ANINDUSTRI

ALTRAI NI
NGREPORT
ON
Cooper
ati
veel
ect
ri
calsuppl
ysoci
ety
,si
rci
ll
a

Submitt
edi
ntheParti
alFulf
ilmentoftheRequi
rement
ForCompl eti
onOf
Di
plomaInEl
ectr
icalandElectr
onicsEngi
neeri
ng

A.Swathika
PI
N:17024-EE-
259

Undert
hegui
danceof
Sushamamadam( AE)

Cooper
ati
veel
ect
ri
calsuppl
ysoci
ety
,si
rci
ll
a,Kar
imnagar

DEPARTMENTOFELECTRI
CAL&ELECTRONI
CSENGI
NEERI
NG

SRRSGOVERNMENTPOLYTECHNIC
SI
RCI
LLA,
505301.
TELANGANA.

STATEBOARDOFTECHNICALEDUCATI
ON&TRANI
NG(
T.S)
SRRSGOVERNMENTPOLYTECHNI
C
SIRCI
LLA
 CERTI
FICATE
Thi
sist
ocer
ti
fyt
hatMr
.A.
Swat
hikabear
ingpi
nno.17024-
EE-259has
successf
ull
ycompl
etedt
hei
ndust
ri
alt
rai
ningwhi
chi
sbonaf
iedwor
kdonebyt
he
candi
dat
einpar
ti
alf
ulf
il
mentoft
her
equi
rementf
orcompl
eti
on“
Dipl
omai
n
el
ect
ri
cal
andel
ect
roni
csengi
neer
ing"6t
hsemest
erbyt
hest
ateboar
doft
echni
cal
educat
ionandt
rai
ning,
T.S.Dur
ingacademi
cyear2019-
2020

Tr
aini
ngi
nchar
ge. Headoft
hedepar
tment
SMT.
P.SRI
DHEVI
(M.
Tech)
.

SushmaMADAM (
A.E)

Pr
inci
pal
DR.
B.RAJGOPAL(M.Tech)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Iti
swi t
hgreatpleasur
eIdeclar
et hatIhavecomplet
edmy
i
ndust r
ialt
rai
ningwi thhelpofKRISHNAVENIMADAM( AE)COOPERATI VE
ELECTRI CALSUPPLYSOCI ETYLIMITEDSIRCILLA,whogav ei
nspi
ri
ngguidance,and
everreadyforhelpingusinev er
ymannerf orever
ytime.
Weexpr essthankst oCESSMANAGI NGDIRECTING,SushamaMADAM f or
gi
v i
ngv al
uablesuggest i
onindoingmyent ir
eproj
ect,andf ort
hestaf
fofSShel pin
practi
calonsi
det raini
ng.

Wewi sht
opayourt
hankst
oB.RAJAGOPAL,
Princi
pal
,SRRSGOVERNMENT
POLYTECHNIC,
whogavemoral
suppor
tandval
uablegui
dancef
orourcar
ri
er
dev
elopment
.

Wewouldli
ketothankstoP.SRI
DHEVI,H.O.DDepar
tmentof
El
ect
ri
cal&Electr
onicsEngi
neer
ingforval
uablegui
dancei
napproachi
ngand
pr
oceedi
ngthroughoutourt
rai
ning.

Lastbutnotl
east
,weconveyoursi
ncer
ethankstoal
lwhohel
pedusdi
rect
lyand
i
ndirect
lyi
ncomplet
ionofouri
ndust
ri
alt
rai
ning.

A.
Swat
hika
(
17024-
EE-
259)
 I
NDEX

 INTRODUCTIONOFCESS
 ELECTRIFI
CATIONOFDWELLI NGHOUSES
 POWERSUPPLYARRANGEMENTS
 STORES
 METERSANDTRANSFORMERS
 LINEDIAGRAM OFSUBSTATION
 EARTHING
 WORKI NGOFTRANSFORMERS
 VOLTAGEANDTURNSRATI O
 COREANDWI NDINGOF3-PHASECORETYPETRANSFORMERS
 SHORTCI RCUITORIMPEDANCETESTONTRANSFORMERS
 WHYTRANSFORMERSARERATEDI NKVA
 INDUCTIONTYPEOF1- PHASEENERGYMETER
 TESTINGOF1- PHASEENERGYMETER
 CONDUCTORSANDI NSULATORS
 CABLES
 SAFETYMEASUREMENTSOFSUBSTATI ONS
THECO-OPERATI
VEELECTRI
CSUPPLYSOCI
ETYLTD
SI
RICI
LLA

I
NTRODUCTI
ON:

Duringt hemi ddleof1960' sGov t.ofIndi afel ttheneedf orest abl i

shmentofa
separ ateorganisationforqui ckerpaceofr ur alel ectri
ficat i
ont oi ncreasefood
product i
onint hecount ryandal sof orsoci oeconomi cdev elopmenti nrural
Indi
a.Theexper tsofNat ional Rur alElectricCo- oper ati
v esAssoci ati
on
(NRECA)ofU. S.
A.andUni tedSt atesAgencyf orI nternat ional Dev elopment
(USAI D)hav est udiedthef easibi li
tyandr ecommendedf orest ablishmentof
pil
otRur alElectricCo-oper ativesi nIndia.Wi tht her esul tfivepi l
otRECo-
oper ati
vesv i
z.),
Huker i(i
nKar nat aka) ,Kodi nor( inGuj ar at )
,Lucknow( i
nUt t
ar
Pradesh)andMul apravara( inMahar astra)wer et akenbi r t
hi nthecount ryin
they ear1970. Si
rcill
a(inTel angana
ThePur icommi tteeappoi ntedbyt heREC, NewDel hihasst udiedt he
performanceoft hef i
vepi l
otCo- oper ativesdur ingmi ddl eof1970sand
recommendedf ort hegrowt hofRECo- oper ati
v es.Si mi l
ar l
yMat hur
commi tt
eehasal soendor sedt her ecommendat ionsofPur i commi tt
ee,
during1980’ s.Wi ththeresul tabout100RECo- oper ati
v eshav ebecome
funct i
onalinIndia,ofwhi ch9Co- oper ativesi nAndhr aPr adesh.Atpr esent
about30Co- oper ati
vesar ewor kingi nt hecount ryincludi ngonl y1i n
Telangana.

DETECTIONOFPI LFERAGEOFENERGY
Asepar atejeephasbeenprovi
dedtot heD.P.
E.wing.theAAE/DPEwil
l
conductinspecti
onsasperscheduledprogrammei nconsul
tat
ionwit
hthe
ADESoper at
iontoar
resttheftandmalpracti
ceofener
gy.
 ACHI EVEMENTS
Thesoci etyhassuccessf ullygr oundedal lthefi
veproject
ssancti
onedbyt he
RuralEl ect r
ification Cor poration,New Del hiand achieved the tar
gets
envisagedi nt heabov ePr
ojectrepor ts,wel li
nadvance.
CESSATAGLANCE
1 Dat eofr egi stration 30. 10.1969
2 Regi strat i
onNo 748/ T.D.
3 Dat eofst ar ting 01.11.1970
4 Jur i
sdi ct i
on Allniner ev enuemandal sofSirci
l
laDiv
isi
onviz.
 S i
rcilla
 E l
lant hakunt a
 Mu stabad
 Ga mbi raopet
 Y ell
ar eddi pet
 Ko nar aopet
 Ch endur thi
 Ve mul awada
 Bo inpal ly
Nallagonda&Thi ppaipal
lyvi
ll
agesofKodimial
mandal.
5 Geogr aphi cal area 1870sq. Km.
6 Popul ation 5,48,850
7 No.ofr evenuev ill
ages173
8 No.ofhaml ets 150
9 No.ofmember s 2,54,018
10Membershar ecapi tal6.37cr ores
11Val ueofAsset s 143.93cr ores
12RECLoan
a)Tot al Proj ectl oan 10. 03cr or es
b)Loanoutst anding Ni l
c)RGGVYl oan -Nil
-
13Tot alempl oy ees: 374
Super visory 1
Provinci al
Techni cal 284
Sub-st af f
Consol idatedpay 14

PHYSI
CALACHI
EVEMENTS:
 PHYSI
CALACHI
EVEMENTS:
Sl
. Par ti
cular s Uni
tTakeov
erPosit
ion Positi
onAson
No. asOn31.10.
70 31.03.2019
1 Vi l
lagesel ectri
fied No 46 173
2 Haml etsel ectr
ifi
ed No 7 150
3 11KVLi nes Km 194 6147.84
4 6. 3KVLi nes Km -- 961.70
5 LTLi nes Km 461 8124.89
6 Di str
ibutionTr ansfor
mer
s No
(Capacitywi se)
315KVA -- 4
250KVA -- 11
160KVA -- 281
100KVA 46 3935
75KVA 25 0
63KVA -- 20
50KVA 32 0
25KVA 6 124
15KVA( sph) -- 1550
Total 69 5925
7 Ser viceconnect i
ons: No
a)Domest i
c 1798 147028
b)Commer cial 474 11601
c)Indust ri
al 105 1336
d)Cot t.
Indust r
ial -- 5702
e)Agr i
cul t
ure 2299 66811
f)Streetlights -- 570
g)Wat erwor ks -- 1245
h)Other s 44 934
Total 4720 235227
8 Sub- stations(NPDCLassets)No 69 5925
a)132/ 33KV -- 5
b)33/ 11KV 1 61
 WORKI NGCAPI TAL
Thesocietyist
aki
ngupr ural
electr
ifi
cati
onwor ksmainlywi
ththel
oan
assist
anceprovi
dedbytheREC, NewDel hiandmembercont ri
buti
on.No
r
egularall
ocati
onoff
undsar eavail
able,t
othissociet
y,ei
therf
rom t
hestat
e
Gov
t.orfrom theCentralGovt.

Wor
kingcapi
tal
oft
hesoci
etyason31-
03-
2019compr
isesoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:

RECLOANS (Rs.i
ncr
ores)
a)Sanctioned 10-03
b)Released 10-03
c)Repaid 10-03
d)Balance -Ni
l-
e)RGGVYSchemeLoan Ni
l

SHARECAPI TAL: (
Rs.i
ncr
ores)
a)Stat
eGov ernment
i
)Sanctioned 0.63
i
i)Repaid 0.63
i
ii
)Outst anding -Nil
-
b)A.P.Transco/APNPDCL 0.26
c)Member s 6.10
3.Developmentchar ges 27.
25
4.Grantfrom thest ategovt.under 0.
73
Telugukr anthipatham
5.Consumer sser vi
celinecharges 30.
87
andcont ri
bution
6.Grantf rom MOPf orsystem impr
ovement 2.
65
Andener gyconser vati
onpr oj
ect
7.Grantf orRajeevgandhi grameena 5.
71
Vidyudhikaranay ojanascheme

REPAYMENTOFLOANS
Thesociet
yisr epayingtheRECl oanasperschedul edintheproj
ect
r
epor
tsandt hereisnoov erdues.Thesoci etyhasgotarebateof
Rs.15.
20lakhsf r
om Rur alEl
ectri
ficati
onCorporati
onduet oprompt
r
epaymentofloani nstal
lments.Yearlyinst
all
mentsunderthisheadi
s
aboutRs.16.01lakhst owardspr i
ncipalandRs.13.
71lakhstowards
i
nterest.

SPECI
ALRESERVEFUND
TheREC, NewDel hihassanct i
onedloanassi stanceforexecutionof
wor ksanddecl aredamor at
orium peri
odof5y ears.Theamount
equivalenttoint
erestr emissi
ononpr ojectloansdur i
ngt hemor atori
um
peri
od.I ti
nvestedsepar atel
yinSpecialReserv eFund( SRF).Thet ot
al
SRFincludingtheinterestaccruedoni ti
soft heor derofRs.25.39cr ore.
Thisamounti sav ail
ableintheshapeofFi xedDeposi tsinTSCAB,
Hyderabad.
 ASSETSCREATED
ThevalueofFixedAsset stakenoverf
rom t
heAPSEBon31- 10-
1970is
Rs.
0.59cror
es.Thesamehasbeengr owntot
heext entofRs.143.93
cror
esason31. 03.2019.I
nadditi
ontothi
ssocietyarehavi
ngli
quidit
y
assetsofaboutRs.20.
00crores.

VI
LLAGEELECTRI
FICATI
ON
Al
lthe173r evenuevil
lageshav ebeenelectri
fi
edwithinashor tspanof
5y earsi.
e.by31-03-1975.Simil
arl
yallthe150haml etsand320
HarijanBasti
esandexistingweakersectioncoloni
eshav ealsobeen
electr
ifi
edby31-03-1989itself
.Thesoci etyhasachieved100%
electr
if
icat
ionofhabitati
onsintheareaofoper at
ionofCESS.

ENERGI
SATI
ONOFAGRI
CULTUREPUMPSETS
Atthet i
meoft akeover,
therewereonl y2299Agr icultur
econnect i
onsin
t hearea.Nowt hesamehasbeeni ncreasedt o66,176Nos.onaccount
ofwhi chabout1.50lakhacresofaddi t
ionall
andi sbroughtint
o
cul t
ivati
on.Furtherpr
ovidedempl oymentt oaboutonel akhagr i
cult
ural
laborer.Mor eover,
thi
shascontributedf ori
ncreasei npaddyproduction
ofabout6lakht onsperannum.
 ELECTRI
FICATI
ONOFDWELLI
NGHOUSES
Theaverageelectr
ifi
cat
ionofhousesinourcountryisabout46.
5%and
i
nTelanganai ti
s59.60%, wher
easinSirci
l
laCo-operati
vear
eathe
achievementis90%, asper2011census.ThetotalDomesti
c
connecti
onsexisti
nginCESSareaason31- 03-2017

SUPPLYOFELECTRI
CITYTOI
NDUSTRI
ES
Theindust
rialserv
iceconnect
ionshavebeenincreasedfrom 105to
8116and75%oft hem bel
ongstocottagei
ndustriesofbackward
classesmai nl
ypowerlooms, whi
chhascontri
butedf orcreat
ionof
employmentpot enti
alt
o16,000famili
esandproducingt welv
elakh
metersofclothworthofaboutRs.Onecroreperday .

POWERSUPPLYARRANGEMENTS
Therear ef or
tyfour33/11KVsub- stati
onsareexi sti
nginCESSar ea.These
sub-stati
onsar ebeingf edfrom 132/ 33KVSub- Stati
onsPeddur,Mall
aram,
Yell
areddipet and El l
anthakunta. Allt he sub-stati
ons are owned and
maintainedbyt heAPTRANSCO.Dur i
ng2011- 122no’ s132/33KVsubstat
ions
sancti
oned atChi ppal
apallyv i
l
lage ofMust abadmandaland Ni mmapal l
y
vi
ll
ageofKonar aopetmandal.Thewor katNimmapal l
yyettobestart
ed1No.
220KVsub- st
ati
onatPeddurwassanct ionedandf oundat
ionst
onewasl ai
d
on21- 08-2014workisunderpr ogress
.
I
naddi t
iontotheabov eexi
sti
ngSub- stati
ons,another1433/11KVSub-
Stat
ionshav ebeenproposedinCESSar eatocatert heincreasedpowerloads
daybyday .Inthi
s3Nos33/ 11KVSub- Stat
ionsaret echnical
lychargesby
NPDCLatLaxmi poorandVenkatapur.Sixno’sSub- Stati
onsar esancti
onedi.
e.
Malyal,
Nagampet ,Kasbekat
koor,Anant hagir
i,Vi
l
asagar ,andJi l
l
ell
a.Outof8
No’sSub-Stati
onsworkisunderprogr essin2No’ sSub- Stati
onsand
remaini
ng6no’ sareundertenderprocess.

STORES
Thestor
essect
ionisbroadl
ydivi
dedintotwowi ngsnamelyi
n-door
sect
ionandout
-doorsecti
on.I
n-doorsect
iondealsmainl
ywit
h,
consumabl
es,spar
esformet
ersandtransformers.TheOut-doorsect
ion
deal
swithhar
dwareli
nemateri
als,
Poles,Transf
ormers,Conductoret
c.
Therear
eabout200it
emsinin-doorsect
ionand100i temsi nour-
door
secti
on.

METERSANDTRANSFORMERS
Thesociet
yissel
f-
suffi
ci
entintest
ingandrepai
ri
ngoft
ransf
ormersand
energymeter
s.About300distr
ibut
iontr
ansfor
mers(
DTRs)arebeing
repai
redever
yyeari
nadditi
ontoov er
hauli
ngof800DTRsatfi
eld.

WORKSHOP
TheWor k-shopissetupforf abri
cati
onoflinemat eri
alsuchascross
arms,BackCl amps, DPstr
uct ur
es,Staysetsetc.Thewor k-
shop
consi
stsofdr il
l
ingmachine,cutti
ngmachi ne,weldingtr
ansfor
mer ,
gri
nder,
flatcutterandbendingmachi neetc.

TARI
FF
Thesociet
yisPur chasi
ngenergyat11KVf rom APNPDCLandmet ered
at33/11KVSub- Stati
ons.Thetari
ffpayablebythesocietyt
oNPDCLi s
bei
ngf i
xedbyt heTSERCev er
yy ear.Thepresenttar
if
fratei
s4.
52
Rs/KWHf rom 01.04.
2018.
Thesociet
yisadopt i
ngsameLTt arif
frat
esast hatofDISCOMstoit
s
consumers.

AUDI
T
Auditoftheaccountsofthesocietyisbeingdonebyt heCo.oper
ati
ve
departmentaudit
ors.Theauditf
or2016- 17iscompletedandaudit
cert
ifi
cat
eissuedbyt heDist
ri
ctCo- oper
ativeAudi
tOf fi
cer
,Kari
mnagar
andtheauditFinanci
alyear2017-18isunderprogress.

SHRAMADAN
Theuniquefeatureofthesoci
etyisvolunt
aryl abourcontri
buti
oni.e.
“SHRAMADAN”byt heprospecti
veconsumer s.Theyhav ebeen
contri
but
inglabourfortr
ansport
ati
onofpol es, di
ggingofpits,
erecti
on
ofpoles,
stri
ngingofli
nesetc.Thevalueoft he“ SHRAMADAN”i softhe
orderof15to20%v alueofthefi
xedassets.Besi dest
his,t
heyhav ealso
contri
but
edaboutRs.15. 04cror
esintheshapeofdev el
opmentchar ges.
REVENUEBI
LLI
NGANDCOLLECTI
ON
Thespotbi l
li
ngsy stem isintroducedint heentir
ear eaofoper ati
onof
CESSandent rustedt opr i
vatebill
ingagencies.Theywi l
lprepare&i ssue
thebi l
l
sont hespotev er
ymont h.Thi
ssy st
em isf aci
li
tati
ngt ot he
consumer sf orv erif
icati
onofr eadingsandensur ingcorrectbill
ing.In
caseofagr icult
urecat egorythebi ll
ingi
sbei ngdoneoncei nsixmont hs,
synchronizi
ngt hecol l
ecti
onswi tht heharvesti
ngseasonofagr i
culture.
Foref fecti
ve col l
ection att he doorst eps oft he consumer s,f i
xed
program isgi vent oBi llColl
ectorsi nsuchawayt hattheyv i
sitev ery
vil
lagetwice,everymont h.

POWERSUPPLYARRANGEMENTS
Thepr esentrat
eoff ailur
eofDTRsi s12%.Wi ththev i
ewt or educet he
rateoff ai
lur
esaspeci almaintenancesquadi sf ormed.Theyar e
prov i
dedwi t
hav an,menandmat eri
altoattendt oall minordef ectson
thespotsuchasr eplacementofLVbushi ngs,rods, washer s,topupof
transformeroil
etc.Howev ert
her ateoffail
ureoft ransf or
mer si si
n
i
ncr easingtr
endast heLoadDi ver
sityFactoradopt edi snotwor ki
ng
most lyduetocont i
nuousr est
ricti
onsandcont rol ofpower .New
i
mpr ovementtr
ansf ormersarebei ngaddedt othesy stem,ev eryyear,t
o
bringdownt heLDF.
 ADMI
NISTRATI
ON
Theconst
it
uti
onofManagi
ngCommi
tt
eet
omanaget
heaf
fai
rsoft
hesoci
etyi
sas
f
oll
ows.

IEl
ect
edDi
rect
ors :  1Chai
rman

 1Vi
ceChai
rman

 9Di
rect
ors
I
INomi
nat
edDi
rect
or(
Off
ici
al) :
4

a.Di
vi
l.El
ecl
.Engi
neerf
rom A.
P.Tr
ansco

b.Chi
efPr
ojectManagerf
rom REC,

c.Di
st.Co-
oper
ati
veOf
fi
cerf
rom Co-
op.Depar
tment

d.Managi
ngDi
rect
oroft
heSoci
ety

MANAGI
NGCOMMI
TTEEOFCESS
TheDi
str
ictCol
l
ect
or/El
ect
ionaut
hor
it
yhasi
ssuedCESS Managi
ng
Commi
tt
ee El
ect
ion not
if
icat
ion on 09-
01-
2016.As pert
he El
ect
ion
schedul
edt
heCESSManagi
ngCommi
tt
eeEl
ect
ionwashel
don28-
02-
2016.Thef
oll
owi
ngmember
swer
eel
ect
edandt
akenassumedchar
ge
on03-
03-
2016.Thedet
ail
sar
efur
nishedbel
ow.

S.
No. Nameoft heMember Assumedchar
geas Const i
tuency
1 Sr
iD.LaxmaReddy Chair
man Si
rcil
laRur al
2 Sr
iL.
Sr i
nivas Vi
ce-Chair
man Si
rcil
laTown
3 Sr
iV.Venkat r
amanaReddy Di
rector El
lanthakunt a
4 Sr
iK.
Dev enderYadav Di
rector Gambhi raopet
5 Sr
iE.
VijayaramaRao Di
rector Mustabad
6 Sr
iK.
Mal lareddy Di
rector Yell
areddy pet
7 Sr
iA.Ramesh Di
rector Chandurt hy
8 Sr
iD.Thir
upat hi Di
rector Konaraopet
9 Sr
iRamat hirt
hapuRaj
u Di
rector Vemul awadaTown
10 Sr
iJ.
Sr i
nivas Di
rector Vemul awadaRur al
S.
No. NameoftheMember Assumedchar
geas Consti
tuency
11 Smt
.E.
Laxmi Di
rect
or Boi
npall
y

STAFFI
NGPATTERN
The Commi
ssi
onerf
orCo-
oper
ati
on and Regi
str
arofCo-
oper
ati
ve
Soci
eti
es,A.
P.Hy
der
abad has appr
oved st
aff
ing pat
ter
nfor al
l
cat
egor
ies/
cadr
est
otheext
entof455Nos.onl
ytodowor
kint
he
soci
etyf
orsmoot
hrunni
ng.Thest
affi
sgoi
ngt
ober
eti
redduet
o
at
tai
ningt
heageofsuper
annuat
ionev
eryy
ear
.Dur
ingt
hey
earof2011
t
heCC&RCSHy
der
abadhasi
ssuedor
der
sforabsor
pti
onof172Vi
l
lage
El
ect
ri
cit
yWor
ker
s as Asst
.Hel
per
.Atpr
esent407 empl
oyees ar
e
wor
kingi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion(
incl
udi
ngconsol
i
dat
edpayempl
oyees)
.The
soci
etyi
snotgoneupf
orr
ecr
uit
menti
nthesoci
etyf
rom 1984on
r
egul
arbasi
s.Thet
otalempl
oyeesoft
heCESScanbebr
oadl
ycl
assi
fi
ed
i
ntot
wocat
egor
ies.

DETECTI
ONOFPI
LFERAGEOFENERGY
Asepar
atej
eephasbeenpr
ovi
dedt
otheD.
P.E.wi
ng.t
heAAE/
DPEwi
l
l
conducti
nspect
ionsasperschedul
edpr
ogr
ammei
nconsul
tat
ionwi
th
t
heADESoper
ati
ont
oar
restt
hef
tandmal
pract
iceofener
gy.
LI
NEDIAGRAM
OF
SUBSTATI
ON
EARTHI
NG:

Thesubst
ati
onear
thingsyst
em compr
isesofagr
i ear
d( thmat
)for
med
byahori
zont
albur
iedconductor
s.

Thegr oundi ngsy stem insubst ati

oni sv eryimpor tant.Thef unct i
onsof
groundingsy st
emsorear t
hmati ninclude:
 Ensur esaf etytoper sonnel insubst ationsagai nstel ectri
cal shocks.
 P r
ov idet hegr oundconnect i
onf orconnect i
ngt heneut ralsofst at
connect edt ransformerwi ndi ngtoear th(neut ralear t
hing) .
 Dischar ge the ov ervoltages f r
om ov erhead gr ound wi r es ort he
li
ghtni ngmast st oear t
h.Topr ovidegr oundpat hf orsurgear r
esters.
 P r
ov ideapat hf ordischargingt hechar gebet weenphaseandgr ound
bymeansofear thingswi t
ches.
 Topr ovideear t
hconnect ionst ost ructuresandot hernon- curr
ent
carryingmet alli
cobj ectsint hesub- stat i
on( equipmentear thing).
Inadditi
ont osuchagr idbelowgr oundl ev el
,ear t
hingspi kes( electr
odes)
aredriveni ntot hegr ound.Theyar econnect edel ect r
ical
lytot heear th
gri
d,equi pmentbodi es,structures,neut rals,etc.Allthesear econnect ed
tothest at i
onear t
hingsy stem byear thingst rips.

Iftheswit
chyar
dshaveasoiloflow r
esi
sti
v i
ty,eart
hr esi
stanceofthe
earthi
ngsyst
em woul
dbel ow.Ifthesoi
lr esist
ivi
tyishigh,t hemesh
rodsar el
aidatcl
oserspacing.Moreelectrodesar einsertedinthe
ground

TYPESOFEARTHI
NG
Basi
cal
l
ytwot
ypesofear
thi
ngi
spr
efer
redi
ncaseoft
ransf
ormer
.

Bodyandsecondar
yisear
thedsepar
atel
y.

Bodyofthetransfor
merconsistsoftheoilt
ank, i
nsul
ati
on,t
apped
changer,conserv
ator,br
eatheretc.Duri
nganyf aul
tcondi
ti
onleakage
curr
entcanflowthroughthebodyandt henifanyonetouchthebody
thenther
eisachanceofr ecei
vingsevereshock.

Neutralgroundingisdonei ncaseofsmal lKVAt ransformersincaseof

powert r
ansf or
merr esistancegroundingispreferredunderfault
y
condi
t i
onorunbal ancedl oadingconditi
oncurrentf l
owst hr
ought he
neutr
al wi
ret hatcurrentshouldbegr ounded.Groundi ngisdonebyGI
rodorGal vanizedi
ronr od.I nresi
stancegroundingt hreephaseresi
stor
s
areconnect edtother espectivephasesanditcr eatesav ol
tagedrop
thusreducet hegroundi ngcurrent
.

Ar
cinggroundi
salsoprefer
red.I
treducet
hephasecurr
entby
i
ncreasi
ngthephasevol
tage√3ti
mesofi t
snor
mal val
ue…

Don'
tusei
nduct
ororcapaci
toringroundi
ngpur
posei
twi
l
lser
iousl
y
ef
fectt
hest
abil
i
tyofthetr
ansformer

HOW THETRANSFORMERWORKS

Transf
ormersareelect
ri
caldevi
cesconsi
sti
ngoft
woormor ecoi
l
sof
wireusedt
ot r
ansferel
ectr
ical
energybymeansofachangi
ngmagnet
ic
fi
eld

Oneoft hemai nreasonst hatweuseal ter natingACv olt

agesand
currentsi nourhomesandwor kplace’sist hatACsuppl i
escanbeeasi l
y
gener atedataconv enientv ol
tage,transfor med( hencethename
transformer )i
ntomuchhi ghervoltagesandt hendistr
ibutedaroundthe
count ryusinganat i
onal gri
dofpy lonsandcabl esoverv eryl
ong
distances.
TheVol tageTransformercanbet houghtofasanel ectr
icalcomponent
ratherthananel ectroniccomponent .At ransf or
merbasi call
yisver
y
simplest at
ic(
orstationary)el
ectro-magnet icpassiveelectri
caldevi
ce
thatwor ksontheprincipleofFaraday ’
sl awofi nducti
onbyconv ert
ing
electri
cal ener
gyfrom onev al
uet oanot her .
Thetransfor
merdoesthisbyli
nki
ngtogethertwoormor eelect
rical
cir
cui
tsusingacommonosci ll
ati
ngmagnet i
ccircui
twhichisproduced
bythetransf
ormeri
tsel
f.Atransf
ormeroperatesontheprinci
palsof
“el
ect
romagnetici
nducti
on”,i
nthefor
m ofMut ualI
nducti
on.
Mutuali
nductionistheprocessbywhi chacoi l
ofwiremagnet i
call
y
i
nducesav olt
agei nt
oanot hercoi
llocatedincl
oseproximi
tytoit.Then
wecansayt hattransfor
mer sworkinthe“ magneti
cdomain”,and
t
ransfor
mer sgettheirnamef rom t
hef actt
hatthey“t
ransf
orm”one
vol
tageorcurrentleveli
ntoanother.
Transformer
sarecapableofeitherincr
easingordecreasi
ngthevol
tage
andcur r
entl
evel
softheirsupply,wit
houtmodifyi
ngit
sf r
equency
,orthe
amountofelectr
ical
powerbei ngtransf
erredfr
om onewi ndi
ngto
anotherviat
hemagneticcircui
t.
Asi nglephasevolt
aget r
ansformerbasi
callyconsistsoftwoel ect
rical
coilsofwire,onecall
edthe“PrimaryWinding”andanot hercal
ledt he
“SecondaryWi ndi
ng”.Forthi
stutori
alwewi l
ldefinethe“pri
mar y”sideof
thet r
ansformerasthesidethatusuall
ytakespower ,
andthe“ secondary”
ast hesidethatusual
lydeli
verspower.I
nasi ngle-phasevolt
age
transformerthepri
mar yi
susual l
ythesi
dewi ththehighervolt
age.
Thesetwocoil
sarenotinelectr
icalcont
actwit
heachotherbutare
i
nsteadwrappedtoget
heraroundacommoncl osedmagnetici
ron
ci
rcui
tcal
ledthe“
core”.Thi
ssof ti
roncoreisnotsol
idbutmadeupof
i
ndivi
dual
laminat
ionsconnectedtogethert
ohelpreducethecore’
s
l
osses.
Thetwocoi lwindingsareelect
ri
cal l
yisol
atedfr
om eachotherbutar
e
magnetical
lyli
nkedt hr
ought hecommoncor eall
owingelectr
ical
power
tobetransfer
redf rom onecoilt
ot heother.Whenanelectr
iccurr
ent
passedthrought hepri
mar ywinding,amagneticfi
eldi
sdev el
opedwhich
i
nducesav ol
tageintothesecondar ywindi
ng.

VOLTAGEANDTURNS
Thei nputwi
ndingtoatransfor
meri scall
edpri
mar ywi ndi
ng.Theout put
windingiscall
edsecondarywinding.ift
herear
emor eturnsofwireon
thepr i
marythanonthesecondar y,
theoutputvol
tagewi llbelowerthan
theinputvol
tage.Thi
sil
lustr
ateast epdownandast epupt ransf
ormer .
Noticethatt
hewi ndi
ngwithagr eaternumberofturnshast hehigher
volt
age.onewindinghastwiceasmanyast heother.Inonecaseast he
volt
ageissteppeddownt ohal f,whi l
eintheot hert hevoltageisst epped
uptodouble.Itisimpor t
anttoknowt her ati
ooft henumberoft urnsof
wireonthepr i
marywi ndingascompar edtot hesecondar ywi nding.Thi
s
i
scal l
edtheturnsrati
ooft het ransformer,equat ion.Theact ualnumber
ofturnsi
snoti mportantjustthet urnsrrati
o.Numberoft urnsont he
pri
mar ynumberoft ur nsonthesecondar y;ther eforether ati
ois2t o1,
thestepupt r
ansformerhas7t urnsi nthepr i
mar yand14ont he
secondarytheref
ore,theturnsr ati
o1t o2, i
fonev ol
tageandt heturns
rat
ioareknown, t
heot hervolt
agecanbedet er mi nedwi t
hequat ions.

COREANDWI NDI
NGOFTHREEPHASECORETYPE
TRANSFORMER

Threephasetransfor
mersaremoreeconomi cal
f orsuppl
yi
ngl arge
l
oadsandl ar
gepowerdistr
ibut
ion.Eventhoughmostoft heutili
zati
on
equipmentsareconnect
edbythesinglephasetransformers,
thesear e
notpref
err
edf orlar
gepowerdi
stri
butioni
ntheaspectofeconomy .

Thet hreephasepoweri susedi nalmostal l f

iel
dsofel ectr
icalpower
system suchaspowergener at
ion,t
ransmi ssionanddi str
ibuti
onsect or
s,
alsoallthei
ndust ri
al sect
or saresuppliedorconnect edwiththreephase
system.Theref ore,tost ep-up(orincrease)orst ep-down( ordecrease)
thev ol
tagesint het hreephasesy st
ems, threephaset r
ansf or
mersare
used.Ascompar edwi t
hthesi nglephaset ransformer ,
thereare
numer ousadv antageswi th3phaset r
ansfor mersuchassmal l
erand
l
ightertoconst ructf orthesamepowerhandl i
ngcapaci t,
y bett
er
operati
ngchar act eri
st i
cs,etc.

Cor
eTy
peConst
ruct
ion
Incor
etypethreephaset ransf
ormer,cor
eismadeupoft hreeli
mbsor
l
egsandtwoy okes.Themagnet i
cpathisformedbet weent heseyokes
andli
mbs.Oneachl i
mbbot hprimar
yandsecondar ywindingsare
woundedconcent r
ical
ly
.Ci r
cul
arcyl
i
ndr i
calcoil
sareusedast he
windi
ngsforthistypeoftransf
ormer.Theprimaryandsecondar y
windi
ngsofonephasear ewoundedononel eg.Underbalanced
condit
ion,t
hemagnet icfluxi
neachphaseoft hel
egaddsuptozero.
Theref
ore,undernormal condit
ions,noretur
nlegi
sneeded.Butincase
ofunbalancedloads,highcir
culati
ngcurrentfl
owsandhenceitmaybe
besttouset hr
eesinglephaset r
ansformers

TYPESOFWI
NDI
NGSUSEDFORCORETYPETRANSFORMER

The foll
owi
ng menti
oned windi
ngs ar
e l
ayer
ed t
ype and ei
ther
rect
angul
arorr
oundconduct
or.
1.Cyl
indr
icalWindi
ngs:
(a)Mult
iLayeredWindi
ngs
2.HelicalWi
ndings:
(a)Si
ngleHeli
calWindings
(b)DoubleHel
icalWindings
(c)Di
sc-Heli
calWindings
3.Mul
ti
-Lay
erHel
i
cal
Windi
ngs
4.Cr
oss-Ov
erWi
ndi
ngs
5.Di
scandCont
inuousDi
skWi
ndi
ngs
6.Al
umi
num Wi
ndi
ngs

Cy
li
ndr
icalWi
ndi
ngs
Cyli
ndri
calwindi
ngsarewindingswit
hl owvoltagethatuseupt
o6.6kV
forkVAupt o600-750andhaveacurrentrat
ingbetween10to600A.
MultiLay
eredCyli
ndri
calWindings
Cyli
ndicalwindingsaremost l
yusedinit
smulti
-lay
eredfor
m.Iti
sused
wit
hr ectangularconductor
sinthetwo-l
ayer
edtypeasitbecomesver
y
easytosecur ethelead-outends.
Theoi lductssepar atethel ayer
soft hewi ndings,thisarr
angement
facil
it
atedbythecoolingprocessthroughoilci
rculat
ioninthewindi
ng.
Inmul t
ilayer
edcyli
ndr i
calwi ndi
ngs,ci
rcularconductorsareused;they
arewoundonv ert
icalst r
ipst oimprovet hecoolingconditi
ons.The
arrangementcreat
esoi lductswhichfaci
li
tategoodcooling.
Theset
ypesofwindingsareusedforhi
ghv
olt
ager
ati
ngsupt
o33kV,
800kVAandthecur
rentrat
ingsupt
o80A.
Themaximum di
amet
ert
hati
susedi
nthi
sty
peofwi
ndi
ngf
orabar
e
conduct
ori
s4mm.
Hel
icalWi
ndi
ngs
Helical windi ngsar eusedf orlowv oltageandhi ghcapaci tyt
ransf ormers,
wher et hecur renti shigherandatt hesamet imet hewi ndi
ngt urnsare
l
esser .Theout putoft r
ansf or
meri nt hiscasev ari
esf rom 160t o1000
kVAf r om 0. 23t o15kV.
Forsecur ingt headequat emechani calst r
engtht hecr oss-sectionalarea
oft hest r
ipi smadenotl esst han75t o100mm squar e.Themaxi mum
numberofst ripst hatar eusedt omakeupt heconduct orinpar alleli
s
16.
HelicalWi ndi ngshav et hreet ypes:
SingleHel icalWi ndings
Thewi ndingi naxi aldi r
ect i
onal ong ascr ew l i
newi thinclinationis
referredt oasSi ngleHel icalWi ndings.Thesewi ndingsconsi stofonl y
onel ay eroft urnsi neachoft hewi ndings.
Doubl eHel icalWi ndings
TheDoubl eHel i
calWi ndi ngpr ov idesanadv ant ageofr educingt heeddy
currentl ossi nconduct or s.Thi si sduet other educednumberofpar all
el
conduct orst hatar esituat edinar adial dir
ecti
on.
Disc-Hel i
calWi ndings
The Di sc-Hel icalWi ndi ngs i s desi gned in a wayt hatt he par all
el
connect edst ripsar epl acedsi det osi dei nar adi
aldi rect
ionsoast o
occupyt het otal radialdept hoft hewi nding.

Mul
ti
-l
ayerHel
icalWi
ndi
ngs
TheMul ti
-Lay erHelicalWindingisusedcommonl yf orhi ghvoltage
rat
ingssuchas110 kV and abov e.Thesewi ndingsi ncludesev eral
cyl
indri
call
ayersconcentri
call
ythatarewoundandconnect edinseri
es.
Theout erlayersoft hesewindingsar emadeshor tert hant heinner
l
ayer sfor distr
ibut
ing the capacitance unif
ormly.These wi ndings
basical
l
yimprov ethesurgebehaviorofthetransfor
mer s.

Cr
ossov
erWi
ndi
ngs
These wi
ndi
ngs ar
e used f
orhi
gh v
olt
age wi
ndi
ngs oft
he smal
l
tr
ansformer s.The conduct orsoft hese wi ndingsar e papercov er
ed
str
ipsorr oundwi r
es.Thewi ndingshel pr educet hev oltagebetween
adjacentlayersast heyar edi videdi ntoanumberofcoi l
s.Thecoi lsare
separated ax i
all
ybya di stance of0. 5-1mm.The v ol
tages between
adjacentcoilsmustnotbemor et han800t o1000V.
Thei nsideendoft hecoi lisconnect edwi t
ht heout putendoft he
adjacentone.Theax iallengthofeachcoi linactuali
tyisabout50mm,
whilethespaci ngbet weent het wocoi l
si sabout6mm sot hatitcan
accommodat et hebl ocksofi nsul ati
ngmat eri
al.Thecoilwi dthis25t o
50mm.Cr ossov erwindinghasgr eaterst
rengt hthancy l
indri
calwinding
undernor malcondi tions.Al though,t hecr ossov erhasl oweri mpulse
str
engthascompar edt ot hecy l
indr i
calone.Thi st y
peofwi ndingalso
consumesahi gherl aborcost .

Di
scandCont
inuousDi
scWi
ndi
ng
The Di sc and Cont inuous Di sc Wi nding i
s basical l
y used f orhi gh
capaci t
yt ransf or
mer s.Thesewi ndingsconsi stofnumer ousflatcoi ls/
discsi naser i
esorpar all
elf ormation.Thecoi lsoft hesewi ndingsar e
formedwi tht hehel po fr ectangularst r
ipsthatarewoundspi ral
lyf rom
thecent reout war dsinar adial di
recti
on.
Theconduct orsoft hesewi ndingscanbeasi ngl
est ripormul ti
plest rips
i
napar allelfor mationt hatar ewoundont hef l
atside.Thi sformat ionof
the conduct ors makes t he const ruction forthist ype ofwi ndings
extremelyst r
ong.Thedi scsar esepar atedfrom eachot herwi ththehel p
ofpr ess-boar dsect orst hatar eat t
achedt ov ert
icalst rips.Thev erti
cal
andt hehor izontalspacer sf orfreeci r
culat
ionofoi lpr ovideradialand
axialduct st hatcome i n cont actwi t
h each tur n.The ar ea oft he
conduct orr angesf rom 4t o50mm squar eandl i
mi tsf orcur r
entar e12
to600A.Themi nimum oi lductwi dthis6mm f or35kV.Theadv antage
oft hesewi ndi ngsist hatt heypr ov i
degr eat
ermechani calaxi alstrengt h
andcheapness.

Shel
lTy
peTr
ansf
ormerWi
ndi
ngs

Sandwi
chTy
peWi
ndi
ng
TheSandwi
chTy
peWi
ndi
ngspr
ovi
deeasycont
rol
overt
her
eact
ance,
as
thenear ertwocoilsar etogetheronthesamemagnet i
caxis;thegreater
i
st hepr oporti
onoft hemut ualfluxandt helesserist heleakageflux.
Thel eakagef l
uxcanber educedbysub-di vi
dingthesect i
onsoft helow
andt hehi ghvolt
ages.Theendl owv olt
agessections,inSandwi chTy pe
Windi ngscontainhalft heturnsofthenormall owv oltagesectionsthat
areref er
redtoashal fcoil
s.
Forbal ancingthemagnet o-
mot i
veforcesoftheadj acentsecti
ons,each
oft henor malsections,eitherhighorl ow v ol
tagecar ri
est hesame
numberofamper et urns.Thehi gherthedegr eeofsubdi visi
onoft he
volt
ages, thesmallerwi l
lbethereactance.

Adv
ant
agesofShel
lTy
peWi
ndi
ngs
TheShel lTy peWi ndingspr ovi
desal otofadv antages,suchashi gh
capabili
tyofwi t
hstandingshor t -ci
rcui t
s,highermechani calst
rength,
higherdielect r
icstr
ength, greatleakagemagnet i
cf l
uxcontrol,
ext
remel y
effi
cientcool i
ngcapabi l
ity,af l
exibledesi gnwi t
hacompactsi ze.All
theseadv ant agescomewi thahi ghlyreliabl
edesign.
Servo St ar i s a pr emium Tr ansformer Manuf actur
er Company i n
Indi
at hatpr ovidesqualitytransformer s.Gett hetransfor
merbestpr i
ce
foryouri ndust r
y,homeandof ficeswi thdiff
erentkindsofwi ndi
ngsfor
diff
erentpur poses.

Opencir
cui
torNol
oadt
eston
Tr
ansfor
mer
Opencir
cuittestornoloadtestonatr
ansformerisper
formedto
det
ermine'noloadloss(corel
oss)'
and'noloadcurr
entI0'
.Theci
rcui
t
di
agram foropencircui
ttesti
sshowninthef i
gur
ebelow.
Usual lyhighv oltage( HV)wi ndi ngiskeptopenandt hel owv oltage( LV)
wi ndingi sconnect edt oitsnor mal suppl y.Awat t
met er( W) ,ammet er( A)
andv ol tmeter(V)ar econnect edtot heLVwi ndi ngasshowni nt hef i
gur e.
Now, appl i
edv oltagei ssl owl yincreasedf rom zer ot onor mal rat edv alue
oft heLVsi dewi tht hehel pofav ariac.Whent heappl iedv oltage
reachest other atedv alueoft heLVwi nding, r
eadi ngsf rom al l t
het hr ee
i
nst r
ument sar et aken.
Theammet erreadi nggi vest henol oadcur rentI 0.AsI 0itselfisv ery
smal l
, thev olt
agedr opsduet ot hiscur rentcanbenegl ect ed.
Thei nputpoweri sindi catedbyt hewat t
met er( W) .Andast heot hersi de
oft ransf ormeri sopenci rcuited,ther eisnoout putpower .Hence, this
i
nputpoweronl yconsi stsofcor elossesandcopperl osses.As
descr i
bedabov e,no- l
oadcur rentissosmal lthatt hesecopperl osses
canbenegl ected.Hence, nowt hei nputpoweri sal mostequal t
ot he
cor el osses.Thus, thewat t
met erreadi nggi vest hecor el ossesoft he
transf or mer.
Somet imes, ahi ghr esistancev olt
met erisconnect edacr osst heHV
wi nding.Though, av oltmet eri sconnect ed, HVwi ndingcanbet reatedas
openci rcui
tast hecur rentt hrought hev oltmet eri snegl i
gi bl
ysmal l
.Thi s
hel psi nt ofindv oltaget ransf ormat ionr atio(K) .
Thet wocomponent sofnol oadcur rentcanbegi venas,

Iμ=I
0si
nΦ0 and Iw =I
0cosΦ0.
cosΦ0(
noloadpowerfactor
)=W /(
V1I
0)
...
.(W =wat
tmet
err
eadi
ng)

From t
his,shuntparameter
sofequi
val
entci
rcui
tpar
amet
ers
ofequi
valentcir
cuitoft
ransfor
mer(
X0andR0)canbecal
cul
atedas

X0=V1/
Iμand R0=V1/
Iw.
(Theseval
uesarerefer
ri
ngtoLVsideofthetr
ansf
ormer.
)
Hence,i
tisseenthatopenci
rcui
ttestgi
vescorel
ossesoft
ransf
ormer
andshuntparametersoft
heequiv
alentci
rcui
t.

Shortcir
cui
torI
mpedancet
eston
Transfor
mer
Theconnect i
ondiagram f orshortcir
cuitt
estori
mpedancet eston
transf
ormerisasshowni nthef i
gurebelow.TheLVsideoftransfor
mer
i
sshor tci
rcui
tedandwat t
met er(W),vol
tmere(V)andammet er(A)are
connectedont heHVsi deoft hetransf
ormer.Vol
tageisappl
iedtothe
HVsi deandincreasedfrom thezer ounti
ltheammeterreadi
ngequals
theratedcurr
ent.Allt
her eadingsaretakenatthi
sratedcurr
ent.

Theammet err
eadi nggi v espr imar yequi val
entoffulll
oadcur rent(I
sc)
.
Thev oltageappl iedf orf ulll
oadcur rentisverysmallascompar edto
ratedv olt
age.Hence, corel ossduet osmal lappli
edv ol
tagecanbe
neglect ed.Thus, t hewat tmet err eadingcanbet akenascopperl ossin
thetr ansfor mer.
2
Ther efore, W =Isc R eq...
...
.(wher eReqi stheequi v
alentresi
stanceof
transf ormer )
Zeq=Vsc/ Isc.
Ther efore, equi
val entr eactanceoft ransformercanbecal culatedf r
om
2 2 2
thefor mula Zeq =Req +Xeq .
These, valuesar er efer redt ot heHVsi deofthet r
ansformer.
Hence, itisseent hatt heshor tcircuittestgivescopperlossesof
transf ormerandappr ox imat eequi valentresi
stanceandr eactanceoft he
transf ormer .
 WhyTr
ansf
ormer
sar
erat
edi
nkVA?
From t heabovetr
ansfor
mert est
s, i
tcanbeseenthatCul ossofa
transformerdependsoncur rent,andironl
ossdependsonv olt
age.Thus,
totaltransfor
merlossdependsonv olt
-ampere(VA).I
tdoesnotdepend
ont hephaseanglebetweenv olt
ageandcur r
ent,i
.e.t
ransformerlossi
s
i
ndependentofl oadpowerf actor.Thisist
hereasonthattransfor
mer s
arer at
edi nkVA.

I
NDUCTIONTYPESI
NGLEPHASEENERGY
METER

Inducti
ontypeinstr
ument sar eusedf ora.c.measur ements.t
he
i
nductionprinci
plefi
nditswi destapplicat
ionasanener gy
met er
.Inducti
ontypeenergymet erusedinv ar
iabl
ytomeasur et he
energyconsumedi nanya. c.cir
cuitsinapr escri
bedper i
odwher esuppl
y
volt
ageandf requencyareconst ant.Energymet eri
sani ntegrati
ng
i
nstrumentwhi chmeasurest het otalquanti
tyofelectr
icalenergy
suppli
edt othecir
cuiti
ngiv enper i
od.

Pri
nciple:
Thebasi cpr
inci
pleofinducti
ont ypeener gymeteriselectr
omagnet ic
i
nduct i
on.Whenal t
ernati
ngcur r
entf l
owt houghtwosui t
ablylocated
coil
sproducesrotati
ngmagnet i
cf i
eldwhi chi
scutbyt hemet al
li
cdisc
suspendedneartothecoilsthusemfi nduceinthediscwhichi s
ci
rculat
eseddycur r
entinit.byinteracti
onofrotati
ngmagnet icfiel
dand
eddycur r
ent
s,tor
quei sdevelopedandcauset hediscrotate.

Constr
ucti
on:
Aninduct
iont
ypesi
ngl
ephaseenergymet
er,asshowi
nfi
ghas
fol
l
owingmainpart
soft
heoperat
ingmechanism.

1.Dr
ivi
ngsy
stem.
2.Mov
ingsy
stem.
3.Br
eaki
ngsy
stem.
4.Recor
dingmechani
sm.

1.
Dri
vingsyst
em.
I
tconsist
softwoel
ect
romagnet
s, ed“
cal
l shunt
”magnetand“
ser
ies”
magnet,

Seri
esmagnet :itconsi
stsofanumberofU- shapedlaminationsof
sil
i
const eelt
ogethertoform acore.Acoi
lofthickwirehavingafew
tur
nsi swoundedi nbothlegsofU-shapedmagnet .thecoil
isknowni s
currentcoi
lwhichisconnectedserieswit
hload.producethemagnet i
c
fi
eldproport
ionalandinphasewi t
hl i
necurr
entI.

Shuntmagnet:itconsi
stsofnumberofM-shapedlaminationsof
sil
i
consteelassembledtoget
hert
oform acore.
Acoi l
oft hinwire
havingl
argenumberofturninwoundoncentrall
imboft hemagnet .
thi
scoili
sconnectedacrossthel
oad.t
husitisexci
tedbycur rent
pr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hesuppl
yvol
tageandknowni
spot
ent
ial
coi
l
.

2.Mov i
ngsy stem.
Themov ingsy stem essent i
all
yconsistsofal i
ghtrot
atingal
uminium
diskmount edonav erti
cal spi
ndleorshaf t.Theshaftthatsupport
sthe
al
umi ni
um di skisconnect edbyagearar rangementt otheclock
mechani sm ont hefrontoft hemetertopr ov i
deinfor
mat i
onthat
consumedener gybyt heload.
Thetimev ary i
ng(sinusoidal)fl
uxespr oducedbyshuntandser i
es
magneti nduceeddycur r
ent sinthealumini um di
sc.
Theinteract i
onbet weent heset womagnet icfi
eldsandeddycur r
ents
setupadr ivi
ngt orqueint hedisc.

Thenumberofrot
ati
onsofthediskisther
efor
eproport
ionalt
othe
ener
gyconsumedbytheloadinacertaint
imeint
erval
andi scommonl
y
measur
edinkil
owatt
-hours(kWh).

3.Breaki ngsy stem.

Dampi ngoft hedi skispr ovidedbyasmal lpermanentmagnet ,l
ocated
diamet ricallyopposi tet othea. cmagnet s.Thedi skpassesbet weent he
magnetgaps.Themov ementofr ot at
ingdi scthrought hemagnet i
c
fi
eldcr ossi ngt heai rgapset supeddycur r entsinthedisct hatreacts
witht hemagnet icfiel
dandexer tsabr akingt orque.
Bychangi ngt heposi t
ionoft hebr akemagnetordi ver
tingsomeoft he
fl
uxt her ef orm, thespeedoft herot ati
ngdi sccanbecont roll
ed.
4.Recor dingmechani sm.
Thef unct ionofr ecordingorr egi
st eri
ngmechani sm istor ecord
continuousl yanumberont hedi alwhi chispr oporti
onal tothe
revolutionsmadebyt hemov ing sy st
em. t
henoofr ev
ol ut
ionont he
discisameasur edtheel ectricalenergypassi ngt hought hemet er.

Wor
kingofSi
ngl
ephaseener
gymet
er:
Whent heener gymet erisconnect edincircuit,t
hecur r
entcoilcarries
theloadcur rentandpr essur ecoilcarr
iesthecur rentproport
ionaltot he
supplyv oltage.t hemagnet i
cfieldproducedbyser i
esmagnet icin
phasewi tht helinecur rentand magnet i
cf i
eldpr oducedbyshunt
magneti sinquadr aturewi ththeappl i
edv ol
t age.thus,aphase
dif
ferenceexi stsbet weent hefluxesproducebyt hetwocoi l
s.this
setupr otatingmagnet i
cf i
eldwhi chinter
actswi t hdiscandpr oducea
dri
v i
ngt orqueandt hus, di
scst artsrot
ati
ng.thenumberofr evoluti
ons
madebyt hedi scdependuponener gypassi ngt hought hemet er.the
spindlegear edt other ecordingmechani sm sot hatener gyconsumedi n
thecircuitisdi rectl
yr egisteredinkWh.

thespeedoft hediscisadjust
edbyadjustingt heposit
ionofbraking
magnet .example,i
ftheenergymeterregisterslessenergythanthe
energyactualconsumedi ntheci
rcui
t.thent hespeedofdi schastobe
i
ncreasedwhi chisobtai
nedbysifti
ngthebr akingmagnetnear ertothe
centreofthediscvice-v
ersa.

Met
erConst
ant
,K= No.ofr evol
uti
ons
Ener
gysuppl
iedi
nkWh
Byusi
ngt
hisr
elat
ionwecancal
cul
atenumer
ical
val
uesofpr
obl
em.

TESTI
NGOF1-
PHASEENERGYMETER

Cali
brati
onandTesti
ngof
Si
ngle-
PhaseEnergyMet
er
Ouraim her eistocalibratet hegi
venSingle-PhaseEner
gy
Meterusi ngapr ecessionWat tmet
erandst opwatchusingor
employingphant om loadi ng.Themainappar at
usrequi
redfor
conductingthispracticalex peri
mentinclude:
 Single-PhaseI nductiont ypeEner
gyMet er–240V(5-10)A
 Wa ttmet er300V/10AUPF
 P haseShi ft
ingTransf ormer440V/ 440,500VA
 Single-PhaseVar iac–240V/( 0-
270) V

Procedur
eforcal
i
brati
onandt
est
ingofSi
ngl
e-
PhaseEnergyMeter
:-
1.Givetheconnecti
onsaspert hecircui
tdiagram above.
2.Apply220VA.Ct othepressurecoilci
rcuitbymeansof
phaseshif
ti
ngt r
ansformer.
3.Applyaloadof2Ampsbyswi t
chingont heload.
4.Notedownt hereadingoftwomet ersinagi venperi
odof
 ti
me, say2mi nutes.
5.Findoutthepercent ageerroratthisload.
6.Nowr otatetherotorofphaseshi fti
ngt r
ansfor
mersot hat
thewor ki
ngpowerf actor(
p.f)ofthemet eri
svaried.
7.Forthispowerfactorr epeatsteps4and5.
8.Nowi ncr
easethel oadcur r
entinsuitablest
epsandr epeat
thesteps4, 5,
6andt abulatetheresul
ts.:

Thuswe’vedonet
hetest
ingandcal
i
brat
ionofagi
venSi
ngl
e-
Phaseenergymet
er.
CONDUCTORSANDI
NSULATORS

Whatar
eConduct
ors?
Conduct orsarethemateri
al
sorsubstanceswhichall
owelectri
ci
tyt
oflow
throught hem.Theyconductel
ectr
ici
tybecausetheyal
lowelectr
onsto
fl
oweasi lyinsi
dethem f
rom atom t
oatom.Also,conduct
orsall
owthe
t
r ansmissionofheatorli
ghtfr
om onesourcetoanother.

Metal
s,humans, ear
th,andanimal
sareallconduct
ors.Thi
sisther
eason
wegetelectr
icshocks! Mor
eover
,thehumanbodyi sagoodconductor
.
Soitpr
ovidesaresistance-
fr
eepathfort
hecur r
entt
of l
owfrom wi
reto
body.

Conductor
shav efr
eeelect
ronsoni
tssur
facewhichal
lowcurr
entt
opass
thr
ougheasil
y.Thisist
hereasonwhyconduct
orsareabl
eto
conductel
ect
rici
ty.

Con
duc
tor
san
dIn
sul
at
ors
2ad

Exampl
esofConduct
ors
 Materi
alsuchassi
l
veri
sthebestconduct
orofel
ect
rici
ty.But
,iti
s
cost
lyandso,wedon’
tusesi
lv
erinindust
ri
esandtr
ansmi ssi
onof
el
ectr
ici
ty.

 Copper,
Br ass,
Steel
,Gold,andAlumi
nium ar
egoodconductor
sof
el
ectr
ici
ty.Weuset hem inelect
ri
cci
rcui
tsandsy
stemsinthefor
m
ofwir
es.

 Mercur
yisanexcel
lentli
qui
dconduct
or.Thus,
thi
smat
eri
alf
inds
useinmanyinst
ruments.

 Gasesar
enotgoodconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
ci
tybecauset
heat
omsar
e
qui
tef
araway
.Thus,
theyar
eunabl
etoconductel
ect
rons.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofConduct
ors
Conductorsarequi
teusef
uli
nmanyway
s.Theyf
indusei
nmanyr
eal
-l
i
fe
appl
icat
ions.Forex
ample,

 Mer
curyi
sacommonmat er
ial
int
her
momet
ert
ocheck
t
hetemper
atur
eoft
hebody.

 Al
umini
um f
indsi
tsusei
nmakingf
oil
stost
oref
ood.I
tisal
soused
i
nthepr
oducti
onoffr
ypanst
ostor
eheatqui
ckl
y.

 Ir
onisacommonmat
eri
alusedi
nvehi
cl
eengi
nemanuf
act
uri
ngt
o
conductheat
.

 Thepl
ateofi
roni
smadeupofst
eel
toabsor
bheatbr
iskl
y.

 Conductor
sfi
ndthei
rusei
ncarr
adi
ator
stoer
adi
cat
eheataway
fr
om theengi
ne.

I
nsul
ator
s
I
nsul
ator
sar
ethemat
eri
al
sorsubst
anceswhi
chr
esi
stordon’
tal
l
owt
he
curr
enttofl
owthrought hem.Ingeneral
,theyaresol
i
dinnature.Al
so,
i
nsulat
orsaref
indingusei navari
etyofsystems.Astheydonotall
owthe
fl
owofheat.Thepr opert
ywhichmak esinsulat
orsdi
ff
erentf
rom
conduct
orsisi
tsresisti
vit
y.

Wood,clot
h,gl
ass,mi
ca,andquart
zar esomegoodex amplesof
i
nsul
ators.Al
so,i
nsul
ator
sareprotect
ors.
Theygiveprot
ecti
onagainst
heat
,soundandofcoursepassageofelect
ri
cit
y.Fur
thermore,
insul
ator
s
don’
thaveanyfreeel
ectr
ons.I
tisthemainreasonwhytheydon’tconduct
el
ect
ri
ci
ty.

Exampl
esofI
nsul
ator
s
 Gl
assi
sthebesti
nsul
atorasi
thast
hehi
ghestr
esi
sti
vi
ty.

 Plast
ici
sagoodi
nsul
atorandi
tfi
ndsi
tsusei
nmaki
nganumberof
thi
ngs.

 Rubberi
sacommonmat
eri
alusedi
nmaki
ngt
yres,
fir
e-r
esi
stant
cl
othesandsl
i
pper
s.Thi
sisbecausei
tisav
erygoodi
nsul
at .
or

Appl
i
cat
ionsofI
nsul
ator
s
Asinsul
atorsr
esi
stt
hefl
owofel
ect
ron,
theyf
indwor
ldwi
deappl
i
cat
ions.
Someoft hecommonusesi
ncl
ude:

 Thermali
nsulat
ors,
disal
lowheattomov efrom oneplacetoanot
her.
Hence,weusethem inmakingther
mopl ast
icbott
les.Theyar
ealso
usedinfi
repr
oofi
ngceili
ngsandwalls.

 Soundi nsul
ator
shel
pincontrol
l
ingnoisel
evel
,astheyar
egoodi
n
absorbanceofsound.Thus,
weuset hem i
nbuil
dingsand
conferencehall
stomakethem noi
se-f
ree.

 El
ect
ri
cal
insul
ator
shi
ndert
hef
lowofel
ect
ronorpassageofcur
rent
 throughthem.So,weusethem ext
ensi
vel
yincir
cuitboar
dsandhigh
-volt
agesystems.Theyar
ealsousedincoat
ingelect
ri
cwireand
cables.

CABLES
Thecablethati
susedf orthetransmi ssi
onanddistr
ibut
ionofelect
ri
cal
powerisknownast heelectr
icalpowercable.I
tisusedf orthe
tr
ansmissionofhi
ghv olt
agesinpl aceswhereoverheadlinesare
i
mpr act
icalt
ouse.
Thepowercabl ei
smadeoft hreemai ncomponents,namel y,conductor
,
diel
ectr
ic,andsheath.Theconduct i
ngpathforthecurrentinthecableis
provi
dedbyt heconduct or.Theinsulat
ionordiel
ectr
icwithstandst he
servi
cev ol
tageandisolatestheliveconductorwit
hot herobjects.The
sheathdoesnotal l
owt hemoi sturestoenterandprotectsthecables
fr
om allexternali
nfl
uencesl i
kechemi calorel
ectr
ochemi calattackand
fi
re.

Ty
pesofEl
ect
ri
cal
Cabl
e

Vari
oust y
pesofCabl esareusedeverywher eforvari
ousappli
cat
ions.
Notallcablesperfor
mt hesameapplicati
on.Thef uncti
onofacable
dependsupont het y
peofcable.Theelect
ricalcablesaremadeof
al
uminium orcopperwi respr
otect
edbyani nsul
ati
ngcoatingwhichcan
bemadeofsy ntheti
cpolymers.

Cablesarecl
assi
fi
edint
o5t
ypesdependi
ngupon
thei
rpurposeasf
oll
ows:

 Ri
bbonEl
ect
ri
cCabl
es
 Itconsist sofmulti
plei
nsul
atedwi r
esrunni
ngparal
lelwi
thone
anotherandar eusedfortr
ansmissionofmult
ipl
edata
simultaneousl y
.Forexample,t
hisisusedtoconnectt
heCPUwi t
h
themot herboardandaregeneral
lyusedfori
nter
connect
ionof
networ kingdevices.

 Shi
eldedCabl
es
Itconsist
sof1or2i nsul
atedwireswhicharecoveredbyawoven
braidedshieldoralumi ni
um Mylarfoi
lforbett
ersi
gnal
transmissionandremov i
ngirr
egulari
ti
esinthefr
equencyofpower
andex ter
nal i
nter
ferenceinradio.Thesecablestr
ansmithi
gh
voltageelectr
iccurrentandarepr ot
ectedbyashield.

 Twi
stedPai
rCabl
es
Ithastwoormor einsulat
edcopperwi reswhichar
et wi
stedwith
eachot herandar ecol
our-coded.Theset y
pesofwiresareusual
ly
usedi ntelephonecablesandther esi
stancet
oexternal
i
nterferencecanbemeasur edbythenumberofwi res.

 Coaxi
alCabl
es
Thisconsi
stsofsol
idcopperorst
eelconductorplatedwithcopper
whichisencl
osedinthemetall
i
cbraidandmet all
ictape.Thisis
enti
rel
ycoveredwit
haninsulat
edprotect
iveouterjacket
.These
ty
peofcablesareusedforcomputernetworki
ngandaudi o-
video
networki
ng.

 Fi
breOpt
icsCabl
e
Therearethesety
pesofcableswhichtr
anspor topti
caldata
si
gnalsfrom anatt
achedli
ghtsour
cetother eceivi
ngdevice.We
arepret
tymuchawar eofwhatisopti
calfi
breandi tsusesina
widevari
etyofappli
cat
ions.

Const
ruct
ionofCabl
e
Thepowercabl emai nl
yconsi st
soft hr eemaincomponent s,namel y
,
conductor,
di el
ectri
c,andsheat h.Theconduct orint hecablepr ovidesthe
conducti
ngpat hf orthecurrent.Thei nsulati
onordi el
ectri
cwi thstands
theservi
cev oltageandi sol
atest heconduct orwithot herobjects.The
sheathdoesnotal l
owt hemoi sturestoent erandpr otectsthecabl es
from al
lexternalinf
luenceslikechemi calorelect
rochemi calattack,fi
re,
etc.Themai ncomponent sofel ectr
ical powercablesar eexplained
belowindet ail
s.

Conduc
tor
Coppersandaluminum wiresareusedasaconduct
ormateri
ali
ncabl
es
becauseofthei
rhighelect
rical
conducti
vi
ty.Sol
i
dornumberofbar
e
wir
esmadeofei thercopperoraluminum ar
eusedt
omakeapower
cabl
e.

Foraconduct orhav i
ngmor ethant hreewires,t
hewi r
ei sarr
anged
aroundacent erwiresucht hattherearesixinthef i
rstlayer,twelv
ein
thesecond,eighteenint het hi
rd,andsoon.Thenumberofwi resint
he
conductorsare7, 19,37, 61,91,etc.,
Thesizeoft heconduct oris
represent
edby7/ A, 19/B, 37/C,etc.
,inwhichfirstfiguresrepresentt
he
numberofst r
andsandt hesecondf i
gureA, B,
C, etc.,r
epresent st
he
diametersincm ormm oft heindivi
dualwireoft heconduct ors.

I
nsu
lat
i
on
Themostcommonl
yuseddi
elect
ri
cinpowercabl
esi
simpr
egnat
ed
 paper, butylr
ubber,polyv
inyl
chlori
decable,pol
yethylene,cross-
linked
polyethylene.Paperinsul
atedcablesaremost l
ypreferredbecauset heir
currentcar r
yingcapacit
yishigh,gener
all
yreli
ableandhav i
ngal onglif
e.
Thedi electr
iccompoundusedf orthecabl
eshoul dhav efol
lowing
properties.

 Theinsulat
ormusthav ehighinsul at
ionresi
stance.
 I
tshouldhav ehi
ghdi el
ectr
icstrengthsot hatitdoesnotal
l
owthe
l
eakagecur r
enttopasst hr
oughi t.
 Themat eri
almusthav egoodmechani calst
rength.
 Thedielect
ri
cmat er
ialshouldbecapabl eofoper ati
ngathi
gh
temperatur
e.
 I
tshouldhav el
owt hermalresi
st ance.
 I
tshouldhav ealowpowerf actor .

Thecabl esusedf orsubmarineanddampsoi l

shoul dusesyntheti
c
di
elect
ricslikepolyvi
nylchl
oride,pol
yethy
lene,etc.Thesemat eri
alsare
comparat i
velyli
ghterandhav enonmigrat
orydielectr
ic.Al
so,sucht ype
ofdiel
ect r
icmaterialhasgooddielect
ri
cstrength,lowpowerl oss,and
l
owt hermal resi
stance.

I
nne
rShe
ath
I
tisusedf orprot
ectingt
hecablefrom moistureswhichwouldaffectthe
i
nsulat
ion.Cablesheathismadeupofl eadal l
oy,andthesestr
engths
wit
hstandt hei
nternalpr
essuresofthepressuri
zedcables.Themat er
ial
usedforinnersheathshouldbenonmagnet i
cmat eri
al.

Thealuminum sheat hisalsousedinapowercablebecausei ti

s
cheaper,
smal lerinweightandhighmechanicalst
rengtht
hant helead
sheath.Inoil-
fil
l
edcabl esandtel
ephone,cabl
escorrugat
edseaml ess
aluminum sheathisusedbecausei thasbett
er-
bendingpropert
ies,
reducedthickness,andlesserweight
.

Pr
ote
cti
veCov
eri
ng
Leadsheathcableswhendi rectl
yl ai
ddownont hegroundaredamaged
bycorrosi
onandel ect
rol
yte.Forpr otecti
ngt hecablesagai
nstcorrosion
l
ayersoffibrousmateri
all
ikepaper ,hessi
an, et
c.,
orpolyvi
nylchl
orideis
used.Layersoffi
brousmat eri
al spreadwi t
ht hewaterpr
oofcompound
totheoutsideoftheel
ectr
ical cablear ecal
ledserving.
 Armour ing:Ar mouri
ngisthepr ocessinwhi chlayer
sofgal vanizedsteel
wiresort wolay er
sofmetal t
apear eappliedoversheathf orprotect
ingit
fr
om mechani caldamage.Thest eelwir
esar enormallyusedf or
armour i
ngbecausei thashighlongi t
udinalstr
ength.Armour i
ngi sal
so
usedf oreart
hingt hecabl
e.Whent hefaultoccursinthecable( dueto
i
nsul at
ionfai
lure)thefaul
tcurrentflowsthrought hearmourandget
earthed.

Ov
erShe
ath
Itgi
vesthemechanical
strengtht
ot hecables.Itprot
ectsthecabl
efr
om
overal
ldamagel
ikemoi st
ure,cor
rosion,dir
t,dust,
etc.The
ther
mosetti
ngorthermoplasti
cmater i
alisusedformaki ngovert
he
sheath.

Rat
ingofPowerCabl
e
Shor
tCi
rcui
tRat
ing
Ithappensf requent
lythattheconductorsizenecessar
yforan
i
nstallat
ionisdictat
edbyi t
sabi l
it
ytocarryshort-
cir
cui
tcurrentr
ather
thansust ai
nedcur r
ent.Duringashort-
cir
cuit,
thereisasuddeninrushof
currentforaf ewcyclesfol
lowedbyast eadierfl
owofcur r
entforashort
peri
odunt i
ltheprot
ectionswitchgearoperat
ors,normal
lybetween0.1–
0.3seconds.

Oper
ati
ng
ConductorSi
zeand I
nsulat
ion ShortCi
rcui
t
Maxi
mum
Materi
al Materi
al Rati
ng
Temper
atur
e

120sq-mm Copper
PVCI
nsul
ati
on 70oC 13.
80KA/
SEC
conduct
or

120sq-mm Al
umi
nium
PVCI
nsul
ati
on 70oC 9.
12KA/
SEC
conduct
or

120sq-mm Copper
PVCI
nsul
ati
on 85oC 12.
48KA/
SEC
conduct
or
120sq-mm Al
umi
nium
PVCI
nsul
ati
on 85oC 8.
28KA/
SEC
conduct
or

Cur
rentCar
ryi
ngCapaci
ty
Thecurrentcarryi
ngcapacityisani mportantaspectistheselecti
onof
theopti
mum si zeofconduct or
.Voltagedr opandshor tr
atingisalsoa
veryi
mpor tantaspectt
osel ecttheeconomi calandopt i
mum sizeof
conductor.Thesafecurrentcarryi
ngcapaci t
yofanunder groundcableis
deter
minedbyt hemax i
mum per missibl
et emperatur
er i
se.Thecauseof
temperatureri
seisthelossest hatoccurinacabl ewhichappearasheat.

Conti
nuousCur
rentRat
ingof(
Cabl
es 2Cor
e×
l
aidsi
ngly) 16mm2
2Cor
e×25mm2

(
i)I
nGr
ound(
GroundTemp30oC) 103A 131A

(
ii
)InDuct(
GroundTemp30oC) 86A 111A

(
ii
i)I
nAi
r(Ambi
entAi
rTemp40oC) 94A 125A

Vol
tageDr
op
Theall
owablemax i
mum vol
tagedropsfr
om sour
cet
oloadi
sanot
her
aspectofpowercabl
econductordesi
gn.

AsperOhm’ slaw, V=I R.Thef ir

stist hechoi ceofmat erialusedf orthe
wire.Copperi sabet t
erconduct orthanThef ir
stisthechoi ceofmat eri
al
usedf orthewi re.Copperi sabet terconduct orthanandwi llhav
el ess
vol
t agedr opthanal umi num foragi venl engthandwi resi ze.Wiresizeis
anot herimpor tantf act
ori ndeterminingv ol
tagedr op.Lar gerwi r
esi zes
(t
hosewi t
hagr eaterdiamet er)will
hav el essv olt
agedr opt hansmal ler
wiresi zesoft hesamel engt
h.I nAmer i
canwi r
egauge, ever y6gauge
decr easegi v
esadoubl i
ngoft hewi redi amet er,andev ery3gauge
decr easedoubl est hewi r
ecross-sectional area.IntheMet ri
cGauge
scale, thegaugei s10t imest hedi amet erinmi ll
imeters, soa50gauge
met ricwi r
ewoul dbe5mm i ndiamet er.
 SAFETYMEASURESOFSUBSTATI
ON

I
mpor
tanceofsaf
etypr
otect
ion

Anotherextr
emelyi
mportantsubstati
onengineer
ingaspectis
associat
edwithsaf
etyprotect
ion.Iti
sfai
rtosaythatsafet
yisal
ways
aNo.1pr ior
ityi
nsubst
ationdesign,oper
ati
onandmai nt
enance.

Unl
ikethecasewhereahi gherr
eli
abil
i
tyrequir
edalargeri
nvestment
,
wecan’tputapri
cetagonsaf et
ysincethereisnosuchthi
nglike
worki
ngcondit
ionsbeingmor eorl
esssafe.Itshoul
dalwaysbe100%
saf
etowor katorvi
sitthesubstat
ion.

RuleNo.1,CLEARANCE;
Enoughclearancefrom energi
zedpart
sshoul
dbeprovi
dedtoavoid
acci
dentalcontactwit
ht hem.Ift
hatcan’
tbemet
,li
vepart
sshouldbe
guarded
RuleNo.2,MI NIMUM HEI GHT;

Ami ni
mum hei ghtfr
om t hegroundt oanyungroundedpar
tofan
el
ectri
cali
nstall
ati
onshoul dbe8’-6”,soapersonstayi
ngont heground
can’
ttouchasubst at
ionel ementoritspartwhichmaybecome
energi
zedaccidental
ly.Forexampl e,
thebottom ofaposti
nsulator
support
inganener gi
zedbusdoesnotnor mal l
yhaveanypotenti
al.

Rul
eNo.3,
ILLUMI
NATI
ON;

Ther eshoul
dbesuf f
ici
enti
ll
uminati
onf
orpersonnel
toclearl
ysee
theirsurr
oundingsandperf
orm anywor
ksafely
.Requir
edill
uminat
ion
l
ev elsarespecif
i nNESC®[
edi 1].

Rul
eNo.4,
PASSAGEWAYS;

Alpassageway
l sandstai
rsshouldbewideenoughf
orper
sonnelt
o
navi
gatet
hem saf
ely
,adequat
er ai
li
ngshoul
dbeprovi
ded,
andfl
oor
openi
ngsshoul
dhaveguardrai
ls.

Rul
eNo.5,
EVACUATI
ONROUTES;
Exitsshouldbeclearl
ymar kedandevacuati
onr outesshouldbef r
ee
fr
om obst ruct
ions.Dependingonthefunct
ionoft hebuil
ding(for
exampl e,cont
rolhouse)
,itmayrequir
eseveralexitst
oav oidpersonnel
beingtrappedduringequipmentfaul
t,f
ir
e,etc.

Rul
eNo.6,
GROUNDI
NG;

Allsubstati
onmetall
i
cst r
uctures,f
ences,andequipmenttanksshoul
d
beconnect edtoastationgroundgr i
dwhichshouldbedesignedto
ensuret hatst
epandtouchpot enti
alval
uesarelowerthantheones
sti
pulatedintheappl
icablestandards

.
El
ect
ri
cal
saf
etyt
ipsf
orki
ds
Nev
erputf
inger
sorot
herobj
ect
sinanout
let

 Keepmet
alobj
ect
soutoft
oast
ers

 Nev
eruseany
thi
ngwi
thacor
dorpl
ugar
oundwat
er

 Nev
erpul
lapl
ugoutbyi
tscor
d

 St
ayawayf
rom subst
ati
onsandpowerl
i
nes

 Don'
tcl
i
mbonpowerpol
es

 Nev
erf
lyki
tesnearpowerl
i
nes

 St
ayawayf
rom br
okenorf
all
enpowerl
i
nes

 Nev
ert
ouchorcl
i
mbt
reest
hatar
enearpowerl
i
nes

 Nev
ert
ouchbi
g,met
alt
ransf
ormerboxeswi
thwar
ningsi
gns

 Obeywar
ningsi
gns