Dependence of the Yield and Fatigue
ing has a dominant effect on strengthening. The yield stress of
Strength of the Thread Rolled
Mild Steel on Dislocation Density
J. Aghazadeh Mohandesi1
e-mail: agazad@yahoo.com
Mohammad A. Rafiee
O. Maffi
P. Saffarzadeh
Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering,
Amirkabir University of Technology,
Tehran, Iran
Dependence of the yield and fatigue strength of steel bolts with
composition in accordance to AISI 1035 manufactured by thread
rolling and machining process on dislocation density were inves-
tigated. The results indicate that the fatigue strength of the rolled
bolts are 55% higher than the machined bolts and by full anneal-
ing at 850° C, it reduced to the extent of machined specimen.
Partial annealing of the thread rolled bolts at 680° C caused a
reduction of fatigue strength by approximately 61% due to reduc-
tion in the dislocation density. Fatigue strength was improved by
deformation rate (i.e., rolling speed), which is also due to the
increasing dislocation density. Yield stress of the studied speci-
mens followed the same pattern as fatigue strength. Considering
the obtained results from the low and high speed, partial and full
annealed thread rolled specimens, yield stress of the thread rolled
bolts has been modeled based on the dislocation density. The ob-
tained results from the model are in good agreement with the
experimental results. The contribution to fatigue strength by
thread rolling stems from the strain hardening effect which would
facilitate the formation of compressive residual stress near the
surface layer. The strengthening may be attributed to increasing
dislocation density in the ferrite phase (i.e., substructure forma-
tion), in addition to the formation of a fine layered structure con-
sisting of elongated pearlite colonies and ferrite grains.
关DOI: 10.1115/1.2401631兴
Keywords: thread rolling, strain rate, dislocation density, fatigue,
yield stress
1 Introduction
In the process of thread rolling, fasteners are manufactured
without grinding. Therefore, while the wastage is minimized, me-
chanical properties of the hardened surface layer improve signifi-
cantly. When a medium carbon steel rod undergoes deformation
by thread rolling, the inhomogenous plastic deformation causes
localized strain hardening in the surface layer, thus developing
compressive residual stress which improves the fatigue strength of
the fasteners 关1–4兴.
The strengthening mechanism in the deformed medium to high
carbon steels is well established 关5兴. Strain hardening in the me-
dium carbon steel is associated with the increasing dislocation
density in ferrite and formation of a pattern consists of elongated
ferrite grains and pearlite colonies. In high carbon steels, in addi-
1
Corresponding author.
Contributed by the Manufacturing Engineering Division of ASME for publication
in the JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Manuscript received
May 23, 2005; final manuscript received June 21, 2006. Review conducted by
Zhongqin Lin.
216 / Vol. 129, FEBRUARY 2007 Copyright © 2007 by ASME
tion to rotation of pearlite colonies, decreasing interlamellar spac-
pearlite is consistent with the stress necessary to move dislocation
in ferrite between two impenetrable cementite walls, which in-
crease with interlamellar spacing refinement leading to strength-
ening. This explanation is based on the assumption that disloca-
tion sources are activated in cementite ferrite interfaces in the
microyield region. The work hardening of pearlite is largely con-
trolled by the process occurring in ferrite. The role of cementite at
low stresses is mainly to limit the slip distance in ferrite 关6兴.
Although considerable studies on several aspects of fatigue be-
havior in the thread rolled bolts have been carried out 关7–9兴, no
quantitative analysis of the effective substructural parameters 共i.e.,
dislocation density兲 on the yield or fatigue strength has yet been
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made.
In this work, the effect of dislocation density developed under
the thread rolling process on the yield and fatigue strength of the
mild steel has been studied.
2 Materials and Experimental Methods
Composition of the steel used in this study is in accordance to
AISI 1035 and is provided in the form of bars by 10 mm diameter.
The chemical analysis of the steel used in this study is given in
Table 1. The received rods were annealed at 1050° C and then
slowly cooled. Fatigue and tensile test specimens were prepared
as follows; initially the specimens were machined using an auto-
matic machine 共Emcho/CNC兲 to the dimension shown in Fig. 1.
Afterwards, the threading process was carried out by an automatic
grinding machine under two velocities of 0.5 and 0.25 m / min,
respectively, to form the threads of the size M4 ⫻ 0.7. At the sec-
ond stage after calculating primary diameter required for rolling,
some other samples were thread rolled by a flat rolling machine.
The rolling speeds were also chosen as 0.5 and 0.25 m / min, simi-
lar to the machining. The dimension and thread size of the ma-
chined and thread rolled specimens are identical.
To investigate the effect of full and partial annealing on fatigue
strength of the rolled bolts, the rolled specimens were annealed at
850 and 680° C for half an hour, respectively, and then those were
slowly cooled.
To obtain the microhardness pattern of the thread rolled bolts, a
microhardness test was taken from the cross section of the
samples under a load of 1 Kg.
Tensile tests were carried out by means of a universal testing
machine under strain rate of 0.1 mm/ s. Three tensile specimens
were tested for each condition of the produced bolts and the av-
erage values were considered. Fatigue test specimens were con-
ducted using a Wohler rotary-bending machine with
0.25 horsepower at 2850 rpm. Fatigue curves were acquired by
the step method starting from 0.8 ultimate tensile stresses of the
studied specimens. The dimension of the tensile and fatigue test
specimens is shown in Fig. 1.
Five fatigue specimens at each stress level were tested for each
condition of the produced bolts and the mean values were consid-
ered for determining S-N curves. Fractographic investigations
were carried out by a stereoscanning electron microscope. For
metallographic studies, the specimens were cut across longitudinal
section of the bolts and were etched in a solution of 2% Nital.
Transmission electron microscopic 共TEM兲 studies were carried
out using a 200 kV microscope. To prepare thin foils, the thread
rolled specimens were cut longitudinally to obtain corrugated flat
specimens, with 0.5 mm thickness. The flat specimens were cut
into two pieces denoted by 1 and 2 and then these two parts were
glowed together with polymer metal glow 共MM-Metal-SS-Steel
381兲 as shown in Fig. 2. To prepare thin foils, disks with 2 mm
diameters were cut by a spark machine. Care was taken that the
desirable area for investigation 共i.e., immediately beneath the
thread roots兲 was placed in the center of the foil. Afterwards, the
disks were electronically thinned by a window technique, using a
solution of one part anhydrous sodium chromate and four parts
Transactions of the ASME
 Table 1 Composition of the steel studied „wt %… Table 2 Yield and tensile strength of the rolled, machined, and
annealed specimens
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu V
Yield Ultimate tensile
0.35 0.18 0.54 0.024 0.002 0.12 0.06 0.01 0.13 0.002 strength strength
Specimen studied 共MPa兲 共MPa兲
W Ti Co Al Sn Pb As Sb Zr Nb
Trace 0.002 0.008 0.007 0.009 Trace 0.007 Trace 0.001 Trace Low speed rolled 486.4 521.8
High speed rolled 501.1 540.1
Low speed machined 436.7 477.8
High speed machined 437.7 486.5
Low speed rolled and annealed at 850° C 436.8 474.8
glacial acetic acid. The dislocation density was determined using High speed rolled and annealed at 850° C 437.6 468.8
the linear intercept method. The foil thickness, t was estimated Low speed rolled and annealed at 680° C 450.4 482
from the relation, t = n cos ␪, where n is the number of extinction High speed rolled and annealed at 680° C 451 490
maxima on a straight dislocation in a two beam condition, 关g1

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= 共000兲, g2 = 共h , k , l兲兴, ␰ is the extinction distance for g2, and ␪ is
the angle of goniometric rotation.

3 Results and Discussion annealing, the microstructure of the deformed specimen has com-
pletely transformed to austenite and on the subsequent cooling, it
The results obtained from tensile tests of the machined, thread has transformed to ferrite and pearlite colonies. TEM studies in-
rolled, partially and full annealed specimens are illustrated in dicate that upon full annealing, dislocation density decreases con-
Table 2. The rolled specimens pose a higher yield and tensile siderably and pearlite interlamellar spacing increases, which is
stress than those of machined bolts. As it is expected flow stress demonstrated in Figs. 7–9.
increases due to strain hardening as a result of thread rolling pro-
cess. Considering the microhardness pattern of the rolled sample
which is depicted in Fig. 3, by approaching toward specimen
edges and corners of the threads, microhardness increases owing
to the intensification of localized strains caused by inhomogenous
plastic deformation. These results are in accordance to the micro-
structure studies, illustrated evidently in Fig. 4. The microstruc-
ture of the treated rolled specimen immediately below the thread
roots includes elongated ferrite grains and pearlite colonies com-
pressed into a layered structure 共Fig. 5兲.
Nevertheless the microstructure of the machined bolts 共Fig. 6兲
is similar to the full annealed specimens, where, thread formation
is the consequence of cutting process conducted at the surface and
a long range plastic deformation is unlikely to occur, thus the
microstructure consists of ferritic matrix and undeformed pearlite
colonies.
The yield and tensile strength decrease to the amount corre-
sponding to that of the machined specimen by annealing the
thread rolled specimens at 850° C 共Table 2兲. It seems that by full

Fig. 3 Microhardness pattern of the rolled sample

Fig. 1 Dimension of the tensile and fatigue specimens

Fig. 4 Microstructure of thread rolled specimen illustrating

Fig. 2 A schematic showing the preparation method of thin the inhomogenous deformation pattern consist of ferrite grains
foils for TEM studies and pearlite colonies

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Fig. 5 Microstructure of deformed area showing stretched fer-
rite grains and elongated pearlite colonies
Fig. 7 Dislocation substructure in a high speed thread rolled
specimen

In general, the accepted strengthening mechanism in a strain

hardened medium carbon pearlitic steel includes increasing dislo-
cation density, rotation of pearlite colonies resulting in the align-
ment of pearlite layers along the tensile direction 关5兴 共in this case
shear direction兲, with gradual reduction of interlamellar spacing at
very high strains such as those observed in the patent steels 关6兴.
Metallographic examinations of the thread rolled and annealed
specimens at various temperatures reveal that no substantial
changes in the microstructure due to recrystalization occurs at
temperatures up to 680° C. In the deformed area, the ferrite grains
surrounded by elongated pearlite colonies are extensively
stretched and become very thin 共Fig. 5兲. Since by annealing at
680° C, austenitic transformation does not take place, the pearlite
colonies remain intact, and no change in the microstructure of the
partially annealed and thread rolled specimen is expected. There-
fore, it seems justified to assume that the decrease in the yield
stress of the partially annealed thread rolled specimen is due to the
reduction of dislocation density. By partial annealing the low and
high velocity thread rolled specimens, it was found that the yield
stress have reduced to 451 and 450.4 MPa, respectively. In fact,
approximately a 77% and 69% increase in the yield stress on
account of the strain hardening in the high and low speed thread
rolled specimens have disappeared through partial annealing, re-
spectively. The dislocation density in ferrite decreases to the same Fig. 8 Pearlite lamellar and dislocation substructure in a fully
level as those in the full annealed specimen by partial annealing annealed thread rolled specimen
共Fig. 10兲. These observations prove that a strengthening mecha-
nism in the thread rolled specimens is mainly due to increasing

Fig. 9 Pearlite interlamellar spacing in a thread rolled

Fig. 6 Microstructure of the grinned threads specimen

218 / Vol. 129, FEBRUARY 2007 Transactions of the ASME


Fig. 10 TEM micrograph illustrating pearlite lamellar and dis-
location substructure in a partially annealed thread rolled
specimen
the dislocation density in ferrite and the formation of layers con-
sisting of stretched pearlite colonies and elongated ferrite grains
seems to have less effect.
The TEM studies of the deformed pearlite colonies also indicate
that ferrite and cementite layers has gradually aligned in the shear
direction and the interlamellar spacing has decreased by plastic
deformation in the highly deformed areas 共Fig. 9兲, confirming the
previous results obtained for the drawn patent steels 关6兴.
3.1 Effect of Thread Rolling Velocity. The yield stress of the
studied bolts was improved by increasing the thread rolling speed
共Table 2兲. Since no detectable changes in the microstructures of
high and low speed thread rolled specimens are observed, it seems
this amount of increase in the yield stress may be arising from a
higher dislocation density in the high velocity thread rolled speci-
men. It is well established that the flow stress of a metal depends
on the strain rate as follows:
␴ = C共␧0兲m 共1兲
where ␴ is flow stress, ␧ is the strain rate, m is the strain rate
0 colonies.
sensitivity coefficient, and C is a constant. On the other hand, the
strain rate during plastic deformation may be considered as
␧0p = ␳bV 共2兲
where ␳ is the dislocation density, b is the Burgers vector, and V is
defined as 关10兴
V= 冉冊
␶
D
m⬘
共3兲
In this equation ␶ is applied stress, D is a constant, m⬘ is the stress
sensitivity coefficient, and V is velocity of dislocation. By substi-
tuting V from Eq. 共3兲 into Eq. 共2兲, it follows:
冉冊 m⬘
␶
␧0p = ␳b 共4兲
D
From Eq. 共1兲 it may be concluded that
1 1
␴ = C共␧0兲m ⇒ ␧0 = ␴m
C
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering
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Fig. 11 Dislocation substructure in low speed thread rolled
specimen
1
␧0 = C ␶ m 共5兲
⬘
which C⬘ is an equation constant.
By comparing Eqs. 共4兲 and 共5兲 and assuming, ␧0p = ␧0 and m⬘
= 1 / m, the dislocation density must remain constant by increasing
the strain rate while other parameters stay unchanged. Since no
equality between m⬘ and 1 / m has been reported in the previous
works, hence, the flow stress improvement arising from an in-
creasing strain rate should be associated with the higher disloca-
tion densities. It seems that as the lattice resistance against the
dislocation movement intensifies at high strain rates, the required
stress for deformation to proceed increases, consequently more
dislocation Frank–Read sources become activated and the dislo-
cation density increases, which is obvious in the TEM micro-
graphs of the ferrite immediately beneath the thread roots in the
high and low speed thread rolled specimens 共Figs. 7 and 11, re-
spectively兲.
3.2 Modeling of the Yield Stress. The dislocation densities
of the high and low tread rolled specimens along with the partially
annealed high speed thread rolled specimens are shown in Table 3.
To model the yield stress, a thread rolled specimen is assumed as
a composite consisting of an undeformed core surrounded by the
deformed region. As illustrated in Fig. 12, the undeformed core
consists of low dislocation density ferrite and undeformed pearlite
The deformed region consists of high dislocation density elon-
gated ferrite and pearlite colonies. Recalling the rule of mixture
and neglecting the undeformed-deformed transient region, the
yield stress of the composite, ␴ maybe assumed approximately as
␴ = ␾␴u + 共1 − ␾兲␴d 共6兲
where ␾ is the volume fraction of the undeformed region, ␴u is
the yield stress of the undeformed region, and ␴d is yield stress of
the deformed region.
The strain hardening mechanisms may be assumed to be the
consequence of
Table 3 Dislocation densities of the studied specimens
Types of specimen Dislocation density 共cm−2兲
Low speed rolled 0.24⫻ 1010
High speed rolled 0.64⫻ 1010
High speed rolled annealed at 680° C 5 ⫻ 104
FEBRUARY 2007, Vol. 129 / 219
 • increasing dislocation density, ␳, in ferrite as; ␣Gb冑␳ 共Ref.
关11兴兲, where ␣ is a constant, G is the shear modulus, b is the
dislocation Burgers vector, and ␳ is the dislocation density.
• Decreasing ferrite grain thickness, D, due to elongation as;
KD−1/2, following the Hall–Petch relation, where K is the
interlocking coefficient.
• reducing pearlite interlamellar spacing, S, as; K⬘S−1 关6兴,
where K⬘ is a constant proportional to Gb.

Therefore, ␴d may be defined approximately by the following

relation:
␴d = ␴0+ ␣Gb冑␳ + KD−1/2 + K⬘S−1 共7兲

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where ␴0 is the Pierls–Nabarro stress. Therefore, yield stress of
the high speed thread rolled specimen, ␴h maybe given as
␴h = ␾␴u + 共␴0 + ␣Gb冑␳h + KD−1/2 + K⬘S−1兲
Fig. 12 Schematic representation of composite structure of a
共8兲 thread rolled bolt
where ␳h = dislocation density of ferrite in the deformed region.
Since by partial annealing of the rolled specimen no changes in
the microstructure such as thickness of ferrite grains, morphology speed thread rolled specimen.
of pearlite, interlamellar spacing of pearlite, and volume fraction From Eqs. 共8兲 and 共11兲, it is revealed that
of the deformed area occur, therefore yield stress of the partially
annealed high speed thread rolled specimens, ␴hp, maybe pre- ␴l = ␴h − ␣Gb共1 − ␾兲共冑␳h − 冑␳l兲 共12兲
sented as
Given the values of ␳h = 0.64⫻ 10 cm , ␳l = 0.24⫻ 10 cm−2,
10 2 8

␴hp = ␾␴u + 共1 − ␾兲共␴0 + ␣Gb冑␳hp + KD −1/2

+ K ⬘S 兲
−1
共9兲
where ␳hp = dislocation density of ferrite in the deformed region of
partially annealed high speed thread rolled specimens.
From Eqs. 共8兲 and 共9兲, it is deduced that
␴h − ␴hp
␣= 共10兲
Gb共1 − ␾兲共冑␳h − 冑␳hp兲
Through estimating the volume fraction of the undeformed area
by metallographic studies ␾ = 0.81 and given the values of ␴h
= 501.1 MPa, ␴hp = 451.4 MPa, ␳h = 0.64⫻ 1010 cm−2, ␳hp = 5
⫻ 104 cm−2, b = 2.48⫻ 10−10 cm2, and G = 81 GPa, the value of ␣
is determined, ␣ = 1.4. Other estimations of the constant ␣, have
been reported in both single and polycrystalline iron in the range
of 0.76 关12兴–1.4 关6兴.
To verify the validity of the proposed model, the yield stress of
the low speed thread rolled specimen may be examined; similar to
the previous treatment, since by reducing the thread rolling speed,
only the dislocation density in the deformed area decreases and
other influential parameters remain constant, the yield stress of the
low speed thread rolled specimens is given by
␴l = ␾␴u + 共1 − ␾兲共␴0 + ␣Gb冑␳l + KD−1/2 + K⬘S−1兲
共11兲
where ␳l = dislocation density in the deformed region of the low
␴h = 501.1 MPa, and ␾ = 0.81, the yield stress of the low speed
tread rolled specimen ␴l is determined as 482.1 MPa, which is in
a good agreement with the experimental results.
3.3 Fatigue Behavior. The results obtained by the fatigue
tests 共i.e., S-N curves兲 of the studied specimens are shown in Figs.
13 and 14. The fatigue strength of the thread rolled bolts is ap-
proximately 55% higher than the fatigue strength of machined
bolts. Generally the fatigue strength of the medium carbon steel is
proportional to its ultimate tensile stress 关13兴. Since the tensile
strength of the thread rolled bolts is only 15% higher than the
tensile strength of the machined specimens, it seems in addition to
the strain hardening under cyclic loading compressive residual
stresses improve fatigue strength considerably, especially noting
that, the fatigue tests were conducted under rotating-bending con-
dition, where the residual stresses are more effective on the fa-
tigue strength 关13兴. Furthermore, the compressive residual stress is
formed immediately below the thread roots, moderating the effect
of stress concentration.
Partial annealing at 680° C leads to a drop in the fatigue
strength of the thread rolled specimen by 61%. Since no change in
the microstructure was observed after partial annealing, it seems
that the reduction of fatigue strength stems from decreasing the
dislocation density and changing the dislocation substructure.
Since by decreasing the dislocation density, the effect of the strain

Fig. 13 S-N curves of thread rolled and annealed bolt

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Fig. 14 S-N curves of thread machined and annealed bolt

Fig. 15 Substructure developed in the specimens fatigued at 300 MPa: „a… in high speed thread rolled „fatigue life at 8.7
à 105 cycles…, „b… low speed thread rolled „fatigue life at 2.1à 104 cycles…, „c… thread rolled partially annealed „fatigue life at 9.1
à 102 cycles…, and „d… thread rolled full annealed „fatigue life at 8.8à 10 cycles…

Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering FEBRUARY 2007, Vol. 129 / 221

Fig. 16 A crack formed at the crown of a thread during thread
rolling
hardening gradient declines, hence, the compressive residual
stresses are released. This demonstrates the significant effect of
dislocation density on the fatigue life of the medium carbon steel
rolled bolts, where even the probable fatigue softening 共note the
developed substructure in Fig. 15共a兲兲, seems not to have a consid-
erable effect. As it is illustrated in Figs. 15共a兲–15共d兲, the disloca-
tion density and the tendency for formation of the substructures in
specimens fatigued at 300 MPa has been decreased in high speed
thread rolled 共fatigue life at 8.7⫻ 105 cycles兲, low speed thread
rolled 共fatigue life at 2.1⫻ 104 cycles兲, thread rolled partially an-
nealed 共fatigue life at 9.1⫻ 102 cycles兲, and thread rolled full an-
nealed 共fatigue life at 8.8⫻ 10 cycles兲 specimens, respectively.
These results are in accordance to the fatigue lives of the studied
bolts.
Similar to the yield stress, once the thread rolling speed in-
creases from 0.25 to 0.5 m / min, the fatigue strength of the bolts
improves by the amount of 14%, which is more than the differ-
ence between tensile strength of the low and high speed thread
rolled bolts 共5%兲. This indicates the effect of the dislocation den-
sity caused by increasing the thread rolling speed on the fatigue
strength through intensifying the strain hardening gradient and
consequently increasing the residual stress.
Fractographic examination of the thread rolled specimens illus-
trates that similar to the machined thread specimens the fatigue
cracks nucleate at the depth of thread root which is the location of
maximum stress concentration. A few cracks which form at the
top of the threads during the rolling process do not extend under
cyclic loading, since they are placed at the low stress positions of
the thread crown 共Fig. 16兲, which it was shown in the previous
work on the stress analysis of the bolt 关8兴. The formation of com-
pressive residual stress may retard fatigue nucleation 关13兴, how-
ever, the amount of residual stress in the thread rolled specimen is
not exceedingly high to facilitate fatigue crack nucleation at the
222 / Vol. 129, FEBRUARY 2007
sublayer, like those observed in some surface hardened steels 关14兴.
Even in the absence of the residual compressive stresses, fatigue
crack nucleation may be delayed by strain hardening 关13兴.
The fatigue crack growth rate may also reduce by the presence
of the residual stress caused by the strain hardening gradient,
similar to those obtained in the previous work 关15兴.
4 Conclusions
• Increasing dislocation density observed during thread roll-
ing mild steel bolt is the main factor influencing the
strengthening mechanism and other parameters elongation
of ferrite grains, pearlite colonies, and decreasing pearlite
interlamellar spacing have less effect.
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• The yield stress of the thread rolled bolts may be modeled
based on the dislocation density in ferrite.
• Approximately 61% of the fatigue strengthening seems to
be due to increasing dislocation density in ferrite.
• The higher the rolling speed the greater will be the yield and
fatigue strength of the thread rolled bolts, which is also the
contribution of the increasing dislocation density to the
strengthening.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Ali A. Hamedani for his con-
tribution throughout this research.
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