ENG005 Language, Culture, Society

What is language?

It is a component of communication that is used in transferring information whether through speech,

written or gesture. The main function or purpose of language is to communicate.

What is Culture?

Culture is the compilation of knowledge or ideology; an experience or belief; principles, values

definitions, religion, roles, concepts of the universe, material objects and possessions acquired by an
individual or group over a course of time.

What is Society?

It is a group of individual who are living together in an organized way. They are people who
communicate in decision making and sharing of work that needs to be done. People in a country can be
considered as society.

Sociolinguistics

by Walt Wolfram
Language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behavior. In the normal transfer of
information through language, we use language to send vital social messages about who we are, where
we come from, and who we associate with. It is often shocking to realize how extensively we may
judge a person's background, character, and intentions based simply upon the person's language,
dialect, or, in some instances, even the choice of a single word.
Given the social role of language, it stands to reason that one strand of language study should
concentrate on the role of language in society.
Sociolinguistics has become an increasingly important and popular field of study, as certain cultures
around the world expand their communication base and intergroup and interpersonal relations take on
escalating significance.
The basic notion underlying sociolinguistics is quite simple: Language use symbolically represents
fundamental dimensions of social behavior and human interaction. The notion is simple, but the ways
in which language reflects behavior can often be complex and subtle. Furthermore, the relationship
between language and society affects a wide range of encounters--from broadly based international
relations to narrowly defined interpersonal relationships.
For example, sociolinguists might investigate language attitudes among large populations on a national
level, such as those exhibited in the US with respect to the English-only amendment--the legislative
proposal to make English the 'official' language of the US. Similarly, we might study the status of
French and English in Canada or the status of national and vernacular languages in the developing
nations of the world as symbols of fundamental social relations among cultures and nationalities. In
considering language as a social institution, sociolinguists often use sociological techniques involving
data from questionnaires and summary statistical data, along with information from direct observation.
A slightly different concern with language and society focuses more closely on the effect of particular
kinds of social situations on language structure. For example, language contact studies focus on the
origin and the linguistic composition of pidgin and creole languages. These special language varieties
arise when speakers from mutually unintelligible language groups need a common language for
communication. Throughout the world, there are many sociohistorical situations that have resulted in
these specialized language situations--in the Caribbean, Africa, South America, Asia, and the Pacific
Islands. In examining language contact situations, it is also possible to examine not only the details of a
 particular language but also the social and linguistic details that show how bilingual speakers use each
language and switch between them.
Another approach to language and society focuses on the situations and uses of language as an activity
in its own right. The study of language in its social context tells us quite a bit about how we organize
our social relationships within a particular community. Addressing a person as 'Mrs.', 'Ms.', or by a first
name is not really about simple vocabulary choice but about the relationship and social position of the
speaker and addressee. Similarly, the use of sentence alternatives such as Pass the salt, Would you
mind passing the salt, or I think this food could use a little salt is not a matter of simple sentence
structure; the choice involves cultural values and norms of politeness, deference, and status
In approaching language as a social activity, it is possible to focus on discovering the specific patterns
or social rules for conducting conversation and discourse. We may, for example, describe the rules for
opening and closing a conversation, how to take conversational turns, or how to tell a story or joke.
It is also possible to examine how people manage their language in relation to their cultural
backgrounds and their goals of interaction. Sociolinguists might investigate questions such as how
mixed-gender conversations differ from single-gender conversations, how differential power relations
manifest themselves in language forms, how caregivers let children know the ways in which language
should be used, or how language change occurs and spreads to communities. To answer these questions
related to language as social activity, sociolinguists often use ethnographic methods. That is, they
attempt to gain an understanding of the values and viewpoints of a community in order to explain the
behaviors and attitudes of its members.
Two trends have characterized the development of sociolinguistics over the past several decades. First,
the rise of particular specializations within this field has coincided with the emergence of more broadly
based social and political issues. Thus, the focus on themes such as language and nationalism, language
and ethnicity, and language and gender has corresponded with the rise of related issues in society at
large. Second, specialists who examine the role of language and society have become more and more
interested in applying the results of their studies to the broadly based social, educational, and political
problems that probably gave rise to their emergence as sociolinguistic themes to begin with.
Sociolinguistics thus offers a unique opportunity to bring together theory, description, and application
in the study of language.

Source:
Sociolinguistics | Linguistic Society of America. (n.d.). https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/sociolinguistics?fbclid=IwAR0KVRHcSpwh_6HDMxqi_TH9lH22QDBcXWGqarFtOK3aORIRd7KdgRX-bLQ

Sociolinguistics analysis: factors affecting sociolinguistics

As we have said, sociolinguistics studies the social factors that influence how people use
language, including their grammar, accents, and lexical choices. The main social factors are:

 Geographical location
 Occupation
 Gender
 Our parents/carers
 Age
 Socioeconomic status - class and education level
 Ethnicity
Geographical location

Where you grew up can significantly impact how you speak. Linguists refer to these
variations in language as dialects. In the UK, dialects vary from region to region and often
have different pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary compared to Standard British
English. Some common UK dialects include Geordie (found in Newcastle), Scouse (found in
Liverpool), and Cockney (found in London).

Occupation

Your occupation can impact how you use language. For example, a computer programmer
would be far more likely to use tech jargon than a chef. Jargon is a kind of slang specific to a
workplace or small group and is often difficult for people outside the group to understand.
An example of tech jargon is the term ‘Unicorn’, which refers to a start-up company valued
at over $1 billion.

Gender

This factor is a little more controversial than the others as there is a lot of conflicting
research around the differences between men and women’s use of language. Some
researchers suggest that differences in speech are due to genetics, whereas others think that
women’s lower status in society has had an impacted on their use of language.

Some studies have found that women tend to be more polite and expressive, and men tend
to be more direct. Other studies have shown that men swear more, and women are more
likely to use ‘caretaker speech’ (speech modified to talk to young children) as they are often
the primary caregivers.

Age

New words are added to the dictionary every year, and many words that were once
common fall out of use. This is because language is constantly changing. Think about your
grandparents or someone significantly older than you. Do you think they would understand
if you told them that the email they received looked suss (suspicious/suspect)? What do you
think they would say if you said their outfit was cheugy?

Did you know the word cheugy was created by Gabby Rasson, an American software
developer, to describe things that were no longer deemed cool or fashionable? Cheugy was
Collins dictionary’s 2021 second word of the year.

Socioeconomic status

This typically refers to a person’s class. According to a recent survey, there are now seven
social classes in the UK: precariat (precarious proletariat), emergent service workers,
traditional working-class, new affluent workers, technical middle class, established middle
class, and elite. The language someone uses will likely differ significantly depending on their
socioeconomic status. This can all be linked to the education they received, the people they
choose to spend time with (or can afford to spend time with), the job that they do, or how
much money they have.
Ethnicity

Sociolinguists have long argued that there is a relationship between ethnicity and language
uses. The previous example of AAVE shows how ethnicity can affect language.

Elements of sociolinguistics

In this section, we are not discussing the social factors that sociolinguists study, but the
technical terms that feed into sociolinguistics.

Here are some key definitions of terms in sociolinguistics.

Language variation - An umbrella term for all variations in a language. Language varieties
are often referred to as ‘lects’, which are laid out below.

Dialect - a language variety based on geographical location.

Sociolect - a language variety based on social factors, such as age, gender, or class.
Idiolect - a language variety that is specific and unique to an individual.
Ethnolect - a language variety specific to a particular ethnic group.
Further key terms include:

Accent - how our voices sound, usually due to where we live.

Register - how we change the language we use depending on our circumstances eg. formal
vs. casual speech.
Let’s take a closer look at each of these terms.

Language variation

Varieties of language can develop for various reasons, such as social background,
geographical location, age, class, etc. The English language is an exciting example as there
are so many different variations all around the world. Have you heard of the terms Singlish
(Singaporean English) or Chinglish (Chinese English)? These are all different varieties of
English that have arisen due to the global spread of English. In fact, there are so many
different varieties of English that the term ‘standard English’ has become quite a
controversial term among linguists.

Language variation can also be broken down into ‘lects’. These include dialect, sociolect,
idiolect, and ethnolect.
Dialect in sociolinguistics

Dialect refers to language varieties that are specific to particular geographical locations.
Think about how someone from the North of England sounds different to someone from the
South, or how someone from the West coast of the USA sounds different to someone from
the East coast. Although these people all speak the same language (English), the accent,
lexicon, and grammar they use can vary greatly. The variations help contribute to the
formation of dialects.

Sociolect in sociolinguistics

A sociolect is a language variety spoken by a particular social group or social class. The term
sociolect is a combination of the words social and dialect.

Sociolects typically develop among groups of people who share the same social
environments or backgrounds. Social factors that influence sociolects include socioeconomic
status, age, occupation, race, and gender.

Bob Marley’s hit song 'No woman, no cry ' is a good example of sociolect in action. Although
Marley was an English speaker, he often sang in Jamaican patois, a sociolect that borrows
from English and West African languages and is often associated with the rural working class.

In patois, Marley’s song title roughly translates to ‘Woman, don’t cry’. However, it has long
been misunderstood by those unaware of the sociolect, to mean something like ‘if there’s
no woman, there’s no reason to cry’.

Individuals don’t just have one sociolect, and most people will use several different
sociolects throughout their lives. Our speech will likely change depending on who we talk to
and where we are.

Idiolect in sociolinguistics

Idiolect refers to an individual’s personal use of language. The term is a combination of the
Greek idio (personal) and lect (as in dialect) and was coined by the linguist Bernard Bloch.

Idiolects are unique to the individual, and constantly change as individuals move through
life. Idiolects are dependent on social factors (just like sociolects), current environments,
education, friendship groups, hobbies and interests, and so much more. In fact, your idiolect
is directly influenced by almost every aspect of your life.

Ethnolect in sociolinguistics
An ethnolect is a variety of a language used by a specific ethnic group. The term ethnolect
comes from a combination of ethnic group and dialect. It is commonly used to describe the
variation of English that non-native English speaking immigrants use in the USA.

African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a good example of an ethnolect.

Accent

Accent refers to an individual’s pronunciation, which is usually associated with their

geographical location, ethnicity, or social class. Accents typically differ in pronunciation,
vowel and consonant sounds, word stress, and prosody (the stress and intonation patterns
in a language).

Our accents can tell people a lot about who we are and often play a significant role in our
identity formation. Many sociolinguists are interested in studying accent discrimination and
have found that non-native English speakers are often discriminated against for their ‘non-
standard’ accents (Beinhoff, 2013)¹. Similar discrimination can also be found in the UK, with
Northern accents receiving less airtime on British TV than Southern accents.

Register

Remember we said that most people use multiple sociolects and idiolects depending on
where they are and who they are talking to? Well, that is an individual's register.

Register is the way people adapt their language in accordance with what they deem most
appropriate for the situation they are in. Think about the way you speak when you are with
your friends compared to when you are at work. Register doesn’t just apply to the spoken
word but often changes when we write. The most common differences in written register
are formal versus informal writing. Think about how you would write an instant message
compared to an academic essay.

The work of sociolinguists

Sociolinguists study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in
finding patterns in speech, understanding why our speech differs, and identifying the social
functions of language.

Sociolinguists focus on the quantitative and qualitative analysis of language variations,

making it a scientific discipline.

Discourse Analysis
An important research method in sociolinguistics is discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is
the analysis of both written and spoken language (discourse) in its social context.
Sociolinguists use discourse analysis as a tool to understand language patterns.

Types of sociolinguistics

There are two main types of sociolinguistics: interactional and variationist sociolinguistics.

Interactional sociolinguistics

Interactional sociolinguistics studies how people use language in face-to-face interactions. It

has a specific focus on how people manage social identities and social activities as they
interact.

Variationist sociolinguistics

Variationist sociolinguistics is interested in how and why variations arise.

Language and identity in sociolinguistics

Studying sociolinguistics can reveal how our identity is bound to our use of language
because of gender, race, class, occupation, age, and where we live.

Sociolinguistics can help us understand ourselves as individuals or as members of larger

social groups. It can also highlight how language can be used as an identity marker and help
us feel a part of a larger community. Many theorists view our language, including our word
choice, accents, syntax, and even intonation, as inexorably linked to our sense of identity.
Suggested further reading on language and identity: Omoniyi & White, The Sociolinguistics
of Identity, 2009.