 A.D.) took place. Consequent invasions of Turks under first Ghaznevide (986 AD)
and last Ghaznevide invasion in 1027 AD, the accession of Qutub-ud-din Aibek in 1206
AD, Islam is used by foreign settlers like the Turks, Afghans and Mughals as a political
weapon than an instrument of social service. They spread Islam in India rather ruthlessly
and with brutal force. Yet they observed distinction between themselves and the converts.
Ashraf or Nobles named as Sayed and Sheik meaning ‘Men of Pen’ and ‘Men of Sword’.
Social intercourse with the rest of Hindu converts was rare. Though the religion seems
casteless on the surface, the converts were divided into numerous caste groups and remained
as ‘Others’ within the Islam fold. The leadership remained in the hands of elite who are
descended aliens from Central Asia and owns their own distinctive culture, tradition, ethics
and morality, language and literature. Due to its roots in alien culture, it brought cleavages
within the Indian society. Yet the adaptability of Indian soil has taken into its arms this
religion in its own way.
Origin of Islam
Islam was founded by Mohammed Prophet. He was born in Mecca circa A.D.570 in
Hashimid house of Quraish tribe. He lost his father a few months before his birth and
mother at an early age of six. It is believed that at Fortieth year he got revelations from the
god through the angel ‘Gabriel’. The angel has told him that he was the prophet of Allah
and that the revelations from God to be conveyed to the people. Mohammed started
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preaching the new faith Islam which means submission of oneself to God from A.D.612
onwards. In Madina he built first mosque. He considered gambling and drinking a curse.
Neither he advocated bloodshed but viewed it as a crime against god. Service of humanity
was the highest act of devotion and a man’s true wealth is his good deeds in this world.
The teachings of the prophet are known as Hadith and are well preserved.
Sacred Text
The Quran is the sacred book of Muslims. After the death of Mohammed, Zaidin
Thabit has collected the messages and preachings of Mohammed and put together on the
insistence of Abu Bakr, the successor of Mohammed. The Quran is a collection of
independent prophetic oracles about sermons. It consists of the Doctrines of Islamic
philosophy and theology. The Quran is a law book and a code of conduct for Muslims and
is considered as a divine truth. Every Muslim follows Quran.
Monotheism
Monotheism worship of one god is strictly followed in Islam. Submission of one’s
will to God’s will, Judgment day, Resurrection of the dead, concepts of good and evil
heaven and hell are associated with the belief in god. Each of the Sura (chapter) of the
quran proclaims about the supremacy of the god, he is considered as the sovereign of the
history and judge of the world. He rules his subjects with compassion and looks after the
faithful and forgives the wrong doers.
Five Pillars of Islam
Muslims consider Islam as religion based on five pillars. First Pillar is ‘Tauheed’.
The doctrine of Tauheed considers that Allah is the only god and Mohammed is his prophet.
Second pillar is ‘Dua’ Prayer at specific times on each day prayer at daybreak ‘Fadjar’,
noon ‘Zuhar’, mid-afternoon ‘Asar’, ‘Maghar’ just before sunset, and ‘Isha’ about dark
are five recognized times of prayer which every Muslim must observe. Third pillar is
‘Roza’ fasting during Ramzan month which is obligatory. At the end of the month based
on the sighting of the moon eid-ul-fitr festival is celebrated. Fourth pillar is Zakat or alms
giving of charity which is compulsory. One unit of every forty units of wealth including
money, land, cattle, jewellery, houses and all other kinds of property has to be shared with
needy and the poor. Fifth pillar is ‘Haj’-pilgrimage to Mecca. Every Muslim once in a
lifetime should visit Mecca to signify the supremacy of Allah and one’s surrender to Allah.
Marriage in Islam
Marriage among Muslims is a contract which a man and a woman enter into by
mutual agreement. But on the occasion of marriage (Nikah) a sermon (Khutba) is performed
to sanctify the contract. Marriage with a father’s brother’s daughter (paternal uncle) is
more or less obligatory. Polygamy is in vogue they can marry up to four wives. However
Quran strongly advocated Monogamy. It assigns to daughters and other females a specific
share in the family property. Dower or Mehr is an obligatory payment to his wife for
marrying him. It is a token of respect for his would be wife and to have a realization that
she is not someone who has come to him for nothing. It is in accordance with the religious
order (Hukme-Shariat) and is intended to provide financial and emotional security for
wife. Generally Qazi (Muslim priest) presides at marriages and an entry as to the amount
of dower is made in their registers.
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9.2.4 Christianity
Christianity is the universal religion having its followers concentrated in Europe,
America and a minor portion in Asia and Africa. It was begun as a movement within
Judaism. When it was rejected by the majority of Jews it merged as a separate religion. It
is based on an historical event of Jesus life, death and the belief of resurrection of Jesus
Christ. The temple of Jerusalem until it was destroyed in A.D.70, was represented as the
strong religious shrine for both the Christians and Jews. Later they emerged as separate
religions. Even after the separation from Judaism the Christian theology retained the
essentials of Jewish theology. The stories of Old Testament, the Psalms, the prophets,
Hebrew bible are indispensable to understand Christian faith and theology.
Origin of Christianity
Jesus Christ was the founder of the religion. He was born in Bethleham in a Jewish
family. Legend is that he was born to virgin mother named Mary. Jesus was baptized by
John the Baptist. According to New Testament Jesus is regarded as the Son of the god.
Christianity in India as far back as the purported time of St.Thomas’s arrival
It is believed that Christianity was first introduced in India by Thomas the Apostle
in Kerala in A.D. 52. He travelled along Kerala coastline and to Goa spreading the word
of Christ.
Portuguese are the one who propagated Christianity in India during the modern
period, followed by the British and other Europeans. However, During the British period,
the Christian Missionary was at its full potential to propagate Christianity and Western
Culture in India. They converted people to Christianity. Their aim was to propagate western
culture and deculturalize and establish their schools and institutions all over the country.
Their main contribution to the Indian society is Westernization and English education.
People from lower castes were inclined to conversation as the new found religion promises
them of education, monetary benefits, cure from chronic illnesses, equal status in the
society which is otherwise denied in Hindu religion due to their caste, and finally, the
simplicity of the religion.
Sacred Text
The religious scripture of Christianity is Bible. It is a code of moral conduct and a
law. In fact there are two groups of scriptures-Old Testament and New Testament. Following
the Jewish precedence, Old Testament includes the sacred books of the Jews. The scriptures
of Christianity that constitute twenty seven books or writings contained in both the Old
and New Testaments together make up the Christian Bible. Christians believe that covenants
(Testament) with Abraham is the Old Testament and covenant with Christ is New Testament.
The New Testament contains Christian teachings.
Christian Theology
The two commandments reflect the essential elements of Christian Religion about
love and god. “You shall love the lord, Your God with all your heart, will all your soul and
with your mind’, “You shall love your neighbour as yourself”. One must love their God,
secondly his neighbour. Since god is the father of all beings and the creator of the whole
world, God has supremacy over the neighbour. God’s love is for man and in one parable
god is represented as a shepherd who cares for the sheep. God allows man freedom and
even if he sinned, God’s love for him never dies.
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The three parts of the Christian doctrine proclaims thus:
1) Belief in God who is the creator of the universe, and the son of God Jesus Christ,
who is both the son of god and son of man. Jesus Christ acts as in intermediary
between God and man and the Holy Spirit and Ghost.
2) Stress on the faith in God and his son; and on obeying the Commandments and
glorifying God. These commandments teach and preach about the love of god, love
for god and one’s neighbor.
3) The belief in Original sin and the possibility of Salvation through faith in Christ
and the grace of God.
Tenets of Christianity
The Trinity- the three fold nature of god is fundamental to all sects of Christianity.
Trinity means one god in three persons. God as father, Son and the Holy Spirit becomes
the holy trinity for Christians. God is the ultimate reality and is seen through his son Jesus
Christ. The life and story of Jesus is the core of Christian doctrine and is called the Gospel
meaning Good News. The Holy Spirit is the third in the trinity denotes the invisible reality
of god in the world. From this spirit that the Church, the sacraments and Christian life
derive their spiritual substance and power.
Doctrine of Sin: Violation of God’s will is a sin. Sin is of two types. Original Sin
and Actual Sin. Original Sin is committed by the Adam and Eve who defied the God’s
injunction. Actual sin is committed when one violates the commandment of the god.
Christians believe in Hell and Heaven. The righteous persons with sins forgiven shall
enter Heaven and others into Hell. Jesus represents heaven. The followers will receive
consolation and compensation for all their present sufferings. On the Day of Judgment,
the men shall give an account of everything and the son of god shall reward every man
according to his deeds.
Marriage in Christianity
Christian marriage is considered to be the union of male and female through social
sanctions, and is a license for procreation. Like Hindus, for Christians too the marriage is
sacrament. The family is set up only through the marriage. It is a Social and legal contract
that defines the relationship between wife and husband and the parents and children. It is
primarily aimed at regularizing the sexual relations. The marriage celebration is
accompanied by the religious worship. They believe that marriage is instituted by god to
ensure the propagation of the human race.
Check Your Progress
3. Trinity of Christianity.
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9.2.5 Sikhism
This is another major religion that took birth on Indian soil. There are 20 million
Sikhs in the world, most of who live in the Punjab province of India. The 2001 census
recorded 336,000 Sikhs in the UK. Sikhism was founded in the 16th century in the Punjab
district of what is now India and Pakistan. It was founded by Guru Nanak and is based on
his teachings, and those of the 9 Sikh gurus who followed him. The most important thing
in Sikhism is the internal religious state of the individual.
Some important features of the Sikh Religion:
• Sikhism is a monotheistic religion
• Sikhism stresses the importance of doing good actions rather than merely carrying
out rituals
• Sikhs believe that the way to lead a good life is to:
• keep God in heart and mind at all times
• live honestly and work hard
• treat everyone equally
• be generous to the less fortunate
• serve others
• The Sikh place of worship is called a Gurdwara
• The Sikh scripture is the Guru Granth Sahib, a book that Sikhs consider a living Guru
The tenth Sikh Guru decreed that after his death the spiritual guide of the Sikhs
would be the teachings contained in that book, so the Guru Granth Sahib now has the
status of a Guru, and Sikhs show it the respect they would give to a human Guru.
• The community of men and women who have been initiated into the Sikh faith is the
Khalsa. The Khalsa celebrated its 300th anniversary in 1999.
Guru Gobind Singh decreed that where Sikhs could not find answers in the Guru
Granth Sahib, they should decide issues as a community, based on the principles of their
scripture.
Belief system in Sikhism:
God
• There is only one God
• God is without form, or gender
• Everyone has direct access to God
• Everyone is equal before God. Sikhs believe that God can be experienced through
love, worship, and contemplation. Sikh spirituality is centred round the need to
understand and experience God, and eventually become one with God which is called
mukti.
• Sikhs believe that God is inside every person, no matter how wicked they appear, and
so everyone is capable of change.
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• Sikhs believe that God is beyond us. Hence, God’s message can be found in several
ways outside ourselves. The message has been shown to us by the Gurus in their lives
and in their words. The message is set down in the teachings of scripture.
Living in God and community
• A good life is lived as part of a community, by living honestly and caring for others
• Empty religious rituals and superstitions have no value
• They use ordinary life as a way to get closer to God. A Sikh serves God by serving
(seva) other people every day. By devoting their lives to service they get rid of their
own ego and pride.
Many Sikhs carry out chores in the Gurdwara as their service to the community.
These range from working in the kitchen to cleaning the floor. The Langar, or free food
kitchen, is a community act of service.
God and the cycle of life
They believe in rebirth. They share this belief with followers of other Indian religious
traditions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
The quality of each particular life depends on the law of Karma according to how
well or badly a person behaved in their previous life. The only way out of this cycle,
which all faiths regard as painful, is to achieve a total knowledge of and union with God.
The three duties
The three duties that a Sikh must carry out can be summed up in three words; Pray,
Work, Give.
a) Nam Japna: Keeping God in mind at all times.
b) Kirt Karna: Earning an honest living. Sikhs avoid gambling, begging, or working in
the alcohol or tobacco industries.
c) Vand Chhakna: Giving to charity and caring for others.
Five Vices
Sikhs try to avoid the five vices that make people self-centred, and build barriers
against God in their lives.
Lust, Covetousness and greed, Attachment to things of this world, Anger, Pride.
Khalsa Initiation and wearing five K’s
The 5 Ks are 5 physical symbols worn by Sikhs who have been initiated into the
Khalsa. The 5 Ks date from the creation of the Khalsa Panth by Guru Gobind Singh in
1699.
The five Ks are:
• Kesh (uncut hair)
• Kada (a steel bracelet)
• Kanga (a wooden comb)
• Kaccha - also spelt, Kachh, Kachera (cotton underwear)
• Kirpan (steel sword)
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Marriage in Sikh Religion
Marriage in Sikh religion is known as Anand Karaj Ceremony. This ritual is confined
to those Persons who are professing the Sikh faith. It has got statutory recognition during
the British rule in India by the Anand Marriage Act 1909.
Some features of the Marriage in Sikh Religion are as follows:
• Inter Caste marriage is allowed.
• Boy and girl have the freedom to choose the partner. Parents and other elder’s help
or facilitate in choosing the partner.
• Child marriage is forbidden.
• All Hindu superstitions about good or bad days and rituals before, during and after
marriage are strictly forbidden.
• Sikhs practice monogamy.
• Widows or widowers may remarry.
• While husband and wife roles are regarded as complementary (and despite erosion
of certain Sikh values due to the proximity and influence of the Hindu majority in
India), men and women’s equality is enshrined in the teachings of Guru Granth
Sahib.
9.3 RELIGION IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA

India is a secular state. Majority of people follow Hindu religion yet the constitution
guarantees equal rights irrespective of any religion. The constitution of India guarantees
its citizens the freedom to follow their own religion. It prohibits states from discriminating
its peoples on the basis of the religion. It will not interfere into the affairs of any religious
communities. The citizens have the freedom to profess and follow the religion of their
choice. Agnosticism is also allowed on the Indian soil. Conversion from one religion to
another religion is not prohibited. In the interest of minorities, state promotes the cause of
these religious groups. The constitution has provided certain measures to ensure certain
safe-guards for the minority religious groups in India.
9.3.1 Secularism Challenges
The word secularism is derived from Latin word secular; which means the present
age or generation. Though India has different religions with different religious faiths, the
country does not have any official religion. India is a secular state. Secularism is a concept
best explained as the co-existence of several religious communities in a region with equal
rights and justice before law as guaranteed by the constitution. The word secular was
added to the Preamble of the Constitution with the passing of forty second (42 nd)
Amendment Act.
In several countries the religious fundamentalism does not approve it or allow it to
be followed in their nations. But in India, the soil of tolerance and the land of Karma that
has given birth to several indigenous tribal religions which are limited to small pockets of
tribal communities and also gave birth to world’s major religions like Hinduism, Buddhism
and Sikhism has been very tolerant, has welcomed Christianity and Islam and some other
world religions. It has witnessed several foreign invaders like Turks, Afghans, Moghuls,
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Britishers who brought with them their own religious beliefs and practices. It has
acculturated, assimilated and has accommodated those religions and they got indigenized.
Religions like Christianity, Islam have many religious ritual practices like garlanding
candle lighting, marriage rituals like wearing black beads, mangal sutra, coconut breaking
etc., and observance of certain festivals commonly by all religious communities, shows
the common thread of Indian religions.
India is secular not because the constitution has guaranteed it but, the people are
accommodative, tolerant and have acceptance to other religions hence, the secular values
have got place in our constitution. Much before the constitution is formulated, the Indians
have a long history of co-existence irrespective of their religions.
Only during the National movement and at the far end of it does the question of
partition aroused based on religion. But that is all due to divisive policies of the British
government. Religion was used as a tool in Indian politics to win elections and come to
power. Post independence the rise of religion based terrorism has posed greater challenge
to the secular identity of India.
9.4 COMMUNAL TENSIONS IN INDIA

Although religion is a matter of personal faith, the religious identity is expressed in
collectively. Each religion exhibits a community feeling. When the clash of interests
happens to occur between various religious groups, the religious communities feel their
religion is endangered. To establish their supremacy over the other religion and gain an
upper hand over the other, clash of egos are some reasons that spur communal tensions in
India. Time and again this mutual conflict and antagonism have been undermining the
secular and democratic values of the Indian society.
The erroneous belief that there is no true religion besides Islam breeds bigotry,
intolerance and fanaticism and is contrary to the teachings of the Quran. The first verse of
the second Sura clearly indicates that there are and will ever be many true religions of
which Islam is one. “let there be no compulsion in religion” (Sura II. 257). Christian
missionaries also followed the same doctrine saying only Christianity is the true religion
and Jesus Christ is the only God. This religious and theological exclusivity just like Islam
communalism has bred communal tensions in some parts of the country. However, the
communalism in India is largely beckoned with the Islam religion. Apart from Islam and
Christianity, Sikh religion has also at some point of time been under the imprudence of
communal exclusively.
Certain sections of the society are keeping aloof and leaving the impression that it
is the majority that makes them feel that their religion is in danger. In spite of the religious
freedom and equal status, they are not adhering to the national culture. There is this urgent
need to eradicate the problem. Political parties are no less in promoting and propagating
the differences in the society. Divisive vote politics, cross border terrorism, mafia and
some other anti social elements are creating the havoc in the mainstream culture which is
otherwise a peace loving one.
To eradicate the problem it is necessary to promote education with good curricula.
Measures like Stressing on the national interest over religious interest, society over
community, mutual respect for all religions, to promote national culture, national values,
patriotism, nationalism and such other values are to be incorporated in the curriculum.
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On political front, the political leaders should take the moral responsibility not to
bank on the religious cleavages rather on the societal and national problems.
At economic level, the economic backwardness of some religious groups needs to
be addressed immediately through well planned poverty alleviation programs directed
towards these sections.
At socio-cultural level, all religious groups have equal importance before the law
and are entitled to live a decent life in the independent secular India. All the prejudices
holding them back from living in a mutual trusted environment should be given up.
Disturbing other religious cultures and beliefs will definitely boomerang with double force.
Speed and sincere investigations on terrorist attacks, speed trials, stopping cross
border and international terrorism with iron fist are some major steps to be taken by the
state. Claps are made by joining two hands either in joy or in a fight. Everybody should
come forward to join hands in joy to celebrate the secular spirit of India.
Check Your Progress
4. By which Amendment Act, the word ‘Secular’ is added to Preamble of the Constitution
of India.
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9.5 ISSUES OF MINORITIES IN INDIA

There are concerns about the discrimination about religious minorities. The Sachar
Committee has found that the Muslim representation in government jobs is not enough,
and is mostly limited to the class IV jobs. Literacy rate is low, which is lower than SCs,
high Dropout rates, high poverty rates, and low political representation. Also there is a
concern with regardto other religious minorities such as Christians, Parsis, Jains and
Buddhists. Buddhists also face similar Socio-economic disadvantages owing to their
religious minority.
Constitutional Safeguards for religious minorities
The constitution of India has put in place certain Articles and Clauses for the safe
guard of the religious minorities while ensuring the secular spirit of the constitution. Part-
III of the Constitution contains certain Fundamental Rights for all the citizens while certain
articles are for protection of interests of religious Minorities.
Article 14: Ensures equality before Law and equal Protection of Law.
Articcle 25: Ensures all persons not only citizens are equally entitled to freedom of
conscience and the right to freely profess, practice and propagate religion.
Article 26: Gives the fundamental right to all religious denominations and sections to
establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes, to manage their
own affairs in matters of religion, to own, acquire and administer property.
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Article 27: Stipulates no person shall be compelled to pay taxes for expenses on promotion
and maintenance of any religion.
Article 28: Forbids any religious instruction in state funded educational institutions.
Article 29: Guarantees the right to conserve one’s language, script, and culture. No citizen
is denied admission to any educational institution maintained or aided by the state on the
grounds of religion, race, caste or language.
Article 30(1): All religious or linguistic minorities shall have the right to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice. Clause 1(A) added through 14th
amendment provides for proper and adequate compensation if a property of the institution
is acquired by the state irrespective of its religious status.
Article 30: It is strictly related to Minority right to establish and administer educational
institutions of the choice and includes the right to choose the medium of instruction,
curricula, and subject to teach.
Article 341: Bestows the President the power to specify the castes, races or tribes or
groups within castes, races or tribes as scheduled castes.
These constitutional provisions embody the principles of religious tolerance that
has been the characteristic feature of Indian civilization from the beginning of history.
They serve to emphasize the secular nature of Indian democracy which the founding fathers
considered should be the very basis of the Constitution.
9.6 SUMMARY
The mystery of nature has always intrigued the primitive mankind. Changing days
and nights, seasons, climate, the sun, the moon, the wind, the rain and breeze, the plants
and animals all had instilled in his psyche a kind of awe and fear for the unknown. He
believed that there is an invisible power “god” that is manifesting in each form of the
nature. God is the ultimate being and source for all living and non living beings in his
creation. Almost all world religions teach the sacred paths to reach that god. The path to
reach god is sacred, disciplined and requires devotion.
In India Religion is a way of living. India has been the soil for the birth and rise of
world’s major religions like Hinduism (79.8%), Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Besides,
there are many tribal religions but are greatly influenced by the major religions. Though
initially introduced by the invaders of India, the foreign religions like Islam (14.2%),
Christianity (2.3%), and Parsi are also being deeply planted, nourished and propagated on
the soil of India.

1. Brahamana, Kshatriya,Vaishya, Shudras.
2. i) Teravada, ii) Mahayana iii) Vajrayana or Tantrayana
3. Spirit of God, Son of God and Holy Spirit.
4. 42nd Amendment Act
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1. Discuss about religious diversity in India.
2. Write about Hindu Religion in India.
3. Briefly describe various constitutional measures for the protection of religious
minorities in India.
1. Describe about Marriage system of Hindu Religion.
2. Describe about main features of Buddhism.
3. Describe about the marriage system according to Islam.
9.9 GLOSSARY
Polytheism : Polytheism meaning worshipping several gods.
Purusharthas : The Religion prescribed Four types of Purusharthas i.e., Dharma, Artha,
kama, Moksha.
Ashrama Dharmas : There are four Ashrama Dharmas namely: Brahmacharya, Grihasta,
Vaanaprastha and Sanyaasa ashramams.
Caste System : It is a peculiar kind of division of labour. People are stratified according
to their occupations.
Forms of Marriage : There are eight forms of marriage namely Brahma, Daiva, Arsha,
Prajapatya, Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa and Paisacha.
Monotheism : Monotheism worship of one god is strictly followed in Islam.
9.10. FURTHER READINGS

1. Durkheim, Emile : Elementary Forms of Religion
2. Kachroo, Vijay : Society in India
3. Mukherjee, Radha Kamal : Hindu Civilization
4. Srinivas, M.N. : Social Change in Modern India
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BLOCK-IV: SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA
Perhaps there is no other concept in the social sciences on which so much has been
written as in the case of Social Change. This is because change is inescapable. Change is the
law of nature. Social Change refers to the different phases. Phases through which society
passes during the course of time. Every society whether it is primitive or complex undergoes
change. This is a universal phenomenon. However they were in terms of rate, nature and
extent. Change can occur with the abruptness of military coup detect or like a long process
known as Industrial revolution. Social change means fundamental modification in a larger
social structure. The concept of social change and its expanded version development and their
related elements are discussed in this Block.

Unit - 10 : Caste System: Definition, Origin of Caste, Features of Caste and
Changes in Caste System.
Unit - 11 : Vision of Social Change in India: Concept of Development,
Planning and Mixed Economy.
Unit - 12 : Education, Green Revolution, Industrialization and Urbanization
- Social Change.
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UNIT - 10 :CASTE SYSTEM: DEFINITION,
ORIGIN OF CASTE, FEATURES OF CASTE
AND CHANGES IN CASTE SYSTEM
Contents
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Concept and Definition of Caste
10.3 Origin of Caste System-Theories
10.4 Features of Caste System
10.5 Functions of Caste System
10.6 Merits and Demerits of Caste System
10.7 Changes in Caste System
10.8 Summery
10.11 Glossary
10.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to understand:
• Concept of caste
• Features of caste
• Origin of caste system
• Function of caste system
• You will explain merits and demerits of caste system
• Changes in caste system
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian social structure is distinct and peculiar as manifests itself in caste system,
which is not apparent elsewhere. Indian Caste system is historically is one of the main
dimensions, as people in it are socially differentiated through many factors. Caste system
exists only in India. It is a system of classification which states that a person born in to a
particular position in a society and that no action on his/her part in raise or lower that
position. There are limits on interaction with people from other social status. Its history is
massively related to one of the prominent religions in India Hinduism, and has been altered
in many ways during Buddhism and in subsequent regimes. To broader the horizons of the
students, the concept, characters, origin, function, changes in the caste system are mainly
discussed in this unit. A detailed, but lucid presentation is made in the following paragraphs.
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10.2 CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF CASTE
The traces and ideas of caste are found in ancient Egypt, Japan, Rome, Burma and
Persia. Caste is said to be closely connected with Hindu philosophy, religion and social
organization. The word ‘Caste’ owes its origin to the Spanish word ‘Casta’ which means
‘breed, race, strain or a complex of hereditary qualities’. The Portuguese also applied this
term to the classes of people in India hither to known by name ‘Jati’. The Hindu caste
system is known as the Chaturvarna system, denoting stratification or four fold division
of the society, consisting of the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Each caste
again sub-divided into various sub-castes and each such caste known as ‘Jati’. The Jati is
endogenous group.
Caste has been defined in various ways. Risely had defined caste as a “collection of
families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from mythical ancestor
(human or divine) professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those
who are competant to give an option as forming a single homogenous community’.
Martindale and Monochesi defined caste as “an aggregate of persons whose share
of obligation and privileges is fixed by birth sanctioned and supported by religion and
magic”.
According to Keltkar “A caste is a group having two characteristics, 1) membership
is confined to those who are born of members and include all persons so born 2) the
member are forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group”.
T.N. Madan and D.N. Majumdar, say that, ‘A caste is a closed group’. For Cooley,
“when a class is somewhat strictly hereditary we may call it a caste”.
Lundberg says, “A caste is merely a rigid social class into which members are born
and from which they can withdraw or escape only with extreme difficulty. It is a type
stratification system which is most rigid in matters of mobility and distinctness of status.
According to Blunt, “caste is an endogamous or collection of endogenous groups,
bearing a common name, membership which is hereditary; imposing on its members certain
restrictions in the matter of social intercourse; either following a common traditional
occupation or claiming a common origin; and generally regarded as forming a single
homogeneous community.
M.N. Srinivas says caste as a elementary system. Every caste for him is divided into
sub-castes which are the units of endogamy whose member follow a common occupation,
social and ritual life and common culture and whose member are governed by the same
authoritative body viz. the Panchayat.
According to Baily caste groups are united into a system through two principles of
segregation and hierarchy. For Dumont caste is not form of stratification but as a special
form of inequality. The major attributer of caste is the hierarchically, the separation and
the division of labour.
Caste is peculiar one which predominantly exists in India. It is a system of
classification which states that a person born into a peculiar position in a society and that
no action on his his/her part raise or lower that position. Where an individual born into a
caste, he remains to be a member of the same caste forever, it is an ascribed group. Each
caste has a nomenclature and is endogamous. The membership is by birth. Castes are
engaged in hierarchy and each caste has a fixed position.
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Check Your Progress
1. What is Caste? Discuss.
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10.3 ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM-THEORIES

The caste system is essentially a peculiar feature of Hindu Society. The features of
caste manifest as complex and hence its origin cannot be traced to an exact point of time
or source. There are certain theories which explain the origin of caste system in India.
Some of them can be discussed here:
Divine Origin Theory
This religious and traditional theory explains that according to the Rig Veda, the
primal man Divine power or Supreme Being Purush destroyed himself to create a human
society and the different parts of his body created the four different entities.
The Brahmins were from the head/mouth of Supreme Being which is the chief organ
of speech and learning and this they were entrusted to work as teachers instructors for
imparting knowledge. They are also considered the intelligent and most powerful because
of their wisdom and education and representation of the brain. Similarly Kshatriyas emerged
from the arms/hands and considered the warrior caste, which is the seat of the strength
and thus have to be rulers, and have to defend the empire. The Vaishyas originated from
the thighs of Purush, which help in moving and they are entrusted with agriculture, trade
and commerce etc. Shudras represent feet of supreme purush and they were expected to
offer their services to other castes and considered as minimals. Even though this theory is
mentioned in the Vishnu Purana and Vedas, it does not have any scientific validity.
Racial Theory
As the very name of the theory indicates, it is an ethnographic and cultural approach
to the theory of the origin of the caste system. The most revered exponent of racial theory
is Herbert Risely. He was also supported by Ghurye, Majumdar, Wester Mark and others.
According to this theory, the clash of culture and the contact or races crystallized castes in
India. The migrant Aryans had their own ideas and considered the original inhabitants as
inferior to them, it is also due to inter tribal conflicts. Every tribe, in order to preserve its
own characteristic features formed itself into a group and each group later became a caste.
In order to preserve their identity and peculiarity they laid down certain restrictions and
every member in the group had to adhere to those rules. In this way castes came into
existence.
Herbert Risely, argues that, caste system originated after emigration of Indo-Aryans
from Persia. In Persia their society was divided into four classes to which they implied in
India, after their settlement. There were racial-cultural differences between Aryans and
non-Aryans. The caste system originated due to racial differences and Pratiloma marriages.
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Cultural Theory
According to this theory, as advocated by Sarat Chandra Roy and his followers, in
order to preserve their cultural heritage a group of people started trying to organize
themselves into a specific group or caste. The group of people imposed restriction on
commensality, inter-marriage and interaction to protect, save and maintain separate identity
and later formed into caste groups.
Hutton found Naga villagers were not only objected to accepting presents or money
or any exchange from the strangers or to parting with any possession to them for fear of
influence to which they might thus become object by proxy as it were. Actually they
destroyed mats or other property lent to visitors when they had used them and had gone.
D.N. Majumdar, discusses that, in India and infact, he considers caste as an outcome of
interactions of a number of social cultural, political and economic factors found not
elsewhere in conjunction. R.K. Mukharjee also writes that several factors working
conjointly led in course of to the origin of the Indian caste system. It can be also said that
cultural assimilation and integration paved the way to the origin of caste system.
Occupational Theory
Nesfield, the propounder of this theory and his supporter Denzil Ibbetson believed
that, the origin of caste is mainly due to functions or occupations. Functions alone are
responsible for the origin of the caste system. Nesfield, maintains that, the technical skills
of the occupation was passed hereditarily from generation to generation and because of
practicing the same occupation over a big period of time, occupational guilds’ came into
existence which later on came to be known as castes. The hierarchy in the caste system
according to him results of the feeling of superiority and inferiority of occupations. He
holds that the rank of any caste as high or low depends upon whether the industry
represented by the caste belongs to an advanced are backward stage of culture.
Nesfield attributes the origin of castes to two things: i) occupation ii) organization
of the tribes. Denzil Ibbetson also explains the origin of caste as the result of interaction
of three forces i) tribe ii) guilds, and iii) religion. He says tribes developed as occupational
guilds and they came to function on religious lines and then developed as castes in the
process of social evolution.
The occupational theory has acquired sociological significance and attains
importance when we study the roles of the occupations and their special, meaningful
manifestation in Indian social system.
Brahminical Theory / Political Theory
French scholar Abbes Dubois, (A Description of the People of India, 1817, quoted
by Hutton, 1961) explains that caste system originated and developed in India because of
Brahmins. It is also supported by G.S.Ghurye. He maintains that the caste system is an
ingenious device made by Brahmins for Brahmins. Brahmins imposed restrictions on eating
and drinking, marriage, and social relations etc. with non-Brahmins to preserve their purity
necessary for the sacerdotal functions they were to perform. At the same time, they gave
themselves a high status and special privileges and prerogatives in the Brahmanyas and
other books and declared all other as inferior to them. Ghurye maintains that the various
factors that characterize caste-society were the result, in the first instance, the attempts on
the part of the upholders of the Brahminic civilizations to exclude the aborigines the
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Sudras from religious and social communion with themselves. It was also maintained that
caste system has been established by Brahmans in order to maintain their superiority in
society. Hutton feels that it is difficult to accept Brahmanical theory of the origin of caste.
He mainly gives to two reasons against it: (i) if this theory is accepted, it would mean that
caste must have originated at a date when Brahmins must have got the political power and
he thinks that the caste did not originate at so late a date; and (ii) so deeply rooted a social
institution like caste could hardly have been imposed by an administrative measure.
Check Your Progress
2. Explain the theories related to origin of the caste system.
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10.4 FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM

The Greek traveller Megasthanese mentions two important features of caste system.
They are:
1) There is no inter caste marriage and
2) There can be no change of profession.
In addition caste has some other important features.
1. Caste is Innate: The distinguishing feature of caste system is its absolute rigidity and
immobility. A man dies in the same caste in which he is born and it is the caste that
determines his position in his life.
2. Caste is Endogamous: Caste is endogamous (marriage of an individual to take place
within his/her caste. Intercaste marriages are prohibited). According to Wester Mark, it is
the chief characteristic feature of the caste-system. As per this each individual must marry
within his own caste and that too within his own sub-group. Sapinda-common parentage
(5 maternal, 7 paternal generations) and Sagotra-exogamy i.e. marriage within gotra is
prohibited. And any violation of this rule involves ostracism i.e. loosing membership in
the caste.
3. Hierarchical Social Structure: The caste structure of society is based on the hierarchical
system of super ordination and held by the relation of superiority or inferiority with one
another. At the apex are the Brahmins and at the lowest end are panchamasharijans-
untouchables. After the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas and the next Vaishyas and at the lowest
level are Shudras. The whole society is stratified into higher and lower castes.
4. Caste is Hereditary: Caste is hereditary in nature and it provides ascribed status to its
members. Ascribed status is that status which individual attains by birth.
5. Occupational Choice: Every caste regards some occupation as its own hereditary and
exclusive calling and tries to debar the others from exercising it. The occupations are
inherited from older generation. The member born into one caste has to follow the caste
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occupation of his fellow members of older generation. Occupational choice is restricted.
Occupational monopoly is manifest in caste system.
6. Commensal Taboos: In each caste system there are definite rules as to what sort of
food or drinks can be accepted by a person and from castes. Food taboos are such that the
kind of food a man may eat or abstain from eating.
7. Strict Social Relations: The idea of pollution is an inherent characteristic feature of
caste system. Touch of lower caste man would pollute a man of higher caste. Sometimes,
even their shadow is considered enough to pollute a higher caste man. This is an evidence
for restriction of social relations among member. This led to Untouchabuility over a period
of time.
8. Caste Panchayat: Another chief feature of caste system to the existence within it of an
organization having authority and used to compel obedience from its members Caste
panchayat usually exercises such authority and it is traditionally concerned with all matters
related to code and discipline of caste. It acts as a court of law to give its judgment and
impose penalty for the cases of violation of caste practices.
Check Your Progress
3. List out the important features of Caste system.
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10.5 FUNCTIONS OF CASTE SYSTEM

Caste system in India prescribes certain functions to be carried on. According
Laurence Ross, the important function of the caste system are :
1) Mediation of conflict between strata of the society.
2) Support Hindu culture and way of life.
3) Social Integration on an inter-class basis, and
4) Facilitation of personal and social adjustment. The functions of caste system can be
further elaborated as follows both as in individual life and in community life:
In Individual life:
• determination of social life
• fixation of occupation
• guarantee of social security, where whole of the caste group comes forward to rescue
and help.
• control over behaviour (the individuals are imposed with restrictions and control
over the behaviour and character through morals).
• provides mental security, social status, occupation, selection of mate(s) is determined
by birth and life is well channelized.
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In community Life:
• maintenance of purity of blood to retain identity
• maintenance of religious ideas
• securing social status in society
• safeguard protect the culture, every sub-caste has its own sub cultures. It was this
division stability and harmonious combination of Hindu culture which enabled it
bears the brunt of foreign culture.
Apart from the above individual and community oriented functions the following
may be mentioned.
• caste system is/was the uniting force which kept several groups within India and
combined them to act as one of the coordinate social organizations in the world.
• helps, coordinates in implementation of division of labour.
• acts as a means of stabilization-India was time and again was invaded by foreigners,
but such political dangerous upheavals could not disturb the tranquility of Indian
social order. During Islamic invasion many trails were made to shatter the Hindu
social organization, infact it was because of the rigidity of the caste system prevented
it.
According to Bhagwan Das, the caste system of ancient India is well conceived
scientific socialism. It also determines the kind of education for each community, denoting
the strong base for Indian social structure.
10.6 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM

If one perceives that, if Indian Caste System has demerits, it has some good
consequences too. In fact, an evaluation of the Caste System depends entirely on whether
we look at it from the standards of state or of a dynamic society.
Merits
1. Hindu life was given strong continuity by the religious basis of caste. One of the
important characteristics of Hindu culture has been the continuance of joint family
system whose customs and traditions are mostly linked with religious moorings.
2. Caste has provided every individual with a fixed social environment. Hutton
maintains that, individual is providing with a permanent body of associations which
control almost all his behavior and contacts. His caste channelizes his choice in
marriages, acts as his trade union, his friendly and beneficent society, his estate, his
club, his orphanage”. It takes care of the sick man and, if need be, “provides for his
funeral”.
3. Caste system has created a spirit of cooperation and follows feeling among members
of the same caste. By helping the poor and needy it reduces the burdens of the state
to certain extent.
4. Caste system defines the common economic pursuits of the individuals, as each
caste has a fixed occupation of its own to guide the future of individual. Ancient
India had craftsmen and cultivator who were extremely skilful and was preserved
through father-son apprenticeship.
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5. Racial purity is preserved through caste system. This is done by forbidding
indiscriminate inter-caste marriages. The habits of cleanliness are maintained by
insisting on ritual purity.
6. Caste system influences the intellectual makeup and mobility of an individual.
Individual’s views on social and political matters are bound to be influenced by the
caste, culture and customs. Harmonious nature of caste system, gives less scope to
class frictions and struggles. It ever integrated Indian society into one vast community
and provided the country with relatively stable and orderly organization of society.
7. Caste system helps in culture diffusion within the group i.e. caste, customs, tradition,
habits, behaviour, skills, ideas, trade secrets are passed on from one generation to
the other. In this way culture is carried on from one age to the other.
8. Caste system provides various functions necessary in the life of an individual.
Functions ranging from education to elevation of life status, from government to
domestic service are taken care at large by the community as a whole.
Demerits
A careful analysis of the structure of the caste system raises the question of its
dysfunctional aspects. The important demerits of the caste system have been developed as
follows and are noted as under:
1. Caste system has a tremendous hold on its members: It controls and regulates
habits, manners, morals, practices. It denies opportunities and choices of deserving
members. Talents-skills are undermined and suffered within the rigidity of the caste
system.
2. Caste system has created untochabiltiy: According M.K. Gandhi “untochabiltiy
is the hatefullest expression of caste”. A large section of people are reduced to the
state of virtual slavery due to the caste system. Certain sections of the people were
made to live in seclusion and they were deprived of the meager needs of life and are
made to rot in life and are branded as untouchables.
3. Solidarity is retarded in the caste system: It obstructs the growth of solidarity
and brotherhood in society by rigidly separating one caste from another and denying
any type of social intercourse between them.
4. Caste system Hinders National Unity: Caste is responsible for low status and
unjust treatment of outcastes and low caste people depriving the minimum human
rights and privileges. Caste encourages its members to have limited group loyalties.
Caste members are more loyal to their caste rather than to the larger national unity.
The most tragic results of the caste affinity hinders national unity. Ghurye, says “It
is in the spirit of caste patriotism which endangers opposition to other castes and
creates an unhealthy atmosphere for the growth of national consciousness”.
5. Caste obstructs social progress: castes are parochial in nature and are putting
abstracts- hurdles in the road towards progress. Caste is giving a strong group feeling
and given rise to ethnocentrism of the worst type. Caste fatalism has made people to
become conservative in their outlook.
6. Caste rigidities encourage conversions: compelled by the tyranny of the upper
castes, lower caste people got conversions into Islam and Christianity and Buddhism.
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7. Caste system has prevented proper growth of democracy: Caste system is
undemocratic, since it does not provide equal rights to all sections. Social barriers
are created in the way of lower caste people denying freedom for their development
and are not provided with good opportunities, thus preventing the desired growth of
democracy.
Check Your Progress
4. What are the merits of caste system?
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5. What are the demerits of caste system?
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10.7 CHANGES IN CASTE SYSTEM

Caste in Indian is a rigid institution with too many restrictions in various aspects of
individual life. But in contemporary India, we find deviations of caste rules given in the
original four-fold system. Many castes have given up their traditional occupations and
dissociated from its caste obligations.
Changes in the caste system can be understood by analyzing of two periods. They
are Pre-Independence and Post-Independence periods. During pre-independent period
British administration showed tremendous influence on the institution of caste. The
introduction of several laws by British rule brought about fundamental changes in the
traditional caste system. They applied the rule of equity in all matters of administration
and introduced certain legal norms to abolish the caste hierarchy. Western education was
made liberal and secular as against the traditional religious education which was limited
to Dwija castes. Increasing opportunities of employment in public offices/industries cut
down the barriers of caste. Occupation became pursuits of individual choice instead of
hereditary compulsion. New occupational pattern on caste resulted in cultural diffusion
and helped creation of economic classes. Occupational mobility loosened the rigid caste
fold and hold. Migration of people from agrarian to industrial areas caused break in the
traditional caste ideals. Ascribed status of caste paved its way into achieved status through
secular occupations. Traditional values of purity, pollution have slowly disappeared through
the inter mingling of caste groups in urban areas. Relationships either commensally or
socio-cultural between castes have become more relaxed today. Sharing of food and
accommodation in common places now is accepted phenomenon indicating a tendency
against un-equal, discriminate aspects of life.
Endogamy is not strict as before. Inter-caste marriages are taking place in a limited
way and are accepted. In urban area caste is now a less significant part of daily life.
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The constitutional provisions of safeguards have played and are playing a vital role
in curbing the evil of caste system. Article 17 of Indian constitution abolishes untochabiltiy
in any form. Provisions of reservations in education, employment and politics have
benefitted SCs, STs and OBCs and have largely paved their way into secular, democratic
structures, diluting the evil effects of caste system.
The various processes like industrialization-urbanization, modernizationglobalization
have brought tremendous changes in caste system. Caste has lost much of its hold over the
social usages and customs practiced by its members. Caste today does not dictate
individual’s life, and not restrict newly valued individual freedom.
Today caste system has not remained the same as was in the ancient time in terms of
its structure and functions. Despite of its continuous existence it has undergone several
changes in society. Caste conscious is prevalent in same form or other. Caste assertion is
taking place, through caste, sub-caste associations. Caste still plays a prominent role in
social, economic and political areas and appears to be not removed from the helm of
affairs.
10.8 SUMMARY
Indian Social structure is distinct and peculiar phenomenon, with its kind of Caste
System of classification which states that a person born into a particular position in a
society; he remains in the same until he dies.
The word caste is derived from the Spanish word ‘casta’ meaning breed, race, strain
or a complex of hereditary qualities. The Hinder caste system is popularly known as
Chaturvarna Vyavastha denoting four-fold division of the society, consisting of Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras, which are endogamous groups.
Several sociologists explained the caste and defined in their own way. According to
Blunt, “Caste is an endogamous or collection of endogenous groups, bearing a common
name, membership which is hereditary; imposes restrictions is matters of social intercourse,
claiming common origin, common occupation, forming a single harmonious community”.
M.N. Srinivas says caste as a elementary system. Every caste for him divided into subcastes
which are units of endogamy, whole members follow common occupation, social and ritual
life and common culture and are governed by common codes, norms and authority. Castes
are engaged in hierarchy and each caste has its fixed position in the fourfold rigid frame
work.

1. Caste as a “collection of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent
from mythical ancestor-human or divine professing to follow the same hereditary calling
and regarded by those who are competent to give an option as forming a single homogenous
community’
2. There are certain theories which explain the origin of caste system in India some of
them can be discussed here: 1) Divine Origin Theory, 2) Cultural Theory, 3) Occupational
Theory, 4) Brahminical Theory/Political Theory.
3. The Greek traveller Megasthanese mentions two important features of caste system.
They are:
1) There is no intermarriage and 2) There can be no change of profession.
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4. Merits of the caste system
1) Hindu life was given strong continuity by the religious basis of caste.
2) Caste has provided every individual with a fixed social environment.
3) Caste system has created a spirit of cooperation and follows feeling among members of
the same caste.
4 ) Caste system defines the common economic pursuits of the individuals, as each caste
has a fixed occupation of its own to guide the future of individual.
5) Racial purity is preserved through caste system. This is done by forbidding indiscriminate
inter-caste marriages.
6) Caste system influences the intellectual makeup and mobility of an individual.
7) Caste system helps in culture diffusion within the group i.e. caste, customs, tradition,
habits, behaviour, skills, ideas; trade secrets are passed on from one generation to the
other.
8) Caste system provides various functions necessary in the life of an individual.
5. Demerits of the caste system
1) Caste system has a tremendous hold on its members.
2) Caste system has created untochabiltiy.
3) Solidarity is retarded in the caste system.
4) Caste system hinders National Unity.
5) Caste obstructs social progress.
6) Caste rigidities encourage conversions.
7) Caste system has prevented proper growth of democracy.

1. Define caste and explain feature of Caste System.
2. Explain the theories related to origin of the caste system.
3. Discuss origins of caste.
1. Describe the functions of Caste System.
2. Discuss the merits and demerits of the Caste System.
3. Analyse the changes in the Caste System.
10.11. GLOSSARY
Caste : Collection of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from
mythical ancestor-human or divine professing to follow the same hereditary calling and
regarded by those who are competant to give an option as forming a single homogenous
community.
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Social Hierarchy : The caste structure of society is based on the hierarchical system of
super ordination and held by the relation of superiority or inferiority with one another.
Sapinda : Common parentage (5 maternal, 7 paternal generations)
Sagotra : Exogamy i.e. marriage within gotra is prohibited. And any violation of this rule
involves ostracism i.e. loosing membership in the caste.
10.12. FURTHER READING

2. Ahuja, Ram : Society in India
3. Chopra P.N. : Indian Social Structure
4. Hutton J.H. : Caste in India
5. Ghurye G.S. : Caste and Race in India
6. Srinivas M.N. : Social Change in Modern India
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UNIT-11 : VISION OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA :
CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT,
PLANNING AND MIXED ECONOMY
Contents
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Features of Indian Rural Society
11.3 Features of Indian Urban Society
11.4 Bonds of Unity in India
11.4.1 Geographical Unity
11.4.2 Political Unity
11.5 Concept of Development Planning
11.6 Development Planning in India-Five Year Plans
11.7 The Concept of Mixed Economy
11.8 Rationale of Planning in India
11.9 Summary
11.10 Check your progress-Model Answers
11.12 Glossary
11.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the features of Indian Society
• Explain the forms of diversity in India
• Explain bonds of unity in India
• Explain the concept of development planning in India
• Explain the differences between mixed and capitalist economies
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Society is subject to change and the social structure changes in the sense that it
acquires growth, maturity and even decay for the purpose of acquiring a ‘new birth’.
Variations of conditions and modifications of norms, values and standards affect the social
structure, which responds to the changes much in the same way as changes in natural
conditions affect any living organism.
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Social change can be witnessed in conditions under which man lives, and the stride
from the jungle to the metropolis is very much a part of this process. Changes take place
in beliefs and views of men, and while man consciously notices how technological
innovations have changed his culture and personality, he unwillingly takes part in the
changing process of geographical and biological conditions. The interesting features of
any social change is that while the process in operation, changes are not felt as clearly as
when it is viewed upon as a past event. There is a kind of historical approach in the study
of social change, for the change itself is a measure of comparison between conditions
obtainable under different defined sets of circumstances.
When the bastions of “feudalism” collapsed before the advancing might of science,
few realized that the ‘good old days’ had gone forever. Even today, society is in its changing
process, and the contemporaries to the present age are ill-suited as judges of the directional
qualities of such a process. When our times are over, posterity would have a better view of
the manner in which we had changed from our predecessors and to what extent we had
shaped the social structure for them. As MacIver and Page point out, social change is
better understood when it is looked upon as a changing process continually in action, and
not merely as one isolated phenomenon of change compartmentally measuring the
differences between one structure and another finally and completely. In this regard, the
same authors hold that this very process of change establishes society as a `time-sequence’;
to them society is ‘a process, not a produce’. In other words, a product ends up by being so
and the factor that caused it loses their significance. A social process is continuity, and
whatever product it generates, that co-exists with the very process itself, as soon as the
process is stopped, the product disappears.
Sociologists differ in the connotation they apply to the term ‘social change’ some
would emphasize the change in the very structure of society itself, while others take into
consideration `partial’ and ‘total’ changes in a given social system. Some writers maintain
that human society characterized by its permanence and lasting character, while any change
is ephemeral in nature. No change can then be regarded total, for the very structure of
society is based ultimately on man’s instinctive desire for self-preservation and self-
expression and these fundamental conditions about society are unalterable. Again some
other writers seek to differentiate between changes that are ‘basic’ and other that are
‘incidental’.
Mchung Lee writes in his ‘New Outline of the Principles of Sociology’ that no
social change can be regarded as a fundamental alteration of social conditions. He would
rather maintain that the process of social change merely alter the social associations and
institutions in the social system and their structure and functions. The very conditions on
which social living is based are never altered. The sum total of all there different views
would be that social change as a process affects human society historically and all
fundamental principles relating to human relations, be it economic, political, religious or
cultural, change at different points of time and thereby alter the structure and functions of
society.
When MacIver and Page describe society as a process, the idea inherent in such
description is that society is an ‘ever changing phenomenon’. Just as change occurs in
human life different phases of development characterize the march of a society. In very
simple terms it can be stated that social life was never the same a thousand years ago as it
is now, the changes in it pervade all different types of activities, including mere ways of
behaviour and the functions of political, economic and cultural institutions. Changes
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pervade external as well as internal characteristics of social life. What characterizes social
change is the “dynamism” in society, the very attitude of not changing to patterns of
behaviour that are age-old. Some writers observe that social changes occur at a pace that
is faster than that of geographical changes. These changes are particularly noticeable in a
society after the ravages of war or civil disturbances on a large scale, or after natural
calamities.
Check Your Progress
1.Define Social Change.
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11.2 FEATURES OF INDIAN RURAL SOCIETY

Among the earliest human groups, food gathering was the main source of livelihood.
Gradually man acquired the skill and knowledge in agriculture. With the development of
agriculture, people began to lead a settled life and human communities became more
stationary. The emergence of village signified that man has passed from nomadic mode of
collective life to the settled one. India is a land of villages. A great majority of villages are
small with only around five hundred populations each. Mahatma Gandhi’s view that India
lives in villages still holds good, at least from the demographic point of view.
The village social life has its own peculiar characteristics. The village social life
norms strengthen the authoritarian and hierarchical norms in administration. The village
social life, which is based on hierarchical exchange relations greatly influence the behaviour
of civil servants in public organizations. Sociologists think that for defining an Indian
village, its population, physical structure and modes of production are definitely important.
Usually, a village has less than five thousand individuals.
It is rightly said that “India is a country of villages”. Agriculture is the main
occupation of the Indians and maj ority people in India live in the villages. Our villages
help in strengthening our social bonds and bringing stability to our society in many ways.
Our villages also help our society in another way namely that of preserving our culture.
The Indian rural society has undergone considerable change past, particularly since
the Independence as a result of a series of land reform legislations that have accelerated
the pace of this change. India has a rich cultural heritage and is a land of diversities. The
diversity in social life is reflected in multi-social, multi-lingual, multi-religious and multi-
caste nature of the society. The important features of the Indian social structure are-
predominant rural habitation in small villages; multi-religious and multi-caste social
identities and important role of family in social life.
In recent years, the communal organizations have become very active in social life
resulting in communal clashes in different parts of the country. The villages form the units
of the Rural society, these rural societies have their own structure. The structure formed
out of the units like 1) Family 2) Caste 3) Internal organization 4) Religion 5) Economic
System.
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Major features of Indian Rural Society
The Village is the oldest permanent community of man. All early communities were
basically rural in character. Bogardus says, “Human society has cradled in the rural group”.
The rural community simply means a community that consists of people living in a limited
geographical area and who have common interests and common ways of satisfying them.
Each society consists of different parts, such as individuals, groups, institutions,
associations and communities. The simplest analogy one can think of at this point is that
of an organism that has different components working together as a whole. Society is a
system like any other system.
According to A.W. Green, “A rural community is a cluster of people living within a
narrow territorial radius, who share a common way of life”. The major features of rural
society are given below:
1. Small size, 2. Intimate relations, 3. Jajmani System, 4. Isolation, 5. Social
homogeneity, 6. Informal social control, 7. Dominance of joint family, 8. Agrarian &
artisanal Occupations, 9. Role of neighbourhood, 10. Faith in Religion, 11. Self-sufficiency,
12. Widespread caste system, 13. Simplicity, 14. Fellow feeling, 15. Observance of moral
norms, 16. Illiteracy, 17. Desire of independence, 18. Dominance of primary relations,
19. Desire to preserve ancient culture of the society, 20. Legal self-government
In Indian social setup a village plays not only a prominent but also a predominant
role because about 87% of the total population resides in villages. In the primitive village
community there are two peculiar features; First, the part played by kinship and second,
its collectivist basis. The bond of kinship and close ties of the inhabitants with the land
developed a high sense of community feeling in the village community.
Check Your Progress
2. Why is India called ‘a country of villages’?
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3. Enlist any five major features of Indian rural society.
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11.3 FEATURES OF INDIAN URBAN SOCIETY

The nature of urban society as represented in thoughts of urban theorists of modern
society has contrasting views. Every place has its distinctive urban characteristic determined
by variables as mix of power, space, market and cultural practices.
As a result of development in science and technology, there has been industrial
development, which gave rise to urbanization. Urbanization gave birth to urban societies.
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Every country has its own urban societies. Different criteria are used to decide a community
as urban. Some of them are, for example, population, legal limits, types of occupations,
social organizations. The city in the words of Louis Wirth refers to “a relatively large,
dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals”.
Meaning of Urban Society
An urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human feature
In comparison to area surrounding it. Urban areas are created and further developed by
the process of urbanization.
Urban areas are places which satisfy the following criteria.
1. A minimum population of 5,000
2. At least 75% of the main working population are engaged in non-agricultural sector
3. A density of population of at least 400 persons per square kilometer
The growth of large cities that contain the bulk of a society’s population is very
recent development. Urbanization is a part of development process.
Major Features of Urban society
The major features of urban society are given below:
1. Social heterogeneity 2. Secondary relations 3. Anonymity 4. Secondary control,
5. Large-scale, 6. Division of labour and specialization, 7. Large-scale social mobility, 8.
Voluntary association, 9. Social reference, 10. Unstable family, 11. Special segregation,
12. Lack of community feeling, 13. Lack of unity in family, 14. Moral laxity, 15. Unbalanced
personality, 16. High incidence of crime, 17. Social disorganization, 18. Peculiarities of
marital life, 19. Dynamic life, 20. Artificial life.
Urban society contrasts with the rural society. It refers to a process, which envisages
land settlement, agglomeration of diversities, complete transformation of economy from
agricultural to industrial, commercial sectors and a wider politico-civic life dependent on
institutions of modern living. The urban society is heterogeneous. It is known for its
diversity and complexity. It is dominated by secondary relations. Urban society is far
away from the nature and natural environment. Mass education is widespread in city. It is
a complex multi-group society.
Check Your Progress
4. Explain the causes of urbanization.
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11.4 BONDS OF UNITY IN INDIA

Unity implies oneness or a sense of oneness meaning integration. However, unity
does not mean uniformity, which implies similarity. M.N. Srinivas observes that the unity
of India is essentially a religious one. People may worship different deities but the religious
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scriptures- Puranas, Brahmanas, Epics and Vedas- Knite the numerous heterogeneous
groups together into one religious society and give them the sense that their country is
sacred.
The bond of unity in relation to India heritage is a certain underlying uniformity of
life, have been reflected in the observations of many foreigners also. Unity amidst diversity
is visualized in the geo-political sphere, institution of pilgrimage, tradition of
accommodation, tradition of interdependence, emotional bond etc. One feature that is
most often noticed about India is its unity and diversity. The various diversities evidenced
in India, there are the bonds of unity, which are located in a certain underlying uniformity
of life as well as in certain mechanism of integration.
11.4.1 Geographical Unity
The natural boundaries provide India a geographical unity, a unity which surprises
the European scholars, who themselves live in small countries and find it difficult to
comprehend how such a vast country with varieties of nature can be united. India is most
popularly called by the name ‘Bharatavarsha”. In the name lies the historical significance,
which symbolizes unity. Nature bestowed on India its gift through natural boundaries to
maintain her unity. The Himalayas stands as a natural boundary in the north and the
remaining three directions are surrounded by sea water. The boundaries of India vary
from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. Climate conditions vary to a large extent in different parts
of India. The geography of India plays a critical role in India’s unity and the sense of
oneness. India is a vast country with diverse geographical features.
11.4.2 Political Unity
India is a plural society both in letter and spirit. It is rightly characterized by its
unity and diversity. National unity and integrity have been maintained even though sharp
economic and social inequalities have obstructed the emergence of egalitarian from other
parts of the world and the existence of diverse language cultures and religions have made
India’s culture tolerant. Post independent India is a nation united against several odds and
obstacles. The country is inhabited by people belonging to all socio-economic strata. The
five year plans and several other developmental schemes are geared to the upliftment of
poor and weaker sections of the society.
India’s political unity is an off shoot of the religious and cultural unity. The very
name “chakravarthi” clearly revealed political unification of India under one central
authority. India in the past and even today is a land of political diversity. The typical
feature of Indian democracy is the existence of multi-party system. Different states may
have different government but all the states are controlled by the central government in
respect of issues concerning protection of foreign invasion, relations with other countries,
trade and commerce with other countries etc.
Check Your Progress
5. Why is India called a plural society?
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11.5 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
The Government of India has initiated, sustained and refined many programs since
independence to help the poor attain self-sufficiency in food production probably the most
important initiative has been the supply of basic commodities, particularly food at controlled
prices available throughout the country. The poor spend about 80 percent of their income
on food, while the rest of the population spends more than 60 percent. The price of food is
a major determinant of wage scale. Often when food prices rise sharply, rioting and looting
follow. Until the late 1970’s, the government frequently had difficulty obtaining adequate
grain supplies in years of poor harvests. During those times, states with surpluses of grain
were cordoned off to force partial sales to public agencies and to keep private traders
from shipping grain to deficit areas to secure very high prices; state governments in surplus-
grain areas were often less than co-operative. After the late 1970s, the central government,
by holding reserve stocks and importing grain adequately and maintained sufficient supplies
to meet the increased demand during drought years. It also provided more remunerative
prices to farmers.
In rural areas, the government has undertaken program to mitigate the worst effects
of adverse monsoon rainfall, which affects not only farmers but village artisans and traders
when the price of grain rises. The government has supplied water by financing well digging
and since the early 1980s, by power-assisted well-drilling; rescinded land taxes for drought
areas, tried to maintain stable food prices; and provided food through a food-for-work
program. The actual work accomplished through food-for-work program is often a
secondary consideration, but useful projects sometimes result. Employment is offered at a
low daily wage, usually paid in grain, the rationale being that only the truly needy will
take jobs at such low pay.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, Indian government programs attempted to provide
basic needs at stable, low prices; to increase income through pricing and regulations, such
as supplying water from irrigation works, fertilizer, and other inputs to foster location of
industry in backward areas to increase access to basic social services, such as education,
health and potable water supply; and to help needy groups and deprived areas. The total
money spent on such programs for the poor was not discernible from the budget data, but
probably exceeded 10 percent of planned budget outlays.
India has had a number of anti-poverty programs since the early 1960s. These include
the National Rural Employment Program and the Rural Landless Employment Guarantee
Program the National Rural Employment Program (N.R.E.P) evolved in financial year
1980 from the earlier Food-for-work program to use unemployed and underemployed
workers to build productive community assets. The Rural Landless Employment Guarantee
Program (R.L.E.G.P) was instituted in financial year 1983 to address the plight of the
hard-core rural poor by expanding employment opportunities and building rural
infrastructure as a means of encouraging rapid economic growth. To improve the
effectiveness of the N.R.E.P, it was combined with the R.L.E.G.P in 1989 and renamed
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (J.R.Y) or Jawahar Employment plan (J.E.P)
State governments are important participants in anti-poverty programs. The
constitution assigns responsibility to the states in a number of matters, including ownership,
redistribution, improvement and taxation of land. State governments implement most central
government programs concerned with land reform and the situation of small landless
farmers. The central government tries to establish programs and norms among the states
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and union territories, but implementation has often remained at the lower bureaucratic
levels.
11.6 DEVELOPMENT PLANNING IN INDIA - FIVE YEAR PLANS

Planning in India dates back to the 1930s even before independence the colonial
government had established a planning board the lasted from 1944 to 1946. Private
industrialists and economists published three development plans in 1944. India’s leaders
adopted the principle of formal economic planning soon after independence as an effective
way to intervene in economy to foster growth and social justice.
The planning commission was established in 1950. Responsible only to the Prime
Minister, the commission is independent of the cabinet. The Prime Minister is the
Chairperson of the commission, and the Minister of state with independent charge for
planning and program implementation serves as deputy chairperson. The staff of the
commission drafts national plans under the guidance of the commission, draft plans are
presented for approval to the National Development Council, which consists of the planning
commission and the Chief Ministers of states. The council can make changes in the draft
plan. After council’s approval, the draft is presented to the cabinet and subsequently to
the parliament, whose approval makes the plan an operating document for central and
state governments.
The First Five-Year Plan (1951-55) attempted to stimulate balanced economic
development while correcting imbalances caused by World War-II and partition.
Agriculture, including projects that combined irrigation and power generation received
priority. By contrast, the Second Five-Year plan (1956-60) emphasized industrialization,
particularly basic, heavy industries in the public sector and improvement of the economic
infrastructure. The plan also stressed social goals, such as more equal distribution of income
and extension of the benefits of economic development to the large number of disadvantaged
people. The Third Five-Year plan (1961-65) aimed at a substantial rise in national and
per capita income, while expanding the industrial base and rectifying the neglect of
agriculture in the previous plan. The third plan called for national income to grow at a
more than 5 percent a year, self-sufficiency in food grains was anticipated in the mid-
1960s.
Economic difficulties disrupted the planning process in the mid 1960’s. In 1962,
when a brief war was fought with China on the Himalayan frontier, agricultural output
was stagnating, industrial production was considerably below expectations, and the
economy was growing at about half of the planned rate. Defence expenditures increased
sharply and the increased foreign aid needed to maintain development expenditures
eventually provided 28 percent of public development spending. Midway through the third
plan, it was clear that its goals could not be achieved. Food prices rose in 1963, causing
rioting and looting of grain warehouses in 1964. War with Pakistan in 1965 sharply reduced
the foreign aid available. Successive severe droughts in 1965 and 1966 further disrupted
the economy and planning. Three annual plans guided development between 1966 and
1968, while plan policies and strategies were revaluated. Immediate attention centred on
increasing agricultural growth, stimulating exports, and searching for efficient uses of
industrial assets. Agriculture was to be expanded, largely through the supply of inputs to
take advantage of new high-yield seeds becoming available for food grains.
The Fourth Five Year plan (1969-73) called for 24 percent increase over the third
plan in real terms of public development expenditures. The public sector accounted for 60
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percent of plan expenditures, and foreign aid contributed 13 percent of plan financing.
Agriculture, including irrigation, received 23 percent of public outlays; the rest was mostly
spent on electric power, industry and transportation. Although the plan projected national
income growth at 5.7 percent a year, the realized rate was only 3.3 percent.
The Fifth FiveYear Plan (1974-78) was drafted in late 1973 when crude oil prices
were rising rapidly; the rising prices quickly forced a series of revisions. The plan was
subsequently approved in late 1976 but was terminated at the end of 1977 because the
new government wanted different priorities and programs. The fifth plan was in effect
only one year, although it provided some guidance to investments throughout the five year
period. The economy operated under annual plans in 1978 and 1979.
The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-84) was intended to be flexible and was based on
the principle of annual “rolling” plans. It called for development expenditure of nearly
1.9 trillion (in 1979 prices). The plan called for GDP growth to increase by 5.1 percent a
year, a target that was surpassed by 0.3 percent. A major objective of the plan was to
increase employment, especially in rural areas, in order to reduce the level of poverty.
The Seventh FiveYear Plan (1985-89) envisioned a greater emphasis on the
allocation of resources to energy and social spending at the expense of industry and
agriculture. In practice, the main increase was in transportation and communications, which
took up 17 percent of public expenditure during the plan period. The planners assumed
that public savings would increase and help finance government spending. In practice that
increase did not occur, instead, the government relied on foreign borrowing for a greater
share of resources than expected.
The Eighth Five Year plan (1992-96) was affected by changes of governments and
by growing uncertainty over what role planning could usually perform in a more liberal
economy. Two annual plans were in effect in 1990 and 1991. The eighth plan was finally
launched in April 1992 and emphasized market based policy reform rather than quantitative
targets. It included three general goals. First, it sought to cut back the public sector by
selling off failing and inessential industries, while encouraging private investment in such
sectors as power, steel and transport. Second, it proposed that agriculture and rural
development have priority; third, it sought to renew the assault on illiteracy and improve
other aspects of social infrastructure, such as provision of fresh drinking water. However,
in 1994 economists expected annual growth to be around 4 percent during the period of
the eighth plan.
The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002). The focus of ninth five year plan was
‘growth with equity and distributive justice’. In order to achieve this broad objective, the
plan had focused on Quality of Life, Employment Promotion, Removing regional
imbalances and Self-dependence. It also aimed at reducing foreign debt by curtailing,
proper utilsation and protection of natural resources, attaining self-dependence, attaining
self-sufficiency in food grains and technology and increasing dependence on non-debt
income. The plane achieved growth rate of 5.5% against the target 6.5%.
The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) was universal access to primary education
by 2007, implementation of food-for-work programme in place of employment programmes,
improving the conditions of the poor, especially agricultural labour, allowing sectors like
real estate, transport, small scale industries and IT enabled services grow to accelerated
rate during 10th Plan reducing material mortality rate to 20 per thousand births etc. The
target was 8.1 % but achieved rate was 7.8%.
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Eleventh Five Year Plan (2006-2012) had the following objectives 12% growth in
manufacturing sector, ensuring electricity connection to the rural people, creating 58 million
new work opportunities, reserving 33% government schemes to women, reducing educated
unemployment by 5%, treatment of water waste by the end of 2011-12, increase of wages
of unskilled workers by 20% and 5% increase in forest and tree cover.
The Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017) The main objectives of were : growth of
GDP at the rate of 8%, agriculture sector to grow at 4%, manufacturing sector at the rate
of 7.1 %, industrial sector to grow at 7.6%, employment opportunities around 50 million
in sectors other than agriculture, providing adequate transport infrastructure to minimize
cost of transport, banking services to every household, increase in green covers in one
million hectare.
Decades of planning show that India’s economy, a mix of public and private
enterprise, is too large and diverse to be wholly predictable or responsive to directions of
the planning authorities. Actually results usually differ in important respects from plan
targets. Major shortcomings include insufficient improve in income distribution and
alleviation of poverty, delayed completions and cost overruns on many public-sector
projects, and far too a small return on many public-sector investments.
11.7 THE CONCEPT OF MIXED ECONOMY

Mixed economy is the outcome of the compromise between the two diametrically
opposite schools of thought, the one which champions the cause of capitalism and the
other which strongly pleads for the socialization of all means of production and of the
control of the entire economy by the state. Thus, the concept of mixed economy accepts
the possibility of the co-existence of private of mixed economy. Under the directive
principles of the Indian constitution, it has been laid down that the state should strive “to
promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may a
social order in which justice; social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions
of social life”.
In the economic sphere, the state is to direct its policy to secure a better distribution
of ownership and control of the material resources of the community and to prevent
concentration of wealth in the hands of a few and the exploitation of the labour. It would
be impossible for the state to attain these ends implied in the directive principles unless
the state itself enters the fields of production and distribution. This explains the rationale
behind of economic planning. To protect the weaker sections, the state is also expected to
control the distribution of essential commodities.
Similarly, by controlling the financial system, viz, insurance and banking, the state
can endeavour to direct investment in socially desirable channels. Besides, in a poor and
under-developed country like India, market forces based on profit motive can’t by
themselves induce the private sector to move into infrastructural development which
involves heavy capital investment long gestation period low rate return etc. Accordingly
the State has to promote infrastructural facilities like hydro-electric projects, irrigation,
road and railway transport and have create conditions conducive to a higher level of
investment so that national and per capita incomes of the people can be improved
continuously.
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11.8 RATIONALE OF PLANNING IN INDIA
In India, comprehensive national planning is required to fulfill some broad social
and economic objectives. The following are some principal reasons for planning in India
A. Rapid Economic Development: Before Independence, the long period of British rule
and exploitation had made India one of the poorest nations in the world. The main task
before the national government was to undertake some positive development measures to
initiate a process of development, which can be done effectively through the instrument
of planning. The spectacular success of planning in some countries had inspired the national
leaders to adopt the path of planning for an accelerated development of the shattered
economy.
B. Quick improvement in the standard of living: The fundamental objective of planning
is to bring about a quick improvement in the standard of living of the people. In an
unplanned economy the country’s resources and materials cannot be employed for
increasing the people’s welfare as the private capitalists in such an economy direct their
activities in increasing their own profits. The path of planning has been chosen to promote
a rapid rise in the standard of living of the people by efficient exploitation of resources,
increasing production of most goods and offering employment opportunities to the people.
C. Removal of poverty: Planning in India is necessary for the early removal of object
poverty of the people. This can be effectively done through;
i. Planned increase in the employment opportunities of the people;
ii. Planned production of mass consumption goods and their planned distribution among
the people;
iii. Fulfillment of minimum needs program by providing essential facilities viz. housing,
roads, drinking water, public health, primary education, slum improvement etc.;
and
iv. Planned increase in the consumption of the poorest section of the people.
D. Rational Allocation and Efficient Utilization of Resources: India is rich in natural
resources, but these resources are not fully exploited to get maximum advantages. In the
planned economy resources tend to be engaged in the production of these goods and
services, which yield maximum profits, as a result of rational allocation of resources is
not possible. An unplanned economy faces frequently the problem of either shortages in
some sectors or surpluses in others. But, such misallocation of resources can be rectified
in a planned economy in which the planning authority determines the pattern of the
investment of resources.
E. Reduction in Unequal Distribution of Income and Wealth: Income and wealth are
not evenly distributed in India as in other less developed countries. In the absence of
planning such inequality tends to increase due to growing concentration of economic
resources at the hands of a few capitalists. Besides, the capitalists in the unplanned society
increase their own profits by paying less to the labourers and other suppliers of raw
materials. Planning can reverse this trend through the proper guidance and control of
production, distribution, consumption and investment. The development works can be so
planned and so executed that greater equality is established with the increase of income
and employment.
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F. Reduction of Unemployment and increase in Employment Opportunities: The
backwardness of the different sectors of the economy accounts for the presence of
widespread unemployment, both open and disguised in the country. The rate of economic
growth usually becomes low in the unplanned society; as a result of it becomes a different
task to mitigate this serious problem without proper planning. The government can,
however, increase the employment opportunities by undertaking development programs
for different sectors like agriculture, industries, social services, transport and
communications etc. Besides, labour intensive development projects and job-oriented
programs can also be undertaken to provide relief for the problem of unemployment.
The development plans in India have been already given proper stress for increasing
employment. The steps have been taken to create both short-term and long-term employment
opportunities in various sectors like agriculture, industry, small and village industries,
irrigation work and construction etc.
G. Regional Balanced Development: Indian economy requires planning for other purpose
also such as the removal of the shortages of essential goods, attainment of self-sufficiency
in essential goods such as food grains and key materials, economic self-reliance,
establishment of social justice for increasing economic facilities for weaker and neglected
sections of the society.
Check Your Progress
6. What are the major objectives of planning in India?
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7. What is mixed economy?
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11.9 SUMMARY
Change is a natural phenomenon, it even applies to society. The changes that take
place in a social structure in terms of its growth, maturity and even decay are called “social
change”. Social change can be witnessed in all the conditions under the man lives, which
includes beliefs and views of the man. Sociologists differ in the connotation they apply to
the term ‘social change’. India is a land of villages. The village social life has its own
peculiar characteristics. Rapid industrialization and development in Science and
Technology gave rise to urbanization. The sources of diversity in India may be traced
through a variety of ways; most obvious among them are the ethnic origins, religions,
castes, tribes, languages, social customs, cultural and sub-cultural beliefs, political
ideologies and geographical variations. Unity implies oneness or a sense of certain
underlying uniformity of life. After Independence, development planning was required in
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India to fulfill some broad social and economic objectives. During the British rule, the
exploitation had made India one of the poorest nations of the world. The fundamental
objective of planning was to bring about a quick improvement in the standard of living of
people. Mixed economy is the compromise between the two opposite economic policies
Capitalism and Socialism.

1. The Change that takes place in a social structure in terms of its growth, maturity and
even decay is called social change.
2. About 87 percent of Indian population lives in villages. Therefore, India is called a
country of villages.
3. Major features of Indian rural society are 1) Small size of village community,
2) Intimate relations, 3) Jajmani system, 4) Social homogeneity, 5) Dominance of joint
family.
4. Rapid industrialization and development of science and technology are the main causes
of urbanization.
5. The post-Independent India is a nation united against several odds and obstacles. It is
inhabited by people belonging to all socio-economic static. Therefore, India is called a
‘plural society’.
6. The major objectives of planning in India are: i) Rapid economic development,
ii) Improvemnt in the standard of living of the population, iii) Removal of Poverty,
iv) Rational allocation and effective utilization of resources, v) Reduction in unequal
distribution of income and wealth.
7. Mixed economy is the compromise between two diametrically opposite theories
capitalism and socialism.

1. Discuss the objectives of Development Planning in India in detail.
2. Discuss different types of diversities seen in India.
3. What is mixed economy? Why did India choose ‘mixed economy’ as a economic
policy for its development.
1. Write the important features of Indian rural society.
2. Write in brief about “social change” in post-independent India.
3. Discuss the important features of Urban society in India.
11.12 GLOSSARY
Feudalism: The political, military and social system in the middle age, based on the
holdings of lands in fief and fee and on the resulting relations between lord and vassal
Urbanization : Tendency of increase in cities and tendency of people to migrate to Cities
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Linguistic Diversity : Existence of several languages in a country at the same time
Religious Diversity : Existence of several religious in country at the same time
Racial Diversity : Existence of several races at the same time
Ethnic Diversity : Existence of several ethnic groups at the same time
Mixed Economy : Economy showing the futures of both capitalism and socialism

1. Appelbaum R.P : Theories of social change
2. Harry M. Johanson : Sociology: A Systematic Introduction
3. Marvin E. Olsen : The Process of Social Organisation
4. Srinivas M.N : Social Change in Modern India
5. Wilbert E.Moore : Social Change
6. Yogendra Singh : Social Change in India
190
UNIT -12 : EDUCATION, GREEN REVOLUTION,
INDUSTRIALIZATION AND
URBANIZATION - SOCIAL CHANGE
Contents
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Education
12.3 Education and social change
12.4 Green Revolution
12.5 Impact of Green Revolution
12.6 Industrialization and Urbanization as Processes of Social Change
12.7 What is Urbanization?
12.7.1 Urbanism as A Way of Life
12.8 Impact of Urbanization on Indian Society
12.9 What Is Industrialization
12.9.1 Industrialism
12.10 Impact of Industrialization on Indian Society
12.11 Summary
12.12. Check your progress-Model Answers
12.14 Glossary
12.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we have explained the concept of social change and how education,
green revolution, industrialization and urbanization have contributed for social change in
India.
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
 Explain the role of education in bringing social change
 Explain the contribution of Green Revolution in bringing social change
 Explain the concept of Industrialization and Urbanization and its impact on society.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last two units we have studied about the vision of social change in India; the
concept of development; Caste System, its origin and changes. In this unit we will study
the role of Education, Green Revolution, Industrialization and Urbanization in bringing
change in the society.
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12.2 EDUCATION
Education is one of the superseding variables in the phenomenon of social change.
Education is regarded as the key for restructuring the economies of the developing countries.
It helps in understanding the structure and functioning of society, and helps in resolving
various socio-economic problems.
Education provides necessary training in skills and occupations and thus, produces
the needed competent personnel for maintaining the different specialized jobs in modern
industrial, business, educational and research establishments. Besides this, education is
expected to change the values and attitudes of people. Education facilitates the development
of human resources, cultural expression, and improved health and thus provides an essential
base for social and economic development. It is considered as an empowering phenomenon
which enables the people to combat social justice and exploitation and thus creates the
required synergy for a structural socio-political transformation. According to UNESCO,
education leads to social revolution.
Herbert Spencer conceives that ‘the great aim of education is not knowledge but
action. The ultimate result of shielding men from the effects of folly is to fill the world
with fools. Education has for its object the formation of character.
Theodore Brameld has mentioned that Education has two major roles: to transmit
culture and to modify culture. When the existing culture is in a state of crisis, modifying
and innovation become more important, as this can bring the change in the existing culture.
Durkheim conceives of education as ‘the socialization of the younger generation’.
John Locke in his treatise “Some Thoughts Concerning Education” , emphasized that the
knowledge taught during younger years are more influential than those during maturity
because they will be the foundations of the human mind. Due to this process of associations
of ideas, he stressed out that punishments are unhealthy and educators should teach by
examples rather than rules.
Education is one of the factor which contribute for social change and development
which is widely recognized in the present society. It can initiate social change by bringing
about a change in the outlook and attitudes of the people. In the modern societies,
educational institutions aim at imparting empirical knowledge, which can bring about
changes in science and technology.
12.3 EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

The role of education in bringing about social change or modernization has attracted
leaders and planners in nation building to make large scale provisions of educational
facilities for their respective people.
Education is regarded as an important instrument of social change. The role of
education could be viewed from two related but slightly different perspectives, which
may be called teleological and empirical perspectives. In the teleological perspective, the
role of education is to assist the society to achieve the goals it has set for itself.
These include:
i) Goals in the fields of technological, scientific, and other areas of economic
development of the country,
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ii) Social goals like reduction of various forms of social inequality; and
iii) The goal of moulding the character of citizens as responsible and socially and
politically conscientious members of democratic society.
Education has brought the following changes in the society. They are:
i) Brought changes in the behaviour of society: Education has enabled every individual
to participate in the activities of the society actively, which contributed to the progress
of the society.
ii) Education has changed people’s outlook and attitude: Education has brought changes
in the outlook towards customs, traditions, morals, religious beliefs and philosophical
principles. It helped in removing superstitious beliefs and fears about supernatural
beings.
iii) Improvement in the status of women: In the modern societies, women are being
educated and are allowed to find employment. Women are treated equal on par with
the male counterpart.
iv) Helps in attaining Social and Economical benefits of society: Education helps in
enhancing the skills of the individuals, which help the people to find a job as well,
enhance their earning capacity. Education contributes to attain social and economical
benefits as well helps for greater social mobility.
v) Increases political awareness: People will be aware of the political system and
understand their role in building the nation and will actively engage in politics.
Alex Inkels has pointed out that different levels of education have different levels
of effects. In the developing countries, where majority of its population reside in the rural
areas, primary education play a vital role, which enables them to read and write, can allow
the people to move freely. Education has provoked the people to question the existing
values and helped in bringing changes in the society.
Check Your Progress
1. Explain the changes brought by education in the society.
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12.4 GREEN REVOLUTION

In Europe and in most of west, the agricultural surplus has made industrial surplus,
which has released men and capital. In the Indian context, industrialization has taken
place due to government’s role. Agricultural revolution which should be preceded before
industrialization has been lacking in India.
In India with the increase in population, the demand for food also increased, which
forced the government to import food stuff to cater the needs of its population. India in
order to become self-sufficient in food, has introduced Green Revolution in late 1960s.
193
The government has selected some regions and focused on increasing wheat production,
adopted a strategy to combine the use of capital and technology. Besides, improving the
fertility of soil, credits, machines, high yielding seeds, irrigation and fertilizers have played
a vital role in boosting farm yields. The results of green revolution have surpassed the
expectations, which moved from net importer of food grains to one which maintained
surplus food stuff nation.
Components of Green Revolution
The core components of new agriculture strategy are:-
i) Use of High-Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds that matures in short span of time.
ii) Application of fertilizers, manures and chemicals in the agriculture production.
iii) Multiple Cropping Patterns that allows farmers to grow two or more crops on the
same land as HYV seeds matures quickly, which helped in the increase of total
production.
iv) Mechanization of farming, with the use of machines like tractors, harvesters pump
sets etc. in the agriculture occur in a big way.
v) Better Infrastructure facilities in terms of better transportation, irrigation,
warehousing, marketing facilities, rural electrification were developed during the
period of green revolution.
vi) Price Incentives involving provision of the minimum support prices for various
crops so as to allow reasonable price to farmers for their produce. This offers
incentive to the farmers to adopt new practices.
vii) Better financial assistance through spread of credit facilities with the development
of wide network of commercial banks, cooperative banks and establishment of
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) as an apex bank
to coordinate the rural finance in India.
12.5 IMPACT OF GREEN REVOLUTION

The green revolution resulted both in quantitative and qualitative development in
Indian agricultural sector. The quantitative improvement occurred as a result in the increase
of agriculture output. The qualitative improvement resulted into adoption of modernized
technology in the agriculture. The impact of green revolution is as follows:
1. Increase in agriculture production
The Government of India used to import food stuff from other countries to satisfy
the needs of the people. With the implementation of Green Revolution, the country has
moved from dependent (for food) to self-sufficient country, except during late 1980s and
early 1990s due to failure of monsoon and natural calamities.
2. Increase in Employment
Agriculture sector, with multiple cropping and mechanization of farming has
increased the agricultural production, which created employment opportunities in non-
farm economy such as milling, marketing, warehousing etc.
3. Food grain Price Stability
The increased agriculture production and surplus of crops has resulted in price
stability of food grains.
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4. Strengthening of Agriculture linkages with industry
Green Revolution has encouraged the use of High yielding seeds, fertilizers and
mechanization in increasing the agricultural output. At the same time the agriculture sector
has provided the inputs to the industry.
Check Your Progress
2. Explain the role of Green Revolution in bringing change.
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12.6 INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION AS

PROCESSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
In the context of social change and development a close relationship between
modernization, urbanization and industrialization is assumed as a logical connection, in
fact industrialization and urbanization are looked upon as major agents of modernization.
Various sociologists in classifying the social structure have differentiated between
traditional and modern, pre-industrial and industrial societies i.e. Tonnies “Gemeinschaft”
(community) and “Gesellschaft” (society), Redfields “Folk and Urban”, Spencer “Military
and Industrial” societies, etc. No doubt that industrialization and urbanization have
accelerated modernization of societies, but the extent and pattern of modernization are
conditioned by each society. For example in India, the persistence of certain traditional
cultural values and institutions have affected not only the patterns of urbanization and
industrialization but also its influence is found in the modern societies.
12.7 WHAT IS URBANIZATION
According to Louis Wirth, urbanization is a process of extension or accentuation of
the mode of life, characteristic of a city. J.C. Mitchell has defined urbanization as the
process of becoming urban, moving to cities, changing from agriculture to other pursuits
common to cities and corresponding changing of behavior patterns.
According to Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, ‘urbanization is characterized by
movement of people from small communities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture
to other communities generally larger, whose activities are primarily centered in
government, trade, manufacture or allied interests.
Thus urbanization can be said to be characterized by such self evident factors as:
a) Mobility of population from agricultural to non-agricultural areas;
b) Concentration of populace in a new place of habitation or a pace characterized by a
new way of life;
c) Variety of professions other than agriculture and continued mobility in these
occupations, mobility both vertical and horizontal.
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In demographical sense, urbanism means increasing concentration of people in towns
or cities is not irrelevant. Thus, Kingsley Davis classifies urbanization as the switch from
‘spread out’ to concentration pattern of human settlement. Such demographic interpretations
of urbanization take the density of population as the index of urbanization. For example a
convenient index of urbanization is the proportion of people living in places of 1 lakh
population or more. Here the ‘points of concentration’ are cities and the ‘process’ is purely
a matter of the redistribution of population in space. The sociologist looks upon the city
as a particular form of human association. According to Wirth, ‘to define city in terms of
numbers or size is arbitrary.’ A sociologically significant definition of city seeks to select
out these elements of urbanism which mark it as a distinctive mode of human group life.
Urbanism itself should not be viewed as rigidly delimited to the physical entity of the city
because urban attributes do not cease to manifest abruptly at the urban boundary line but
diffuse outward from cities. Hence urbanization is not merely a concentration of people in
the cities and their incorporation into its systems of life but is essentially a process of
cumulative accentuation of the distinctive mode of life characterizing urbanism.
12.7.1. Urbanism as A Way of Life
Louis Wirth analyses the forms of social action and social organization which
characterize cities and offers his theory of ‘urbanism as a way of life’
. He starts by identifying the characterizing features of city and then proceeds to
examine the consequences emerging from them.
A city is characterized by a relatively large, dense and socially heterogeneous
population. Therefore the variables, the effect of which is on social relationship, social
organization and personality of individuals that should be examined are size of population,
density of population and heterogeneity of population.
The immediate consequences of size, density and heterogeneity of population are
variations in personal traits, occupation cultural life and ideas of individual members of
the urban community. Such variations give rise to segregations on the basis of ethnic
origin, colour, social and economic status, etc. in populations characterized by such
variations, bonds of kinship and other primary group sentiments and solidarity tend to
become weak and be replace by more formal and impersonal relationships. In such situations
it is not possible for people to participate in social interactions with their full personalities.
This leads to segmentalised social relations in turn will affect the urban personality. The
city life is such that it makes it necessary for the individual to depend upon a number of
people and organizations for the satisfaction of needs. The social relations are on the
basis of utility in the sense that the role that each one plays is looked upon as a means for
the achievement of personal ends. This also means that the interactions are role-oriented
and not person-oriented and that social relationships have more of a secondary character.
The greater division of labour and specialization of functions in the city leads to greater
social and physical mobility. The city also subjects its residents to a multitude of stimuli
(for example mass media) which demands a certain degree of mental agility from them
there by contributing to greater psychic mobility.
As a consequence of the nature of city life the urban man tends to gain emancipation
from primary group controls. Thus along with the anonymity, superficiality and
transitoriness of city life lead to a state of anomie or the social void to which Durkheim
refers to while explaining the normlessness and social and personal disorganization in the
context or rapid social change.
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Wirth lists out the typical features of urbanism: i) A complex division of labour
with a diversified occupational structure which forms a major basis of the system of social
stratification; ii) High territorial and social mobility; iii) marked functional dependence
of the population; iv) Substantial personal anonymity in interpersonal contacts and
segmentalisation of social roles and role interactions; v) Reliance on indirect modes of
social control and; vi) Normative deviance.
Check Your Progress
3. What are the features of urbanism?
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4. "Urbanization as a way of life" - Explain
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12.8. IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY

Urban culture in India is centuries old. The traditional cities in India were planned
on the basis of the principle of hierarchy; the favourable sites and neighbourhoods being
assigned on the basis of caste and social rank. The king occupied the most favourable site
followed by Brahmins and merchant caste and the lower castes had to live on the outer
fringes of the city. The traditional form of urbanization thus only reinforced the hierarchical,
caste oriented and pre-industrial cultural patterns. Modernization in India has certainly
had its impact on the traditional form of urbanization thus only reinforced the hierarchical,
caste oriented and pre-industrial cultural patterns. Cities in India continue to have cultural
and structural attributes which are for different from those considered to be a typical of a
city. Some of the typical attributes of a city are formalization, atomisation, lack of familism,
predominance of secular ideologies, etc. But in the Indian context cities are not very
different from villages in terms of these attributes. Familistic norms and joint family
structures are found to be predominant in many urban areas. Even the neighbourhood
patterns of some cities in India are found to be based on caste and kinship lines as in the
villages. The migratory pattern in the city is also closely related to the ties of kinship and
acquaintance; migration to cities itself often being caused by social and economic stresses
in the village rather than the ‘pull’ of the city.
Cities in India do not constitute a cultural isolate. There is a continuity of interaction
between the city and the villages and in many areas of cultural activities the distinction
between the two as separate complexes is blurred by the unity of the regional cultural
pattern. As Bert Hoselitz observes, ‘Indian cities, even some of the largest ones, show
sizable quarters which have preserved their rural character and life is carried on under
general conditions only little different from those of villages’. Urbanization in India,
according to him, follows a pattern which exists in Latin America.
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Many urban studies report also the invigoration of traditional ways to take advantage
of the opportunities offered by modernization. G.R. Gadgil’s study of Pune city revealed
an increased strengthening of caste and communal associations for management of
educational and other cultural resources and opportunities. According to Milton Singer’s
study of Indian cities, modern media of communication are being used for the spread of
traditional culture. Although, urbanization certainly has a modernizing impact on Indian
culture, it also tends to reinforce tradition.
The rate of urbanization in India is rather slow. Why has Indian urbanization been
so slow? According to Kingsley Davis, it can only be explained in terms of the relative
slowness of economic development in India.
In 1901, about 11 % of the population lived in urban areas. The proportion continued
to be in the same range till 1931. By 1941, urbanization had increased with 14% of the
population living in urban areas. It is after 1951, urbanization has risen fairly rapidly from
17.59% to 31.16% in 2011.
The slow urbanization rate in India has no doubt retarded the pace of social structural
changes in the society but has not slowed down the diffusion of modern values to any
appreciable extent. Urbanization has led to the growth of commercialism, monetization of
economic relationships, factor and workshop employment for many, and popularization
of mass-media for leisure and entertainment and growth of modernized elites.
Communication studies have also revealed that modern values and information’s have
steadily spread from cities to villages.
Check Your Progress
5. What are the changes brought about by urbanization?
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12.9 WHAT IS INDUSTRIALIZATION

Moore defines industrialization as the extensive use of inanimate sources of power
in the production of economic goods and services. The concept of industrialization is not
limited solely to manufacturing, as agriculture is also subject to mechanization as are
services such as transportation and communication.
The scientific advances of the 18th century brought Western Europe to the beginning
of a new era. It ushered in the Industrial Revolution. The first stage of Industrial Revolution
was marked by the development of machine industry to replace handicraft. Industrialization
in the Western Europe was preceded by extensive value changes. The underlying change
in values was the invasion of rational thought into many areas previously considered sacred.
The rational system of thought was first applied in the economic field and this had its
impact on all to her social institutions. The application of power driven machinery not
only gave rise to the factory system of production but also mechanization of agriculture,
transportation and communication.
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The concentration of factories gave rise to industrial cities, and the growth of
industrial cities resulted in the migration of population into them. The development of
factory system of production also expanded the corporate business method. The use of
machines gave rise to greater division of labour and specialization. The new mode of
production resulted in great increase in production and reduction in the cost of production.
The increase in quality and quantity of production brought about a rise in the standard of
living and led to the rise of a new class structure and new economic philosophies.
Industrial society is dynamic. Hardly is a pattern set before another emerges. Today
we have entered another era marked by changes as dramatic and as massive as the Industrial
Revolution itself. Mass production which was made possible by new sources of power
from oil and electricity and the huge national and international markets produced the
second Industrial Revolution. The use of newer forms of energy are taking us further by
paying the way for the take-over of industry by the automated electronic equipment.
Check Your Progress
6. Discuss Industrialization.
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12.9.1 Industrialism
Industrialism is a ‘culture system’, that goes with industrialization. Industrialism is
characterized by mass production system, rapidly changing technology, high level of
urbanization, bureaucratic organization and formal relations. Rapid industrialization draws
labour force from villages and their families. In most non-industrial societies, the
constellation of kinsmen constitutes a major source of social and personal identification.
The required geographical and social mobility of an industrial economy clearly weakens
or breaks up the traditional kinship ties of the urban industrial recruit. Village identities
may be transferred to the cities temporarily but they rarely survive in an appreciable
measure. In such circumstances apathy, alienation and deviant conduct are likely to ensure.
The division of labour is complex and the worker is reduced to the passive role of tending
machine. The worker feels insecure, unhappy and powerless and articulates his feelings
through specialized interest groups and associations like the trade unions.
The institution of rationality, i.e. an emphasis on problem solving and impersonal
relationships that is typical of industrial society often leads to a kind of instrumentalism.
In other words, relationships are based on ‘rational’ utility to each other rather than on
human reciprocity. The relationships are not primary and person oriented but secondary
and role oriented. The inability of people to meet each other as full persons makes for
superficiality and anonymity.
High rate of industrialization and urbanization provides the social milieu for ‘mass
society’. The concept of mass society stands for a mechanical society in which people are
increasingly treated as part of a mass, subjected to mass production system and easily
manipulated by the mass media which gives rise to a mass culture.
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12.10 IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY
Compared to other nations industrial growth has been slow in India. The reasons for
retardation are apparently the Indian social organization, the long period of British rule
and the unfavorable demographic situation.
The role of cultural and institutional factors in the slow growth of industrialization
has been a subject of much speculation among social scientists. Starting from Max Weber,
there are a number of social scientists who attribute the slow rate of economic growth in
India to its philosophy of renunciation of the ‘other worldly asceticum’ of the Hindu
religion. Other social scientists have refuted this argument and have pointed out how
orthodox Hindu practices are undergoing transformation under the influence of urbanization
and industrialization. Milton Singer notes how in modern India the individual avoids
conflict between his traditional values and secular ones by compartmentalizing them,
applying the former at home and the latter in the office.
According to Census Report, 2011, the distribution of main workers by broad
categories show that 31.7 % are cultivators, 26.5 % are agricultural labourers, 4.2 %
engaged in house-hold industry and 37.6% other workers. Although this does not give the
percentage of industrial workers, we can surmise that industrial workers constitute only a
small fragment of the total work force. Further, many studies of industrial workers in
India have emphasized the fact that the workers are not committed to industry work and
way of life. They do not choose their career voluntarily but are pushed into it by
circumstances. This means that the proportion of rise in the industrial work force is a
result of the society to meet the needs of its members. These studies thus assume that the
factory workers are a class of deprived persons who have been pushed out of their traditional
occupations temporarily to which they aspire to return. It is claimed that the problems of
absenteeism, erratic labour turnover and inordinate leave applications etc., of the factory
workers can be understood in this light. These assumptions could be valid to a certain
extent. But there certainly are exceptions. Lambert’s study of the five factories in Poona
shows that (i) Selectivity in labour force is not confined to the deprived sections; (ii) and
that a good proportion of the factory workers studied had worked in factories before
indicating that they did have a stable relationship with factory work. However, Lambert’s
study does bring out that the factory social structure maintains many elements of traditional
society like particularistic considerations in recruitment etc.
The low industrialization rate has had the effect of ‘over urbanisation’ in some of
the cities in India. Over-urbanisation results when there is migration from rural areas at a
rate higher than the expansion of industrial employment opportunities in the cities. Many
of such migrants are forced to take out their livelihood in various marginal ‘services’ and
occupations rather than in manufacturing. This trend is quite contrary to the development
sequence in the older industrial countries.
However India has now begun to make some significant progress in the industrial
sphere. According to ‘The Economic Times, 27th November, 2017’ The factory output
measured in terms of the Index of Industrial Production (IIP) had expanded by 6.5 per
cent in April 2016, as per the data released by the Central Statistics Office (CSO). The
CSO also revised upwards the IIP growth figure for March to 3.75 per cent from provisional
estimate of 2.7 per cent released last month. There has been an unprecedented boom in
new capital issues and investment in different sectors in taking place on a large scale; it is
200
unlikely that there will be any shortage in manufactured goods except in respect of some
categories of steel, fertilizers and non-ferrous metals. There has also been massive
expansion of capacity in light engineering, heavy chemical, automobile and ancillary
industries.
Check Your Progress
7. What changes have been brought about by industrialization?
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12.11 SUMMARY
We have seen that urbanization, industrialization, education and green revolution
has contributed to change in Indian society, even though it is low in India compared with
other countries in the world. These have a brought about modernizing changes in the
structure and functioning of society. Urbanization and industrialization require many
compromises to be made in the traditional mode of living and culture. Education, mass
media, use of modern transportation, banking, modern medicine and political culture has
become the cultural foundation of modern cities and industrial centres.

1. Education has brought the following changes in the society. They are:
i) Brought changes in the behaviour of society: Education has enabled every individual to
participate in the activities of the society actively, which contributed to the progress of
the society.
ii) Education has changed people’s outlook and attitude: Education has brought changes
in the outlook towards customs, traditions, morals, religious beliefs and philosophical
principles. It helped in removing superstitious beliefs and fears about supernatural beings.
iii) Improvement in the status of women: In the modern societies, women are being educated
and are allowed to find employment. Women are treated equal on par with the male
counterpart.
iv) Helps in attaining Social and Economical benefits of society: Education helps in
enhancing the skills of the individuals, which help the people to find a job as well, enhance
their earning capacity. Education contributes to attain social and economical benefits as
well helps for greater social mobility.
v) Increases political awareness: People will be aware of the political system and understand
their role in building the nation and will actively engage in politics.
2. Green Revolution has played a vital role in transforming India from net importer of
food stuff to one with surplus food stuff nation. The strategy employed to improve
agricultural production is:
201
i) Use of High-Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds that matures in short span of time.
ii) Application of fertilizers, manures and chemicals in the agriculture production.
iii) Multiple Cropping Patterns that allows farmers to grow two or more crops on the same
land as HYV seeds matures quickly, which helped in the increase of total production.
iv) Mechanization of farming (use of machines like tractors, harvesters pump sets etc. in
the agriculture occur in a big way).
v) Better Infrastructure facilities in terms of better transportation, irrigation, warehousing,
marketing facilities, rural electrification were developed during the period of green
revolution.
vi) Price Incentives involving provision of the minimum support prices for various crops
so as to allow reasonable price to farmers for their produce. This offers inventive to the
farmers to adopt new practices.
vii) Better financial assistance through spread of credit facilities with the development of
wide network of commercial banks, cooperative banks and establishment of National Bank
for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) as an apex bank to coordinate the
rural finance in India.
3. Wirth lists out the typical features of urbanism: i) A complex division of labour with a
diversified occupational structure which forms a maj or basis of the system of social
stratification; ii) High territorial and social mobility; iii) marked functional dependence
of the population; iv) Substantial personal anonymity in interpersonal contacts and
segmentalisation of social roles and role interactions; v) Reliance on indirect modes of
social control and; vi) Normative deviance.
4. A city is characterised by a relatively large, dense of socially heterogeneous population.
It gives rise to segregation on the basis of ethinic origin, colour, social and economic
status, etc. in population characterised by such variations, bonds of kinship, other primary
group sentiments and solidarity tend to become weak and be replaced by more formal and
impersonal relationships. Thus city makes it necessary to the individuals to depend upon
one another to achieve their personal ends.
5. The traditional form of urbanization thus only reinforced the hierarchical, caste oriented
and pre-industrial cultural patterns. Modernization in India has certainly had its impact on
the traditional form of urbanization thus only reinforced the hierarchical, caste oriented
and pre-industrial cultural patterns. Cities in India continue to have cultural and structural
attributes which are for different from those considered to be a typical of a city. Some of
the typical attributes of a city are formalization, atomisation, lack of familism,
predominance of secular ideologies, etc.
6. Moore defines industrialization as the extensive use of inanimate sources of power in
the production of economic goods and services. The concept of industrialization is not
limited solely to manufacturing, as agriculture is also subject to mechanization as are
services such as transportation and communication.
7. The changes in the Indian society due to Industrialization are:
i) Migration from rural areas to urban areas in search of employment opportunities,
ii) Change in lifestyle,
202
iii) Improvement in Education
iv) Replacement of traditional values with Secular values
v) Decline of cottage industries, etc.

1. Discuss urbanization and industrialization as a process of social change.
2. What is the relationship between urbanization and industrialization.
3. Discuss urbanism as a way of life.
II. Answer the following in about 10 lines each.
1. What do you mean by Green Revolution.
2. Explain the outcomes of Green Revolution.
3. Explain the changes brought by Education in Indian society.
12.14 GLOSSARY
Education : Education provides necessary training in skills and occupations and thus,
produces the needed competent personnel for maintaining the different specialized jobs in
modern industrial, business, educational and research establishments.
Green Revolution : The Government of India used to import food stuff from other countries
to satisfy the needs of the people. With the implementation of Green Revolution, the country
has moved from dependent (for food) to self-sufficient country, except during late 1980s
and early 1990s due to failure of monsoon and natural calamities.
Urbanization : Urbanization is characterized by movement of people from small
communities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture to other communities generally
larger, whose activities are primarily centered in government, trade, manufacture or allied
interests.
Industrial Revolution : Industrial Revolution was marked by the development of machine
industry to replace handicraft.

1. Anderson N and Iswaran K : Urban Sociology (1965)
2. Bergal E.E. : Urban Sociology (1955)
3. Mohan J. Dutta : Communicating Social Change: Structure
Culture and Agency (2011)
4. Miller D.C. and Form W.H. : Industrial Sociology (1964)
5. Turner R. : India’s Urban Future (1962)
6. Vincent M.J. and Mayers J. : New Foundations in Industrial Sociology (1965)
7. Wilbert E. Moore : Social Change
8. Wilbert E. Moore : Impact of Industry
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BLOCK-V: CHALLENGES FOR SOCIAL
TRANSFORMATION
The term ‘transformation’ is understood with a related word formation.

Formation is a process of form or its changes. Form is an established phenomenon
of shape, structure or social categorized understanding. They may be simple ideas,
institutions or broader social constructs which prevail in sociological literature such
as development-underdevelopment, placement-displacement environmental concerns
and inequalities which are recognised. Transformation is newly formed or differently
shaped formation where in original form are looked in variently. Social formations
are largely affecting social phenomenon in distinct mode and face, which cause
societal happenings. Such social transformation phenomenon aspects are discussed
in this Block.
Units Included in this Block are:

Unit - 13 : Development, Displacement and Rehabilitation.
Unit - 14 : Environmental and Ecological Issues and Sustainability.
Unit - 15 : Social and Economic Inequalities.
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UNIT-13 : DEVELOPMENT, DISPLACEMENT AND
REHABILITATION
Contents
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Concept of Development
13.3 Concept of Displacement
13.3.1 Development induced Displacement
13.3.2 Suggestions to deal with the problems of Displacement
13.4 Resettlement and Rehabilitation
13.5 Summary
13.8 Glossary
13.0 OBJECTIVES
 The concept of Development, Displacement and Rehabilitation
 Development induced Displacement
 Rehabilitation and Resettlement
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The developmental projects which are essential to attain economic growth has serious
impact on entire environment, including flora, fauna, landscapes, river systems, water
quality, and shorelines as well as the creation of mercury contamination, greenhouse gases,
water quality deterioration, downriver hydrological change, reservoir sedimentation,
transmission line impacts. The large scale deforestation due to mining and establishment
of industries has resulted in climate change and inconsistent weathers. Big Dams submerge
huge area of forest cover causing irreversible loss to varieties of flora and fauna besides
the land area. Huge human and environmental cost has to be paid for various developmental
projects. It is high time to realize the need of transforming our developmental policies to
address the larger human and environmental requirements until it becomes too late.
13.2 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT

In simplest sense, development is growth plus change. Development is a procedure
of arranged institutional change to achieve better adjustment between human needs and
goals at one side and social plans and projects on other side. It is translating economic
progress into better living conditions for people in society. It is fighting against poverty,
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illiteracy, ignorance, inequality, irrationality and oppression prevalent in society. It aims
at not merely uplifting the weak, the under privileged and the disadvantaged people but
also at improving the quality of life of all citizens. Development can be comprehensively
characterized to benefit the community at large as an upward movement including more
prominent levels of vitality, effectiveness, quality, efficiency, imagination, happiness and
achievement.
Development is governed by many factors that influence the result of developmental
efforts. Development requires assets such as capital, innovation, and supporting
infrastructure. It is the result of society’s ability to sort out resources to meet difficulties
and opportunities.
Development envelops social, economic, political and cultural procedure of progress
in human societal order. Current ways to deal with development support frequent large
scale change of natural and built in environments. The development activities, such as
dams, commercial enterprises, roadways, irrigation system, pipelines, and transportation
system and energy assets go for creating and supporting both agriculture and industrial
growth, bringing about expansion of both national and per capita incomes. However, the
developments of infrastructure and commercial enterprises have led to displacement of
large number of people.
Critiques have pointed that the development has led to wide spread inequalities in
society while dissolving customary sources of employment, uprooting people from their
long establishments. It has enhanced the consumer culture bringing about exhaustion of
natural resources, increased economic dependence on outside financial and innovative
organization and diminished political autonomy of host society.
In developing countries, the scale of development related population displacement
has grown rapidly over the past few decades due to the compelling need for infrastructure
to meet the demand of fast growing population. As the developing countries have to provide
the basic amenities to the people, investment in infrastructure is expected to shoot up over
the next couple of decades. As the investment in infrastructure grows, the challenge of
solving ‘‘resettlement and rehabilitation’’ has become very critical.
Several perspectives on development have emerged including economic growth
perspective, human development perspective, social development perspective, sustainable
development perspective.
Check Your Progress
1. What do you mean by ‘Development’?
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13.3 CONCEPT OF DISPLACEMENT

Post Independent India has witnessed a large number of development projects for
fulfilling the socio-economic needs of different categories of population residing indifferent
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parts of country. Efforts were made by government authorities for the promotion of maj
or, medium and small scale developmental projects in sectors like irrigation, industries,
power, transportation etc. It is well understood that without development efforts, a nation
cannot progress. The various development projects have displaced about two crores of
people primarily as a direct consequence of land acquisition. In addition to it, numbers of
people are not included in list of project affected people. India has one of the highest rates
of development induced displacement in the world. Large dams, huge industrial and mining
projects, communication and transportation network as well as power projects have
uprooted millions of people in many cases; instantly depriving them of their cultural
identities and livelihood. Literature shows that, in majority of cases the numbers of persons
displaced by development projects were underestimated.
Displacement involves physical eviction from a dwelling and the expropriation
(dispossession) of productive land and other assets to make possible an alternative use.
Displacement is a multidimensional phenomenon of which physical movement is
one of the most critical consequences. Displacement not only results in physical relocation,
but also lessens the life quality of the communities to subhuman condition. It also affects
socio-economic and cultural aspects of life. Internally displaced people are those “persons”
who have been forced or obliged to flee from their home or places of habitual residence in
particular, as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situation of
generalized violence, violation of human rights or natural as well manmade disasters, and
who have not crossed the internationally recognized state border.
The following are the causes of displacement:
1. Natural disasters force many to leave their homeland. They move out of their region
because of earthquakes, cyclones, floods, and droughts. They are called disaster
displaced persons.
2. People get displaced because of man-made disasters, like gas disaster in Bhopal.
For ex. Migrants from India to Pakistan and vice versa during partition in 1947.
3. People get displaced from their habitats due to wars, civil unrest and social conflicts.
They become refugees.
4. Changes in economic policies also sometimes force people to relocate to new place
to sustain their livelihood. In recent decades, lakhs of traditional fishing families,
millions of tribals and dalits have been rendered jobless due to certain reconstruction
on economic activities.
5. Majority of people in India, are displaced because of construction of large dams,
mines, highways, metros as well due to process of urbanization. Land is also acquired
for the development of industrial, educational and other infrastructure proj ects.
With the globalisation lots of development activities are planned for the beautification
and development of cities and rural communities. Although ample of people got displaced
but the most critical part to be mentioned in this note is that till recently no aggressive
resettlement and rehabilitation plans were ever made for the welfare of displaced people.
Rather in majority of cases these project affected people were being left on their
own resources, thereby, causing impoverishment and marginalization in their lives.
The problem of displacement is not merely economic; it is also a socio-cultural
problem. It disturbs the entire social network relationships and thus disturbs a particular
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way of life. It also affects the traditional activities and an already established social order.
It forces people to adopt new occupations along in an unknown environment. As such, the
process leads to replacement in a new position or new location. The displaced people are
forced to change their life style, without really being compensated for their social loss
and thus they remain under pressure leading to socio-cultural stress.
Displacement also causes impoverishment and marginalization. Displacement is
viewed as a problem since it is both compulsory and involuntary; only in rare cases fair
compensation is given to the displaced. The current system fails to acknowledge that the
displaced community is deprived of the rights of access to a large number of resources, an
entire way of life, and is not even given an opportunity to demand adequate price for this
loss. Apart from the private land and cultural-historical heritage, the displaced holds several
other livelihood generating assets which are not legally acknowledged.
Displacement caused through involuntary actions forces people to go without land,
leads to shattered homes and with no job to rely upon. Being taken away of their lands
result into the removal of main foundation on which rests the system’s of productive nature,
activities of commercial nature, means of earning daily living. Displacement leads to
homelessness. Homelessness is being without a place with one’s own ownership to losing
out on common minimum socio-cultural group and losing out one’s own identity as a
whole. It results into loss of daily earnings and having no vocation to support the livelihood.
The people who are losing on their livelihood are primarily tribal communities, labour
class and artisans without any land, workers in industry and small and medium business
class
Displacement is not only problematic immediately it also carries with it the risk of
becoming poorer than before displacement, economically vulnerable and socially
disintegrated. Involuntary shift from long establishments imposes lots of mental pressure
to start a life afresh. An additional cause of stress is the fear of abandoning the places of
worship and community living. The result maybe increased sickness and grief. The
emotional stress is aggravated by feeling of helplessness as no amount of arguments; plea
or revolt can prevent the inevitable forced displacement. The displaced communities and
people also face disempowerment and dispossession. It also disturbs their production system
and income sources. Long established social standing and kinship linkages are broken.
Thus from social and cultural point of view displacement is a disruptive process and it
creates high risks of impoverishment among displaced.
Displacement has serious social impact. Social impact is defined as the impact on
human populations of any public or private activities that disturbs the manner in which
people live, work, play, identify with each other, associate to fulfill social needs and
generally cope as members of society’. Social impact assessment is carried out to study
the impact on people due to development action and it intends to identify the impact after
the development project is implemented. Through such assessment voices, needs and
aspirations of people and diverse groups are taken into account. Displacement induces
insecurity and helplessness in people. Displacement also leads to health deterioration and
increased rate of mortality as services in those selected areas are the first to be cut. Due to
the altered circumstances somewhere nutritional requirement of family also gets affected.
Check Your Progress
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2. What do you mean by ‘Displacement’? What are the major reasons for Displacement?
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13.3.1 Development Induced Displacement
One can witness a paradigm shift in the 1950s and 1960s, from simple and traditional
Indian society to modern and complex one. Technological, capital intensive and large
scale developmental projects accelerated the growth in economy of Indian society. It was
then followed by a ‘new development paradigm’, which promotes poverty reduction,
environmental protection, social justice, and human rights. But such development not
only brings benefit, rather it imposes cost on some section of society. Among its greatest
costs has been the involuntary displacement of millions of vulnerable people.
Amid the 1990s, Development Induced Displacement rose as a concern and a
challenge to the sustainable economic development. The worry emerged as a result of
sensational rise in development induced displacements in the 1970s and 1980s. Further
there were difficult and deplorable results in resettlement experiences. This led to protests,
campaigns and resistance developed, scrutinized the power of policy framers and planners
at diverse levels.
Development induced displacement can be defined as the forcing of communities
and individuals out of their homes, often also their homelands, for the purposes of economic
development, natural resource extraction, urban renewal or development programmes and
infrastructure projects such as highways, bridges, irrigation canals, and dams all require
land, often in large quantity. One common consequence of such projects is the upheaval
and displacement of communities. It is estimated that 10 million people were displaced
annually by these so called “developmental activities.” However, national leaders and
policy-makers typically viewed these as legitimate and inevitable costs of development,
acceptable in the larger national interest. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru said ‘If you have to
suffer, you should do so in the interest of the country’.
In India, Displacement because of developmental activities has been occurring from
a long while in the in 19th century. Even during the colonial era, coal mines in Jharkhand,
tea gardens in Assam, coffee plantations in Karnataka and several such development
activities were introduced. Likewise legitimate changes were amended for the simplification
of the land acquisition procedure, which prompted mass displacement to pave the way for
development. The principle of State’s eminent domain came into limelight with the
Permanent Settlement Act, 1793 and culminated in the Land Acquisition Act 1894. Two
aspects of the act are, State can control, use and own all biodiversity and natural resources
as well as land with no individual titles and secondly, the State has full authority to displace
individuals from their land by defining public purpose for doing so. In any case, the vast
majority of the uprooting amid those times by it was procedure instigated i.e. coming
about because of loss of sustenance through innovative, economic and lawful changes. In
any case, such displacement uprooted millions, specifically Dalits and tribal, a large portion
of who got obliged and got to be fortified workers or moved as contracted labour in tea
estates in the British provinces, world over. Numerous tribals from Chattisgarh, Jharkhand
and Orissa worked in slave like conditions in the tea gardens of North Bengal and Assam.
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Various projects by public sector, private sector and on mode of public private
partnership uprooted millions of people for the sake of development. Forest resources,
river systems and mineral base were most alluring zones for the development activities.
Tribal and backward areas were focus of the earlier developmental projects. Tribal
(adivasis) constitute approximately 8.2 % space in India’s total population, remain largely
a neglected group. To achieve rapid economic growth, India has invested in industrial
projects, dams, roads, mines, power plants and new cities. The developmental targets
were accomplished through massive acquisition of land followed by displacement of
masses.
There are multiple but different consequences of these development induced
displacement. The quality of life of displaced people and potential for physical and
emotional growth is dormant; family and community life is almost totally destroyed; the
opportunity for cultural activity hardly exists and the right of movement is highly restricted.
Those living in camps, especially women, have to endure outrageous invasions of their
privacy. Basic health care for all and education of children are virtually non-existent.
Their right to participate and contest in the political processes is difficult.
Such forced shifts disrupt even the lives of women adversely. The loss of access to
traditional sources of livelihood (land, forest, sea, river, pasture, cattle or salt pan land)
renders additional burden on women. Women not only suffer in terms of health and nutrition,
they also lose the capacity to provide a secure future for their children. By resorting to
seasonal migration they have unwittingly denied their children access to school, health
care, child welfare, and other welfare services.
Michael Cernea has given the following risks associated with development induced
displacement:
1) Landlessness: Land acquisition can result into decapitalization and pauperization of
displaced people. It disrupts the basics of displaced people by affecting their system of
production, earnings and commercial activities.
2) Joblessness: Involuntary shift threatens the wage employment of affected people
working in industries, service sector or agro-industries located at rural or urban areas.
Discomfort of physical relocation is short lived but the negative impact due to
unemployment or underemployment may linger long.
3) Homelessness: Displacement at times deprives the displaced of their shelter. Temporary
homelessness is common feature in such cases and some faces this problem for longer
periods.
4) Marginalization: Downward mobility is also one of the consequences of forced and
involuntary shift, reason being the change in economic conditions due to relocation. The
trend of slipping to the lower levels is called as marginalization. Reduced social,
psychological and economic statuses are the visible impacts of marginalization. Felling of
injustice and inequality lowers the self-confidence of affected masses in society and
themselves.
5) Food Insecurity: At times forced uprooting may result into temporary or chronic under-
nourishment. It can obstruct normal growth and work.
6) Increased Morbidity and Mortality: Cernea found that serious decline in health levels
are directly related with displacement. Involuntary shift imposes social stress and
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psychological trauma which at times are accompanied by outbreak of vector borne diseases
such as malaria etc, supply of unsafe water, filthy drainage system. All these negatively
affect the health of the family members and most vulnerable children and elderly.
7) Loss of access to common property: Many traditional activities are dependent on
common property resources of particular locality. With the loss of it income and livelihood
sources too deteriorates. Upon that usually displaced are not compensated for these losses
by Government.
8) Social Disarticulation: Involuntary relocation ends up into number of social changes
at individual, family and community levels. Fragmentation of families, scattering of kinship
network, uprooting of communities and dismantling of social and interpersonal ties are
some of the major social changes associated with the involuntary displacement and
relocation. It disperses informal life supporting social network.
Development-Induced Displacement is a social issue which affects and disrupts life
of not only tribal and villagers but also of those living in urban areas. Incidences of
displacement from their homes/land/productive assets are increasing because of the
aspirations of developing countries to grow into developed ones. Development induced
displacement is caused due to decision of Government to acquire land for the development
or decision of state to change the use of land owned or changes in the use of land owned
by state machinery or by introduction of some new restrictions on current use of land.
People have begun scrutinizing the authenticity of Development induced Displacement,
an offshoot of the model of development.
The non government organizations and civil society organisations not only focus on
the insufficiencies of resettlement and rehabilitation programs they also question the very
premise of such activities executed by government in the name of public interest. This
issue is currently being debated in the context of development versus displacement.
Displacement refers to not only those who are forced to physically relocate in order to
make way for the project and its related aspects but also includes those who are displaced
from their resource base and livelihoods. Project affected people are group of persons
who are forced to leave their lands or their possessions as a result of development process.
It includes the landless, seasonal farmers, the fishermen, those engaged in work of art,
culture and handicrafts etc. Thayer Scudder an American Social Anthropologist suggested
that the list of project affected people should not only consider those who are displaced by
loss of home directly; it should also take into account the host population that accommodates
the displaced and all others who live in the vicinity of project.
There are three categories of affected people:
a) The Displaced Persons (DP’s) are those who are forced to flee or move out of their
land when the development projects require acquisition of their homesteads.
b) The Project Affected Persons (PAP’s) are those who sacrifice their livelihood fully
or partially without being displaced. In some cases, their individual land is acquired and
in others, the common property resources like forests and fishing ground, affects their
livelihoods.
c) Indirectly Displaced Persons (IDP’s): Disposal of waste from the projects such as
cement plant and pollution from industries affects land fertility, health etc of those who
are living in the close vicinity of project area. This often deprives the dependents on such
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lands of their livelihoods and forces them to move out. These people are called indirectly
displaced persons. (IDP’s)
Such outcomes lead to the necessity of enactments of laws that address the issue of
fair and just compensation as well as of resettlement and restoration and additionally in
recommending the options by the affected individuals which can facilitate them to lead
better life. Fair Compensation, Transparency in Land Acquisition and Rehabilitation and
Resettlement Act, 2013 is a ray of hope, as it proposes that comprehensive outcome of
compulsory acquisition should be such that affected persons become partners in the
development which can enable and empower them to improve their socio-economic status
post displacement.
Development induced Displacement claims the social and human costs of
development that some citizens have to bear in order to promote good for public at large.
Costs are simply inevitable as there is no development without displacement but project
authorities must put strenuous efforts to minimize the number of displaced. For overall
development there should be cost benefit analysis, especially factoring in social and human
cost of displacement, and emphasis must be given to formulate fair and just rehabilitation
and compensation policy. Most Indian developmental projects so far, have impoverished
the masses and in terms of compensation only monetary considerations are taken into
account.
There have been several struggles against the rules of land acquisition and the changes
made in the rules in colonial times but though the colonial government was opposed on
this issue, the nationalist leaders had themselves internalized much of the colonial value
system.
In India people are frequently involuntarily dislocated and the objective of
resettlement remains exceedingly hard to accomplish. Additionally, the aim of sustainable
development should be the improvement of people as compared to their previous standards
before resettlement which is a long way from being accomplished. Looking at the issue
simply as a financial one is erroneous. Compensation by itself cannot fully restore and
enhance the level of earnings of those who have been forcibly displaced.
Literature on development induced displacement studies reports that building of
dams in India is one of the major causes of uprooting people from their establishments. In
post Independent India approximately three thousand big dams have been constructed in
last fifty years. These huge constructions have led to forced eviction of millions of people.
Most vulnerable amongst all are tribals. One of the most significant case studies related to
dam building in India is over Sardar Sarovar Dam, India’s most controversial dam project.
Narmada Bachao Andolan was the first systematic movement against forced displacement
and it was spearheaded by Medha Patkar, along with other social activists and media.
The Tehri project on Ganges in Uttaranchal was built to expand irrigation and power
generation. It was established in 1979 and displaced 85,600 persons. Resettlement plan
was not an integral part for the displacement pre-1980.Studies shows that resettlement in
the form of house site was neither liability nor responsibility of the project authorities.
Nagarjuna sagar, Hirakud, Tungabhadra and Mayurakshi dams; the Rourkela, Bhilai and
Bokaro steel plants displaced many people but there was no strong policy to restore their
lives.
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Mining induced displacement and resettlement (MIDR) threatens social
sustainability. Because of the availability of rich mineral resources in India, numerous
incidences of development induced displacement was witnessed. Such involuntary shifts
are found in areas with relatively high density of politically powerless populations. Most
vulnerable groups are tribal and other indigenous people. Coal mines are responsible for
large scale development in mining sector. Coal mines have substantially increased in the
period of 1980. The main reason is shift from underground to opencast mines for exploiting
lower quality coal that resulted in acquisition of over some 1500 acres of land. In case of
under cast mines number of displaced are lower than open cast. The disadvantage of such
displacement is that it absorbs fewer people in the jobs created by the project.
In order to develop roads, highways and rail transportation people are displaced
from the respective areas. 8.2% space is occupied by urban infrastructure worldwide among
the development induced displacement projects. This problem is affecting most of the
countries in the world in varying intensities.
Infact Cerena has put forth the difficulties of policy makers regarding development
which is applicable to independent nations like India. Development is for whom? And at
whose cost? It is very difficult to answer such questions. Cernea says people are and
should be the starting point, the centre, and the end goal of each development intervention.
In dealing with issues of development and displacement, critiques raise important
ethical questions such as why is displacement often considered morally objectionable?
Under what conditions, if ever, can a development project justify displacement? Is it
ethically just to displace people so long as they are compensated? If so, what type of
compensation is owed to displaces?
According to Peter Penz, Director of Centre for Refugee Studies, York University,
Toronto three broad ethical perspectives that can be used to justify development-induced
displacement. They are public interest, self-determination, and egalitarianism. The public
interest perspective, embodied in cost-benefit analysis, supports the decision that brings
the greatest net benefits to the population as a whole. The self-determination perspective
privileges freedom and personal control. In its form, forced displacement (at least of those
who legally own property) is unjust because it violates property rights. The egalitarian
perspective privileges actions that reduce poverty and inequality.
As Penz points out, is an ethically complex issue, in which public interest and
distributive concerns stand in tension with self-determination and individual rights. The
coercive displacement should be avoided in favour of negotiated settlement. It is significant
to provide full compensation to the displaced and use the development benefits to reduce
poverty and inequality.
Check Your Progress
3. What are the consequences of Development induced Displacement?
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13.3.2 Suggestions to deal with the problems of Displacement
The consequences of the displacement lead to the requirement of policies and
legislations that address the issues of not only development induced displacement, but
also about rehabilitation and resettlement. Shilpi Jain and Yogesh Dixena in an article
entitled ‘Development Induced Displacement ‘have given the following suggestions and
recommendations to deal with problem of displacement caused by development:
1. States should ensure that eviction impact assessments are carried out prior to the
initiation of any project which could result in development-based displacement, with
a view to fully securing the human rights of all potentially affected persons, groups
and communities.
2. States should fully explore all possible alternatives to any act involving forced eviction.
3. Sufficient information shall be provided to affected persons, groups and communities
concerning all State projects as well as to the planning and implementation processes
relating to the resettlement concerned, including information concerning the purpose
to which the eviction dwelling or site is to be put and the persons, groups or
communities who will benefit from the evicted site.
4. The State must provide or ensure fair and just compensation for any losses of personal,
real or other property or goods, including rights or interests in property.
5. Resettlement must occur in a just and equitable manner and in full accordance with
international human rights law.
6. States should ensure that adequate and effective legal or other appropriate remedies
are available to any persons claiming that his/her right of protection against forced
evictions has been violated or is under threat of violation.
7. The very basis of the Land acquisition policies in its legal premises is required to be
compatible with constitutional frame of Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of
State Policy and Special Provisions for the Scheduled Castes/Tribes and weaker
sections.
The effects of displacement spill over to generations in many ways, such as loss of
traditional means of employment, change of environment, disrupted community life and
relationships, marginalization, a profound psychological trauma and more. The issue of
displacement is an example of how law has to be consistent with socio-economic and
political circumstances, and it appears to have failed in doing so. There is a strong need to
put legal thought into issues concerning the land acquirers as well as to thoroughly
investigate issues regarding removing the imbalance from the system.
13.4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION

Displacement needs to be redefined in view of emerging concerns about resettlement
and rehabilitation. Resettlement and rehabilitation should focus on change in norms of
compensation and calculation of non-monetary items. It is equally important to recognize
the customary rights and use of common property and natural resources. Compensating to
displace people should consider reconstruction of livelihood that has to be the main
objective along with ultimate goal of rehabilitation.
Resettlement and rehabilitation issues must be taken up far more seriously than
they have been in the past so far. This approach has led to widespread impoverishment of
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project affected families, and also conflict between them and project authorities. This has
extremely high financial and human cost. In this context there was great pressure on the
Government to have a national policy on resettlement and rehabilitation which after much
of debate and discussion has been enacted as The Right to Fair Compensation, Transparency
in Land acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013.
The displaced communities have the right to suitable resettlement which includes
the right to alternative land or housing which is safe, secure, accessible, affordable and
habitable. Project authorities must ensure that people who give up their homes and land to
pave the way for development should not be victimized by the process rather strenuous
efforts should be made to give the benefits of the projects along with resettlement and
rehabilitation planning. An overall welfare approach is required for the planning and
implementation to resettle the displaced community happily. Rehabilitation and
Resettlement must not be confused as a similar concept; rather they must be treated as two
distinct realities.
Resettlement is achieved once displaced people are relocated physically while
rehabilitation is re-establishment of displaced and project affected people in totality.
Rehabilitation aims to restore and improve the lost livelihood and emphasis is laid to start
a new life with dignity through re-creation of physical, social and cultural environment.
Orientation of resettlement is economic restoration whereas rehabilitation aims at rebuilding
community system disintegrated as a result of displacement. Rehabilitation programme
must include stress reduction techniques for affected and counselling the displaced to
adjust with the host community as its their new home.
Resettlement of the displaced people is the one-time physical relocation at a new
site with payment of compensation for the land acquired without other support such as
jobs, training, and welfare inputs to resettle in a new society and economic situation.
When there is involuntary displacement and when affected households have to move from
their place of origin to place of relocation, conflicting situation arise because of disputes
within the family, with Government officials and host community. The conflict within the
family are mainly about sharing of the compensation amount, purchase of land, alternative
occupations, construction of new house, problem of women, education of children and
problem of widow and old aged. Conflict outside are related to dealing with official
machinery, property dealers, court cases, and adaptation with people at a new site.
Rehabilitation focuses on social and cultural factors and attempts to rebind the
dispossessed livelihood of the displaced and project affected people. It is not limited to
economic compensation but also includes welfare approach. Rehabilitation is more often
understood as an economic rather than a psycho-sociological phenomenon resulting from
displacement. According to Oxford dictionary, rehabilitation is to restore original.
According to chambers dictionary, it is to reinstate, to restore to former privileges, rights,
ranks etc. But given the present pressure on land, scarce resources and the changing need
of the people one cannot but be skeptical about the feasibility or desirability of merely
restoring people to the original state, hence the demand has to be for adequate and
appropriate resettlement. It is now legal obligation of the project authorities to resettle the
displaced population. Now rehabilitation is recognized and followed as integral part without
which no displacement can proceed. In its strict sense, it implies that, the overall objective
of change is to restore the situation to its original condition. Rehabilitation is recognized
as a fundamental right in the spirit of Article 21 which has been interpreted by the Supreme
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Court as right to live with dignity. It is a process of returning the land in a given area to the
people uprooted due to natural disaster, industrial and infrastructural process etc. Mining,
farming and forestry might result into degradation of land and it is rarely possible to
restore the land to its original condition. The rehabilitation process usually attempts to
bring some degree of restoration which is possible by modern methods which can at times
even improve the degraded land.
India has witnessed lack of comprehensive Resettlement and Rehabilitation policy,
despite of large number of development induced displacement projects. In the Indian federal
structure, though resettlement is a state issue but very few states made strenuous efforts to
draft a comprehensive policy of resettlement policy for the project affected people (PAP).
Because of lack of common policy there was much pressure to have an act which provides
for fair and transparent resettlement and compensation system and Right to Fair
Compensation, Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act,
2013.
In majority of cases, there is wide gap between the policies framed by project
authorities and what gets implemented in actual terms. As there is so much of illiteracy
and ignorance in Indian masses that most of the times they are not aware of their legal
rights and thus are vulnerable to get cheated easily.
Resettlement and rehabilitation policies can become real solution provider only when
they are framed with an open mind with the involvement and participation of both the
affected people and specialized panel. The panel must encompass social scientists from
the field of sociology, economics, law and other important disciplines. When the
perspectives of different people of different fields are taken into account, the policy so
framed becomes worthwhile.
The following objectives of rehabilitation should be kept in mind before the people are
given an alternative site for living:
 Displaced community should be resettled in such a manner that they are able to live
along the lives of their own patterns.
 Efforts must be done to protect and restore their livelihood sources.
 Displaced people of one community must be resettled in same area so that they don’t
feel isolated all together.
 The people displaced should get an appropriate share in the fruits of the development.
 Preference of recruitment in the development project should be given to the project
affected people.
 Resettlement should be done in the nearest locality to the maximum possible extent.
 If the resettlement is not possible in the neighboring area, efforts must be done to
develop all the facilities which were available to them such as drinking water,
electricity, schools, hospital and other basic amenities.
Rehabilitation, if aims at welfare of affected people can reverse the risk of
impoverishment and marginalization. Michael Cernea suggests a risk and reconstruction
model of rehabilitation that would be marked by a series of transitions from: landlessness
to land-based resettlement; joblessness to re-employment; food insecurity to safe nutrition;
homelessness to house reconstruction; increased morbidity and mortality to improved health
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and well being, and social disarticulation and deprivation of common property resources
to community reconstruction and social inclusion.
The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 considers farmers and livelihood losers who
are dependent on the land being acquired. Simultaneously, it promotes and facilitates land
acquisition for industrialization, infrastructure and urbanization project in timely and
transparent manner. A large number of people use the compensation amount to construct
new property on newly allotted land. Some part of compensation was used in fulfilling
social obligation like marriages, in their families while others used the money to buy new
assets. Compensation amount is also used for higher studies of children and some uses the
amount by depositing the money in bank as savings. Some business oriented people have
also utilized the compensation amount to add on their stocks.
As per the above legislation, a comprehensive rehabilitation and resettlement package
is provided for those who lost their livelihood support which includes the landless and
tenants. The Act also provides for schools and playgrounds, health centers, roads and
electric connections and assured sources of safe drinking water for each family. The role
of the Gram Sabha has been clearly stressed and the government has to consult them. The
Government has to also comply with other laws like Panchayat Extension to the Scheduled
Areas (PESA) Act, 1996; the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006; and Land Transfer Regulations in Schedule V
(Tribal) Areas.
Check Your Progress
4. What do you mean by Resettlement and Rehabilitation?
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13.5 SUMMARY
Development is governed by many factors that influence the result of developmental
efforts. There must be intention that drives the social change and essential, preconditions
for that change to happen. Development envelops social, economic, political and cultural
procedure of progress in human societal order.
The various development projects have displaced about two crores of people
primarily as a direct consequence of land acquisition. In addition to it, numbers of people
are not included in list of project affected people. India has one of the highest rates of
development induced displacement in the world. Large dams, huge industrial and mining
projects, communication and transportation network as well as power projects have
uprooted millions of people in many cases; instantly depriving them of their cultural
identities and livelihood.
The problem of displacement is not merely economic; it is also a socio-cultural
problem. It disturbs the entire social network relationships and thus disturbs a particular
way of life. It also affects the traditional activities and an already established social order.
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1. Development is a procedure of arranged institutional change to achieve better adjustment
between human needs and goals at one side and social plans and projects on other side. It
is translating economic progress into better living conditions for people in society. It is
declaring war on poverty, illiteracy, ignorance, inequality, irrationality and oppression
prevalent in society. It aims at not merely uplifting the weak, the under-privileged and the
disadvantaged people but also at improving the quality of life of all citizens.
2. Displacement involves physical eviction from a dwelling and the expropriation
Majority of people in India, are displaced because of construction of large dams, mines,
highways, metros as well due to process of urbanization. Land is also acquired for the
development of industrial, educational and other infrastructure projects.
3. There are multiple consequences of development induced displacement. The quality of
life of displaced people and potential for physical and emotional growth is dormant; family
and community life is almost totally destroyed; the opportunity for cultural activity hardly
exists and the right of movement is highly restricted. Basic health care for all and education
of children are virtually non-existent. Their right to participate and contest in the political
processes is difficult. Such forced shifts disrupt the lives of women adversely. The loss of
access to traditional sources of livelihood land, forest, sea, river, pasture, cattle or salt
pan land renders additional burden on women.
4. Resettlement is achieved once displaced people are relocated physically. Resettlement
of the displaced people is the one-time physical relocation at a new site with payment of
compensation for the land acquired without other support such as jobs, training, and welfare
inputs to resettle in a new society and economic situation. Orientation of resettlement is
economic restoration

1. Explain about Development induced Displacement.
2. Explain about Resettlement and Rehabilitation.
1. Highlight the risks associated with Displacement as put forth by Michael Cernea.
2. Write about the concept of Development.
13.8 GLOSSARY
Development : It is a procedure of arranged institutional change to achieve better
adjustment between human needs and goals at one side and social plans and projects on
other side. It is translating economic progress into better living conditions for people in
society.
Displacement : It involves physical eviction from a dwelling and the expropriation
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Social impact : It is defined as the impact on human populations of any public or private
activities that disturbs the manner in which people live, work, play, identify with each
other, associate to fulfill social needs and generally cope as members of society’.
Resettlement and Rehabilitation : Resettlement is achieved once displaced people are
relocated physically while rehabilitation is re-establishment of displaced and project
affected people in totality.

1. Ahuja, R. : Indian Social System (2005)
2. Cernea, M. : Risks, Safeguard and Reconstruction: A Model for Population
Displacement and Resettlement (2000)
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UNIT - 14 : ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL
ISSUES AND SUSTAINABILITY
Contents
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Environment
14.3 Ecology
14.4 Bio-Diversity
14.5 Environmental Issues
14.5.1 Global Warming
14.5.2 Ozone Depletion
14.5.3 Air and Noise Pollution
14.5.4 Water Resources
14.5.5 Land Management and Soil Pollution
14.5.6 Plastics
14.6 Sustainable Development
14.7 Global initiatives for sustainable development
14.8 Environmental Clearance for Establishment and Operating Industries in India
14.9 Environmental Ethics
14.9.1 Anthropocentricism vs Eco-Centricism
14.9.2 Deep Ecology vs Shallow Ecology
14.10 Summary
14.13 Glossary
14.0 OBJECTIVES
 Concepts relating to Environment and Ecology.
 Sustainability of life and such other topics.
 You also learn the impact of human activities on the environment.
 Measures to adopt sustainable development.
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14.1 INTRODUCTION
The earth is not something to be used, nor a possession or an object for exploitation
but a living entity, an object of reverence, and the relationship is as much in celebrating
one’s life in this world as in remembering, adoring and celebrating the world in one’s life.
Humans effect Environment in several ways. Most common effects include Green house
Gas emissions, environmental pollution, quality of water depletion, overexploitation of
natural resources including mining, extinction of species, use of plastics, fossil fuels etc.
These activities have reached to such a level that the future life on planet not only humans
but other living species like animals and plants is being directed, decided and dictated by
humans. The scientists are calling this point of time on the earth as Anthropogenic, i.e.,
the planet is now dominated by the activities of the humans affecting all other life forms
on the earth. The planetary boundaries of the earth are already crossed because of greed
filled human activities causing greater concern for environment.
14.2 ENVIRONMENT
To understand environment, Environment is what surrounds us living and non-living
things alike. It includes natural physical entities like air, water, land and its resources,
human beings, plants (flora), animals (fauna) and their interrelations. Living organisms
live in and interact with the environment. In the environment the interactions takes place
between living things like humans, animals, plants, and non living things like soil, water,
and such other elements. They constantly interact with and change according to the changes
in the environment in which it lives. And it is a reciprocal and a constant process in
nature.
When it comes to define Environment according to Merriam Webster’s, an
Environment is “the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (such as climate,
soil, and living things) that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately
determine its form and survival”. It is in this context it is equally important to learn about
ecology which is often used synonymous with environment often. Though both speak
about natural surroundings there is a contextual difference between these two. Environment
is whole and ecology is part of it.
14.3 ECOLOGY
The word “ecology” (Okologie) was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst
Haeckel (1834-1919). The difference between ecology and environment is that ecology is
the branch of biology dealing with the relationships of organisms with their environment
and with each other while environment is the surroundings of, and influences on, a particular
thing or being.
14.4 BIO-DIVERSITY
Bio-Diversity means diverse variety of species of plant and animals. The presence
of which represents the wealth or richness of biological conditions of a region. It is the
variety and variability of all living organisms that is measured at three levels-Genetic
Diversity, Species Diversity and Ecosystem diversity.
a) Genetic Diversity reflects the diversity of genes within the species which increases the
ability to adapt to disease, pollution and other environmental changes. If the variety of
species destroyed, the genetic diversity gets diminished.
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b) Species Diversity means variety of species within a region.
c) Ecosystem diversity refers to a variety of ecosystems in a particular region. Ex. Forests,
mountains, wetlands, deserts etc. The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development at Rio-de-jeniero put on the Biological Diversity on the international
agenda covering ecological, economic and social aspects of biodiversity.
Humans are impacting Mother Nature to such an extent that today extraordinary
numbers of species are getting extinct. According to International Union for Conservation
of Nature estimates, the rate of extinction is at least 25,000 times greater than the extinction
that took place during any point of time in the evolution.
14.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Human impact on environment has created several issues. Unscrupulous natural
resource exploitation is being carried out by business corporations for profit and individuals
are driven by consumption led economy. Constant Air, Water and Land pollution resulted
in a gradual climate change and global warming, affecting the livelihoods, food security,
and finally, the life itself is on the anvil. People have realized that the risks associated
with the environmental degradation are for real and is going to affect the lives of the
present and future generations. The attitude of the people transformed from consumerism
to conservation and gradually moving towards environmentalism, while respecting the
interrelatedness of human and nature, and realizing that everything on the planet is related
and connected. It is with this understanding that the Sustainable development has become
now a focal point of concern for global community.
14.5.1 Global Warming
Gradual increase of global temperatures has raised a brow across scientific
communities, environmentalists, and civic bodies. Scientific studies suggest that the rise
in temperatures might severely change the climatic conditions and cause serious impact
on the livelihoods of the people and endanger the life forms on the planet effecting both
human and non-human alike. The major culprits for the global warming are Greenhouse
gases (GHGs) consisting of Carbon dioxide (CO2) the main ingredient, and Nitrous-Oxide,
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane and some organ chloride compounds like
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulfuric Fluorides. And almost all these are man-made.
Green House Gases (GHG)
The GHGs come from various sources, mostly from fossil fuels. These gases in the
atmosphere zone trap sun’s rays and infrared radiation from earth causing the temperature
to rise resulting in what is known as Green House effect or global warming. According to
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) it has been estimated that earth’s
temperature will rise from 1-3 degrees C in the next few decades. The rate of concentration
of GHGs, particularly CO2 will depend upon the rate at which consumption of fossil fuels
and deforestation proceeds.
Measures to reduce Global Warming
1. Reduce Fossil Fuels usage. Develop alternative technologies to meet energy and fuel
needs.
2. Clean Technology for coal burning to be used and conversion from coal to Gas can
reduce pollution.
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3. Renewable energy sources like wind power, solar energy should be used extensively.
Research and development in these areas is to be encouraged.
4. Reversing Deforestation.
5. Manufacturing fuel efficient automobiles.
6. Political and social commitment towards reducing global warming.
Climate Change
Climate Change is the major challenge that the global environment is facing now.
Due to the unrelenting destruction of the nature for human greed, permanent changes took
place in the atmosphere and in the environment we live in. Global warming is one such
phenomenon that is taking place very rapidly affecting the climatic conditions on the
planet. Scientists have observed that there is an observable shift in global temperatures,
rainfall, prolonged summers, unnatural and untimely snowfalls, hurricanes, floods, and
rising sea levels. People especially poor and marginalized sections of the society would
be affecting badly and the children and future generations are going to be affected severely
due to scarce resources and food scarcity.
These climatic changes would affect the agriculture thereby severely affect the food
security. Reduced yields, increased pests and natural calamities, desertification are some
problems associated with the climate change and agriculture.
It affects livelihoods across the nations due to rising sea levels. Most of the coastal
region would submerge into the sea displacing the people especially fishermen communities
living on the coastline and make a livelihood.
The effects on flora and fauna, deforestation, desertification, hurricanes and such
other natural calamities are becoming common these days due to climate changes. These
are some of the major catastrophes that are taking place due to this.
Climate Change effects in coming decades
Coming 30 to 50 years, the earth becomes hotter by 10oC. And heat waves become
more common. Nights are hotter and ice melts at faster rates. Frequent famines, floods
takes place causing huge devastating results on the planet. All these factors negatively
affect agriculture.
Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere will rise to 450 ppmv (Particulates per
Million by Volume). This affects Wheat and Soya Bean crops. The diversity of plants and
crops get affected negatively. Certain crop varieties become unsustainable.
Commercial crops get affected and the food security will become endangered. Due
to which the prices of food grains will rise and the poor and marginalized sections will be
at peril.
It is also a common practice for countries like America and China that practices
mono crop culture. For example both these countries produce 60% of Maize production of
the world. Any slight fall in the production at a given point of time might impact global
food availability in these countries. It is expected by the Food and Agriculture Organisation
of the United Nations (UN’s FAO) that major staple foods like Rice, Wheat and Maize
constitute 51% of worlds food demand. The countries that grow these crops on large scale
if gets affected by Climate Change, there will be serious consequences on the food
production and consumption.
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Environmental activists and other civic bodies and scientific communities across
the world succeeded in making the issue a global priority. The United Nations has convened
several conferences and summit and the member countries are taking serious steps to
combat climate change.
The United Nations and Climate Changes
The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are yearly conferences held in the
frame work. The First conference was held in 1995 in Berlin. They serve as formal meetings
of the UNFCCC Parties commonly called as Conference of Parties (CoP) to assess the
progress in dealing with climate change, to negotiate Kyoto Protocol, to establish legal
binding on developed countries to reduce the GHG emissions by them. From 2011 the
meetings also been used to negotiate Paris Agreement as part of the Durban Platform
activities till its conclusion in 2014.
CoP 8, New Delhi, India
The 8th Conference of Parties (CoP 8) was held in New Delhi from 23rd October to
1st November 2002. Delhi Ministerial Declaration taken at this conference called for efforts
by developed countries who are responsible for 55 percent of world’s 1990 carbon dioxide
emissions, transfer technology and minimize those emissions. It also approved the New
Delhi work Program on Article 6 of the Convention.
CoP 21, Paris, France
It was held in Paris from 30th November to 12th December 2014. The famous Paris
Agreement was adopted on 12th December in this conference. The Paris deal is the world’s
first comprehensive climate agreement that calls for a global action plan to avoid the
dangers of the climate changes by limiting the GHGs and governing climate change
reduction measures from 2020.
The Aims of the Agreement:
A) To hold global average temperatures to well below 2oC and above pre-industrial levels
and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase at 1.5oC above pre-industrial
levels that would reduce risks and impacts of the change.
B) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster
climate resilience and low GHG emissions development, in a manner that does not
threaten food production.
C) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low GHG emissions and
climate-resilient development.
Broadly it outlines the co-operative approaches that parties can take in achieving
their nationally determined carbon emissions reductions and facilitate carbon trading.
The Paris agreement emphasizes the principle of “Common but Differentiated
Responsibility and Respective Capabilities” while recognizing the differences in capacities
of various nations in meeting the goals of climate action. However, it does not provide a
specific division between developed and developing nations.
Unlike Kyoto Protocol which is legally binding, the Paris agreement allows for
nationally determined contributions (NDCs) the level of which is set by each country
itself and is voluntary that requires political encouragement rather than legal force.
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As of December 2016, 194 states and the European Union have signed the Agreement.
153 of them have ratified or acceded to the Agreement including China, United States and
India who are the three of the four largest greenhouse gas emitters with worlds 42% gas
emissions. However, in 2017 Donald Trump, President of America left the Paris Agreement
drawing severe criticism from the world nations.
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on December
11, 1997 and entered into force on February 16, 2005. There are currently 192 parties
(Canada withdrawn in December, 2012) to the Protocol. It is based on the principle of
common but differentiated responsibilities and puts the obligation to reduce the emissions
on the developed countries that are historically responsible for the current levels of GHG
emissions.
The First commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. Second commitment
period known as Doha Amendment was agreed in 2012. About 37 countries like Australia,
The European Union and its member countries, Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein,
Norway, Switzerland and Ukraine have binding targets. As of July 2016, 66 states have
accepted Doha amendment. To come into force it requires the acceptance of 144 states. Of
the 37 countries that have binding, only 7 countries have ratified.
14.5.2 Ozone Depletion
Ozone layer is a belt of the naturally occurring gas “Ozone” that is present in the
stratosphere of the earth at 9.3 to 18.6 miles (15 to 30 Kilometers) above the earth surface.
It protects earth from Ultra Violet B (UVB) radiation from sun. Normally the natural
activity on earth causes Ozone depletion in fall season and replenishes on its own during
the other days. If not replenished, these rays can alter life forms on the earth.
Scientists found that the ozone layer is deteriorating due to the release of pollution.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
are the major man made chemical substances causing Ozone depletion. The countries who
already developed are the major contributors for the CFC contribution but for developing
countries like India and China, whose market demands and existing technologies were the
matter of concern, they also are major contributors of CFC and ozone depletion.
Man-made emission of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) accounts for roughly
90% of total depletion of ozone layer in stratosphere. Depletion of ozone results in the
formation of holes in the earth’s shield. A big ozone hole is discovered in Antarctica in
1983 and it continued so till 1987. The depletion is observed in some other parts of the
world also causing concern for immediate action.
Exposure to Ultra Violet rays causes blindness, skin cancer, burns in humans. In
plants the process of photosynthesis is affected. It can penetrate the surface of oceans to
the depth of almost 90 feet affecting marine life. Small plants (phytoplankton) and animals
(zoo plankton) living in sea killed by Ultra Violet radiation. Vienna protocol (1985) was
the first in row to recognize the danger and make initiates to prevent ozone depletion.
Montreal Protocol is the most significant protocol in this direction.
Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol on substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer held in 1987 in
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Montreal, with an objective to protect ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to
control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it with the ultimate
objective of their elimination and to take appropriate measures to protect human health
and environment against adverse effects. Subsequently it was amended in London (1990),
Copenhagen (1992) and Vienna (1995). It acknowledged the need to provide special
provisions to meet the needs of developing countries, including the provision of additional
financial resources and access to relevant technologies. The protocol sets out the time
schedule to freeze out reduction of ODS or controlled substances and to ban all of them. A
Multilateral fund was established to support developing countries and to phase out the
Ozone Depleting Substances .
India
India was a late entrant and acceded to the protocol in September 1992. Earlier it
has expressed reservations about the fact that industrialized countries were allowed much
higher per capita ‘cap’ and required developing countries to make several transitions,
rather than leap frogging to acceptable alternative. For the developing countries like China
and India the main issue is money and technology. They wanted clear assurances for transfer
of technology as well as additional finances to cover the costs of the switch over.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the meaning of Bio-Diversity?
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2. Briefly write on Environmental issues.
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14.5.3 Air and Noise Pollution
Human activities and natural phenomenon can both generate air pollution. Pollution
refers to pollutant substances that can be deliberately or accidentally released into
atmosphere. But natural pollution can be recycled in the biological and chemical cycles of
nature.
About 95 % of air presents in troposphere constituting 78% of Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen,
0.4% Carbon dioxide plus small amounts of other gases and watervapors. Remaining 5%
constitutes gases like Ozone are present in the Stratosphere.
Air Pollution means the presence of air pollutants in the atmosphere. The Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, defines Air pollutant as any solid, liquid
or gaseous substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration as
may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or
property or environment.
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Emission means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any chimney,
duct or any other outlet.
Air pollution occurs by two types of pollutants: Primary and Secondary. Primary
pollutants are from fossil fuels or petrol and diesel constituting Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen
Oxides, Sulphur dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, and Chloro floro Carbons (CFCs) from
aerosols, refrigeration industry, and particulate matter from vehicular pollution, factories,
asbestos, mining and such other activities. Secondary pollutants caused by reactions in air
already polluted by primary emissions from factories, automobiles and so forth. They
result in acid rain and ozone.
Global Efforts
WHO Conference held in 1957-58 known as Clean Air Conference was the first
step taken by the UN to control Air pollution followed by 1972 Stockholm Conference. In
1974, the major industrial countries of the world constituting 19 European Countries,
Australia, Canada and Japan in a meeting, two basic principles were evolved. A) Polluter
must pay for pollution and B) Transfrontier air pollution be controlled.
India
In India air pollution is widespread in urban areas caused by increased
industrialization, unplanned urbanization, higher levels of energy consumption, increased
population etc. The following are the major contributors for air pollution:
a) Vehicular pollution, Industrial activity, Power Generation especially thermal power
plants;
b) Domestic pollution like cooking stoves using coal, fuel wood and other biomass fuels;
c) Other Sources include waste burning, construction activities, dust due to vehicular
movement, and power generating units that emit high levels of NO2 and SO2..
Measures to contain Air Pollution
The Environmental Protection Act, 1986, Central Pollution Control Board and
Ministry of Surface Transport are the law making and enforcement agencies in containing
vehicular pollution and maintaining quality and standards of the vehicles and fuel according
to international green standards.
Eight (8) Industry categories are identified as highly pollutants. Cement, Thermal,
iron and Steel, Fertilizer, Zinc, Copper, Aluminum, smelters and Oil Refineries. These
industries were closely monitored to adhere to the industry specific norms and standards
of the nation. The government set to tackle the industrial pollution at two levels: 1) by
setting emission standards and 2) control Land-use patterns to segregate industries
especially polluting industries from the residential places.
• Adopting Cleaner technologies in industries and vehicle manufacturing
• Reduce use of energy wherever possible especially fossil fuels and thermal power.
• Increasing energy efficiency technologies
Substitution of conventional energy sources (fossil fuels) by non-conventional (solar,
wind, hydro, bio-mass and such other renewable energy sources) sources.
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Statutory Measures to contain Air Pollution
The Government of India has introduced The Factories Act, 1948, the Industries
(Development and Regulation) Act, 1951, Mines and Minerals (Regulation and
Development) Act, 1957 to control all pollutions. And some states have enforced Municipal
Statues for the prevention of Air Pollution. Later, in consonance with the Stockholm
Conference, India enacted Air (Control and Prevention of Pollution) Act 1981.
Noise Pollution:
Noise is unwanted, unpleasant sound. The unit for measuring sound is decibel (dB).
Sound of 60 dB is normal conversation. 100 dB is conversation in running train. 120 dB is
thunder and 140 dB is the level when sound becomes unbearable and irritating. Noise in
factories exceeds 100 dB while an airplane creates 150 dB of noise. The sound which
exceeds bearable limits is Noise Pollution. Annoyingly noise pollution is largely generated
through anthropogenic activity.
Noise Pollution affects the health physiologically, psychologically and brings in
behavioral changes. Some studies found that when exposed to noisy environment it resulted
in lower efficiency and increased errors by the workers. People become irritable. Studies
found that in humans it increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases. And in animals the
risk of death by altering predatory avoidance or detecting abilities. The choice of mating
with suitable partner and reproduction abilities are also at risk due to sound pollution.
Sources of Noise
1. Industries, Road Traffic, Trains, Aircraft, Construction Work, Loud Speakers
Reducing Noise Pollution
It can be controlled by noise insulated devises that produce less noise, creating
noise free zones, use of silencers wherever possible. However, legal mechanism is more
effective in controlling noise pollution.
Legal Mechanism in India
Unfortunately in India there is no specific law that deals exclusively with noise
control. Up until the 1970s noise was a “nuisance” rather than an environmental problem.
Motor Vehicle Act of 1939, repealed by Act of 1988 and Central Motor Vehicles Rules of
1989, Penalty shall be imposed for the violation of noise standards with a fine of One
Thousand rupees. (Rs.1000) for first time offence and for any subsequent offences the
fine is Two Thousand rupees (Rs.2000).
The Factory Act of 1948 provides for protection from nuisance that includes noise.
However, Factory being one of the major pollutants, the act should have some strict
provisions to deal with noise pollution.
Air Act of 1981 was amended in 1987. The amendment recognizes noise as an air
pollution treating it as injurious to humans, other living creatures, plants and environment.
In pursuance of powers vested with the Central and State Pollution Control Boards, they
have laid down noise standards.
Environmental Protection Act (EPA) of 1986
Section 6 of the Environment Protection Act 1986, empowers the Central Government
to limit the maximum allowable concentration of various environmental pollutants including
noise for different areas.
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The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000
In exercise of the power conferred by the EPA of 1986, the central government
made rules for the regulation and control of noise producing and generating sources. The
central government authority or official, state government includes a District Magistrate,
Police Commissioner, or any other officer designated has the responsibility for the
maintenance of the ambient air quality standards in respect of noise for different areas/
zones.
Silence Zone: Area Under this rule an area comprising not less than 100 meters
around hospitals, educational institutions and courts may be declared as silence area/zones.
Restrictions on the use of loudspeakers/public address system:
1. A loudspeaker or a public address system shall not be used without a written permission
from the authority
2. It shall not be used at night (between 10.00 pm to 6.00 am) except in closed premises
like auditoria, conference rooms, community halls and banquet halls.
Though the government of India has rules and regulations against firecrackers,
loudspeakers and such other pollutants, the enforcement is extremely lax.
Awaaz Foundation is an Indian NGO working to control noise pollution from various
sources through advocacy, public interest litigation, awareness, and educational campaigns
since 2003. Despite increased enforcement and stringency of laws now being practiced in
urban areas, rural areas are still affected.
14.5.4 Water Resources
The aquifers (underground stores of water) are the major source for fresh water that
provides drinking water to majority of the people of the planet. It replenishes the surface
waters and wetlands and is vital for the ecosystems of the world. But due to excessive
human activities both the aquifers and surface water are getting polluted massively.
The chief sources of pollutants are:
1. Affluents from Industries including Petro-chemical industries;
2. Agriculture (run off Pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides when it rains and gets into
water bodies);
3. Radio Active Wastes used in nuclear plants;
4. Domestic Wastes (Sewage System) and;
5. Plastic waste.
Regardless of the source, the pollutants fall under the broad categories of Nitrates,
Heavy Metals, Chlorinated compounds, arsenic, petrochemicals, fluorides, radioactive
materials and pesticides containing varying kind of chemicals.
Indian Scenario
The water pollution ranges from ground water like wells and bore wells to surface
water bodies like lakes, ponds, tanks, rivulets, rivers and finally oceans. India has
formulated several regulations and acts and implementing agencies in place to monitor
and check water pollution.
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Acts relating to Water Pollution prevention:
1) River Boards Act, 1956
2) Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act, 1979
3) Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, amended as Act of 1979 and
4) Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977.
14.5.5 Land Management and Soil Pollution
Several studies insisted that most of our land is already degraded and is getting
degraded or is at the risk of degradation. Soil degradation manifests in the form of soil
erosion and over grazing.
Apart from the degradation there is huge soil pollution due to Human refuse,
industrial affluent and agricultural practices like use of pesticides, chemical fertilizers
and waste dumping in landfills that constitute organic and harmful inorganic substances
like plastics and such other things. Use of Chemical pesticides and other toxic chemicals
reach the soil, water tables and finally the human systems.
Strategies to tackle the problem
• Organic Agricultural farming practices;
• De-subsidizing Chemical fertilizers and pesticides;
• Use biodegradable things as much as possible;
• Avoid or Less use of Plastics, synthetic fibers and such other bio-degradable things;
• Treatment of Industrial Affluences;
• Effective Waste Management;
• Conserving forests and forestation practices;
• Conserving biodiversity;
• Cut short the materialistic culture.
14.5.6 Plastics
Plastics are the wonderful materials that have a wide range of uses in our life. From
cradle to grave it is omnipresent. However, the recycling and disposal of plastic wastes
pose serious environmental and health hazards. It takes more than 600 years to decompose.
The plastics are the byproduct of petroleum and constituting about 8 to 10 per cent of total
oil production. In industries, medical field, and packing Plastic plays an inevitable role.
Health Hazards
The plastic waste when buried in landfills, it will not decompose. But the toxic
chemicals used in plastic gets into soil and water thus causing soil and water pollution.
The carry bags, food packing, water bottles, disposable cutlery etc. when disposed, they
form a huge pile of plastic. In water streams they obstruct the flow. If burnt, they release
harmful gases that cause severe breathing problems and suffocation. Thus by all means,
plastic is a diehard substance causing all kinds of environmental pollution i.e., Air, Water
and Soil. It is noticed that the Aqua system is getting polluted highly by the plastic and
posing a greatest threat to the marine life.
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How to use less Plastic
1. Reduce use of Disposable goods as much as possible.
2. Use Cloth bags or reusable bags wherever necessary.
3. Micro Plastic particles are used as foaming agents in personal care products like
tooth pastes, gels, shampoos etc. Use natural products as much as possible.
4. For Industrial plastics, where there is no alternative, try always Recycle Plastic and
Reuse it.
5. Governments, Corporate giants should come forward to shift from plastic materials
in industrial usage altogether that requires trillions of dollars for modification of the
existing technology being used in the industry and equally for research and
development of newer plastic free technologies.
14.6 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The most commonly accepted definition of sustainable development is found in the
Brundtland Commission Report, “Our Common Future”, which defines Sustainable
Development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Commission Report).
Although sustainable development serves as the stated objective of many development
initiatives, such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), ecosystems worldwide
are deteriorating. A summary of the report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment by
its Board entitled, "Living Beyond Our Means: Natural Assets and Human Well-being"
identified the failure to value ecosystem services as a major contributing cause to this
problem.
As part of the solution, the Assessment proposes that the economic background to
decision making be changed so that policy making and planning take into account the full
value of ecosystem services, market and non-market. To achieve this, a framework is
needed that is quantitative and comprehensive with respect to the environment, and can
be reliably integrated with economic accounts used for decision-making (Sachs et al. 2005).
14.7 GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The efforts at local and national level fall short to achieve sustainable development
because of the localized actions that may vary from one country or one region to other. It
is also realized that the global warming and ozone depletion cannot be tackled with localized
acts and efforts. But when it comes to under-developed countries, the costs for
environmental protective measures are high and demands more sacrifices by the people,
while the developed countries are at advantageous position as they already advanced and
are in a position to adopt them. It is also noted that the environmental degradation is
largely caused by the developmental policies of these so called developed nations who
have reaped huge benefits at the cost of the planet’s natural resources and its environment
which is a common property of the present and future world’s humanity. This lopsided
nature of the environmental protection activities need to be addressed on a common platform
while addressing the needs of the less developed and under-developed countries. It also
requires major paradigm shift from economic centric development to eco-centric
development for which many of the world’s advanced countries are reluctant to buy the
idea.
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However, having felt the great need to conserve the environment and its bio-diversity
for the sake of human life and also diminishing profits for the industries in the long run
due to global warming and climate change, food insecurities, water scarcities, diseases
and natural catastrophes caused by increased human activities, most of the world leaders,
organizations have started to join hands for a collective action. United Nations has risen
to the occasion and taking up various measures to uphold the planet’s environment and its
bio-diversity. There have been certain international institutions that are playing a remarkable
role in developing and implementing environmental protective measures. Most of these
institutions are working under the United Nations.
The work of the various national and international or regional organizations is being
supplemented by a wide number of NGOs like Greenpeace, World Wildlife Fund, Friends
of Earth etc.
Environmental Protection
With the rising concern for Environmental protection across the nations not only
for the sake of people at large but also the economic interests that are going dampened due
to environmental degradation in the coming days, the combined efforts of the nations took
shape through the United Nations initiatives for environmental protection and conservation.
The following are various initiatives taken by the United Nations:
1. The United Nation’s Conference on Human Environment 1972 held in Stockholm
has marked the beginning for an organized effort for the protection of environment.
It discussed wide issues about environment and charted out an action plan.
2. UN General Assembly’s Resolution of December, 1972 emphasized the need of active
co-operation among the states about human environment.
3. Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, 1974 is a document of UN
emphasizing the protection, preservation and enhancement of the environment for
the present and future generations is the responsibilities of all states. Several other
conferences were held hereafter.
4. World Commission on Environment and Development: Apart from environmental
degradation, the world’s concern focused on issues of sustainable development. The
Norwegian Prime Minister, Harlem Brundtland was appointed the Chairman of World
Commission on Environment and Development famously known as Brundtland
Commission. The report 'Our Common Future (1987)' focused on issues of poverty
in developing countries in relation to environmental damage. It served as a preparatory
framework for Rio Conference.
5. Earth Summits: The Earth Summits are decennial meetings of the world leaders
organized under the aegis of United Nations since 1972 that marked the emergence
of International Environmental Law. The first summit is held in Stockholm (Sweden)
in 1972. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) was started in this summit.
Second in Nairobi 1982 (Kenya), third Rio summit 1992 (Brazil), fourth Johannesburg
2002 (South Arica) and the last is again in Rio de Jeneiro in 2012. The aim of these
summits is to bring together the best individuals and organizations drawn from all
kind of categories of life to identify pressing challenges of humanity and find solutions,
and develop an action plan called Agenda 21 at local level called Local Agenda 21.
The 2000-2015 Millennium Development Goals and the 2015-30 Global Goals are
evolved from these earth summits.
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Earth Summit, 1992
Earth Summit, 1992 or Rio Conference as is famously known was convened by
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Janerio
in 1992. The document called Agenda 21 set a blueprint for governments on everything
that relates to environment. It broadly focused on poverty, hunger and living conditions
continue to cause continuing resource depletion and deterioration of ecosystem on which
life on this planet sustains.
Gro Harlem Brundtland of the Brundtland Commission, the pioneer of the Sustainable
Development has provided the theoretical basis for the first Earth Summit 1992 on
Sustainable Development. The United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) also known as Earth Summit, Rio de Jeneiro Earth Summit, Rio
Summit, , Rio Conference, and Earth Summit of (Portugese: ECO92) was the major United
Nations Conference in environmental perspective which was held in Rio de Jeneiro from
3rd to 14th of June, 1992. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) was launched in this Summit.
Earth Summit 2012
Another important Earth Summit was the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development was also held in Rio de Jeneiro from 13th to 22nd June 2012 and also called
as Rio+20, Rio Earth Summit 2012. The important achievement in this summit was an
agreement on Climate Change Convention that led to the famous Kyoto Protocol and
famous Paris agreement.
Issues addressed in this summit are as follows
1) Systematic scrutiny of production includes processes such as Lead in Gasoline,
Poisonous Waste, Radioactive chemicals etc; 2) Alternative sources of energy in place of
fossil fuels; 3) New reliance on Public Transportation systems so as to reduce the vehicular
emissions, congestions and the health problems caused by the pollution of vehicles; and
4) The growing usage and limited supply of water.
14.8 ENVIRONMENTAL CLEARENCE FOR ESTABLISHMENT

AND OPERATING INDUSTRIES IN INDIA
In 1985 a separate Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF) was formed for
formulating policies and their implementation to ensure Environment protection and
conservation. MEF is responsible for protection, conservation and development of
environment. Other important agencies that work for environment in India are Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and States Pollution Control Boards.
It is recognized that, for a sustainable development and optimal use of natural
resources, concerns for environment is required. Incorporating environmental consideration
in planning, designing and implementing developmental projects and industries has become
a focal point in giving environmental clearance to these projects.
When it comes to Establishing an Industry or to take up a development project, it is
mandatory to get Environmental Clearance on the basis of environmental impact
assessment. About 30 categories of Industries are falling under the provisions of the
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification issued in January 1994 under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Further, certain activities under the Coastal Regulation
Zone (CRZ) Notification 1991 also need clearance.
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Applications for environmental clearance in the case of projects in CRZ and mining
projects are to be routed through state government. In all other cases the application can
be submitted directly to the Impact Assessment Agency.
The Application should have the following documents:
1. Feasibility Report
2. Site Clearance as mentioned in EIA notification
3. EIA and Environmental Management Plan Reports
4. NO Objection Certificate from State Pollution Control Boards and concerned local
authorities
5. Environmental Appraisal
6. Risk Analysis and Emergency Preparedness Plan, in case of Hazardous Substances
7. Proposed Rehabilitation Plan in case Displacement of people
8. Clearance from Airports Authority of India, if applicable
9. Public Hearing report of the state Pollution Control Board. An Amendment to the
EIA Notification was made in April, 1997, making Public Hearing mandatory for the
cases where environmental clearance is required.
In the event of an application is completed by all means, it will be referred to the
Expert Advisory Committees constituted for 5 major sectors.
I) Industries
II) Thermal Power Plants
III) Mining
IV) River Valley Projects and
V) Infrastructure Projects and CRZ
On the recommendations of the Expert Advisory Committees, and additional
information from the project proponent, the Impact Assessment Agency will process the
project proposal for final decision.
14.9 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

These are set of moral principles regarding Environment. These morals determine
the relationship between man and nature, the health and richness of the environment. In
earlier times it was human centric approach in which man is considered to be the strong
and competent being of all species and he is the master of the nature. After long years of
indiscriminate exploitation of natural resources man is in fix to continue exploitation for
his own peril or to redefine his attitude towards nature and to evolve new set of
Environmental ethics for a sustainable living.
The issue of environmental ethics goes beyond the problems relating to protection
of environment or nature in terms of pollution, resource utilization or waste disposal. It is
the issue of addressing the exploitative nature and attitude of the humans in an ethical
way.
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Anthropocene
Humanity’s impact on the Earth is so profound that the current geological epoch
“Holocene” which has 12000 years of stable climate since the last ice age gave way to the
anthropocentric activity. Scientists suggest that since the mid-20th century of industrial
activities, indiscriminate exploitation of natural resources, environmental degradation,
global warming, climate change, rising sea levels, deforestation and development mark
the end of that epoch. They believe that the present geological period that has begun about
1950 and is likely to continue is called as Anthropocene.
This word is coined by Eugene F. Stoermer in 1980 with a different sense but the
term is widely popularized by Atmospheric Chemist Paul Crutzen in 2000 who suggests
that the influence of human behavior on Earth’s atmosphere is so significant in recent
centuries so as to constitute a new geological epoch called Anthropocene.
Anthropocene is a recent geological period marked by human influence or
anthropogenic activities that radically change the earth’s atmosphere, climatic conditions
and environment. Humankind has entered what some scientists believed the Earth’s sixth
major extinction. The human activities brought permanent changes in the eco systems and
accelerated the rate of species extinction severely affecting the biodiversity. The degraded
or end of biodiversity means the end of human race.
14.9.1 Anthropocentricism vs Eco-Centricism
Anthropocentricism is human centered approach, it focuses on issues concerned
with human welfare and these issues must be resolved. Nature’s issues like Resource
depletion, air or water pollution or environmental degradation, and extinction of species
can be resolved only within the realm of human welfare.
The ethical dilemma between man and other non-human beings in the nature cannot
be resolved completely with this approach.
There is another kind of approach that lays emphasis on Ecosystem, that the things
of nature like flora, fauna, humans and non-humans, living and non-living world should
deserve equal moral considerations. According to this view not only we have direct
responsibility to other human beings and their welfare but also to the natural world we are
accountable and bear responsibility. CHIPKO movement is a better example according to
this view.
14.9.2 Deep Ecology vs. Shallow Ecology
Deep Ecology is non-anthropocentric i.e. not human centric and addresses immediate
causes of environmental problems that involve personal, social, cultural, economic and
even ideological issues. It is more akin to our Indian philosophy and Gaia principles. It
promotes the inherent worth of non-human living beings regardless of their instrumental
utility to human needs and attempts to restructure modern human societies in accordance
with such ideas radically.
Shallow Ecology holds the view that ecological systems shall be conserved only if
it serves our interests. The direct value of ecosystems to humanity is the sole criterion in
conserving them. From the perspective of deep ecologists it is a shallow ecological
approach.
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Check Your Progress
3. What is Anthropocene?
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14.10 SUMMARY
Environment is what surrounds us living and non-living things alike. It includes
natural physical entities like air, water, land and its resources, human beings, plants (flora),
animals (fauna) and their interrelations. Living organisms live in and interact with the
environment. In the environment the interactions takes place between living things like
humans, animals, plants, and non-living things like soil, water, and such other elements.
They constantly interact with and change according to the changes in the environment in
which it lives. And it is a reciprocal and a constant process in nature.
Human impact on environment has created several issues. Unscrupulous natural
resource exploitation is being carried out by business corporations for profit and individuals
are driven by consumption led economy. Constant Air, Water, and land pollution resulted
in a gradual climate change and global warming affecting the livelihoods, food security,
and finally, the life itself is on the anvil. People have realized that the risks associated
with the environmental degradation are for real and is going to affect the lives of the
present and future generations. The attitude of the people transformed from consumerism
to conservation and gradually moving towards environmentalism, while respecting the
interrelatedness of human and nature, and realizing that everything on the planet is related
and connected. It is with this understanding that the Sustainable development has become
now a focal point of concern for global community.

1. Bio-Diversity or Biological diversity means diverse variety of species of Plant and
animals. The presence of which represents the wealth or richness of biological conditions
of a region. It is the variety and variability of all living organisms that is measured at three
levels-Genetic Diversity, Species Diversity and Ecosystem diversity.
2. Human impact on environment has created several issues. Unscrupulous natural resource
exploitation is being carried out by business corporations for profit and individuals are
driven by consumption led economy. Constant Air, Water, and Land pollution resulted in
a gradual climate change and global warming-affecting the livelihoods, food security, and
finally, the life itself is on the anvil.
3. Anthropocene is a recent geological period marked by human influence or anthropogenic
activities that radically change the earth’s atmosphere, climatic conditions and environment.
Humankind has entered what some scientists believed the Earth’s sixth major extinction.
The human activities brought permanent changes in the eco-systems and accelerated the
rate of species extinction severely affecting the biodiversity. The degraded or end of
biodiversity means the end of human race.
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1. Discuss about Global Warming.
2. Write a Brief note on Kyoto Protocol.
3. Write about Montreal Protocol.
4. Write about Earth Summits.
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.
1. Define environment and find the difference between Environment and Ecology.
2. What is Sustainable Development.
3. Define Eco-centrism.
14.13 GLOSSARY
Environment : Environment is what surrounds us living and non-living things alike. It
includes natural physical entities like air, water, land and its resources, human beings,
plants (flora), animals (fauna) and their interrelations. Living organisms live in and interact
with the environment.
Ecology : Ecology is the branch of biology dealing with the relationships of organisms
with their environment and with each other while environment is the surroundings of, and
influences on, a particular thing or being.
Bio- Diversity : Bio-diversity means diverse variety of species of plant and animals.
Global Warming : Gradual increase of global temperatures has raised a brow across
scientific communities, environmentalists, and civic bodies.
Kyoto Protocol : The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on
December 11, 1997 and entered into force on February 16, 2005.
Ozone Depletion : Ozone layer is deteriorating due to the release of pollution.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
are the major man made chemical substances causing ozone depletion.
Sustainable Development : Sustainable Development as “development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs”

1. Abhijit Dutta and Sunita Dutta : Environmental Issues and Challenges
2. Agarwal A. and S. Narain : Global Warming in an Unequal World: A case of
Environmental Colonialism
3. Conway, G. and E.B. Barbier : After the Green Revolution: Sustainable Agricultre
for Development
4. Mahendra Pandey : Global Warming and Climate Change
5. Thyagi M.H. : Global Environmental Issues.
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UNIT - 15 : SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INEQUALITIES
Contents
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Concept of Socio-economic inequality
15.2.1 Economic inequality
15.2.2 Social inequality
15.3 Dimensions of Socio-economic inequality
15.3.1 Gender inequalities
15.3.2 Educational inequalities
15.3.3 Inequalities in Healthcare Facilities
15.3.4 Inequalities in access to Land
15.3.5 Inequalities in access to Justice
15.4 Causes of Socio-economic Inequalities
15.5 Consequences of Socio-economic inequalities
15.6 Measures to reduce Socio-economic inequalities
15.7 Summary
15.10 Glossary
15.0 OBJECTIVES
• The concept of socio-economic inequality
• Dimensions of socio-economic inequalities
• Causes and Consequences of socio-economic inequalities
• Measures to reduce socio-economic inequalities
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Inequality is often differentiated in terms of inequality of outcomes (as measured
by income, wealth, or expenditure) and inequality of opportunities which is attributed to
differences in circumstances beyond the individual’s control, such as gender, ethnicity,
location of birth, or family background. Inequality of outcomes arises from a combination
of differences in opportunities and individual’s efforts and talent. Interestingly, John Rawls
in his book ‘A Theory of Justice’ argues that the distribution of opportunities and of
outcomes is equally important and informative to understand the nature and extent of
inequality around the world.
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Some degree of inequality may not be a problem since it provides the incentives for
people to excel, compete, save, and invest to move ahead in life. Inequality can also
influence growth positively by providing incentives for innovation and entrepreneurship.
This is pertinent for developing countries by allowing individuals to accumulate the
minimum needed to start businesses and get a good education.
The Constitution of India recognizes each citizen as equal and guarantees the 'Right
to Equality' under the Fundamental Rights. Right to Equality includes equality before the
law, prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, gender or place of
birth, equality of opportunity in matters of employment and other socio-economic rights.
The makers of the Constitution included the Right to Equality in the Fundamental Rights
because they envisaged a society where each will be treated as equal irrespective of their
individual identities. Unfortunately, even after seven decades of independence we have a
long way to go in terms of achieving the equality that the makers of the Constitution
envisaged. There still exists rampant poverty, illiteracy, huge urban-rural divide, gender
based discrimination and violence, regional disparities among other forms of deprivation.
15.2 CONCEPT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC INEQUALITY

Inequality has been an important issue in development debates. Development cannot
be discussed without talking about inequality. Several philosophers and economists have
discussed about inequality. In recent years, rising income inequality has attracted the
attention of IMF, World Bank and the countries of The Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Davos meetings. The number of billionaires
is increasing throughout the world with larger share in income and wealth. The writings
of French economist Thomas Piketty (2014) have encouraged more debate on inequality
in several parts of the world.
Socio-economic inequality can be defined as an individual’s socio-economic status
as a person’s social and economic position in relation to others, based on income, education
and occupation. Socio-economic inequality refers to a broad measure of inequality. It
tries to capture societal inequality along both income (and wealth) and non-income
dimensions.
Income or wealth inequality captures only a narrow slice of inequality in society.
Non-income dimensions of inequality in health status and educational attainment are equally
if not more important. The two dimensions, income and non-income, could be brought
together to define a broader measure of socio-economic inequality. But unavailability of
data on the distribution of health status and educational attainment across different sections
of society make the construction of a direct measure of socio-economic inequality very
difficult.
Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly,
typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially
defined categories of persons. It is the difference in access of social goods in the society
brought about by power, religion, kinship, prestige, race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual
orientation, and class. The social rights include labour market, the source of income, health
care, and freedom of speech, education, political representation, participation, and access
to public goods such as education or the judicial system, adequate housing, transportation,
credit and financial services such as banking and other social goods and services.
Social inequality linked to economic inequality is usually described on the basis of
the unequal distribution of income or wealth. Though the disciplines of Economics and
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Sociology generally use different theoretical approaches to examine and explain economic
inequality, both fields are actively involved in researching this inequality. However, social
and natural resources other than purely economic resources are also unevenly distributed
in most societies and may contribute to social status.
First time at global level, a goal on inequality is included in Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs). Goal 10 of SDGs is about reduction in inequality within and among
countries. Target 1 of Goal 10 says “By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income
growth of the bottom 40 per cent of the population at a rate higher than the national
average”. Target 2 tries to achieve much more ambitious one: “By 2030, empower and
promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex,
disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status”.
Literature suggests that there are two main arguments for reduction in inequality.
One is ethical or philosophical argument that equity is important for its own sake (intrinsic
value). Second one is reduction in inequality is required for sustainability of growth
(instrumental value).
There is a distinction between inequity and inequality. Even if measured inequality
increases, there may not be increasing feeling of inequity as people observe high mobility
and can aspire to move upwards like others.
The rising inequality has social costs and leads to reduction in economic growth. It
is also useful to distinguish between inequality of outcome and inequality of opportunity.
Assets, income or expenditure are generally used for outcomes. Inequality of opportunity
is often measured by studying non-income dimensions such as health, education, access
to basic services and human development. Individual circumstances are important for
examining inequalities in opportunities. The circumstances such as gender, race, ethnicity,
or place of birth are outside the control of an individual. However, the outcomes also
depend on the efforts of the individual makes in education and labour market given the
circumstances.
Economic inequalities co-exist and intersect with many other forms like social,
political and cultural inequalities. Therefore intersectional inequalities become important.
For example in India, caste has a peculiar role that separates it out from the rest of the
world. Therefore, inequalities among caste or social groups become important. Similarly,
gender inequalities are also high in India.
The persistent inequality in India can be attributed to two factors. Firstly, societal
structures are such that there is no equal starting point. The society is differentiated by
various identities like religion, caste, gender, region and so on. Secondly, various state
institutions that should work towards removing these inequalities often end up worsening
them.
Check Your Progress
1. What do you mean by ‘Socio-economic inequality’?
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15.2.1 Economic Inequality
Economic inequality is the difference found in various measures of economic well-
being among individuals in a group, among groups in a population, or among countries.
Economic inequality sometimes refers to income inequality, wealth inequality, or the wealth
gap.
Much of the discussions and debates on economic inequality revolves around the
measurement of inequality. The adoption of ‘neoliberal’ market-friendly economic policies
has affected the State expenditures on public services and social welfare schemes designed
to address the needs of the vulnerable sections of the society. Some of the methods of
reducing State expenditures have been:
• Targeting’ social welfare expenditures
• Privatization of social services
• Withdrawal of different forms of state support in crucial sectors such as health,
education, etc.
However, such ‘cost cutting’ policies only end up worsening the existing inequalities.
The influence of such policies is not only restricted to social expenditures, but also invades
the other sections of the economy as well. The increasing importance of private sector has
strong influence on society. Thus, while profits have been increasing over a period, wage
levels have stagnated or declined, leading to worsening income inequalities across classes.
There has been a rise in employment in the form of temporary or part-time contractual
employees, deprived of basic labour rights, to enable the capitalists reap in more proût.
The Economists opine that the real wages did not rise at the same level as the rate of
growth of GDP. This implies that the larger section of the population, the wage-earners,
have not been able to reap the benefits of a high rate of growth. The unorganized sector
(which includes mostly daily wage earners in sectors such as agriculture, construction,
manufacturing, petty trade and services, etc.) is one of the largest sectors of employment
in India, and also the most vulnerable one. The workers in this sector remain deprived of
their basic labour rights and social securities, and often work at less than the stipulated
minimum wage norms. Inequalities in levels of salary earned have worsened over the
period.
Lack of employment opportunities that can help sustain livelihood has resulted in
an increase in self-employed workers engaging in petty trade and services like domestic
help, cooks, security guard, solid waste management etc. On the other hand, much of the
high revenues of the corporate sector is accumulated as ‘surplus’ and is not distributed as
dividends. Inequality in income distribution lies at the root of rising inequalities in India.
Increasing concentration of wealth in the hands of the few has resulted in large scale
impoverishment across the society. The role of taxation assumes greater importance in
this regard. Taxation plays a crucial role in income redistribution in a society, and a
progressive tax policy can help even out the income inequalities. An ideal approach to
taxation would be to apply the principle of ‘ability to pay’. However, the tax structure
prevailing in India has anomalies that give rise to a high burden of taxation on the poor.
Another major source of economic inequality is access to loans from the banking
sector. Although the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has mandated that 1 per cent of all loans
should go to the poor, only 0.02 per cent of these loans actually are distributed among the
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poor. Banks and other ûnancial organisation argue that they are reluctant to lend to the
poor because they have a higher risk of defaulting in their repayments. However, this is a
misconception as data shows that much of the loan defaulters (in terms of proportion of
total Non-Performing Assets or NPAs of banks) are actually from the corporate sector.
Check Your Progress
2. What are the sources of economic inequalities?
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15.2.2 Social Inequality
In every society, some people have a greater share of valued resources-money,
property, education, health, and power than others. Patterns of unequal access to social
resources are commonly called social inequality. Some social inequality reflects innate
differences between individuals for example, their varying abilities and efforts. Social
inequality is not the outcome of innate or ‘natural’ differences between people, but is
produced by the society in which they live. Sociologists use the term social stratification
to refer to a system by which categories of people in a society are ranked in a hierarchy.
This hierarchy then shapes people’s identity and experiences, their relations with others,
as well as their access to resources and opportunities. Caste system is one of the forms of
social stratification.
The caste system is a distinct Indian social institution that legitimizes and enforces
practices of discrimination against people born into particular castes. These practices of
discrimination are humiliating, exclusionary and exploitative. Historically, the caste system
classified people by their occupation and status. Every caste was associated with an
occupation, which meant that persons born into a particular caste were also ‘born into’ the
occupation associated with their caste, they had no choice. Moreover, and perhaps more
importantly, each caste also had a specific place in the hierarchy of social status, so that,
roughly speaking, not only were occupational categories ranked by social status, but there
could be a further ranking within each broad occupational category.
One of the important forms of inequality in India based on caste relates to disparities
across social groups particularly disadvantaged sections like Scheduled Castes (SCs) and
Scheduled Tribes (STs). One way of looking at this inequality is to examine the poverty
ratios across social groups.
‘Untouchability’ is an extreme and particularly vicious aspect of the caste system. It
is one of the extreme forms of social inequalities. Though Article 17 of Indian Constitution
abolishes Untouchability it does prevail in various parts of the country.
15.3 DIMENSIONS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC INEQUALITY

High and sustained levels of inequality, especially inequality of opportunity can
entail large social costs. Joseph Stiglitz says that deep-rooted inequality of outcomes can
significantly undermine individuals’ educational and occupational choices. There are
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various dimensions of socio-economic inequalities like gender, education, healthcare,
access to land and justice.
15.3.1 Gender Inequalities
‘Gender’ is about both men and women and is an analytical tool to understand the
operating hierarchies between the two. Biological concept of sex and the socialisation
process make up the whole content of gender, where the biological differences have
transformed into inequality through the process of socialisation. The UNDP Human
Development Report (2013) reveals that India’s Human Development Index (HDI) adjusted
for gender inequality, fares worst among all its South Asian counterparts and is barely
above Afghanistan. India is ranked 132 out of 187 countries on the Gender Inequality
Index (GII). India also remains the lowest-ranked among various developing countries.
Gender-based inequalities arise from the bias against women existing in different
aspects of life. They are manifested in various spheres like access to healthcare, access to
education, political representation and access to land and labour market. The patriarchal
norms reinforce stereotypes about women, rendering them as unequal citizens. Analysis
of social inequalities from the perspective of gender is crucial in understanding the deep
impact such social biases have. Limitations in adequate access to basic social and economic
facilities, such as education, employment opportunities, potable water or basic cooking
fuel, have different impacts on men and women because of the gender divide.
Discrimination against the girl child begins from the womb, and persists in every stage of
her life. Selective abortion of girl child has resulted in skewed sex ratios across the country.
The 2011 Census shows that despite various programmes and schemes aimed at
improving the sex ratio, it has improved only marginally since 2001. While the gap between
male and female literacy levels have narrowed over the years, the gender gap widens
above the level of primary education. Thus women still face discrimination in access to
higher and technical education. Studies have shown that women are typically entitled to a
lower share of household resources and thus have lesser access to healthcare facilities. As
health expenses rise due to increased privatization and lack of public facilities, families
resort to ‘rationing’ in healthcare in which women in the households are the first ones to
forego healthcare. Women face multiple discriminations in the world of work. It is
manifested in a number of ways in terms of access to livelihood opportunities, equal wages
and for decent quality of job. A woman is never unemployed in her lifetime given the
various social responsibilities she is traditionally expected to fulfill resulting in the double
burden of earning a living and taking care of household chores. Women contribute to the
society by both paid work and unpaid work. In the unpaid work framework, there are four
different kinds of work undertaken by women: subsistence production, informal activities,
household and domestic work including reproductive activities and voluntary activities.
Gender inequalities in the labour market are reflected in the type of employment
contract; i.e., whether it is regular or casual. While regular employment provides continuity
of job, better working conditions and lesser wage disparity between male and female,
casual employment (like daily wage earners) has a great deal of wage and non-wage
insecurities. Women workers often work at lower remunerations than the male counterparts
even at same levels of employment. The World Economic Forum ranked India at 101 (out
of 136 countries) with a Gender Wage Gap of 65 per cent in their report in 2013. Even
though political participation of women has increased in India in certain places, it is known
that the husband works on behalf of the elected woman representative. There are visible
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benefits of institutionalized political participation of women, especially in Gram Panchayats
and Municipalities. There are examples where this process of political representation has
helped empower the women and communities at large in the regions, leading to greater
gender issues being addressed by the authorities to a higher extent.
Check Your Progress
3. Why do Gender based inequalities rise?
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15.3.2 Educational Inequalities
Equal access to basic education is among the basic human rights to which everyone
is entitled. In recognition to this, education has been assigned high priority also in the
national objectives of India. Provision of free and compulsory education to all children
between the age group of 6 and 14 is a Fundamental Right (Article 21A) in India. The
National Policy on Education (1986) was an important landmark towards this Constitutional
commitment. The universalization of elementary education was finally endorsed with
enactment of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act in 2009.
However, we are far from realizing this objective.
Though there has been a visible progress in India’s education sector in past two
decades in the form of increase in school enrolment, more adults are declared (functionally)
literate than ever before. However the age-old disparities of class, caste and gender are
manifested in the education system. Analyses of determinants of participation (or non-
participation) in schooling is based on three important factors:
(a) Household economic factors: Economic factor is the single largest reason as poor
families cannot afford educational expenditures, and the children drop out to engage in
‘work’, which amounts to earning wages for boys and attending to domestic chores for
girls. Poor educational infrastructures are another major constraint.
(b) School environment: including quality of physical infrastructure, human resources
and quality of instruction. A number of schools do not have some of the basic infrastructural
facilities functional like school buildings, adequate number of classrooms, drinking water,
toilets, ramps, electricity etc.
(c) Social and cultural/traditional factors: Lack of availability of upper primary and
secondary schools in the neighborhood and absence of girls’ toilets are some of the major
reasons for school drop outs, especially for girls.
The school fees in private school admissions are weighted in favour of sons than
daughters, whereby the boys are enrolled in private school and the girls in government
schools. Thus, the growth of private schooling leads to not only growing inequality in
terms of quality of education but also aggravates socio-economic inequalities. Interventions
to ensure access to education for children with disabilities are another immediate requisite.
There exist an inadequate number of schools for children with special needs and in places
where they exist; schools do not have essential features to accommodate the differently
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abled children thus rendering the schools unusable. Regular school systems have not been
adequately sensitized and equipped to accommodate the differently abled children.
Check Your Progress
4. What are the determinants of participation or non-participation in the school?
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15.3.3 Inequalities in Health Care Facilities
Public Health System in India has multiple challenges. Effective health care is still
a far fetched dream for millions of Indians. Venezuela and Brazil can serve as inspirations
to Indian healthcare system. In Venezuela, the State implemented a state funded social
programme under which free comprehensive health care is available to all Venezuelans.
Brazil has an established Unified Health System under which more than 75 per cent of the
total population fully relies on state sponsored healthcare facility. Health care is a Right
in Brazil. Unequal access to healthcare in India is a matter of grave concern
Post 2005, with the implementation of the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)
in India, the level of public spending on health has gone up marginally but still falls far
behind the adequate levels. Historically, the State has shied away from its responsibility
of providing affordable public health services in this country. This trend has worsened in
recent times with the State actively promoting privatization through means like insurance-
based universalized health access, Public Private Partnership (PPP) models etc. which
further deepens inequality.
The Indian Constitution lists Health as a State subject. The States do have autonomy
in determining the budget allocation on health. However, this has resulted in the Central
Government avoiding taking any major initiatives in health. On the other hand, even the
State Governments are under major constraints to curb their overall spending that has
affected healthcare provision negatively. There are considerable inter-state variations in
health outcomes in India. In general, the southern States fare considerably better than the
rest of the country. Infrastructural gaps are observed to be higher in States, such as Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan and Jharkhand, which also lag behind others in
terms of health outcomes. Similar situation is observed in terms of human resource
requirements, especially for specialists at the Community Health Centres (CHCs).
There is a shortage of doctors at the Primary Health Centre (PHC) level as well.
Health outcomes are also dependent on social determinants, such as food security, sanitation
etc. The National Food Security Act (NFSA) of 2013 is a landmark legislation that entitles
basic food and nutrition to all citizens of India. Under this act, the Center has committed
to provide financial support to States to ensure about 75 per cent of rural population and
50 per cent of urban population receive basic food, and special focus is given on children,
pregnant women and other such vulnerable sections of the society.
Some of the laudable initiatives of the Indian Government in the context of food
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security is the Mid Day Meal (MDM) scheme started in schools to ensure proper nutrition
for the children in economically backward sections and Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahayog
Yojana (IGMSY) to address the issue of maternity entitlements under the National Food
Security Act (NFSA). These are crucial initiatives as maternal and child health is
intrinsically related to levels of nutrition they receive in the formative years.
15.3.4 Inequalities in access to Land
Land is an important asset in a developing country like India, where majority of the
population live in the rural areas and the agricultural sector is still the largest in terms of
employment share.
The issue of landlessness is intrinsically linked to access to food and nutrition as
well as migration and occupational diversification. Land insecurity pushes people to migrate
to cities from villages where they have poor bargaining power and end up working on
meager wages that in turn, further perpetuates inequalities. Real estate surge and rapid
urbanisation have brought in lot of changes to the value of land and it is difficult to track
and regulate the movement of land prices. This has led to speculative activities around
land as well as increased the demand for land phenomenally. The resistance to land
acquisition mostly revolves around the issue of livelihood. The present rush for land
acquisition for industrialization is resulting in plundering of lands in all parts of the country.
There have been crucial modifications in the Land Acquisition Acts gradually after
independence. Earlier, the state could acquire land for public purposes; whereas if a private
body acquired it, the rules were more stringent. The present Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 has a very inclusive definition of public purpose
where anything and everything qualities for public purpose and the government actively
helps the companies in acquiring land and thereby takes a position in favour of a certain
party, instead of being the impartial mediator. Unless this Act is rectified, it can alter land
use patterns that can have serious consequences for the food security of the country, besides
worsening inequalities.
Apart from the above mentioned land rights, the Forest Rights Act (FRA) of 2006 is
a path breaking legislation also related to land rights. It sought to correct the historical
mistake in which the State often claimed tracts of land as ‘Government Forest’, leaving
the indigenous inhabitants of the region with no rights over the land in which they lived
for ages. However, certain provisions in the Act, such as limiting the claim of 4 hectares
per person, or having to prove at least 3 generation staying in the region for over 75 years,
etc., makes the Act a complicated one. Such provisions render the FRA useless for tribal
areas as documentation of land deeds is a larger issue in these areas.
15.3.5 Inequalities in access to Justice
Much of the discussion on inequality revolves around the issue of income and
expenditure but the access to social justice is an important determinant to equality and is
a human rights issue. In a heterogeneous society like India where people are divided along
the lines of religion, caste, ethnicity and numerous such social identities, access to justice
is a very important factor to ensure a fair and equitable society for all. Unfortunately, the
social inequalities permeate in the governance instruments as well, and access to legal
justice is often limited by one’s social identity. India has the largest number of under trials
in the world and the proportion of people from SC, ST and Muslim community is the
highest.
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A large proportion of people who are in jails are also one of the poorest. There are
three reasons for this disparity:
• Lack of access to legal assistance and this is mostly because these people cannot
afford a lawyer for themselves who can fight for them in an unbiased and transparent
manner.
• Socio-economic handicaps of these communities where they have poor bargaining
power as compared to people on the other side.
• Institutional bias often act as a major reason to stereotype people from these
communities as ‘offenders’ even before the judgment.
There are inequalities in (a) access to justice as a right and (b) access to justice as a
means to achieve certain rights. There are numerous progressive Acts and legislations
aimed at providing justice to the marginalised sections of the society, but their
implementation is often inadequate. Often, there is an absolute lack of legal awareness
amongst people and even the officials fail to provide the right information which creates
delays in the process of providing justice. In the context of violence against women, few
cases do get justice but most of them go unregistered or do not surface at all, as the
women themselves, due to societal and family pressures, do not want the perpetrators,
who are often family members, to get prosecuted and go behind bars. The Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 provides legal recourses to women (wives and
live in partners) facing domestic violence in the form of physical, mental, sexual, emotional
or economic atrocities. It provides for appointment of Protection Officers, Service
Providers, Medical Facility In-charge and Shelter Homes. The Sexual Harassment at Work
Place (Prevention) Act, was passed in 2013 to ensure safe working conditions for
professional women. Any establishment employing 10 or more employees is now mandated
to have special mechanisms to redress sexual harassment issues based on the guidelines
of the Supreme Court. But despite such strong legislations being designed, the real success
of these Acts would depend on the extent and seriousness with which they are actually
implemented.
Check Your Progress
5. What are the reasons for a large proportion of people who are in jails are also one of
the Poorest?
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15.4 CAUSES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC INEQUALITIES

There are several causes of socio-economic inequalities in India. Some of them are
discussed below:
Unemployment
The main reason for low level of income of the majority of Indian people is
unemployment and underemployment accompanied by low productivity of labour. Low
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labour productivity implies low rate of economic growth which is the main cause of poverty
and inequality of the large masses of people. In fact, inequality, poverty and unemployment
are inter-related. Since sufficient employment is not being created through the process of
planned economic development, it is very challenging to increase the income levels of
most people. Inadequate generation of employment has been responsible for increasing
the socio-economic inequality.
Inflation
Another cause of inequality is inflation. During inflation, few profit earners gain
and most wage earners lose. This is exactly what has happened in India. Since wages have
lagged behind prices, profits have increased. This has created more and more inequality.
Inequality has increased due to rise in prices. During inflation workers in the organized
sector get higher wages which partly off-set the effect of price rise. But wages and salaries
of workers in unorganized sectors (such as agriculture and small-scale and cottage
industries) do not increase. So their real income (purchase in-come) falls. This is how
inequality in the distribution of income increases between the two major sectors of the
economy organized and unorganized.
Tax Evasion
In India, the personal income tax rates are very high. High tax rates encourage evasion
and avoidance and give birth to a parallel economy. The parallel economy is as strong as
the official economy. High tax rates are responsible for inequality in the distribution of
income and wealth. This is due to undue concentration of incomes in a few hands caused
by large scale tax evasion.
Regressive Tax
The indirect taxes give maximum revenue to the government. But they are regressive
in nature. Such taxes have also created more and more inequality over the years due to
growing dependence of the Government on such taxes.
New Agricultural Strategy
India’s new agricultural strategy immensely contributed to the Green Revolution
and raised agricultural productivity. But the benefits of higher productivity were enjoyed
mainly by the rich farmers and landowners. At the same time, the economic conditions of
landless workers and marginal farmers deteriorated over the years. Most farmers in India
could not enjoy the benefits of higher agricultural productivity. As a result, inequality in
the distribution of income in the rural areas has increased.
Highly Unequal Asset Distribution
Incomes are derived from two main sources, namely, assets like land, cattle, shares,
etc., and labour. In India a few own a large chunk of income earning assets. Some others,
who do not own, or own a part of the assets they operate, organise finances through banks,
co-operatives, etc, and acquire/hire productive assets. These inequalities enable the few
to get incomes in the form of rent, interest and profit. As these assets accumulate and pass
on from generation to generation, the earning capacity of these increases continuously. As
for rural areas, the ownership pattern of the most important asset, namely, land, is highly
unequal. The marginal households (with holdings less than 1 hectare), which account for
as many as 72 per cent of the rural households own very little about 17 per cent of the
land. At the other end, there are those with large holdings (of more than 10 hectares) who
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are about 1 per cent of the rural households. But they have under their ownership as much
as 14 per cent of the area. Private ownership of property and inheritance laws is mainly
responsible for highly unequal distribution of assets.
Differential Regional Growth
Balanced regional development is a major challenge in India. A great proportion of
population lives in the poor backward states regions. This is the geographical facet of
income inequalities for the country as a whole. Within the states also there are inequalities,
perhaps larger in the poorer states. Both these aspects are the outcome of the different
growth rates of the states, with a few having grown at a fast rate, and many having lagged
behind.
The factors of Inheritance, system of private property, differences in natural qualities,
acquired talents also contribute in inequalities. There is no doubt that if one undergoes
technical training of the right type after a course of general education, his efficiency will
improve. Commercial education may also improve efficiency and raise a person’s income-
making capacity. Differences in personal efficiency are thus an important cause of inequality
of incomes.
15.5 CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC INEQUALITIES

Inequality affects the process and pace of growth. Higher inequality lowers growth
by depriving the ability of lower-income households to stay healthy and accumulate physical
and human capital. For instance, it can lead to underinvestment in education as poor children
end up in lower-quality schools and are less able to go on to college. As a result, labour
productivity could be lower than it would have been in a more equitable world. Increasing
concentration of incomes could also reduce aggregate demand and undermine growth,
because the wealthy spend a lower fraction of their incomes than middle and lower income
groups.
Some of the critical consequences of socio-economic inequalities are:
Financial Crisis
Inequality dampens investment and growth, by increasing economic, financial, and
political instability. A growing body of evidence suggests that rising influence of the rich
and stagnant incomes of the poor and middle class have a causal effect on crisis, and thus
directly hurt short-term and long-term growth. Global imbalances also are intensified due
to persisting socio-economic inequalities.
Conflicts
Extreme inequality may damage trust and social cohesion and thus is also associated
with conflicts, which discourage investment. It also leads to economic losses. Conflicts
are particularly prevalent in the management of common resources where, for example,
inequality makes resolving disputes more difficult. Inequality intensifies the grievances
felt by certain groups or can reduce the opportunity costs of initiating and joining a violent
conflict.
Inequality can lead to policies that hurt growth. In addition to affecting growth
drivers, inequality could result in poor public policy choices. Enhanced power by the elite
could result in a more limited provision of public goods that boost productivity and growth,
and which disproportionately benefit the poor. It creates two sections in society the ‘haves’
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and the ‘have-not’s which are ever on the war path. This has resulted in ever mounting
social tensions and political discontent.
Impact on Poverty Reduction and Skill Development
Inequality hampers poverty reduction. Widening income disparities can also depress
skills development and suppression of talent among individuals with poorer parental
education background, both in terms of the quantity of education attained (for example,
years of schooling) and its quality (that is, skill proficiency). Educational outcomes of
individuals from richer backgrounds, however, are not affected by inequality.
Political Domination and Highly Undemocratic
The rich dominate the political machinery, and they use it to promote their own
exclusive interests. This results in corruption, graft and social injustice. Democracy is a
mockery when there is a wide gulf between the rich and the poor. Socio-economic inequality
is undemocratic in nature.
Exploitation and Creation of Monopolies
The rich exploit the poor. As Karl Marx says the consciousness of this exploitation
leads to political awakening and then agitation and even political revolution. Thus inequality
of incomes is an important cause of social and political instability. Unequal incomes
promote monopolies. These powerful monopolies and industrial combines charge unfair
prices from the consumer? And crush the small producers.
15.6 MEASURES TO REDUCE SOCIO-ECONOMIC INEQUALITIES

The well-known Economists Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen say the nature of Indian
inequality can be distinguished from other countries like China. Aggregate inequality may
be similar between India and China. However, the poor in India can’t afford even basic
necessities. Also access and quality public services in education, health care etc. are missing
for the poor. Thus Dreze and Sen observe that for both these reasons, inequality in India
takes the terrible form of a massive disparity between the privileged and the rest, with a
huge deficiency of the basic requirements for a minimally acceptable life for the underdogs
of society. The basic facilities of usable school, an accessible hospital, a toilet at home, or
two meals a day, are missing for a huge proportion of the Indian population in a way they
are not in, say, China. However socio-economic inequalities can be reduced. Some of the
measures are briefly discussed:
Redistribution Measures
Redistribution of assets should be considered in favour of the poor to reduce poverty
and inequality. However it has been asserted by the experts that the efforts towards
redistribution of land and non-land assets have not been successful.
There should be a structural change in property relations in India to ensure that the
poor get an adequate share of productive assets, including land. It is not only in respect of
productive assets that radical institutional reforms are required to give a better deal to the
poor. We also need radical institutional reforms to see that the poor get a larger and more
effective role in power structure and a more significant and usable share of basic services
for human resource development such as housing, education, health etc.
Some advocate measures such as redistribution of assets and wealth in favour of the
poor via higher tax rates for the rich.
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Agriculture: Increase the viability of small and marginal farmers
Increase in incomes of farmers particularly those with small holdings is important
for reducing inequality in the economy particularly across sectors. It also has been argued
that viability of small and marginal farmers have to be increased for sustainability of
agriculture.
Social Protection
Social protection policies play a critical role in realizing (a) the human right to
social security for all; (b) reducing poverty and inequality; (c) supporting inclusive growth
by boosting human capital and productivity; (d) supporting domestic demand and
facilitating structural transformation of national economies”.
India has social protection programmes at different levels: (1) Universal Capability
Enhancing Programmes (e.g. health and education); (2) Targeted programmes for the poor
and vulnerable to provide socio-economic security; (3) Infrastructure (Rural Housing,
Rural Drinking Water, Swatch Bharat Mission (Sanitation); 4. Social protection for the
Unorganized informal workers.
The social security scheme must include provision of free education, free medical
and maternity aid, old-age pension, liberal unemployment benefits, sickness and accident
compensation, provident fund and schemes of social insurance, etc. In this manner,
substantial benefits can be assured to persons whose incomes are low. Such benefits of
course have a money value. This will be another step towards leveling up incomes.
Social services like public parks, libraries, museums, community air-conditioned
halls, community radio and TV sets, refrigerators may be provided on a liberal scale, so
that the poor are able to enjoy almost all possible amenities available to the rich.
Focus on Employment and Education
There can be several solutions to reduce inequality. Two important measures are
creating productive employment and providing quality education. There is a feeling that
we should have some flagship programmes like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (MGNREGA) to reduce poverty and inequality. These
programmes are important for protecting the poor. There is need for diversified agriculture
for raising the income of farmers. However, future employment has to be created in
manufacturing and services. In this context, the Make in India initiative, focuses on start-
ups are steps in the right direction. Equally, service sector employment has to be promoted.
Over time, the share of the organized sector has to be raised while simultaneously improving
productivity in the unorganized sector.
India has high share of services in GDP (58.4%) but the share of services in
employment is low (26.4%). Therefore, the share of employment in services has to be
raised. India has the potential to increase the number of workers in manufacturing and the
contribution to the sector to overall growth.
Reducing Labour Market Inequalities
Most of the inequalities (economic and social) has labour market dimension. Some
issues on inequality exclusively deal with labour market structures, processes, mechanisms
and outcomes while some others are influenced by labour institutions and labour market
forces. Inequalities can be found across sectors, wages and earnings, quality of work,
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labour market access and, between organized and unorganized sector. Labour market
segmentation is another important issue regarding inequalities.
Equity in quality education is the key for raising human development and reduction
in inequalities in labour market.
Curtailing Corruption
Good governance is important for promoting equity. Corruption is one of the obstacles
for good governance. There have been studies linking corruption to inequality. Several
financial institutions including International Monetary Fund (IMF) have examined the
costs of corruption as corruption can seriously undermine inclusive economic growth. It
can adversely affect the determinants of economic performance. It can also have devastating
economic and social consequences due to violence, civil strife and conflict.
There is a need for multipronged strategy to reduce corruption in India. Inequalities
are expected to reduce with decline in corruption as it affects the poor and vulnerable
adversely. India also has decided to set up a ‘socialistic pattern of society’. With this end
in view, the government strives to prevent the concentration of wealth and income in a
few hands.
Fixing Minimum Wage
One step that can be taken in the direction of more egalitarian society is to guarantee
each citizen a minimum wage consistent with a minimum standard of living. In India in
1948, the Minimum Wages Act was passed in pursuance of which minimum wages are
being fixed for agricultural labour. This is a step which will level up the incomes from
below.
Equality of Opportunity
There should be strategies to ensure that equal opportunities are available to all rich
and poor in getting employment or getting a start in trade and industry. The recruitment to
all jobs may be made by an impartial Selection Board or Public Services Commission.
Recruitment even in the private sector may be done by employment exchanges or
independent selection agencies. In the same manner, to give start in trade and industry, the
Government may give financial aid or loans at very reasonable rates repayable in easy
installments to all those who wish to enter trade and industry.
In India, several concessions are being offered to scheduled castes and backward
classes or persons living in backward areas so that the evils of their backwardness may be
minimized. Lot has been done under the 20-Point Economic Programme to help the poor
and lift them economically, such as abolition of bonded labour, scaling down or writing
off of debts, provision of house sites, etc. Steeply-graded Income Tax and high taxes on
luxuries can also help to reduce socio-economic inequalities.
Ceilings on Agricultural Holdings and Urban Property
With a view of reducing inequalities between the big and small farmers, ceilings on
agricultural land holdings can be imposed. The main purpose of land ceilings is to bring
about a wider and equal ownership and use of land. As a counterpart, a ceiling on urban
property can be imposed so that inequalities in urban areas can also be toned down. More
radical socio-economic reforms seem to be in the offing in India. These are some of the
measures that can be adopted to reduce inequalities. But inequalities can be reduced, they
cannot be eliminated altogether. In fact, absolute equality is unattainable.
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Rising inequalities is a concern in many advanced and developing countries of the
world. Inclusive approach is needed for several reasons. In the context of ethics and
humanism, equality is important for its own sake. Inequality reduction is also required for
sustainability of growth. If we reduce personal, social, gender, rural-urban and regional
disparities, both the objectives of ethics and growth of equality will be achieved. Lower
inequalities would result in higher demand from bottom deciles, vulnerable and
disadvantaged sections and lead to higher growth. If we define equity in terms of
empowerment and increase in participation of the poor, there is no trade-off between growth
and equity. Reduction in corruption can help in improvement of equality.
For a stable and democratic society, one needs to have equitable approach. Large
sections of the society can’t be ignored. It is increasingly clear that the process of
development must become more socially and economically inclusive. If we do not have
tolerant and inclusive society, it can generate severe social tensions. Thus, there are strong
social, political and economic reasons for reducing inequalities. The agenda of inclusiveness
and equality has to be given highest priority for broad based social and economic
development.
Check Your Progress
6. What are the important measures to reduce socio-economic inequalities?
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15.7 SUMMARY
The Constitution of India recognizes each citizen as equal and guarantees the Right
to Equality under the Fundamental Rights. Right to Equality includes equality before the
law, prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, gender or place of
birth, equality of opportunity in matters of employment and other socio-economic rights.
Socio-economic inequality can be defined as an individual’s socio-economic status as a
person’s social and economic position in relation to others, based on income, education
and occupation
Income or wealth inequality captures only a narrow slice of inequality in society.
Non-income dimensions of inequality in health status and educational attainment are equally
if not more important. The two dimensions, income and non-income, could be brought
together to define a broader measure of socio-economic inequality.
Much of the discussions and debates on economic inequality focus on the issues of
measurement of inequality, wage levels have stagnated or declined, leading to worsening
income inequalities across classes. There has been a rise in employment in the form of
temporary or part-time contractual employees, deprived of basic labour rights, to enable
the capitalists reap in more profit. Patterns of unequal access to social resources are
commonly called social inequality. Some social inequality reflects innate differences
between individuals for example, their varying abilities and efforts.
255
Gender-based inequalities arise from the bias against women existing in different
aspects of life. They are manifested in various spheres like access to healthcare, access to
education, political representation and access to land and labour market. Analyses of
determinants of participation or non-participation in schooling have revealed the inûuence
of three sets of factors: (a) household economic factors, (b) school environment, including
quality of physical infrastructure, human resources and quality of instruction, and (c)
social and cultural factors.

1. Socio-economic inequality can be defined as an individual’s socio-economic status as a
person’s social and economic position in relation to others, based on income, education
and occupation. The two dimensions, income and non-income, could be brought together
to define a broader measure of socio-economic inequality. It tries to capture societal
inequality along both income (and wealth) and non-income dimensions.
2. The adoption of ‘neoliberal’ market-friendly economic policies has pushed through a
cutback of State expenditures on essential public services and social welfare schemes
designed to address the needs of the vulnerable sections of the society. The access to loans
from the banking sector and lack of employment generation are also sources of socio-
economic inequality.
3. Gender-based inequalities arise from the bias against women existing in different aspects
of life. They are manifested in various spheres like access to healthcare, access to education,
political representation and access to land and labour market.
4. Analyses of determinants of participation or non-participation in schooling have revealed
the influence of three sets of factors: (a) household economic factors, (b) school
environment, including quality of physical infrastructure, human resources and quality of
instruction, and (c) social and cultural/traditional factors.
5. A large proportion of people who are in jails are also one of the poorest. There are three
reasons for this disparity: • Lack of access to legal assistance and this is mostly because
these people cannot afford a lawyer for themselves who can fight for them in an unbiased
and transparent manner. • Socio-economic handicaps of these communities where they
have poor bargaining power as compared to people on the other side. • Institutional bias
often act as a major reason to stereotype people from these communities as ‘offenders’
even before the judgment.
6. The important measures to reduce socio-economic inequalities are
• Redistribution Measure i.e. redistributing wealth, assets like land
• Increase the viability of small and marginal farmers
• Social Protection
• Focus on Employment and Education
• Equality of Opportunity
• Curbing Corruption
256
1. Explain the various dimensions of socio-economic inequalities.
2. Explain the various measures to reduce the socio-economic inequalities.
1. Briefly explain the concept of socio-economic inequality.
2. What are the causes and consequences of socio-economic inequality.
3. Write about Gender based inequalities.
15.10 GLOSSARY
Socio-economic inequality : It can be defined as an individual’s socio-economic status as a
person’s social and economic position in relation to others, based on income, education and
occupation. It is a broad measure of inequality. It tries to capture societal inequality both in
terms of income and wealth and non-income dimensions.
Social stratification : It refers to a system by which categories of people in a society are
ranked in a hierarchy.
Inflation : Inflation is the rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is
rising and consequently, the purchasing power of currency is falling.
Regressive Tax : A regressive tax is a tax that takes a larger percentage of income from low-
income earners than from high-income earners. It is in opposition with a progressive tax,
which takes a larger percentage from high-income earners. A regressive tax is generally a tax
that is applied uniformly to all situations, regardless of the payer.
GDP : The gross domestic product (GDP) is one of the primary indicators used to gauge the
health of a country’s economy. It represents the total dollar value of all goods and services
produced over a specific time period; you can think of it as the size of the economy.

1. Anthony Giddens : Sociology (2001)
2. John Macionis, J. : Sociology (1991)
3. Satish Deshpande : Contemporary India: A Sociological View (2003)
257
Dr. B. R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
B. A. I YEAR - SEMESTER-II
MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION PAPER
SUBJECT: SOCIOLOGY
Course-I: INDIAN SOCIETY: STRUCTURE AND CHANGE
Time: 3 Hours (Max. Marks: 100)

(Min. Marks: 40)
SECTION-A
(Marks: 5 x 4 = 20)
Instructions to the Candidates:
a) Answer any five of the following questions in about 10 lines each.
b) Each question carries 04 marks.
1. Describe the main institutions of Hindu Social Organisation.
2. What is the concept of Unity in Diversity.
3. What are the unique features of welfare state as proposed by A.R. Desai?
4. Explain Satya Shodhak Samaj.
5. What are the basic elements of Industrial Social Structure?
6. Explain the merits and demerits of Caste.
7. Write the important Features of Urban Society in India.
8. Explain the changes brought by Education in the Society.
9. What do you mean by Resettlement and Rehabilitation?
10. Briefly write on Environmental Issues.
SECTION-B
(Marks: 5 x 12 = 60)
a) Answer all the following questions in about 30 lines each.
b) Each question carries 12 marks
11. (a) Write about the Ashrama Dharmas and Purusharthas

Or
(b) Explain the impact of the British Rule on Indian Society.
12. (a) Critically examine the Indological / Textual Perspective.

Or
(b) Describe the contributions of Dr.B.R. Ambedkar to understand Indian Society.
258
13. (a) Discuss the crisis faced by Indian Family System.
Or
(b) Discuss about Religious Diversity in India.
14. (a) Explain the Mixed Economy and Planning in Indian Society.
Or
(b) What is the relationship between Urbanisation and Industrialization?
15. (a) Discuss about the Enviromental Ethics.

Or
(b) Explain the various measures to reduce the Socio-Economic Inequality.
SECTION-C
(Marks: 20 x 1 = 20)
a) Answer all of the following questions
b) Each question carries One mark
A. Multiple choice Questions. Choose the Correct Answer:
16. Social Institutions are

a) The family b) The state
c) The school d) All of the above
17. The word Varna means
a) Colour b) Cloth
c) Caste d) Clan
18. When a female can have more than one husband, this situation is denoted by the term....
a) Polyandry b) Nuclear
c) Polygyny d) None of these
19. Karl marx is associated with which theory of Social Change
a) Conflict Theory b) Functional Theory
c) Cyclic Theory d) Evolutionary Theory
20. Sources of Diversity in India include
a) Religion b) Caste
c) Language d) All the above
21. Who coined the term Subaltern

a) Karl Marx b) N.K. Bose
c) A. Gramsci d) David Hardiman
259
22. Who considered himself as ‘Marxologist
a) D.P. Mukerjee b) S.C. Dube
c) A.R. Desai d) D. Hardiman
23. Who wrote India’s Village
a) M.N. Srinivas b) A.R. Desai
c) S.C. Dube d) B.R. Ambedkar
24. Families generally found in rural areas
a) Nuclear Families b) Stem Families
c) Single Parent Family d) Joint Family
25. Polygamy is a term covering
a) Levirate and Sororate b) Endogamy and Exogamy
c) Polygyny and Polyandry d) All of these
B. Match the following:

A B
26. S.C. Dube a) India’s village
27. Sunderlal Bahuguna b) Caste and Race in India
28. M. N. Srinivas c) Chipko Movement
29. G.S. Ghurye d) Narmada Bachao Andolan
30. Medha Patkar e) Indian village
C. Fill in the blanks:

31. Sociology tries to trace the _____________relation between variables.
32. The British introduced a new system of ______________________in India.
33. Economy showing the features of both capitalism and socialism _____________.
34. The degree to which people are tied to a social group is called social __________.
35. The Varna system is based on __________________.
260
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BA226SOC-E

"We may forgo material benefits of civilization, but we cannot

Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

Cover Design : G.V. Swamy

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad.

First Editon : 2018

Copyright © 2018 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad.

BLOCK-I : HISTORICAL BASES OF THE INDIAN SOCIETY 1

BLOCK-II : PERSPECTIVES ON THE STUDY OF INDIAN SOCIETY 57

BLOCK-III : SOCIAL STRUCTURE 103

BLOCK-IV : SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA 163

BLOCK-V : CHALLENGES FOR SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION 205

The Units included in this Block are:

1.3 VEDIC INDIAN SOCIETY

1.4 ASHRAMA DHARMAS

1.6 VARNA SYSTEM

1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - MODEL ANSWERS

1.9 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1.11 FURTHER READINGS

2.3 EMERGENCE OF BUDDHISM

2.4 ADVENT OF ISLAM

The Five Pillars of Islam (Obligatory Duties of Islam)

Check Your Progress

2.5 EUROPEAN COLONIZATION

Impact of the British on Indian Society and Culture

Check Your Progress

2.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - MODEL ANSWERS

2. 8 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the importance of Buddhism in Influencing the Indian society.

II. Answer the following questions in about 10 lines each.

Colonization: Colonization is a process by which a central system of power dominates the

2. Majumder R.C : Classical Account of India, 1960.

3. Sunitha V.A. : Early History of India.

4. Gangulee N. : The Buddha and his Message (1957).

5. Iswari Prasad : History of Medieval India.

6. Tara Chand : Influence of Islam on Indian Culture.

3.3 FACTORS OF DIVERSITIES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

3.3.6 Linguistic Diversity

Check Your Progress

3.4 FACTORS OF UNITY

Elements of Unity in the Modern India

3.5 CULTURAL ASSIMILATION

3.8 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

3.10 FURTHER READING

Sociology as a science of study focuses on the study of certain basic concepts,

The 3 Units in this Block are:

4.2 INDOLOGICAL/TEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES

4.3 STRUCTURAL - FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVES

4.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-MODEL ANSWERS

4.6 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

4.8 FURTHER READINGS

Check Your Progress

5.4. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-MODEL ANSWERS

5.5 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

5.7 FURTHER READINGS

6.5 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

6.7 FURTHER READINGS

The Units included in this Block are:

7.2 TRIBAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE

7.3 AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Check Your Progress

4. What are the main types of settlement patterns in rural areas?

7.4 INDUSTRIAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE