Physiology & Behavior xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Physiology & Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/physbeh

Do isolated packaging variables influence consumers' attention and

preferences?
⁎
Jesús García-Madariaga , Maria-Francisca Blasco López, Ingrit Moya Burgos, Nuria Recuero Virto
Marketing Department, School of Economics and Business, Complutense University (UCM), Madrid, Spain

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Developments in neuroscience have provided the opportunity to know unconscious consumer reactions and
Neuromarketing acknowledge direct measures of cognitive constructs like attention. Given the ever-increasing concern over
Packaging packaging's contribution to creating a positive first impression, the current research seeks to examine consumers'
Electroencephalogram attention and declarative preferences regarding the three main different packaging attributes as isolated vari-
Eye-tracking
ables: images, texts and colours. The experiment exposed participants (N = 40) to 63 stimuli, which were based
Attention
Preference
on modifications of the three main packaging attributes of three products of three different food categories. This
study used electroencephalogram (EEG) and eye-tracking (ET) to measure attention, and a declarative test was
employed to examine preference. First, the results presented herein show that the presence of visual elements,
either images or texts on packages, increased the participants' level of attention. Second, the results reveal that
colour modifications do not have a significant effect on participants' neurophysiological attention levels. Third,
the results demonstrated that the neurophysiological effects among the participants do not necessarily coincide
with their subjective evaluations of preference. Hence, this study increases awareness of the relevance of
combining traditional market research tools that rely on explicit consumer responses with neuroscientific
techniques. These findings indicate, first of all, that more research is needed to ascertain the extent to which
consumers' neurophysiological outcomes correspond to their declarative preferences and second, that neuro-
physiological methods should be given more attention in research.

1. Introduction Following this idea, packaging can be characterised as a multi-

Understanding the factors that drive consumers toward purchase
choices is a critical part of business planning and retailers' forecasting.
Marketing decisions concerning the improvement of consumers' first
impression of a food product rely on the outer visual appearance of
packaging [1].
Packaging, from a raw perspective, entails containing, protecting
and presenting the product. However, due to evolution of marketing,
this concept has changed to integrate a wide range of additional func-
tions, positioning packaging as a key tool for marketing. Furthermore,
packaging role in the purchase process has been deeply studied [2,3].
Most of these studies agree that the package is important due to the idea
that it is the primary source of information available to the consumer,
who constructs a particular perception of the product, its quality and
even the brand, based on the evaluation of packaging design [4].
Bearing this in mind, packaging achieves value not only as a brand
promotion tool [5] but also as an important point in the competitive
advantage of products in the market [6].
dimensional concept [7]. Its numerous components can be divided into
two main groups: visual elements (designs, colours, images, forms, size)
and verbal components, which are text information and specific char-
acteristics, like producer, country of origin or materials [3]. While vi-
sual components are connected to the emotional part of the consumer
purchase decision, verbal components are connected to the cognitive
part [8]. This implies that packaging presentation can be made through
verbal and visual elements. Studies' evidence backs the claim that
success in capturing customers at the point-of-sale (POS) lies in the key
utilization of these elements in packaging [9]. Therefore, packaging is
presented as a crucial part of the purchasing process; indeed, it is a
fundamental claim, as around 90% of buyers settle on a purchase choice
based on a visual examination of packaging [10].
The problem arises due to the fact that consumers are usually ex-
posed to numerous stimuli and, in relation to daily shopping, they may
see up to 300 different brands while touring supermarket shelves [11].
This means a product has only a split second to catch consumers' at-
tention; thus, the most appealing package always will have the best

⁎
Corresponding author at: Campus de Somosaguas, 28223 Madrid, Spain.
E-mail address: jesgarci@ucm.es (J. García-Madariaga).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.04.030
Received 26 December 2017; Received in revised form 17 April 2018; Accepted 23 April 2018
0031-9384/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Jesús, G.-M., Physiology & Behavior (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.04.030
J. García-Madariaga et al.
chance of winning [12]. Consequently, packaging has become a key
marketing strategy to attract consumers' attention [10,12,13], making
it more important for marketers to understand how packaging design
influences consumers' attention and which packaging attributes support
consumers' preference. In this respect, packaging has been considered
as a primary vehicle of branding and communication of the products'
qualities [4,14–17], and hence, as a determinant positioning factor of
the company in the current competitive marketplace [5,6].
According to Venkatraman et al. (2015), attention can be defined as
the ability to focus on certain aspects of the environment while ignoring
others [18]. In other words, attention in the market field is the degree
to which consumers focus on a stimulus, a pre-requisite for information
processing and, therefore, a key step in consumer decision-making
process [19]. Both bottom-up and top-down processes mediate con-
sumers' attention towards the different elements of packaging. On the
one hand, bottom-up attention is a rapid and automatic form of at-
tentional capture that depends on the characteristics of the stimulus
(e.g., colour, size, shape or image) and occurs even when the consumer
is not specifically looking for it [20]. On the other hand, top-down at-
tentional capture depends on consumers' interest and motivations when
evaluating the stimulus and requires consumers to voluntarily search
for specific information [21,22]. In this way, one of the main purposes
of marketing is to understand how consumers' attention is modulated
by a given stimulus (i.e., packaging).
1.1. Literature review and research hypotheses
A broad consensus on the importance of packaging has been reached
by analysing consumers' attention to certain attributes, such as colour,
shape and text with regard to their purchasing willingness [23–26].
However, these studies examined the influence of these variables al-
together, and thus, the separate effects of each variable on consumers'
attention have remained understudied. Besides, many studies of this
topic have been conducted by means of traditional research methods,
such as interviews, focus groups or surveys [27,28], which are in-
evitably limited to subjective considerations or even to memory-based
choice [29].
Given these challenges, some scholars have recently started to ex-
amine packaging attributes with neuromarketing research techniques
[29,30]. These consist of the application of neuroscientific theories,
techniques and methodologies to understand consumers' cognitive and
emotional responses to different marketing stimuli. Therefore, neuro-
marketing provides two kinds of information to marketing studies: new
insights about consumers' unconscious behaviour and validation of
traditional measures with neuroscience techniques. In recent times,
many studies have integrated neuromarketing tools such as the Implicit
Association Test (IAT) [25], Eye-tracking (ET) [31–33], Galvanic Skin
Response (GSR) [24,34] and electroencephalogram (EEG) [35,36],
among others. In fact, more and more studies are using the combination
of these tools to obtain more complete results not only in marketing
areas [37–39] but also in psychology [40,41].
Hence, in order to shed more light on the current research regarding
packaging, this study has combined the use of two neuroscientific
techniques, namely, Eye-tracking and EEG, and a declarative test.
Precisely, the present research aims to examine: the influence of image
(1), text (2) and colour (3) independently on consumers' attention levels
and the correlation of such attention levels correlation with declarative
preferences (4).
As for the first argument (the influence of image on consumers' at-
tention levels), pictorial items have been determined as key elements
for consumers when they need to identify preferred products on the
supermarket shelves [13]. For instance, it has been revealed that when
consumers shop for low-involvement products, e.g., food or household
supplies [13], they do so without carefully examining brand and pro-
duct information. According to Pieters and Wedel (2004), images are
commonly supposed to be the main element in capturing consumers'
2
Physiology & Behavior xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
attention. Moreover, visual components of packaging are also de-
terminant factors of consumers' first attentional reactions at the POS,
which can have a positive effect on product and brand memory [42]. In
this regard, several eye-tracking studies have determined the positive
and significant relationship between image and consumers' attention
[32,34,43]. Thus, packages that contain images are more likely to at-
tract consumers' attention than those that do not have pictorial ele-
ments. Given the crucial importance of images in consumer attention
and purchase decisions, the first hypothesis was proposed, summarizing
that packages with images attract more attention than packages without
images.
Concerning the second argument, it has been proved that buyers
who are highly involved in the purchase assess text information more
consciously and depend more on the packaging message to define their
purchase intentions than customers who are not involved in the pur-
chase, and consequently are not concerned about text messages of the
packaging design [13]. Accordingly, it was found that consumers with
specific requirements for the products, like green consumers, present
different EEG activation patterns depending on the content of the tex-
tual information [35]. Precisely, several scholars have pointed out in-
teresting insights regarding the impact of texts' font size on consumers'
attention through an eye-tracking study. Therefore, it seems that texts
in packaging design capture consumers' attention more than packages
that do not have any text. Based on the previous information, the
second hypothesis was established, considering that packages with texts
attract more attention than packages without text.
In relation to the third argument, colour has been established as the
most relevant visual cue in the supermarket phenomenon because of
the effect it has on buyers' attention. Although it is well known that
colour is a main feature of packaging, there are many research gaps in
the understanding of its real implication in consumers' attention and
preference [44]. Also, Gordon, Finlay and Watts [45] studied the ability
of colours to communicate. In their study, these scholars determined
that colours have an impact on consumers' behaviour and brand eva-
luation choices. Precisely, colours were found to communicate the
quality of the brand. Furthermore, these authors suggested that colours
are related to the core product and can offer cues about flavour or taste
of the product [45]. Moreover, it has been proved that variation in
colour of the packaging label modifies the perceived product category
[1]. In this way, colour is an important feature of packaging for pre-
ference and even for attention, but it is conditioned by the context in
which the colours are used [46]. Hence, variations of colours in
packaging design are likely to provoke changes in consumers' attention.
Consequently, the third hypothesis was proposed, reflecting that var-
iations in packaging colour modulates attention.
Finally, concerning the fourth argument, several researchers have
pointed out that increased number of fixations and time of exploration
are related to improved levels of preference [47,48]. In terms of at-
tention, physiological experiments assist in the determination of the
preferred packaging design elements [43]. In this line, Zamani et al.
(2016) compared several commercialised products, modifying some
packaging attributes like colour, image or size, concluding that pre-
ferences can be determined by the total fixation count for each area of
interest (AOI) defined [31]. In contrast, other scholars have found a
weak relationship between eye-tracking outcomes and explicit pre-
ferences, where the strength of the results was not significant enough to
determine a correlation [49,50]. However, it is reasonable for con-
sumers' statements concerning packaging attributes to be related to
their attentional physiological outcomes. Due to the lack of consistency
in prior results regarding this correlation, the fourth hypothesis was
postulated, outlining that implicit attentional measurements are related to
consumers' declarative preference.
J. García-Madariaga et al.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
Forty undergraduate students of a public university voluntarily
participated in the study (21 women, 19 men) during July 2017. The
mean age was 22.8 years with a standard deviation of 2.3 years. All
participants signed an informed consent form and reported no visual
problems or colour-blindness. The participants were recruited using
convenient and reasoned sampling. At the end of the experiment, all
participants were rewarded.
2.2. Measurements (apparatus and questionnaire)
2.2.1. Eye-tracking (ET)
This biometric technique is based on the relationship between
human eye movements, visual attention and information acquisition,
with the latter two both being closely related to higher order cognitive
processes [51]. Consumers' behaviour is measured with an eye-tracking
technique by recording either the number of fixations or dwell time of
the eyes during an individual or group exposure to external stimuli.
This technique has been used as a direct measure of attention by ana-
lysing the number of fixations on specific areas, the viewing time, or the
time that users take to reach each area [52]. It has a great potential for
objectively assessing consumers' perception of visual stimuli [53] and is
being increasingly used in sensory and consumer science [32,54–56]. In
this way, attention levels were measured with eye-tracking Tobii X2-30
Eye-Tracker Compact Edition.
2.2.2. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
On another hand, the electroencephalogram drives a measurement
of the whole sphere of brainwave activity emerging in various cortical
areas, which helps to understand the way the brain responds to various
stimuli. EEG is a non-invasive instrument that provides information
from areas underneath the cortex and, combined with other instru-
ments, may provide far more accurate results on a subjects' response to
a marketing stimulus [57]. In addition, this technique can be used to
obtain many different psychological metrics. Specifically, attention is
linked to the cognitive workload. Assuming the relation between the
levels of attention and the amount of cognitive resources necessary to
focus on any given stimuli, it is possible to deduce attention from the
brain's electric signal. The algorithm to measure attention by EEG uses
the index theta/alpha, in parietal channels, P3 and P4 for theta, and
frontal channels, P3 and P4 for alpha [58–60]. Although there is little
evidence of attention’ measurement with EEG in packaging contexts,
modulations of visual attention recorded with EEG are well supported
in clinical sciences like psychology. Different researches have tried to
determine patterns of brain activation during attention process. Kli-
mesch (2012) affirmed that alpha-band oscillations play two roles (in-
hibition and timing) that are closely linked to two fundamental func-
tions of attention (suppression and selection) that enable controlled
knowledge access and semantic orientation (the ability to be con-
sciously oriented in time, space, and context) [61]. Therefore, attention
levels were also measured with EEG Bioresearch with 16 channels and
Fig. 1. Stimulus presentation in Block 1.
3
Physiology & Behavior xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
256 Hz, manufactured by BitBrain Technologies.
2.2.3. Preference questionnaire
Traditionally, the way to obtain information about packaging ap-
pearance has been to fill in explicit questionnaires. Therefore, a com-
puter-based questionnaire was also applied, through an Internet plat-
form, to obtain declarative preference information. The concrete details
of the questionnaire are shown in the Procedure section.
2.3. Stimuli
In order to select the right stimulus for the experimental phase, a
qualitative research was carried out to identify food product categories
according to the selected age range. Fourteen in-depth interviews were
conducted based on projective techniques where subjects had to vi-
sualize different images. As a result, three categories and three products
were selected in each category: drinks (ice-tea, soda and energy drinks),
salty snacks (chips, nuts and nachos) and sweet appetizers (cookies,
chocolate bars and cereal bars). Subsequently, a focus group that en-
tailed the selected age range was conducted to decide which packaging
attributes to test, which were finally image, text and colour. As afore-
mentioned, as no prior study had analysed these packaging attributes
separately, the present research aimed to shed more light on the iso-
lated modification of the following conditions: image (no image, logo
and product context image), text (no text, positive and negative) and
colour (neutral, cold and warm).
Based on the results of the qualitative research, a total of nine
products were designed, three products for the three different cate-
gories. Moreover, a modification of the three packaging variables
(colour, text and image) for each product was also performed.
Therefore, a total of 63 stimuli were tested during the experiment. The
63 stimuli were shown individually and in groups of three products,
attending to each of the studied conditions.
2.4. Procedure
The experimental procedure had two phases which entailed the use
of neurophysiology (Blocks 1 and 2) and declarative (Block 3) methods.
The experiment was conducted in two different locations in the same
building. First and second blocks were done in the laboratory, where
participants sat down in front of the computer. There the researcher
explained them the procedure and techniques and gave them the inform
consent to sign it. For these blocks, the participant wore the EEG and
eye-tracking as the stimuli presentation run. When they finished the
second block, they moved to another room, without neurophysiological
techniques in order to full fill the preference questionnaire in the
computer.
In Block 1, respondents were exposed to the 63 stimuli mentioned
before on a screen that presented each product individually and ran-
domly. This block was designed to catch changes on EEG signal about
isolated variables modifications. Concretely, the 63 presented stimuli
correspond to all the products in all variables modifications (9 pro-
ducts × 3 variables × 3 modification per variable). The way to proceed
was visualizing first a fixed cross in the middle of the screen, followed
J. García-Madariaga et al. Physiology & Behavior xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 2. Stimulus presentation in Block 2.

by the stimulus for 5 s, and then a black slide, with the word “Break”, so Table 1
they could take a 2-s rest, as displayed in Fig. 1. Descriptive fixation data of eye-tracking in group presentation.a
In Block 2, participants were exposed to a random presentation of Time to first fixation Time in AOI Number
three stimuli in each slide. The slides contained a single product in fixations in
three different conditions for each modified variable: condition X1 AOI
(e.g., no image) - condition X2 (e.g., logo) - condition X3 (e.g., context
Condition Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
image). In this way, in all the slides, there was a comparison between a
neutral or control stimulus, condition X1, and two modified conditions. Image Neutral 1720.61 158.38 1678.00 230.49 1.68 0.23
This block was designed with the aim of comparing the 3 conditions for (no image)
the attention metric measured with eye-tracking. To sum up, partici- Logo 1179.72 166.92 2752.13 364.81 2.75 0.36
Context 1174.98 193.37 3267.25 449.75 3.27 0.45
pants had to visualize 27 slides: 3 modifications for the packaging at-
Text Neutral 1651.99 178.26 928.24 149.66 1.85 0.32
tributes of the nine products (as aforementioned, 3 per product cate- (no text)
gory). In order to avoid bias effects of stimulus location, there were four Negative 1336.12 180.84 1690.29 153.32 2.94 0.44
different dispositions of the stimulus in the slides, always avoiding the text
centre of the screen. These dispositions were presented randomly to Positive 1297.56 186.20 1725.63 94.88 2.88 0.27
text
balance the sample. The exposure time was again standardized. The
Colour Neutral 1375.28 174.07 1423.09 273.75 2.55 0.50
presentation schema was [6 s = fixation cross (1 s) – stimulus (3 s) – colour
rest (2 s)], shown in Fig. 2. Cold 1208.72 178.51 1396.50 115.77 2.60 0.32
During Block 3, which entailed the declarative test phase, partici- colour
Warm 1308.91 128.54 1530.44 194.09 2.74 0.31
pants had to answer the online questionnaire while they were visua-
colsour
lizing the stimulus. They filled in a preference ranking of the 3 stimuli
presented for each question, with 1 being the preferred stimulus and 3 a
Time to first fixation and time in AOI expressed in milliseconds (ms),
the least preferred one. The stimuli had exactly the same grouping number of fixation in AOI is the mean number of times subjects enter in AOI.
pattern as in Block 2 (condition X1- condition X2- condition X3). The
main difference of stimulus presentation was that, as the eye-tracking Table 2
was not used in this part, the stimuli were all arranged in the centre of ANOVA results of eye-tracking data in group presentation.
the screen. In addition, the exposure time depended on the subject's
Time to first fixation Time in AOI Number fixations in
response time instead of being standardized. AOI

Condition F p F p F p
3. Results
a a
Image 19.315 0.000 93.182 0.000 61.931 0.000a
3.1. Impact of each packaging element on fixation data (eye-tracking) Text 4.926 0.010a 51.592 0.000a 33.129 0.000a
Colour 1.547 0.223 1.325 0.272 1.873 0.161
The three first hypotheses were tested with the attentional metric a
Significant effect at p < 0.05.
derived from eye-tracking data. In order to determine whether isolated
package attributes (image, text or colour) influence consumers' atten-
However, time of packaging exploration differed statistically between
tion, it is necessary to analyse the number of fixations on each AOI, the
packaging with and without images, F(2,76) = 93.182, p = 0.000 and
viewing time and the time that users take to reach each area [52].
between packaging with and without text, F(2,76) = 51.592, p = 0.000.
Accordingly, the group presentation (Block 2) was used to analyse these
Post hoc tests were conducted using the Bonferroni correction. These
three metrics. The group presentation always included the neutral
tests revealed that including images on packaging can elicit more time
condition and their two variable modifications, which allows analysing
of exploration (no image M = 1678 ms, logo image M = 2752 ms,
differences between the control condition (neutral stimuli) and ex-
context image M = 3267 ms), and the difference was significant,
perimental conditions (variable modifications).
p = 0.000. Also, inclusion of text in food packaging designs was sig-
Descriptive statistics were used to compute measures of central
nificant, p = 0.000, (no text M = 928 ms, negative text M = 1690 ms,
tendency and variability of attention for each condition, expressed in
positive text M = 1725 ms).
milliseconds (ms) and number of fixations in AOI (Table 1).
In order to test the three first hypotheses, repeated measures
ANOVAs were conducted (Table 2), due to the experimental design, 3.1.2. Number of fixations in AOI
where all the subjects undergo all conditions. In coherence with the The analysis indicated that the number of fixations on packaging did
descriptive data, each metric was analysed independently: not yield significant differences as a function of colour levels,
F(2,76) = 1.873, p = 0.161, but it showed significant differences as a
3.1.1. Time in AOI function of packaging with and without text, F(2,76) = 33.129,
The time of packaging exploration did not yield significant differ- p < 0.000. Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction showed that
ences as a function of colour levels, F(2,76) = 1.325, p = 0.272. including texts on packaging can elicit more fixations than when

4
J. García-Madariaga et al.
packaging has no text (no text M = 1.8 fixations, negative/positive text
M = 2.9 fixations), as the difference was significant, p = 0.000. For the
image variable, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was implemented for
ANOVA analysis. Results showed that the mean number of fixations on
packaging differed significantly as a function of packaging with and
without images, F(1.6,62) = 61.931, p < 0.000. Comparing the means
with the post hoc test, it was concluded that including images on
packaging can elicit a greater number of fixations, p = 0.000, and that
image complexity (logo vs. context) also had an influence, p = 0.026,
(no image M = 1.7 fixations, logo image M = 2.8 fixations, context
image M = 3.3 fixations).
3.1.3. Time to first fixation
for the last metric, a repeated measures ANOVA with a Greenhouse-
Geisser correction was conducted. Similarly, colour did not yield sig-
nificant differences, F(1.6, 61.6) = 1.547, p = 0.223. For the text condi-
tion, the ANOVA with an assumed sphericity determined that time to
first fixation on packaging was significant as a function of packaging
with and without text, F(2,76) = 4.926, p = 0.01. Post hoc tests using the
Bonferroni correction showed that including texts on packaging reduces
the time to first fixation on packaging (no text M = 1.652 ms, negative
text M = 1.336 ms, positive text M = 1.298 ms). However, according to
the Bonferroni test, only the difference between no text and negative
text was significant, p = 0.026. Finally, for images, an ANOVA with a
Greenhouse-Geisser correction was performed, showing that time to
first fixation on packaging differed significantly as a function of
packaging with and without images, F(1.7, 64.8) = 19.315, p = 0.000.
Post hoc results indicated that including images on packaging can elicit
a faster reaction in consumers (no image M = 1.721 ms, logo image
M = 1.180 ms, context image M = 1.175 ms). There was a significant
difference between no image packaging and packaging with logo and
context images, p = 0.000, but there were no significant differences
between packaging with logo and with context images.
In accordance with the aim of testing our hypotheses, we can con-
clude that the presence of any image, as an isolated variable, on
packages designs catches more attention than not having any image
(H1), as does the variable text (H2). On another hand, colour did not
show significant differences in attracting subjects' attention when there
is no other packaging modification (H3).
3.2. Impact of isolated packaging elements on alpha-band oscillation (EEG)
After testing the three hypotheses with the eye-tracking data, we
checked to determine whether these results were replicated when
measuring attention with EEG. Accordingly, individual presentation
data was used to obtain brain stimulation differences with each variable
modification, because in the group presentation, it would be impossible
to relate the brain oscillation with only one of the three stimuli.
Several repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted for EEG data
derived from the cognitive load required to focalise attention, re-
presented by alpha band oscillations. These analyses determined that
attention did not have a significant difference on colour levels,
F(2,74) = 18.289, p = 0.304. The analysis revealed no statistically sig-
nificant differences for the three text levels F(2,74) = 34.084, p = 0.107,
or for the three conditions of image, F(2,74) = 3.522, p = 0.786. These
results may have many possible causes, for instance, environmental
conditions, commented on in the discussion.
3.3. Correlation between attention levels and declarative preferences
Descriptive frequency analysis was conducted for declarative data.
It was found that 90% of the subjects preferred packaging with images
of logo or context than with no image. Also, results showed that 81%
expressed a preference for packages with some kind of text (positive or
negative) than without text. Fig. 3 shows that the self-reported pre-
ferred conditions were neutral colour, the presence of texts and
5
Physiology & Behavior xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
pictorial elements.
Going deeper into the graph interpretation, we can see which
modification is preferred by the subjects, given a text or image. The
subjects conciously expressed preference for context-related images and
negative text in product packaging.
A Kruskal-Wallis H-test determined that there was a significant
difference in preference score between the different images tested,
χ2(2) = 66.590, p = 0.000, with a mean rank preference score of 96.21
for no image packaging, 50.77 for logo and 39.02 for context image.
The same test applied to text preferences revealed a significant differ-
ence in preference score between the different texts tested,
χ2(2) = 34.803, p = 0.000, with a mean rank preference score of 85.93
for no text packaging, 56.40 for positive text and 43.67 for negative
text. Regarding colours, the Kruskal-Wallis H-test showed that there
was a significant difference in preference score between the different
colours tested, χ2(2) = 8.941, p = 0.011, with a mean rank preference
score of 50.43 for neutral colour, 70.76 for cold colour and 64.82 for
warm colour.
In order to test the fourth hypothesis, implit and explicit correla-
tions were studied. As the metrics derived from eye-tracking were nu-
merical, and preference statements were ordinal varibles, a Spearman
correlation test was conducted. The results revelead that there were no
correlations among any of these variables. Therefore, it was proposed
that there was no connection between explicit preferences and attention
measured with the eye-tracking method. Hence, subjects tend to look
more at whatever they like more. However, there may be many other
reasons for this fact, as subjects may be influenced by other factors such
as novelty, curiosity, or even misunderstanding. All these issues, in-
cluding managerial implications, will be discussed in the following
section.
4. Discussion
The most important functions of neuroscience measurements for
marketing are validating traditional marketing tools' results and pro-
viding new insights that cannot be detected with self-report metrics. In
neuromarketing research, packaging variables are commonly measured
as a combination of modifications. This means that it is not usual to find
comparisons between isolated variable modifications. In the majority of
the studies, testing design differences is done with many modifications
at a time [32]. Nevertheless, we examined whether isolated packaging
features can modify consumers' attention levels and preference for a
product. Thus, three packaging variables were tested independently:
image, text and colour.
The first hypothesis stated that packages with images attract more
attention than packages without images. The results indicate that
images, either of product context or logo, showed strong differences in
time of attention, number of fixations and time to first fixation com-
pared with packages without images. Indeed, according to the de-
clarative data analysis, subjects also report preference for packages
with images. This could be explained by the easy access to information
about the product that images can provide. In categories where the
product knowledge is low, a product image may be more likely to help
consumers to quickly understand what the product is and what it is
good for.
According to the results, the presence of images on packaging de-
signs raises consumers' attention. In fact, attention to the pictorial
element can promote attention to the text or brand elements, in-
dependently of the factors that stimulated attention to the pictorial
element in the first place [62]. This is an important conclusion for
marketers because it suggests they could enhance the “attention-
catching power” of products by including pictorial elements on the
packaging.
The second hypothesis was also supported by experimental results
related to eye-tracking, where packages with text, either positive or
negative, showed higher attention levels than these packages without
J. García-Madariaga et al.
Fig. 3. Results of Declarative Preference Test.
Note: The preferred condition for each variable is represented as a percentage of the total sample.
any text. Text perception relies more on focal attentive processes, which
are voluntary, serial, slow, and effortful [63]. Thus, although the gist of
an image can often be comprehended in a few glances, text requires
more attention, meaning more eye fixations and longer time to be un-
derstood [62]. This idea suggests a greater cognitive load for the con-
sumer, which should be reflected in physiological measurements. Un-
expectedly, the results of the present study did not show any
statistically significant difference in EEG data for text condition.
In order to maintain the similarity of the stimuli with real products,
informational texts were designed with smaller size than the product
brand. According to Pieters and Wedel's (2004) findings, the image
captures more baseline attention, independently of its size, and text
captures more incremental attention because of its size. Thus, the lack
of significant differences in EEG could be attributed to the size of texts,
which did not impact strongly enough to produce a significant variation
in brain waves related to attention. Moreover, environmental factors
could also explain the lack of significance, as no significant differences
were found for image. As van Rompay, Deterink, and Fenko (2016)
found, environmental conditions, such as light, may be determinant to
obtain an EEG signal for subtle stimuli [64].
Similarly, the declarative preferences results showed a trend for
packaging designs with text, but specially, negative texts. As a general
rule in marketing, a negative sentence tends to be more difficult to
process and understand than an affirmative one because the receiver is
forced to take an extra step: first, to determine what the sentence means
in the affirmative, and then to deny it [65]. However, there are times
when the use of a negative can prove useful and attractive: when
headlines serve the important task of underscoring in the receiver's
mind a particular distinction for the product [66]. Due to the fact that
all the stimuli used texts that highlighted a distinction of the product
such as “made with natural ingredients”, “sugar free” or “handmade
cookies”, Hickey's affirmation may be the reason for the preference for
negative sentences [66].
The results of the present study rejected the third hypothesis, as no
different visual patterns (ET) or brain activation (EEG) related to colour
packaging modification were found. This lack of statistical differences
could be attributed to a very subtle modification of the variable
(colour), which could not impact the experimental subjects as highly as
necessary to obtain a significant attention variation. Also, colour seems
to be the most difficult variable to analyse by means of physiological
techniques, given the little variation it triggers in the registered signal.
It seems that the amount of visual processing and attention is difficult to
determine when the stimulus includes a large number of visual features.
According to Kawasaki and Yamaguchi (2012), the use of colours as
core stimuli could decrease the number of visual features. However, the
results of their study showed that other systematic components of
colour (e.g., brightness, RGB dimensions, and fixation colours) can in-
fluence the EEG differences [36].
In the declarative test, there was difference in preference pattern
6
Physiology & Behavior xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
among the three variations, but this time, the preferred element was the
neutral colour. This could be explained because harmony and co-
herence between the actual product and the package colour is essential
[67]. This means that each product could be associated with a different
chromatic range according to cultural, contextual or personal bias. This
idea is consistent with the findings of the study conducted by Kuniecki,
Pilarczyk and Wichary, according to which, influence of colours on
subjects' behaviour depends on the context because colours' connota-
tions come from particular experiences related to biology and culture.
As stated by these authors, the modulator role of the context is plau-
sible, given that people can extract the gist of an image according to
their personal experience, even when it is presented for only a split
second [68].
In this regard, the lack of significant differences in attention derived
from colour modulations can be explained in two ways. Firstly, it could
be attributed not only to very subtle modifications that did not impact
enough to produce a significant variation in attention. Secondly, due to
the fact that colours have particular meaning for everyone, associated
with personal experiences, and cultural and demographic factors
[69,70].
Finally, the fourth hypothesis was not supported, as there was no
correlation between preference results and attention derived from eye-
tracking data. In general terms, eye-tracking results showed con-
sistently more time, more fixations and less time to first fixation de-
voted to packaging with texts and images than to packaging without
those elements. Declarative results also showed these stimuli as being
the preferred ones. The differences between eye-tracking results and
declared preference seem to be contrary to the idea that tracking users'
eye movements while they look at products could be considered as a
parameter to predict their preferred choices [48]. It is noteworthy that
this finding supports the results of other studies that highlighted that
visual attention is driven by many different factors that are not asso-
ciated with subjective and declarative valuations such as preference
[49,50].
Furthermore, this discrepancy could be attributed to the fact that
the experimental stimuli were specifically created for this study. In this
regard, it is well established that novel stimuli can stand out and cap-
ture added attention because they do not match subject's expectations
[71,72] and that people spend additional efforts on processing un-
familiar stimuli [72], but not necessarily because they like this product
more.
5. Conclusions and future research
Understanding how packaging design modulates consumer atten-
tion and its relationship with product preference may be an important
tool for marketers; firstly, to attract consumers' attention and secondly,
to get their product chosen as the preferred one in market scope. The
study of three controlled packaging variables allows the identification
J. García-Madariaga et al.
and establishment of causality between design modifications and
modulations in attention, and also the analysis of their relationship
with declared preferences. Based on the results of this research, three
main points can be concluded.
First, the presence of visual elements, either images or texts, on
packaging increases consumers' attention. This is a very useful insight
for packaging designers because it provides clues to configure more
effective packaging. According to the results of this study, the presence
of images on packaging designs raises consumers' attention, and also
packages with text, either positive or negative, showed higher attention
levels than these packages without any text. To conclude, this study
provides evidence about how useful the analysis of isolated packaging
variables could be in this research field. The results showed that not
only text but also images have an impact on consumers´ attention and it
will be interesting to examine these variables in greater depth in further
research. In spite of this important contribution, scholars should be
cautious about the interpretation of the findings of this research be-
cause, in marketing environment, consumers perceive packages as a
whole, so their attention to the products is the result of the amount of
interaction with different packaging elements.
Furthermore, although colour is an important element of any pro-
duct package design, it is difficult to achieve physiological responses
that are strong enough to modulate attention metrics, at least when
colour is an isolated variable. In future research, it could be interesting
to test less subtle modifications in colour and also to control different
colour features in order to determine whether there is a real causality
between colour modifications and attention modulation in the specific
context of packaging.
Finally, according to the results of the study, it is possible to affirm
that looking more does not always mean liking more, so the tracking of
consumers' eye movements could not be viewed as a parameter to
predict packaging preferences. This research has opened a new avenue
for consumer behaviour, initiating the debate of the implications of eye-
tracking to predict consumers' packaging preferences.
Regarding future research, it would be interesting to consider more
isolated variables, as there is limited research regarding this issue and
the findings can have very useful implications not only for scholars but
also for marketing practitioners. In a multivariable study, it is quite
complicated to control all the mediators responsible for physiological
and declarative responses. In this research, we made a qualitative se-
lection of the categories and variables to be modified. Once the optimal
variables (colour, text and image) were selected, they were isolated in
each of the designs in order to control for their effect on consumers'
visual attention and preference, as this seems to be the best methodo-
logical approach for any physiological experiment. Although marketing
is a social science that, by nature, is oriented to studying mass beha-
viour in real contexts, in order to better understand how consumers'
attention can be affected by each packaging element, the variables were
isolated. It is a known fact that, in a shopping context, it is difficult to
find a consumer decision based on an isolated variable because the
design is established as a whole. However, this isolated approach can
advance knowledge that can be translated into practical insights.
Moreover, scholars could also design other modifications within each
variable in order to test the same hypotheses, as this would extend the
findings of the current research.
Finally, 9 food products (3 products of 3 different categories) were
tested. Hence, it will be interesting in future research to extend the
scope of this study in terms of more and different product categories.
This study found evidence of both aims of neuroscience tools on
marketing: validation of traditional measures with neuroscientific
techniques and the provision of new insights about consumers' un-
conscious behaviour. It can then be concluded that the combined use of
traditional techniques and neurophysiological tools would support a
more holistic understanding of consumer behaviour and, therefore,
would provide more accurate and useful insights in order to define the
best way to design packaging according to consumers' declarative
7
Physiology & Behavior xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
preferences and their unconscious reactions.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Bit-Brain for the technological as-
sistance. This work was funded by grant RTC-2016-4718-7 from the
Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness. The au-
thors have no competing interests to report.
References
[1] I. Gil, R. Rebollar, I. Lidón, J. Martín, Study on the Influence of Fresh White Cheese
Packaging Design Variables on Users' Perception, Springer, Cham, 2017, pp. 37–49,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51859-6_3.
[2] M. Estiri, T. Hasangholipour, H. Yazdani, H.J. Nejad, H. Rayej, Food products
consumer behaviors: the role of packaging elements, J. Appl. Sci. 10 (2010)
535–543, http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/jas.2010.535.543.
[3] R. Kuvykaite, A. Dovaliene, L. Navickiene, Impact of package elements on con-
sumer's purchase decision, Econ. Manag. 14 (2009) 441–447, http://dx.doi.org/10.
5755/j01.em.0.14.9405.
[4] M. Gómez, D. Martín-Consuegra, A. Molina, The importance of packaging in pur-
chase and usage behaviour, Int. J. Consum. Stud. 39 (2015) 203–211, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1111/ijcs.12168.
[5] B. Rundh, Packaging design: creating competitive advantage with product packa-
ging, Br. Food J. 111 (2009) 988–1002, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
00070700910992880.
[6] B. Rundh, The role of packaging within marketing and value creation, Br. Food J.
118 (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb011783.
[7] R.L. Underwood, The communicative power of product packaging: creating brand
identity via lived and mediated experience, J. Mark. Theory Pract. 11 (2003) 62–76.
[8] P. Silayoi, M. Speece, Packaging and purchase decisions: an exploratory study on
the impact of involvement level and time pressure, Br. Food J. 106 (2004) 607–628,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00070700410553602.
[9] R.P. Grossman, J.Z. Wisenblit, What we know about consumers' color choices, J.
Mark. Pract. Appl. Mark. Sci. 5 (1999) 78–88, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
EUM0000000004565.
[10] J. Clement, Visual influence on in-store buying decisions: an eye-track experiment
on the visual influence of packaging design, J. Mark. Manag. 23 (2007) 917–928,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1362/026725707X250395.
[11] B. Rundh, The multi-faceted dimension of packaging: marketing logistic or mar-
keting tool? Br. Food J. 107 (2005) 670–684, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
00070700510615053.
[12] R. Rettie, C. Brewer, The verbal and visual components of package design, J. Prod.
Brand. Manag. 9 (2000) 56–70, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/10610420010316339.
[13] P. Silayoi, M. Speece, The importance of packaging attributes: a conjoint analysis
approach, Eur. J. Mark. 41 (2007) 1495–1517, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
03090560710821279.
[14] P. Huddleston, B.K. Behe, S. Minahan, R.T. Fernandez, Seeking attention: an eye
tracking study of in-store merchandise displays, Int. J. Retail Distrib. Manag. 43
(2015) 561–574, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJRDM-06-2013-0120.
[15] M. Husić-Mehmedović, I. Omeragić, Z. Batagelj, T. Kolar, Seeing is not necessarily
liking: advancing research on package design with eye-tracking, J. Bus. Res. 80
(2017) 145–154, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.04.019.
[16] S. Pal, S. Holkar, A. Yevalkar, A. Bhattacharjee, Juice Packaging Design: Effects of
Transparency on Consumers'Perception Leading toward Purchase Preference for
Packaged Juice, en: Adv. Ergon. Des. Proc. AHFE 2017 Int. Conf. Ergon. Des,
(2017).
[17] R.L. Underwood, N.M. Klein, R.R. Burke, Packaging communication: attentional
effects of product imagery, J. Prod. Brand. Manag. (2001) 1–31, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1108/10610420110410531.
[18] V. Venkatraman, A. Dimoka, P.A. Pavlou, K. Vo, W. Hampton, B. Bollinger,
H.A.L.E. Hershfield, M. Ishihara, R.S. Winer, Predicting Advertising Success Beyond
Traditional Measures: New Insights from Neurophysiological Methods and Market
Response Modeling, LII, (2015), pp. 436–452.
[19] P. Varela, L. Antúnez, R. Silva Cadena, A. Giménez, G. Ares, Attentional capture and
importance of package attributes for consumers' perceived similarities and differ-
ences among products: a case study with breakfast cereal packages, Food Res. Int.
64 (2014) 701–710, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2014.08.015.
[20] J.M. Wolf, Visual search, in: H. Pashler (Ed.), Attention, Psychology Press, 1998, pp.
13–74.
[21] S. Bialkova, K.G. Grunert, H. Van Trijp, Standing out in the crowd: the effect of
information clutter on consumer attention for front-of-pack nutrition labels, Food
Policy 41 (2013) 65–74, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.04.010.
[22] J. Clement, T. Kristensen, K. Grønhaug, Understanding consumers' in-store visual
perception: the influence of package design features on visual attention, J. Retail.
Consum. Serv. 20 (2013) 234–239, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2013.
01.003.
[23] A. Gofman, H.R. Moskowitz, J. Fyrbjork, D. Moskowitz, T. Mets, Extending rule
developing experimentation to perception of food packages with eye tracking, Open
Food Sci. J. 3 (2009) 66–78, http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874256400903010066.
[24] L. Liao, A. Corsi, L. Lockshin, P. Chrysochou, Can Packaging Elements Elicit con-
sumers’ Emotional Responses?, 41st Eur. Mark. Acad. Conf, (2012), pp. 1–7.
J. García-Madariaga et al.
[25] E. Fulcher, A. Dean, G. Trufil, Neurosense and Packaging: Understanding Consumer
Evaluations Using Implicit Technology, Elsevier Ltd, 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/B978-0-08-100356-5.00006-1.
[26] N.K. Smith, J.T. Cacioppo, J.T. Larsen, T.L. Chartrand, May I have your attention,
please: Electrocortical responses to positive and negative stimuli, Neuropsychologia
41 (2003) 171–183, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00147-1.
[27] N. Vila-López, I. Kuster-Boluda, Adolescents' food packaging perceptions. Does
gender matter when weight control and health motivations are considered? Food
Qual. Prefer. 52 (2016) 179–187, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.04.
012.
[28] I. Küster-Boluda, I. Vidal-Capilla, Consumer attitudes in the election of functional
foods, Spanish J. Mark. - ESIC 21 (2017) 65–79, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sjme.
2017.05.002.
[29] M. Hsu, Neuromarketing: inside the mind of the consumer, Calif. Manag. Rev. 59
(2017) 5–22, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0008125617720208.
[30] J.-C. Rojas, M. Contero, J.D. Camba, M.C. Castellanos, E. García-González, S. Gil-
Macián, Design Perception: Combining Semantic Priming With Eye Tracking and
Event-Related Potential (ERP) Techniques to Identify Salient Product Visual
Attributes, vol. 11, (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/IMECE2015-50956 Syst.
Des. Complex. V011T14A035.
[31] H. Zamani, A. Abas, M.K.M. Amin, Eye tracking application on emotion analysis for
marketing strategy, J. Telecommun. Electron. Comput. Eng. 8 (2016) 87–91.
[32] B. Piqueras-Fiszman, C. Velasco, A. Salgado-Montejo, C. Spence, Using combined
eye tracking and word association in order to assess novel packaging solutions: a
case study involving jam jars, Food Qual. Prefer. 28 (2013) 328–338, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.10.006.
[33] M. Reimann, J. Zaichkowsky, C. Neuhaus, T. Bender, B. Weber, Aesthetic package
design: a behavioral, neural, and psychological investigation, J. Consum. Psychol.
20 (2010) 431–441, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.009.
[34] R. Andrew Hurley, D.E. Hutcherson, C.E. Tonkin, S.B. Dailey, J.C. Rice, R. Andrew,
Measuring physiological arousal towards packaging: tracking electrodermal activity
within the consumer shopping environment Recommended Citation, J. Appl.
Packag. Res. 7 (2015). http://scholarworks.rit.edu/japr (accedido 31 de marzo de
2017).
[35] E.-J. Lee, G. Kwon, H.J. Shin, S. Yang, L. Sukhan, M. Suh, The Spell of Green: Can
Frontal EEG Activations Identify Green Consumers? (2014), pp. 511–521, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1775-2.
[36] M. Kawasaki, Y. Yamaguchi, Effects of subjective preference of colors on attention-
related occipital theta oscillations, NeuroImage 59 (2012) 808–814, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.07.042.
[37] G. Slanzi, J.A. Balazs, J.D. Velásquez, Combining eye tracking, pupil dilation and
EEG analysis for predicting web users click intention, Inf. Fusion. 35 (2017) 51–57,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.inffus.2016.09.003.
[38] M. Hudák, R. Madleňák, V. Brezániová, The impact of advertisement on Consumer's
perception, CBU Int. Conf. Innov. Sci. Educ. (2017) 187–191, http://dx.doi.org/10.
2139/ssrn.2636927.
[39] R.Q. Barros, A.S. Tavares, W. Albuquerque, J. Clarissa Da Silva, I. Abel De Lemos,
R. Lorena, S. De, A. Cardoso, M.M. Soares, M.R. Cairrao, Analysis of product use by
means of eye tracking and EEG: a study of Neuroergonomics, Springer Int. Publ.
Switz. Part II (2016) 539–548, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40355-7_51.
[40] J.F. Hopstaken, D. van der Linden, A.B. Bakker, M.A.J. Kompier, Y.K. Leung,
Human perception and performance shifts in attention during mental fatigue :
evidence from subjective, behavioral, physiological, and eye-tracking data, J. Exp.
Psychol. 6 (2016) 878–889, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xhp0000189.
[41] J.-M. López-Gil, J. Virgili-Gomá, R. Gil, T. Guilera, I. Batalla, J. Soler-González,
R. García, Method for improving EEG based emotion recognition by combining it
with synchronized biometric and eye tracking Technologies in a non-invasive and
low Cost way, Front. Comput. Neurosci. 85 (2016) 1–14, http://dx.doi.org/10.
3389/fncom.2016.00085.
[42] M.E.H. Creusen, J.P.L. Schoormans, The different roles of product Apppearance in
consumer choice, J. Prod. Innov. Manag. 22 (2005) 63–81, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1111/j.0737-6782.2005.00103.x.
[43] A. Cholewa-Wojcik, A. Kawecka, The influence of effectiveness of packaging ele-
ments on the consumers'preferences with the use of marketing Eye-tracking tech-
nique, Mod. Manag. Rev. 20 (2015) 49–61.
[44] H. Kauppinen-Räisänen, Strategic use of colour in brand packaging, Packag.
Technol. Sci. 27 (2014) 663–676, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pts.2061.
[45] A. Gordon, K. Finlay, T. Watts, The psychological effects of colour in consumer
product packaging, Can. J. Mark. Res. 13 (1994) 3–11.
[46] S.T. Wei, L.C. Ou, M. Ronnier Luo, J. Hutchings, Psychophysical models of con-
sumer expectations and colour harmony in the context of juice packaging, Color.
Res. Appl. 40 (2015) 157–168, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/col.21867.
[47] L. Maughan, S. Gutnikov, R. Stevens, Like more, look more. Look more, like more:
the evidence from eye-tracking, J. Brand Manag. 14 (2007) 335–342, http://dx.doi.
Physiology & Behavior xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
org/10.1057/palgrave.bm.2550074.
[48] M. Yadava, P. Kumar, R. Saini, P.P. Roy, D. Prosad Dogra, Analysis of EEG signals
and its application to neuromarketing, Multimed. Tools Appl. 76 (2017)
19087–19111, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11042-017-4580-6.
[49] J.L. Orquin, S. Mueller Loose, Attention and choice: a review on eye movements in
decision making, ACTPSY 144 (2013) 190–206, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
actpsy.2013.06.003.
[50] K. Balcombe, I. Fraser, L. Williams, E. Mcsorley, Examining the relationship be-
tween visual attention and stated preferences: a discrete choice experiment using
eye-tracking, J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 144 (2017) 238–257, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.jebo.2017.09.023.
[51] G. Ares, F. Mawad, A. Giménez, A. Maiche, Influence of rational and intuitive
thinking styles on food choice: preliminary evidence from an eye-tracking study
with yogurt labels, Food Qual. Prefer. 31 (2014) 28–37, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.foodqual.2013.07.005.
[52] R. Rebollar, I. Lidón, J. Martín, M. Puebla, The identification of viewing patterns of
chocolate snack packages using eye-tracking techniques, Food Qual. Prefer. 39
(2015) 251–258, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.08.002.
[53] M. Wedel, R. Pieters, A review of eye-tracking research in marketing, Rev. Mark.
Res. 4 (1989) 123–147.
[54] G. Ares, A. Giménez, F. Bruzzone, L. Vidal, L. Antúnez, A. Maiche, Consumer visual
processing of food labels: results from an eye-tracking study, J. Sens. Stud. 28
(2013) 138–153, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/joss.12031.
[55] M.L. Mitterer-Daltoé, M.I. Queiroz, S. Fiszman, P. Varela, Are fish products healthy?
Eye tracking as a new food technology tool for a better understanding of consumer
perception, LWT - Food Sci. Technol. 55 (2014) 459–465, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.lwt.2013.10.013.
[56] L.M. Soederberg Miller, D.L. Cassady, Making healthy food choices using nutrition
facts panels. The roles of knowledge, motivation, dietary modifications goals, and
age, Appetite 59 (2012) 129–139, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.04.009.
[57] E. Du Plessis, J. Leighton, S. Dalvit, The branded mind: what neuroscience really
tells us about the puzzle of the brain and the brand, Int. J. Advert. 30 (2011)
723–725, http://dx.doi.org/10.2501/IJA-30-4-723-725.
[58] W. Klimesch, EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory per-
formance: a review and analysis, Cogn. Brain Res. 29 (1999) 169–195, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0173(98)00056-3.
[59] C. Mühl, C. Jeunet, F. Lotte, EEG-based workload estimation across affective con-
texts, Front. Neurosci. 8 (2014) 114, , http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2014.
00114.
[60] N. Pratt, A. Willoughby, D. Swick, Effects of working memory load on visual se-
lective attention: behavioral and electrophysiological evidence, Front. Hum.
Neurosci. 5 (2011) 57, , http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2011.00057.
[61] W. Klimesch, Alpha-band oscillations, attention, and controlled access to stored
information, Trends Cogn. Sci. 16 (2012) 606–617, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
tics.2012.10.007.
[62] R. Pieters, M. Wedel, Attention capture and transfer in advertising: brand, pictorial,
and text-size effects, J. Mark. 68 (2004) 36–50, http://dx.doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.
68.2.36.27794.
[63] K. Rayner, Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of re-
search, Psychol. Bull. 124 (1998) 372–422, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.
124.3.372.
[64] T.J.L. van Rompay, F. Deterink, A. Fenko, Healthy package, healthy product?
Effects of packaging design as a function of purchase setting, Food Qual. Prefer. 53
(2016) 84–89, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.06.001.
[65] L. Percy, Psycholinguistic guidelines for advertising copy, Adv. Consum. Res. 9
(1982) 107–11. http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/5910/volumes/v09/NA-09 (acce-
dido 24 de noviembre de 2017).
[66] L. Hickey, Being positive about the negative in advertising, Int. J. Advert. 3 (1984)
369–372, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02650487.1984.11105035.
[67] B. Rocchi, G. Stefani, Consumers' perception of wine packaging: a case study, Int. J.
Wine Mark. 18 (2006) 33–44, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09547540610657669.
[68] M. Kuniecki, J. Pilarczyk, S. Wichary, The color red attracts attention in an emo-
tional context. An ERP study, Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9 (2015) 212, , http://dx.doi.
org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00212.
[69] T. Clarke, A. Costall, The emotional connotations of color: a qualitative investiga-
tion, Color. Res. Appl. 33 (2008) 406–410, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/col.20435.
[70] L. Sliburyte, I. Skeryte, What we know about Consumers' color perception, Procedia
- Soc. Behav. Sci. 156 (2014) 468–472, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.
11.223.
[71] C. Martindale, Cognitive Psychology: A Neural-Network Approach, Brooks/Cole
Publishing Company, 1991.
[72] M. Morrin, S. Ratneshwar, The impact of ambient scent on evaluation, attention,
and memory for familiar and unfamiliar brands, J. Bus. Res. 49 (2000) 157–165,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00006-5.