Power Plants Economics and

Environmental Impact of power plants

Lecture 14
 Cost of Power Plants
The cost of a power system depends upon whether:
• an entirely new power system has to be set up, or
• an existing system has to be replaced, or
• an extension has to be provided to the existing system.

The cost analysis of power

Capital cost Operating cost
plant includes fixed cost
Initial cost Fuel cost
and running cost.
interest Operating staff cost

Depreciation cost Maintenance cost

Supplies
Taxes
supervision
Insurance Operating taxes
 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost
(i) Initial cost
• Land cost
• Building cost
• Equipment cost
• Installation cost
• Overhead charges which will include the transportation cost, stores and
storekeeping charges, interest during construction etc.

Factors on which initial cost of a power plant depends;

Location of the plant.

Time of construction.
Size of units.
Number of main generating units.
The type of structure to be used.
 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost
(i) Initial cost
Land, building and equipment cost
▪ Cost of land and building will depend upon the location of the plant. If the plant
is situated near the cities, the land will be costlier than the case if it is located
away from the cities.
▪ The cost of equipment or the plant investment cost is usually expressed on the
basis of kW capacity installed.

▪ To reduce the cost of building, it is desirable to eliminate the superstructure

over the boiler house and as far as possible on turbine house also.
▪ The cost on equipment can be reduced by adopting unit system where one
boiler is used for one turbogenerator. Also by simplifying the piping system and
elimination of duplicate system such as steam headers and boiler feed headers.
The cost can be further reduced by eliminating duplicate or stand-by auxiliaries.
▪ When the power plant is not situated in the proximity to the load served, the
cost of a primary distribution system will be a part of the initial investment.
 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost

(ii) Interest:

▪ All the enterprises need investment of money and this money may be
obtained as loan, through bonds and shares, or from owners of personal funds.
▪ Interest is the difference between money borrowed and money returned.
▪ The interest on the capital investment is considered because otherwise if the
same amount was not invested in power plant, it would have earned an annual
interest.
▪ A suitable rate of interest is considered on the capital invested. It may be
charged at a simple rate expressed as % per annum or may be compounded, in
which case the interest is reinvested and adds to the principal, thereby earning
more interest in subsequent years.
 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost
(iii) Depreciation cost
▪ Depreciation accounts for the deterioration of the equipment and decrease in its value due
to corrosion, weathering, and wear and tear with use.
▪ It also covers the decrease in value of equipment due to obsolescence. It is required to
replace the generating plant machinery after its expiry of useful life.
▪ Therefore, a certain amount is kept aside every year from the income of the plant to enable
the replacement of plant at the end of its useful life. This amount is called depreciation
amount.

(a) Straight line method:

depreciation occurs uniformly according
to a straight line law.

(b) Sinking fund method:

the amount collected every year consists
of annual instalments plus the interest on
all the instalments
 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost
(iii) Depreciation cost:
(a) Straight line method: According to this method, depreciation occurs uniformly according
to a straight line law.
The life of the equipment or the enterprise is first assessed as also the residual or salvage value
of the same after the estimated life span. This salvage value is deducted from the initial capital
cost and the balance is divided by the life as assessed in years
If A = annual depreciation reserve = annual deposit in the reserve fund
P = principal sum or capital cost of plant
S = salvage value or residual value of power plant at the end of n year
n = expected useful life, in years
then,
A = (P – S)/n

The amount collected every year as

depreciation fund does not depend on
the interest it may draw.
Any amount collected due to the
interest is considered as income.
 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost
(iii) Depreciation cost:
(b) Sinking fund method: In this method, the amount collected every year consists of
annual instalments plus the interest on all the instalments
If A = annual depreciation reserve = annual deposit in the reserve fund
P = principal sum or capital cost of plant
S = salvage value or residual value of power plant at the end of n year
n = expected useful life, in years
then,
If I = rate of compound interest, then annual depreciation reserve is
A = (P − S)[I/(1+ I )n -1]
 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost
(iii) Depreciation cost:
(b) Sinking fund method: In this method, the amount collected every year consists of
annual instalments plus the interest on all the instalments.
Let,
A = Amount set aside at the end of each year for n years.
n = Life of plant in years.
S = Salvage value at the end of plant life.
i = Annual rate of compound interest on the invested capital.
P = Initial investment to install the plant.
Then, amount set aside at the end of first year = A
Amount at the end of second year = A + interest on A = A + Ai = A(1 + i)
Amount at the end of third year = A(1 + i) + interest on A(1 + i) = A(1 + i) +A(1 + i)I = A(1 + i)2
Amount at the end of nth year = A(1 + i)n – 1
 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost
(iii) Depreciation cost:
(b) Sinking fund method:

Amount at the end of nth year = A(1 + i)n – 1

Total amount accumulated in n years (say x) = sum of the amounts accumulated in n years
i.e., x = A + A(1 + i) + A(1 + i)2 + .... + A(1 + i)n – 1 = A[1 + (1 + i) + (1 + i)2 +.... + (1 + i)n – 1] ...(1)
Multiplying the above equation by (1 + i), we get
x(1 + i) = A [(1 + i) + (1 + i)2 + (1 + i)3 + ..... + (1 + i)n] ...(2)
Subtracting equation (1) from (2), we get
x.i = [(1 + i)n – 1] A
x = [{(1 + i)n – 1}/i]A, where x = (P – S)
P – S = [{(1 + i)n – 1}/i]A
A = (P – S)[i/{(1 + i)n – 1}]
 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost
(iii) Depreciation cost:

(C) Percentage method:

In this method the deterioration in value of equipment from year to year is taken into
account and the amount of depreciation is calculated upon actual residual value for each
year. Thus, it reduces for successive years.

(D) Unit method:

In Unit method some factor is taken as a standard and, depreciation is measured by that
standard. In place of years equipment will last, the number of hours that equipment will
last is calculated. This total number of hours is then divided by the capital value of the
equipment. This constant is then multiplied by the number of actual working hours each
year to get the value of depreciation for that year. In place of number of hours, the number
of units of production is taken as the measuring standard.
 Cost of Power Plants
Depreciation Cost
Example: The original value of an equipment is $2,50,000 and its salvage value at the end
of its useful life of 20 years is $25,000.
Find the value of the equipment at the end of 10 years of its use by using following methods:
(a) straight line depreciation and
(b) sinking fund depreciation, when it is compounded annually at 8%.

Solution:
(a) Straight line method
Original value = $2,50,000
Salvage value = $25,000
Total depreciation = 2,50,000 − 25,000 = $2,25,000
Depreciation per year = 2,25,000/20 = $11,250
Depreciation at the end of 10 years = 11,250 x10 = $1,12,500
Value of the equipment at the end of 10 years = 2,50,000 − 1,12,500 = $1,37,500
 Cost of Power Plants
Depreciation Cost
Example: The original value of an equipment is $2,50,000 and its salvage value at the end
of its useful life of 20 years is $25,000.
Find the value of the equipment at the end of 10 years of its use by using following methods:
(a) straight line depreciation and
(b) sinking fund depreciation, when it is compounded annually at 8%.

Solution:
(a) Straight line method

= $11,250 per year

At the end of 10 years amount collected

P1 = A  n = 11,250 x10 = $1,12,500
Value of the equipment is = 2,50,000 − 1,12,500 = $1,37,500
 Cost of Power Plants
Depreciation Cost
Example: The original value of an equipment is $2,50,000 and its salvage value at the end of
its useful life of 20 years is $25,000.
Find the value of the equipment at the end of 10 years of its use by using following methods:
(a) straight line depreciation and
(b) sinking fund depreciation, when it is compounded annually at 8%.

(b) Sinking fund method:

Annual deposit, A = (P − S)[I/(1+ I )n -1]

= $ 4,916.75

= $71,226.81

Value of the equipment at the end of 10 years = 2,50,000 − 71,226.81 = $1,78,773.19

 Cost of Power Plants
Capital Cost

(iv) Insurance:
• This includes the salaries of management, security and administrative staff, etc.
working in the plant. This must be paid whether the plant is working or not. Therefore,
this is included in fixed charges of the plant.

(v) Management cost:

• This includes the salaries of management, security and administrative staff, etc.
working in the plant. This must be paid whether the plant is working or not. Therefore,
this is included in fixed charges of the plant.
 Cost of Power Plants
Operating Cost

Operating cost

Maintenance & Cost of Supervision

Fuel cost Labour cost Taxes
repairs cost stores cost

(i) Fuel cost: In a thermal power plant, fuel is the heaviest item of operating cost. The
selection of the fuel and the maximum economy in its use are, therefore, very important
consideration in thermal power plant design. The cost of fuel includes not only its price
at the site of purchase but its transportation and handling cost also.
The cost of fuel varies with the following:
(1) Unit price of the fuel.
(2) Amount of energy produced.
(3) Efficiency of the plant.
 Cost of Power Plants
Operating Cost

(ii) Labour cost: It is another item of operating cost. Maximum labour is needed in a
thermal power plant using coal as a fuel. A hydraulic power plant or a diesel power plant of
equal capacity requires a lesser number of persons. In case of automatic power station, the
cost of labour is reduced to a great extent. However, labour cost cannot be completely
eliminated even with fully automatic station, as they will still require some manpower for
periodic inspection etc.

Oil, Grease and Water cost: The cost of various consumables like oil, grease etc. and
water cost are also proportional to the amount of power generated. These costs increase
with an increase in life of the plant as the efficiency of the power plant decreases with the
age. The total cost of power generated is the sum of fixed charges and operating charges.
 Cost of Power Plants
Operating Cost

(iii) Maintenance and Repairs Cost:

Maintenance is necessary to avoid plant breakdowns.
It includes periodic cleaning, greasing, adjustments and overhauling of equipment.
The material used for maintenance is also charged under this head. Sometimes an
arbitrary percentage is assumed as maintenance cost. A good plan of maintenance
would keep the sets in dependable condition and avoid the necessity of too many
stand-by plants.

Repairs are necessary when a plant breaks down or stops due to faults.
The repairs may be minor, major or periodic overhauls and are charged to the
depreciation fund of the equipment. This item of cost is higher for thermal power
plants than for hydro-plants due to complex nature of principal equipment and
auxiliaries in the former.
 Cost of Power Plants
Operating Cost

(iv) Cost of Stores: The items of consumable stores other than fuel include such articles
as lubricating oil and greases, cotton waste, small tools, chemicals, paints and such other
things. The incidence of this cost is also higher in thermal stations than in hydro-electric
power stations.

(v) Supervision cost

In this head the salary of supervising staff is included. A good supervision is reflected in
lesser breakdowns and extended plant life. The supervising staff includes the station
superintendent, chief engineer, chemist, engineers, supervisors, stores incharges, purchase
officer and other establishment. Again, thermal stations, particularly coal fed, have a greater
incidence of this cost than the hydro-electric power stations.
 Cost of Power Plants
Operating Cost

(vi) Taxes
The taxes under operating head includes the following:
(i) Income tax
(ii) Sales tax
(iii) Social security and employee’s security etc.
 Cost of Power Plants

Customer charges
These charges depend on the number of customers. Various costs include the following:
▪ Capital cost of secondary distribution system and depreciation cost, taxes and interest
on this capital cost.
▪ Cost of inspection and maintenance of distribution lines and the transformers
▪ Cost of labour required for meter reading and office work
▪ Publicity cost

Investors profit:
The investor expects a satisfactory return on the capital investment. The rate of profit varies
according to the business conditions prevailing in different localities.
 Economics of Power Generation
Power plant economics is important in controlling the total power costs to the
consumer.
The cost of power generation can be reduced by:

1. Selecting equipment of longer life and proper capacities.

2. Using a plant of simple design that does not need highly skilled personnel.
3. Increasing the efficiency of the power plant.
4. Running the power station at high load factor.
5. Carrying out proper maintenance of plant- equipment to avoid plant break
downs.
6. Keeping proper supervision, because a good supervision is reflected in
lesser break downs and extended plant life.
 Power plant site selection

The power plant site should satisfy the following requirements:-

1. Cost of land as well as taxes on land should be low.

2. It should be nearer to load centre, so that cost of energy transmission is low.

3. It should be accessible by road rail or sea. So that transportation of fuel etc. is

easier.

4. Sufficient quantity of cooling water should be available near the site.

5. The site selected should be away from densely populated areas in order to
avoid atmospheric pollution and to reduce noise.

6. Sufficient space for future expansion of power station should be available.

7. Site sub-soil conditions should be such that foundation can be made at

reasonable depth.
 Power plant site selection

1. Centre of electrical load: The plant should be located where there are industries and
other important consumption places of electricity. There will be considerable advantage in
placing the power station nearer to the centre of the load.

▪ There will be saving in the cost of copper used for transmitting electricity as the
distance of transmission line is reduced.
▪ The cross-section of the transmission line directly depends upon the maximum
current to be carried. In case of alternating current, the voltage to be transmitted can
be increased thus reducing the current and hence the cross-section of the
transmission line can be reduced. This will save the amount of copper.
▪ It is desirable to have a national grid connecting all power stations. This provides for
selecting a site which has other advantages such as nearer to fuel supply, condensing
water available.
 Power plant site selection

2. Nearness to the fuel source:

Hence the power plant should be located nearer the fuel supply source.

The cost of transportation of fuel may be quite high if the distance of location of the power
plant is considerable.

It may be advisable to locate large thermal power plants at the mouth of the coal mines.
Lignite coal mines should have centralized thermal power station located in the mines itself
as this type of coal cannot be transported.

The power stations could be located near oil fields if oil is to be used as a fuel and near gas
wells where natural gas is available in abundance. In any case it has been seen that it is
cheaper to transmit electricity than to transport fuel.
 Power plant site selection

3. Availability of water: The availability of water is of greater importance than all other
factors governing station location. Water is required for a thermal power station using
turbines for the following two purposes :
(i) To supply the make-up water which should be reasonably pure water.
(ii) To cool the exhaust steam. This cooling process is done in case of diesel engines too.

For bigger power stations the quantity of this cooling water is tremendous and requires some
natural source of water such as lake, river or even sea. Cooling towers could be used
economically as the same cooling water could be used again and again.
Only a part of make up water for cooling will then be required.
For small plants spray pounds could sometimes be used. It is economical to limit the rise in
cooling-water temperature to a small value (between 6ºC and 12°C), and to gain in cycle
efficiency at the expense of increased cooling water pumping requirement.
 Power plant site selection

4. Type of soil available and land cost: While selecting a site for a power plant it is
important to know about the character of the soil. If the soil is loose having low bearing
power the pile foundations have to be used.
Boring should be made at most of the projected site to have an idea of the character of
the various strata as well as of the bearing power of the soil. The best location is that for
which costly and special foundation is not required.
In case of power plants being situated near metropolitan load centers, the land there will
be very costly as compared to the land at a distance from the city.
 Selection of the Number and Size of Units
As the load on the power plant is not constant and varies continuously, it is not economical to
run a single generating unit meeting the variable load. The efficiency of a single generator
unit falls drastically when the load on it is low. Hence, the number and size of the generating
units is decided based on the annual load curve of the station. The number and size of the
units selected must perfectly match with the station load curve to ensure highest efficiency of
the generating units (75% maximum).
The curve shows wide variations in load for the 24 hr considered from a minimum of 60 kW
to a maximum of 500 kW. For this kind of situation, single unit is not recommended.
However, the total generating capacity can be matched by selecting a number of generating
units to fit the load curve as shown in Table. In this case, three units can be employed
according to the load on the station, viz. three in numbers.
 Selection of the Number and Size of Units

The following points to be remembered while selecting the size and number of
units:

• Number and size of the unit should approximately match with annual load curve
of the plant.
• Selection of units of different capacities is preferable as units having same
capacity may not meet the load requirements.
• As investment cost/kW of capacity increases with decreased size of the unit,
selection of large number of smaller units must be avoided.
• A total of 15–20 % margin above the maximum demand should be provided to
accommodate future load requirements.
• Provision for a spare generating unit must be made to facilitate the repairs and
Maintenance of working units.
 Factors Affecting Economics of Power Generation

The factors that influence the economics of power plant operation are load factor,
demand and utilization factors.

(a) Load factor: Depending on the type of power generation and the load factor,
cost of generating unit power also varies in a power plant.

• In a hydro-electric power station for a given quantity of water and staff to

generate maximum output, the cost per unit generated at 100 % load factor
would be half the cost per unit at 50 % load factor. This implies that hydro-
electric power station should be run at its maximum load continuously on all
units.
• In case of a diesel plant, the cost per unit generated at 100 % load factor may be
about 3/4th of the same cost at 50 % load factor. In other words, a diesel power
station should be used for fluctuating loads or as a standby.
• In a steam power station, fuel cost constitutes the major item in operating costs
and does not vary in the same proportion as load factor. The cost per unit
generated at 100 % load factor may be about 2/3rd of the cost per unit generated
at 50 % load factor. Hence, a steam power station should be run in such a way
that all its Running units are economically loaded.
 Factors Affecting Economics of Power Generation

(b) Demand factor and utilization factor: In order to ensure most economical
operations of interconnected stations, it is essential to study the curves of all stations
and the time of maximum demand occurring in a system.

• Unit cost is higher even in an efficient station, if worked at low utilization factor. All
planning should be done to load the most efficient and cheapest power-producing
stations to the fullest possible extent (base load stations). Typically, a base load
station carries full load during 24 hr in three shifts.

• For stations having medium range efficiency, it is advisable to operate only during
the two shifts of 16 hr.

• The older or less-efficient stations are run as peak load or standby stations for shorter
durations.

• Modern power plants use units of large capacities that reduce space and to handle
larger loads. These units operate near to full load for maximum economical benefit.
 POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
Tariffs:
Energy rates are the different methods of charging the consumers for the
consumption of electricity.
It is desirable to charge the consumer according to his maximum demand (kW) and
energy consumed (kWh).
The tariff chosen should recover the fixed cost, operating cost and profit etc.

Requirement of a tariff:
The tariff should satisfy the following requirements :-
▪ It should be easier to understand.
▪ It should provide low rates for high consumption.
▪ It should encourage the consumers having high load factors.
▪ It should take into account maximum demand charges and energy charges.
▪ It should provide less charges for power connection than for lighting.
▪ It should avoid the complication of separate wiring and metering connections.
 POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
The energy rate (tariff) must include the following:
▪ Recovery of cost of capital investment in generating equipment, transmission
and distribution system, and other operating equipment.
▪ Recovery of cost of the operation, supplies and maintenance of equipment
▪ Recovery of cost of maintenance equipment, billing and collection costs, and
miscellaneous services.
▪ An adequate return on the total capital investment

If Y = total amount of the bill

d = a constant charge made on each bill
e = unit charge for metered or allowed maximum demand during billing period
x = Maximum demand during billing period
f = unit charge for energy, (Rs/kWh)
z = total energy consumed during billing period, (kWh)
then,
Y = d + ex + fz

The above equation is known as general energy rate equation.

 Environmental Impact of Power Plants
A power plant can affect the environment by its construction and its operation which could
be either temporary or permanent.
Some of the environmental impacts of power plant with strong connection to social and
economic issues could be as follows.
Land and Air Space
(a) A power plant and its auxiliary components such as natural gas pipelines, water lines
coal-handling and storage systems, transmission lines and waste disposal sites occupy
considerable space, emitting pollutants into the ground and air. This may eliminate
opportunities for others to purchase or use the land. It may also affect the existing or future
uses of adjoining and nearby land parcels.
(b) The plant’s height (viz. tall buildings, chimney and towers) may result in safety concerns
for aircraft or visual impacts for local landowners.
(c) If the land to be used for the power plant is agri-based, growing mostly vegetation, a power
plant could pose serious threat on land use, soils and wildlife. Air space issues and
compatibility with local land use must be considered in the light of the space the power plant
occupies and the way in which it operates.
Water
Fossil fuel-fired and biomass-fired plants burn fuels to generate power. The burning of fuel
creates exhaust gases and other by-products, including air pollutants. In addition, large amount
of cooling water requirements in these plants is met from nearby rivers or lakes, or from local
underground water. The effluents and used water discharged back to land or river, the
concentration of pollutants in the water and ground are bound to increase.
 Environmental Impact of Power Plants
Construction and Operation
Construction and operation of a power plant can have unsettling effects on the community in
which the power plant is built. Construction of the power plant could create nuisance to the
surrounding landowners and other citizens. This in turn may affect community aesthetics or
business. Costs for community services such as police, fire protection, emergency medical
service, schools, hospitals and traffic control can increase.
Additional demand requirements might be placed on the municipal water supply or
wastewater treatment capacity, or on solid-waste management systems.
Construction of new transportation facilities such as rail, road or barge may make road or
rail traffic complicated or burdened by delivery of materials, particularly large items.
Water and natural gas are transported by using pipelines that often require the digging of
trenches that may impact residential yards, roads, farm fields, forest or agriculture lands.
Solid Waste
Power plants produce a variety of solid wastes such as ash in thermal plants spent nuclear
fuel rods and low-level radioactive wastes in nuclear plants. The filtered solids from the
effluent treatment plants are a by-product that must be disposed appropriately.
Noise
Noise and vibration levels in neighbourhoods might increase during construction and power
plant operation. The cooling towers of an operating power plant can also create fog and
rime ice.
 Pollutants Due to Thermal Power Plant

The most commonly observed pollutants from fossil power plants (oil or coal based) are
the following:
(a) Sulphur oxide (SOx)
(b) Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
(c) Carbon oxides (COx)
(d) Particulate matter or PM
(e) Thermal pollution

Coal-fired power plants directly emit particulate matter (PM, also called “soot”) in
addition to gases that undergo chemical reactions to form fine particles in the atmosphere:
SOx and NOx. These emissions of PM in conjunction with SOx and NOx increase the
ambient concentration of PM (with diameter less than 2.5 μm) (PM2.5) over hundreds to
thousands of kilometres downwind of the plants. Continuous exposure to PM2.5 may lead
to increased mortality from cardiopulmonary diseases, lung cancer and numerous other
respiratory illnesses and associated morbidity.

Although most modern power plants have some advanced pollution controls, such as
electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), the use of flue–gas desulfurization (FGD) is relatively
rare in the developing countries. FGDs if installed can reduce sulphur dioxide emissions
by 90 %, resulting in substantial reduction in human health risks.
 Thermal Pollution of Water
The discharge of thermal energy into natural waters is called thermal pollution. The addition
of heat to the water reduces the water’s ability to hold dissolved gases, including dissolved
oxygen that is vital for aquatic life. If the water temperature exceeds 35oC, the dissolved
oxygen contents are low to support life. At lower temperature, aquatic growth is enhanced
and most plants and fishes grow at a faster rate. During cold weather, warm water discharge
from a power plant is an excellent place for fishes.

To compare power generating systems with respect to the amount of thermal energy
discharged to the environment, a term known as thermal discharge index (TDI) is introduced.
The TDI of any power system is the number of thermal energy units discharged to the
environment for each unit of electrical energy produced by the plant, that is

TDI should be as low as possible and preferably non-zero to satisfy second law of
thermodynamics.
Let Pth = input thermal energy to power station
Pth ηth = electrical power output of the system
 Methods of Pollution Control
With stringent air quality restriction by the governments, majority of the power plants in the
world use ESPs for dust removal and FGD technology for sulphur removal. An ESP can handle
large volumes of flue gases accompanied low pressure drop and high collection efficiency
(99.5%). It facilitates easy removal of dust particles.

Electrostatic Precipitator
It consists of two sets of electrodes the emitting or discharging electrode and collecting
electrode. In the case of a tubular-type precipitator emitting electrodes are placed in the centre
of the pipe; whereas in the case of plate-type precipitator, emitting electrodes are placed
midway between the two plates.

The emitting electrodes are connected to

negative polarity of high voltage (20–100 kV)
DC source. The collecting electrodes are
connected to the positive polarity of the
source
and earthed.
 Methods of Pollution Control
With stringent air quality restriction by the governments, majority of the power plants in the
world use ESPs for dust removal and FGD technology for sulphur removal. An ESP can handle
large volumes of flue gases accompanied low pressure drop and high collection efficiency
(99.5%). It facilitates easy removal of dust particles.

Electrostatic Precipitator
It consists of two sets of electrodes the emitting or discharging electrode and collecting
electrode. In the case of a tubular-type precipitator emitting electrodes are placed in the centre
of the pipe; whereas in the case of plate-type precipitator, emitting electrodes are placed
midway between the two plates.

The emitting electrodes are connected to

negative polarity of high voltage (20–100 kV)
DC source. The collecting electrodes are
connected to the positive polarity of the source
and earthed.
 Methods of Pollution Control

FGD Technology
FGD is a technology that extracts sulphur dioxides from flue gases produced in coal-based
Thermal power plants, where sulphur content in coal is more than 0.5 per cent. The coal
produced from Indian mines contains only 0.4 per cent sulphur contents; therefore in India,
this technology was not required much. Now, a lot of companies in India are importing coal
from other countries such as Indonesia, South Africa, which contains sulphur contents 0.6–
0.9 %. Therefore, it is made mandatory to install the FGD plant to maintain the ambient air
Quality standards.

Sulphur dioxide is extracted from flue gases in wet scrubber, slurry of alkaline sorbent; lime
stone reacts with the sulphur dioxide. More than 90 per cent of the limestone particles in the
limestone powder (85% purity) are made to pass through a screen (325 mesh) to ensure that
maximum amount of limestone particles comes in contact with the sulphur dioxide molecules
in the flue gas.
 Methods of Pollution Control
Sulphur dioxide is extracted from flue gases in wet scrubber, slurry of alkaline sorbent; lime
stone reacts with the sulphur dioxide. More than 90 per cent of the limestone particles in the
limestone powder (85% purity) are made to pass through a screen (325 mesh) to ensure that
maximum amount of limestone particles comes in contact with the sulphur dioxide molecules
in the flue gas.

To have a chemical reaction, the limestone powder is mixed into 15–30 per cent slurry
Introduced into the FGD vessel, re-circulated, and sprayed into the flue gas stream. The
following chemical reactions happen in the FGD system:
Flue gases containing SO2 enter the absorber and come in contact with limestone slurry
(CaCO3) in the wet scrubber producing calcium sulphite.
CaCO3 + SO2 → CaSO3 + CO2

Further, Ca(OH)2 in lime, when combined with SO2 gas produces calcium sulphite and
water
Ca (OH) 2 + SO2 → CaSO3 + H2O

Calcium sulphite is further oxidized by forced oxidation utilizing blowers to produce

marketable CaSO4 2H2O, popularly known as gypsum.
CaSO3 + H2O + ½O2 → CaSO4.2H2O
Handling of Flyash