ASSIGNMENT

Course Code 19VLE523A

Course Name Advanced Nano Materials and Applications

Programe M. Tech. in VLSI and nanotechnology

Department Electronics and Communication Engineering

Faculty Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Name of the Student Jayanth R Kashyap

Reg. No 20ETEC120005

Batch Full Time 2020

Course Leader Dr. Sunil Y

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

University House, Gnanagangothri Campus, New BEL Road,

M S R Nagar, Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA - 560 054

 ABSTRACT
The nanomaterials are divided into nanostructures and nanoparticles, with dimensions ranging from 1nm
to 100nm, and the reasons for their synthesis and synthesis process with various methodologies to obtain
nanoparticles for various applications and challenges of the synthesis process, as well as new applications
of nanoparticles in various fields of state-of-the-art of emerging devices and their limitations and
overcoming techniques with replacement of different nanoparticles to obtain nanoparticles for various
applications and challenges of the

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Contents

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. 2

PART-A CHAPTER 1.............................................................................................................................................4

“challenges associated with synthesis of nanoparticles” ...............................................................................4

A 1.1 REQUIREMENT OF SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLE: ..................................................................................4

A1.1.1 Introduction to nanoparticles: ..........................................................................................................4

A 1.1.2 History of usage of nanoparticles:....................................................................................................4

A 1.1.3 Requirement of nanoparticles: ........................................................................................................4

A 1.2 SYNTHESIS STEPS OF NANOPARTICLE: ......................................................................................................6

A 1.2.1 Physical synthesis method (top-down approach): ..........................................................................7

A 1.2.2 Chemical synthesis method (both T-D and B-U): .............................................................................8

A 1.2.3 Biological synthesis method (bottom-up approach): ......................................................................9

A 1.3 CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLE: ...........................................................9

PART-B CHAPTER 2 .......................................................................................................................................... 11

“Developing a brief report on the given application” ........................................................ 11

Carbon nanotube Fin-FET’s ............................................................................................................................. 11

B 2.1 CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE STATE OF THE ART: ....................................................................................... 11

CNTFET’s: .......................................................................................................................................................... 12

B 2.2 FIND OUT THE LIMITATIONS OF THE EXISTING DESIGN, IN TERMS OF MATERIALS, COST AND
PERFORMANCE METRIC: ................................................................................................................................. 14

B 2.3 SUGGEST NEW TECHNIQUES AND IDEAS THAT CAN BE INTEGRATED ON THE DESIGN: ....................... 16

References and citation of references ...................................................................................... 19

Benefits you have derived by solving this assignment. Whether the assignment was able to access module
learning outcomes or not? .............................................................................................................................. 20

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 PART-A CHAPTER 1

“challenges associated with synthesis of nanoparticles”

A 1.1 REQUIREMENT OF SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLE:

A1.1.1 Introduction to nanoparticles:

Nanostructures and nanoparticles are two types of nanomaterials. Nanowires, carbon nanotubes,
hockeletes tube, carbon nano cones, and canonical nano fibres are examples of nano structures in the
shape of tubes with diameters ranging from 1nm to 100nm. Gold nanoparticles, zinc oxide particles, and
clay nanoparticles are examples of nanoparticles or ultrafine particles, which are described as a partical of
matter with a dimension of 1 to 100 nanometers (nm). Nanoparticles are a subclass of colloidal particles,
which are commonly considered to range from 1 to 1000nm. They are distinguished from "fine particles,"
which range from 100 to 2500nm, and "coarse particles," which range from 2500 to 10,000nm. Instead,
metal particles smaller than 1nm are referred to as atom clusters. Natural processes such as cosmological,
geological, meteorological, and biological processes produce nanoparticles. A major portion of
interplanetary dust, which falls at a pace of thousands of tonnes per year on Earth, is in the nanoparticle
range, as are atmospheric dust particles.
A 1.1.2 History of usage of nanoparticles:
Nanoparticles have been used by artisans since prehistory, albeit without understanding their nature; they
were also used by glass makers and potters in classical antiquity, as exemplified by the Roman Lycurgus
cup of dichroic glass (4th century CE) and Mesopotamia's lusterware pottery (9th century), which is later
characterised by silver and copper nanoparticles dispersed in the glassy glaze.
A 1.1.3 Requirement of nanoparticles:
Because nanoparticles are small enough to contain their electrons and induce 'quantum effects,'
they have unexpected optical features. As a result of the many qualities of nanoparticles, we can find
a variety of applications. they are :

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Table 1:1 Different nanoparticles which are commonly used in the consumer products by industrial
sectors:

No Industry Nanoparticles
sectors
1 Agriculture Silver, silicon dioxide, potassium, calcium, iron, zinc, phosphorus, boron, zinc
oxide, and molybdenum.
2 Automotive Tungsten, disulfidesilicon dioxide, clay, titanium dioxide, diamond, copper,
cobalt oxide, zinc oxide, boron nitride, zirconium dioxide, tungsten, aluminium
oxide, boron, palladium, silver, cslcium carbonate and calcium sulfonate.
3 Construction Titanium, dioxidesilicon dioxide, silver, clay, aluminum oxide, calcium
carbonate calcium silicate hydrate, carbon, aluminum phosphate cerium oxide
and calcium hydroxide.
4 Electronics Silver, gold, aluminum, silicon dioxide and palladium and carbon.
5 Cosmetics Silver, titanium dioxide, gold, carbon, zinc oxide, siicon dioxide, clay, sodium
silicate, kojic acid, and hydroxyl acid.
6 Environment Silver, titanium dioxide, carbonmanganese oxide, clay, gold and selenium.
7 Food Silver, clay, titanium dioxide, gold, zinc oxide, silicon dioxide, calcium, copper,
zinc, platinum, manganese, palladium and carbon.
8 Home Silver, zinc oxide, silicon dioxide, diamond and titanium dioxide.
appliance
9 Medicine Silver, gold, hydroxyapatite, silicon dioxide, zirconiumdioxide, carbon,
diamond, aluminum oxide and ytterbium trifluride.
10 Petroleum Tungsten, disulfidezinc oxide, silicon dioxide, diamond, clay, boron nitride,
silver, titanium dioxide, tungsten, aluminium oxide, carbon, molybdenum
disulfide and aluminium oxide.
11 Printing Toner, deposited by a printer on to paper or other substrate.
12 Renewable Titanium, palladium, tungsten disulfide, silicon dioxide, clay, graphite,
energies zircroniumoxide-yttria stabilized, carbon, gddoped-cerium oxide, nickel cobalt
oxide, nickel oxide, rhodium, sm-doped-cerium oxide, barium strontium
titanate and silver.
13 Sports and Silver, titanium dioxide, gold, clay and carbon.
fitness
14 Textile Silver, carbon, titanium dioxide, copper sulfide, clay, gold, polyethylene
terephthalate and silicon dioxie.
Scientific research on nanoparticles is intense as they have many potential applications in medicine,
physics, optics and electronics.

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A 1.2 SYNTHESIS STEPS OF NANOPARTICLE:
Methods for making nanoparticles are referred to as nanoparticle synthesis. Nanoparticles can be made from
larger molecules or created using 'bottom-up' processes, such as nucleating and growing particles from tiny
molecular distributions in liquid or vapour phase. Functionalization by conjugation to bioactive compounds can
also be a part of the synthesis process. In general, nanoparticle synthesis is divided into two categories: top-down
and bottom-up.

Figure 1 schematic diagram of top-down or bottom-up approaches of synthesis of nanoparticles

(1.2).

Table 1:2 Different approaches methods of synthesis of nanoparticles:

No Physical method No Chemical method No Biological method

1 Arc discharge method. 1 Coprecipitation method. 1 Using plants and their
extracts.
2 Electron beam lithography 2 Chemical reduction of 2 Using micro organism
metal salts. (bacteria, fungi and
actinomycetes).
3 Ion implementation. 3 Electro chemical method 3 Using algae (micro
(electrolysis). seaweeds).
4 Inert gas condensation. 4 Micro emulation method. 4 Using enzymes and bio
molecules.
5 Mechanical grinding. 5 Pyrolysis. 5 Using industrial and
agricultural wastes.
6 Milling . 6 Phytochemical (irradiation
method).
7 Spray pyrolysis. 7 Sonochemical method.
8 Vapour-phase synthesis. 8 Sol-gel process.
9 Solvothermal synthesis.

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Top-down follows physical method of synthesis approach, bottom-up follows biological method of
synthesis approaches and whereas chemical method follows both top-down as well as bottom-up
approaches.
A 1.2.1 Physical synthesis method (top-down approach):
Top-down approach, where synthesis is initialized with the bulk counterpart that leaches out
systematically bit-after-bit leading to the generation of fine nanoparticles. Physical methods apply
mechanical pressure, high energy radiations, thermal energy or electric energy to cause material
abrasion, melting, evaporating or condensation to generate nanoparticles. These methods mainly
operate on top-down strategy and are advantages as they are free of solvent contamination and
produce during the synthesis makes physical processes less economical. High energy ball milling,
laser ablation, electro spraying, inert gas condensation, physical vapour deposition, laser pyrolysis,
flash spray pyrolysis, melt mixing are some of the most regularly used physical methods to generate
nanoparticles.

High Energy Ball Milling:

Figure 2 (a) High energy ball milling (HEBM) system (b) Schematic representation of the HEBM
synthesis with and without surfactant (1.2.1)

The early Nano materials were made by a simple method called ball milling. High energy ball milling
(HEBM), first developed by John Benjamin in 1970 to synthesize oxide dispersion strengthened alloys
capable of withstanding high temperature and pressure, is a robust and energy efficient synthesis

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method to generate nanoparticles with varying shapes and dimensionalities. In high energy ball
milling process, the moving balls transfer their kinetic energy to the milled material. This results in
the breaking of their chemical bonds and rupturing of the milled materials into smaller particles with
newly created surfaces. Milling media, milling speed, ball-to-powder weight ratio, type of milling
(dry or wet), type of high energy ball mill (vibrator mill, planetary mill, attritor mill, tumbler ball mill,
etc.), milling atmosphere and duration of milling regulate the amount of energy transfer between
the balls and the material during the process, and thus affect the physical and morphological
properties of the resultant nanomaterials. The high energy ball milling process sometimes involve
very high local temperature (>1000 °C) and pressure (several GPa) conditions and thus also
considered as a mechano chemical synthesis process.

Currently, surfactant assisted high energy ball milling is used as an efficient strategy for the synthesis
of NPs with precise size and specific surface characteristics . Surfactants are the surface active agents
containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties and can be classified as anionic, cationic,
zwitterionic and nonionic depending upon the surface charge characteristics of their hydrophilic
group.Following adsorption on the material surface, the surfactant molecules generate
electrostatic/steric forces which stabilize the milling particles, and thus minimize the uncontrolled
fracturing of particles. Surfactant can also lower the surface energy of the freshly generated fine
particles by forming thin organic layer and introducing long range capillary forces that lower the
energy for crack propagation. This prevents the particles from agglomeration and cold welding that
may lead to enhancement of particle size. Nature and amount of the surfactant used during the
HEBM tremendously affect the physical characteristics of the nanoparticles.

A 1.2.2 Chemical synthesis method (both T-D and B-U):

Sol-gel method, micro emulsion technique, hydrothermal synthesis, polyol synthesis, chemical
vapour synthesis and plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition technique are some of the most
commonly used chemical methods for the nanoparticle synthesis. These techniques are under
bottom up category of nanoparticle synthesis.

Sol-Gel Method:

Sol-gel is a methodology of producing small particles in material chemistry. It is mostly used for the
synthesis of metal oxides. The initial step of this process is converting monomers or the starting
material into a sol, i.e., a colloidal solution which is the precursor for the further formation of a gel.
This gel is made up of discrete particles or polymers. Most commonly used precursors are chlorides
or metal alkoxides. These precursors are hydrolysed and poly condensed for the formation of

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Advanced Nano Materials and Applications
 colloids. Sol-gel process is preferred due to its economical feasibility and the low-temperature
process which gives us control over the composition of the product achieved. Small amounts of
dopants like rare earth elements and organic dyes can be used in the sol which homogeneously
disseminates in the product formed finally. The synthesized product is used as an investment casting
material in the processing and manufacture of ceramics. Thin metal oxide films can also be produced
using this for further uses.

The steps involved in the sol-gel synthesis of nanoparticles. Sol or colloidal solution is a solution
where distribution of particles of the size ~ 0.1-1 μm takes place in a liquid in which the only
suspending force is the Brownian motion. A gel is formed when solid and liquid phases are dispersed
in each other. In this process, initially, colloidal particles are dispersed in a liquid forming a sol.
Deposition of this sol can produce thin coating on any substrate by the means of spraying, spinning
or coating. The particles in the sol are left to polymerize by removing the stabilizing components and
further produce a complex network gel. The remaining organic and inorganic components pyrolyze
in the end by heat treatments to form amorphous or crystalline coatings. Sol-gel comprises of two
major reactions: alcoholic group hydrolysis and its condensation. Precursor sol which is obtained can
be given a desired shape using appropriate casting container. It can also be deposited on a substrate
to form a film by dip coating or spin coating or used to synthesize microsphere or nanosphere
powders. The steps involved in the sol-gel synthesis are Mixing, Casting, Gelation, Aging, Drying and
Densification.
A 1.2.3 Biological synthesis method (bottom-up approach):
Bio-assisted method, biosynthesis or green synthesis provides an environmentally benign, low-toxic,
cost-effective and efficient protocol to synthesize and fabricate nanoparticles. These method
employs biological system like bacteria, fungi, viruses, yeast, actinomycetes, plant extract. For
synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, bio-assisted method can be broadly divided into
three categories:

• Biogenic synthesis using microorganisms.

• Biogenic synthesis using bio-molecules as the templates.
• Biogenic synthesis using plant extracts.

A 1.3 CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLE:

• Nanotechnology is used in drug developmental areas, and some of the nanoparticles can be
toxic. The main problem here in the nanotechnology application in medicine field is that
nanoparticles are very small and they can cross the blood-brain barrier, in which the
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Advanced Nano Materials and Applications
 membrain that has to protect the brain. Lung damage is the major issue in research of the
nanoparticles which is used as drug but cause is not known clear.
• Lack of knowledge of the nanoparticle components and is behaviours, nano structures are in
most varieties with different compositions and different actions, identifying the correct
nanomaterials for required is critical.
• Nanotoxicity, as the nano materials are of different size or shape compositions and different
nanomaterials will be toxic for different cells under different controlled conditions.
• Its not practical yet, high cost, implementation difficulty, regulatory issue, environmental
issue, social issue, and ethical issue, lack of well trained workers, no efficient analytical tools.
• As well more research is needed to optimize the various reaction conditions to achieve
better control over size, shape and monodispersity of the nanoparticles. Additionally,
stability of nanoparticles is also an important parameter to consider. Its important to
achieve all these limitations by focused research and development of new startergies in this
field.
• In this way, formulating of low-cost recovery techniques to make production process
commercially feasible is also needed.

• As the core components of nanotechnology, nanomaterials and nanoparticles provides basic

building blocks for fabricating complex devices with abundant function. To better service for
building up of the structure-activity relationship, the controllable targeting synthesis is
another criterion in the nanoscience research.
• Systematically evaluation on the toxicity and environment risks of nanoparticles is essential.

A 1.4 CONCLUSION BASED ON YOUR OBSERVATION:

• Nanotechnology offers a life-saving treatment in medical field, drug delivery is one of the
prominent application of nanotechnology where the particles are engineered it allows direct
treatment of the diseased cells.
• The new inventions in the field of medicine has to come up as to develop the
nanotechnology should be applied in various fields of medicine such as oncology and also in
cardio vascular medicine and to treat many other chronic disease.
• Currently a variety of research is being performed on nanomedical devices, few industrial
products exist right now, the possibilities are endless, but will take time to develop.
Conclusion: The research on nanotechnology is more and it will be able to advanced in future
days.

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 PART-B CHAPTER 2

“Developing a brief report on the given application”

Carbon nanotube Fin-FET’s

B 2.1 CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE STATE OF THE ART:

Introduction:
Carbon is the first element of the 14th group of P block element, carbon is basically a non-metal.

Carbon is the 7th most abundant element by mass in the earth’s crust. It is widely distributed in
nature in free as well as combined state. In elemental state it is available as coal, graphite and
diamond. In combined state it is present as metal carbonates, hydrocarbons and carbon-dioxide gas
(0.03%) in air. We can say carbon is most versatile element in the world, in combination with other
elements such as dihydrogen, dioxygen, clorine and sulpher provides an astonishing array of
materials ranging from living tissue to drugs and plastics and metallic interconnects in ICs.

Naturally occurring carbon contains two stable isotopes 12C and 13

C, in addition to these their is
14
third isotope C is also present, it’s a radioactive isotope with half-life 5770 years and used for
radiocarbon dating.

• Generally elements with +4 oxidation state has covalent bonds (dash bonds).
• Where carbon is small in size it has high electronegativity (+2,+4,can lose electron easily),
high ionization enthalpy.
• Carbon valence is 4.
• Carbon has unique nature to form pπ-pπ (double and triple bonds, unsaturated bonds)
multiple bonds, these chain or ring of covalent bonds is called catenation.
• Due to catenation and pπ-pπ formation, carbon shows allotropic forms.
• The allotropes of carbon are diamond (3d), graphite (2d) and fullerenes (C60,C70).
• Fullerenes made by the heating of graphite in electric arc in the presence of inert gases.
• Fullerenes are the only pure form of carbon because they have smooth structure without
having ‘dangling bonds’.
• Fullerenes are cage like molecules, its shape is like a circular soccer ball and also called as
Buckmisterfullerene and shortly bucky balls, fullerene, fulleride, fulleroid.
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 • Where cylindrical ones or tubular are known as nanotubes, walls of these structure consist
of a single layer of carbon atoms (graphene), Carbon-nanotubes, Buckytube.

CNTFET’s:
A carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNTFET) refers to a fieldeffect transistor that utilizes a
single carbon nanotube or an array of carbon nanotubes as the channel material instead of bulk
silicon in the traditional MOSFET structure. Individual single wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT) has
been extensively used as conduction channels to assemble the carbon nanotube fieldeffect
transistors (CNTFETs). However, the maximum endurable current of 25 μA per SWCNT limits the
current output and transconductance of fabricated CNTFETs. To acquire the higher
transconductance or drive current, the parallel, multiple SWCNTs are needed to be applied as the
channel of CNTFETs.

Figure 4 Process of fabricating single walled CNTFET (2.1).

A CNT can be semiconducting or metallic depending upon the arrangement of carbon atoms. Typical
CNT synthesis techniques yield ~33% metallic CNTs. Highly aligned CNT are the basic requirement for
high density production. Metallic CNTs create source-drain shorts in CNFETs resulting in excessive
leakage (Ion/Ioff<5) and highly degraded noise margins. CNFETs are excellent candidates for building
highly energy efficient next generation integrated systems. A “perfect” CNFET technology is
predicted to be 5 faster than silicon transistors, while consuming the same power.

CNFET’s are majorly made of carbon nanotubes, these are simply obtained by rolling up the two
dimensional graphene sheet into a thin cylindrical structure to form a carbon nanotubes. Graphene
is one of the allotropic form of carbon, others are diamond, graphite and fullerence. The graphene is
obtained by heating graphite in high temperature in electric arc method or laser ablation method
and CVD (chemical vapour deposition).

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History of CNT’s in 1952 L. V. Radushkevich and V. M. Lukyanovich – 50 nm MWCNT Published in
Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry – Cold War hurt impact of discovery – Some work done before
1991 but not a “hot” topic. 1991-1992 The Watershed – Iijima discovers MWCNT in arc burned rods
Mintmire, Dunlap, and White‘s predict amazing electronic and physical properties. 1993 Bethune
and Iijima independently discover SWCNT – Add Transition metal to Arc Discharge method (same
method as Bucky Balls)

Types of CNT’s:

• Single walled carbon nanotubes

• Double walled or multi walled carbon nanotubes

Figure 5 single walled carbon nanotube with different rolling dimentions and multi walled CNT’s
(2.1).

CNT’s are obtained by rolling of graphene sheet. Depending on the direction on which they are
rolled, CNT’s can be semiconductor or metallic (Armchair bending angle θ=30 metallic ig ag
θ semi-conduc ng chiral θ mixed properties).

Single walled CNT’s: The theoretical minimum diameter of a carbon nanotube is around 0.4
nanometers, which is about as long as two silicon atoms side by side. Average diameters tend to be
around the 1.2 nanometer mark, depending on the process used to create them. Electrical behavior
of carbon nanotubes usually relate to experiments on the single-walled variety. They can be
conducting, like metal (such nanotubes are often referred to as metallic nanotubes), or
semiconducting, which means that the flow of current through them can be stepped up or down by
varying an electrical field.

Multi walled CNT’s: In these more complex structures, the different SWNTs that form the MWNT
may have quite different structures (length and chirality). MWNTs are typically 100 times longer
than they are wide and have outer diameters mostly in the tens of nanometers. Although it is easier

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 to produce significant quantities of MWNTs than SWNTs, their structures are less well understood
than single-wall nanotubes because of their greater complexity and variety. Many of the nanotube
applications now being considered or put into practice involve multi-walled nanotubes, because they
are easier to produce in large quantities at a reasonable price and have been available in decent
amounts for much longer than SWNTs.

B 2.2 FIND OUT THE LIMITATIONS OF THE EXISTING DESIGN, IN TERMS OF MATERIALS, COST AND
PERFORMANCE METRIC:
CNFETs are excellent candidates for building highly energy-efficient next generation integrated
systems. A “perfect” CNFET technology is predicted to be 5X faster than silicon transistors, while
consuming the same power. Future VLSI systems cannot rely solely on current chemical synthesis for
guaranteed perfect devices. No known CNT growth technique guarantees 0% m-CNTs. Expensive
techniques, in fact, will create major road blocks to the adoption of CNFET technologies. New design
techniques must be compatible with VLSI processing and have minimal impact on existing VLSI
design flows.

Major sources of imperfections inherent or limitations in CNFET circuits are:

(1) Miss-positioned CNTs

(2) Metallic CNTs (m-CNTs), and
(3) CNT density variations.

Mis-positioned CNTs: Mis-positioned CNTs can result in incorrect logic functionality of CNFET
circuits. Twisted and Misaligned nanotubes: A new layout design technique produces CNFET circuits
implementing arbitrary logic functions that are immune to a large number of mis-positioned CNTs.

Figure 6 Incorrect logic functionality caused by misaligned and mis-positioned CNT (2.2)

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 • A mis-positioned CNT is a CNT that passes through a layout region where a CNT was not
intended to pass.
• This may be caused due to misalignment or lack of control of correct positioning of CNTs
during CNT growth.
• Mis-positioned CNTs can cause shorts and incorrect logic functionality in CNFET logic circuits.
• Using design principles one can describe experimental circuits that are immune to a large
number of mis-positioned CNTs. We refer to these circuits as mis-positioned-CNT-immune
circuits.
• This is accomplished by etching CNTs from regions pre-defined during layout design, so that
any mis-positioned CNT cannot result in incorrect logic functionality.

Metallic-CNT-Immune CNFET Circuits: The existence of m-CNTs poses another major barrier for
CNFET-based digital VLSI logic circuits. Depending upon the arrangement of carbon atoms in a CNT
(i.e., chirality), a CNT can be semiconducting (with large bandgap) or metallic(with zero or almost
zero bandgap).

Figure 7 Metallic CNT’s(m-CNT’s) (2.2)

Unlike semiconducting CNTs (s-CNTs), the conductivity of m-CNT cannot be controlled by the gate.
This creates source drain shorts in CNFETs.

Limitations:

• The phenomena of mis-positioned CNT and metallic CNT are over driven using VLSI
techniques.
• A mis-positioned CNT is a CNT that passes through a layout region where a CNT was not
intended to pass. This may be caused due to misalignment or lack of control of correct
positioning of CNTs during CNT growth.
• The existence of m-CNTs poses another major barrier for CNFET-based digital VLSI logic
circuits

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 • The setting the new fabrication unit based on CNT production in VLSI unit needs more
economy as well time to market delayed.

B 2.3 SUGGEST NEW TECHNIQUES AND IDEAS THAT CAN BE INTEGRATED ON THE DESIGN:
To over come the disadvantages like rolling and bending of CNT’s while fabricating so the material
scientist worked on and came up with graphene ribbon instead of CNT’s as channel interconnects.

As graphene is more electrically conducted more than CNT’s. Graphene is a substance made of pure
carbon, with atoms arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern similar to graphite, but in a one-atom
thick sheet.

Figure 8 Graphene (2.3)

• The first 2-dimensional material ever discovered. One-atom thick of carbon atoms arranged
in a hexagonal lattice. Found in graphite, coal, and created in other fashions. Hard to
manufacture in large quantities, just about all graphene produced is used for R&D within
companies and universities. The strongest, lightest, and most conductive material known to
man.
• The strongest material ever measured. Up to 150X stronger than the equivalent weight of
steel. Pliable as rubber and has the ability to stretch up to 120% of its length then recover its
original shape. Extremely light weight, its said that a single sheet of Graphene covering a
whole football field would weigh less than 1g.
• Graphene is classified as a zero-overlap semi-metal, which means that either holes or
electrons are charge carriers. Very high electrical conductivity when exposed to an electric
field. In a vacuum, it had a mobility that was up to 250X that of Si. Out conducts copper by a
thousand times. Effective mass at the Dirac point is zero for both electrons and holes.

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 Figure 9 Graphene transistor formation process (Source:Fujitsu) (2.3)

It has been both theoretically proven and experimentally demonstrated that the band-gap of a GNR
is in general inversely proportional to its width. However, width confinement down to the sub-10 nm
scale is essential to open a band-gap that is sufficient for room temperature transistor operation.

Depending on the edge geometry of the GNR, there are two main types of GNRs:

• zigzag-edge GNRs (ZGNRs).

• armchair-edge GNRs (AGNRs).

ZGNRs are predicted to be metallic by a simple tight binding model. For digital applications, the
focus has been on using AGNRs as the channel material. CNTs, and both materials exhibit a band-
gap(Edge bond relaxation). Graphene has the highest intrinsic carrier mobility at room temperature
among known materials. The drain current of a graphene transistor can be easily increased by
increasing the width of the graphene sheet, which is a significant advantage over other carbon-
based materials, such as CNTs. Wide graphene sheet that is usually 100–1,000 nm wide as the
channel material, instead of a GNR or bilayer graphene. This is because analog applications typically
place a higher emphasis on transconductance and current drive of the transistor over the Ion/Ioff
ratio. Transistors for digital applications usually need to provide a high Ion/Ioff ratio. GNRs have to
be patterned to widths less than 10nm (all sub-10 nm GNRs are semiconducting, which is a huge
advantage over CNTs (roughly metallic)). Such GNRFETs also suffer from the problem of low Ion
because of the nanometer-wide channel. In order to increase Ion, it is commonly agreed that a
GNRFET will have to be fabricated with a parallel array of multiple GNRs in the channel.

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Bilayer graphene FETs

• Easy to fabricate ( No Stringent Width Requirement).

• Delivers larger Ion.
• Small bandgap resulting in high Ioff (cannot suppress band to band tunneling).
• Results in low Ion/ Ioff ratio .
• To date, the best state-of-the-art bilayer graphene transistors have only exhibited an Ion/Ioff
ratio of 100 at room temperature.

Considering the small dimensions of a GNR, defects and variability are bound to have a large impact
on circuit performance. Two major sources of variability and defects are GNR width and charge
impurity.The effect of GNR width on circuits was analyzed by varying GNR width from N =9 to N = 18.
It was shown that in the worst case, the static and dynamic power consumption of the circuit may
increase by 313–643% and 27–217%, respectively, the delay may increase by 77%, and the Static
Noise Margin may decrease by 80%. These results indicate that GNRFET circuits are vulnerable to
process variability and defects.

Current use:

• In early 2014 I.B.M announced that it had built the first integrated circuit for wireless
devices.
• Today a tennis racquet with a graphene layer has been manufactured.
• Graphene is an ingredient to conductive inks for printing circuitry.
• Samsung is reportedly releasing a screen that employs Graphene to deliver current to the
display.
• Believed to mainly be used in touchscreens, OLED, and LCD.
• Graphene matches Indium-Tin Oxide performance in its basic state.
Graphene has evolved to where experimental and theoretical advances indicate its high potential as
a candidate material for nanoelectronics applications. Concerns arising from edge quality, width
variations, substrate impurities, source/drain contact resistance, and contact-limited effects will play
an important role in determining the optimum device configuration. Although GNRFET circuits
promise exciting advantages over CMOS circuits, the effects of process variability and
manufacturing defects must be carefully considered in the performance assessment and design
optimization for future graphene-based electronics technology. Finally, circuit design and
optimization will need to explore and leverage new transistor characteristics arising from contact
limited transport and quantum effects.

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References and citation of references
Desai, Neil 2012, “Challenges in development of nanoparticle-based therapeutics” AAPS Journal
2012,14,2 (pp.282-295).

Khandel Pramila, Shahi Sushil Kumar 2018, “Mycogenic nanoparticles and their bio-prospective
applications: current status and future challenges” Journal of Nanostructure in
Chemistry, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2018,8,9 (pp.369-391).

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Benefits you have derived by solving this assignment. Whether the assignment was able
to access module learning outcomes or not?
This assignment helped me to gain knowledge on Nanomaterials used Energy Devices, Electrical and
Electronics Industry, Biological Applications, Textiles and Defense.
A brief study on nanoparticles led the way to understand the synthesis and characteristics of
nanoparticles in different application fields. And understanding the challenges of synthesis,
And understanding the state of art of the material and its particles used to applied applications and
new techniques to overcome drawbacks.

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Advanced Nano Materials and Applications