Aerodynamics M-8: ST10 (COMPANY NAME) (Company Address)

AERODYNAMICS
M-8
AVIATION TRAINING HUB

ST10
[COMPANY NAME] [Company address]
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Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Physics of the Atmosphere.............................................................................................................. 4
Basics......................................................................................................................................................... 4
The International System of Units (System International d'Unités, Sl System) ............................. 4
Definitions....................................................................................................................................... 5
Physics of the Atmosphere.............................................................................................................. 8
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), Application to Aerodynamics ................................................ 8
Pressure Altitude ........................................................................................................................... 11
Density Altitude ............................................................................................................................ 11
Aerodynamics ............................................................................................................................... 14
Airflow around a Body ............................................................................................................................ 14
Streamlines .................................................................................................................................... 14
Laminar Flow ................................................................................................................................ 14
Turbulent Flow.............................................................................................................................. 14
Subsonic Airflow around an Airfoil ............................................................................................. 14
Transonic Airflow (TA) (High Subsonic Speeds) around an Airfoil ........................................... 15
Supersonic Airflow around an Airfoil .......................................................................................... 16
Compression Shocks ..................................................................................................................... 16
Boundary Layer ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Laminar and Turbulent Flow ................................................................................................................... 20
Laminar Boundary Layer Airflow ................................................................................................ 20
Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow .................................................................................................. 20
Free Stream Flow .................................................................................................................................... 22
Relative Airflow ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Upwash and Downwash.......................................................................................................................... 23
Vortices ................................................................................................................................................... 25
Stagnation and Stagnation Point ............................................................................................................ 29
Camber .................................................................................................................................................... 30
Chord....................................................................................................................................................... 31
Mean Aerodynamic Chord ...................................................................................................................... 32
Parasite Drag / Profile Drag .................................................................................................................... 35
Induced Drag ........................................................................................................................................... 39
Design Factors influencing Induced Drag .................................................................................... 40
For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

B1.1 Basic / M8-Basic Aerodynamics October 2019
Center of pressure .................................................................................................................................. 44

Angle of Attack (AoA) .............................................................................................................................. 46
Wash in and Wash out ............................................................................................................................ 49
Geometric Twist............................................................................................................................ 49
Aerodynamic Twist ....................................................................................................................... 50
Aspect Ratio ............................................................................................................................................ 51
Wing Shape ............................................................................................................................................. 53
Thrust ...................................................................................................................................................... 56
Weight ..................................................................................................................................................... 58
Aerodynamic Resultant ........................................................................................................................... 59
Angle of Attack ........................................................................................................................................ 59
Lift Coefficient ......................................................................................................................................... 60
Drag Coefficient ...................................................................................................................................... 62
Polar Curve .............................................................................................................................................. 63
Stall.......................................................................................................................................................... 64
Airfoil Contamination Including Ice, Snow, Frost.................................................................................... 66
Theory of Flight ............................................................................................................................ 69
Relationship between Lift, Weight, Thrust and Drag.............................................................................. 69
Glide Ratio ............................................................................................................................................... 70
Steady State Flights ................................................................................................................................. 71
Performance ........................................................................................................................................... 72
Theory of the Turn .................................................................................................................................. 73
Influence of Load Factor: Stall, Flight Envelope and Structural Limitations ........................................... 74
Influence of the Load Factor: Stall ............................................................................................... 74
Influence of the Load Factor: Flight Envelope ............................................................................. 75
Influence of the Load Factor: Structural Limitations ................................................................... 76
Lift Augmentation ................................................................................................................................... 77
Types of Flaps and Slats ............................................................................................................... 77
Combined use of Flaps and Slats .................................................................................................. 82
Secondary Effects of High Lift Devices ....................................................................................... 83
Flight Stability and Dynamics ...................................................................................................... 84
Longitudinal, Lateral and Directional Stability ........................................................................................ 87
Longitudinal Stability ................................................................................................................... 87

Lateral Stability ............................................................................................................................. 89

Directional Stability ...................................................................................................................... 92

Introduction
Aerodynamics are largely based on the physical principles of compressible fluids and the effects
of flow on a solid body. This module includes a review of the basic physical principles and then
discusses the generation of lift, drag, types of airflow, flow separation, and wing stall. Wing
design, construction, and improvements to aerodynamic efficiency are discussed as they relate to
aerodynamic principles and overall aircraft stability.
Physics of the Atmosphere

Basics
The International System of Units (System International d'Unités, Sl System)
The physical laws used to describe aerodynamic principles will normally use the International
System of Units (SI). The SI system was introduced in the 1960's and is based on the metric
system. Use of the SI system allows a direct comparison of parameters without the need for
conversion to alternate units of measurement, time, weight, or quantity. Global acceptance of the
SI system means that some English and American systems require conversion charts which can
be found in many technical documents. Caution must be exercised when converting an English
or American value to the SI system as there is potential for error with significant consequences.
The 7 physical base units for the SI system are:
• Length - meter [m]

• Mass (Weight) - kilograms [kg]
• Time - seconds
• Electric current - ampere [A]
• Temperature - Kelvin [K]
• Luminous intensity - candela [cd]
• Amount of substance - mole [mol]
Derived units include for example:
• Speed - meters per second [m/s]

• Acceleration - meters per second2 [m/s2]
• Energy - Joule
J = m2 x kg x s-2
• Pressure - Pascal
Pa = m-1 x kg x s-2
• Force - Newton
N = kg x m x s-2

In aerodynamics, the base units mass, length, time and temperature and the derived units speed,
acceleration, force, work, power and pressure are commonly used.
Definitions
A fluid is a liquid or a gas that physically acts like a liquid.
The Italian scientist Venturi discovered that the flow velocity of an incompressible fluid flowing
through a tube acts inversely proportional to a change in the tube's diameter. The flow velocity is
highest at the tube's smallest diameter and decreases with an increasing cross-section.
The continuity equation states that the mass of an incompressible fluid entering a tube must be
the same as the mass leaving it. This means that the same mass flow occurs in every section of
the tube which can be described as the product of the flow velocity v and the cross-section A:
Example: v1 =10 m/s, A1 =20 cm2, v2 =40 m/s, A2 =5 cm2
Continuity equation
Bernoulli's law described the relationship between a fluid's flow velocity and its pressure. For
non-compressible matter and with no consideration for drag, the volume flow of air (in cubic
meters per second) is identical at any point of a tube, regardless of its diameter. This means that
the matter's velocity increases if the tube constricts and vice versa. The dynamic pressure
increases and the static pressure decreases with rising velocity and vice versa. The total pressure
is constant. This only applies to flows with a subsonic speed.
Density describes the mass of a matter per unit of volume and is measured in kg/m2. Air density
is 1.2 kg/m3 at sea level and decreases with increasing height according to the air pressure.

The air density:
• rises with increasing atmospheric pressure.

• decreases with increasing temperature
• decreases with increasing humidity
• decreases with increasing airspeed
Static pressure (Ps) is defined as the weight force (FG) of a column of air resting on a defined
area A. At sea level, the weight force of a column of air resting on one square meter of ground
and reaching to the upper boundary of the atmosphere is 103,329.6 N. By conversion, this results
in the so-called standard pressure of 1013.25 hPa or 1013.25 mbar. By definition, a pressure acts
in all directions in the same manner.
In a mercury barometer, the force of gravity of the air column counteracts the force of gravity of
the mercury column, creating equilibrium. The height of the mercury column allows the
determination of the actual static air pressure. Thus even nowadays the pressure is often given in
mmHg (millimeter mercury column).

Static pressure
Static pressure decreases with altitude as the height of the overlaying air column decreases, thus
reducing the weight force acting on a surface at that altitude. At 18,000 ft. (5,500 m), air pressure
is reduced to about 506 hPa which is about one half of its value at sea level. In aviation, static
pressure is often given in hPa or mbar.
Pressure-altitude diagram
Dynamic pressure Pdyn or q is the share of the total pressure of a moving fluid perceptible as the

pressure of the flow against a body. It is also called pitot pressure and varies with the density p
and the relative velocity v and of the flow to the body. The velocity V is a square factor in the
equation while density p is linear.
Physics of the Atmosphere

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), Application to Aerodynamics
In order to understand aerodynamic principles, it is useful to review some basic facts about the
atmosphere.
The atmosphere is the layer of air between Earth and the rest of the universe. Air is a mixture of
different gasses. Pure, dry air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% of other gasses such
as argon, carbon dioxide, neon, and helium (or roughly 4/5 nitrogen, 1/5 oxygen). Most of the air
mass in the atmosphere is located near the ground due to decreasing density with increasing
altitude. The percentage composition of gasses in the air remains constant.
The atmosphere is comprised of multiple layers. The lowest layer of the atmosphere is called the
troposphere. Almost every weather phenomenon, including the formation of clouds or
precipitation takes place in this layer. Its upper boundary is the tropopause, which is situated
between the troposphere and stratosphere and is characterized by a change in the temperature
profile. It separates the weather sensitive troposphere from the very dry stratosphere. The height
of the tropopause depends on latitude and is about 8 km at the poles and 16 km above the
equator.

The Earth's Atmosphere

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The measurement of static and dynamic pressure play a major role in aviation. They provide
important flight information such as altitude, velocity, and rate of climb or descent. Air pressure,
density, and temperature of the atmosphere change constantly with time and location due to the
influence of weather. To compare different atmospheric conditions, the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) determined that it would be beneficial to use one specific
reference condition, referred to as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) or normal
atmosphere. The reference condition identifies the ambient pressure at sea level as 14-70 pounds
per square inch [psi] or in other units: 1013.25 Millibar (mbar), 29-92 inch mercury [inHg] or
1013.25 hectopascals [hPa]. Increasing altitude results in a decrease in atmospheric pressure, air
density, air temperature, humidity, and temperature.
Atmospheric Pressure
The following table lists the ISA parameters at sea level:

The tropopause's standard altitude is 11 km (36,000 ft). In standard conditions, air temperature
drops by 6.5 Kelvin per kilometer of altitude, giving a temperature for the tropopause of:
150C — (6.5K/km *11 km) =150C — 71.5 C -56.50C
Several flight systems use the standard atmosphere for data analysis and reference. They are
often calibrated to the standard atmospheric values in mean sea level.
There are a number of terminologies associated with atmospheric conditions that are important to
understand when dealing with the principles of aerodynamics.
Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude is the altitude over a standardized plane (SDP or Standard Datum Plane). The
reference of this plane corresponds to a pressure value of 29-92 inHg (1013.25 hPa). Under
standard conditions, these conditions exist at sea level.
An altimeter is basically a very precise barometer that is calibrated to show the altitude of the
standard atmosphere above mean sea level. If the altimeter is calibrated to 29-92 inHg, the
displayed altitude is the called pressure altitude. As the real atmospheric pressure changes, the
pressure altitude can be greater than, equal to, or less than the altitude above sea level. Typically,
the barometric reference is adjusted in flight from actual pressure at mean sea level (QNH) to the
standard pressure of 1013.25 hPa. This adjustment occurs at the "transition altitude" which is a
means of ensuring that all aircraft above a certain altitude are using the same barometric
reference for their altimeters (pressure altitude). Assigned altitudes that are referenced to the
standard pressure of 1013.25 hPa (29-92 inHg) are referred to as "Flight Levels". For example,
flight level 290 refers to a pressure altitude of 29,000 feet and is with reference to 1013.25 hPa.
Pressure altitude can be determined using two methods:
1. Setting the barometric scale on the altimeter to 29-92 inHg, respectively 1,013.25 hPa
and reading the displayed altitude
1. 2. Applying a correction factor to the displayed altitude (with consideration for the actual
temperature and ambient pressure at mean sea level).
Density Altitude
The density altitude is the altitude of the standard atmosphere with the same density as in the
actual atmosphere. For example, if an aircraft is flying in 20,000 ft pressure altitude with an
actual ambient density of 0.61 kg/m3 (which is below the value of the standard atmosphere of
0.65 kg/m3), it is operating in a density altitude of 22,000 ft. Air density has a significant impact

on aircraft performance as a decrease in density causes the following performance effects:
• Engine power decreases - as less air mass is inducted

• Thrust decreases - as engine power decreases
• Lift decreases - as the dynamic pressure at the same airspeed decreases
An increase in air density means a lower density altitude; a decrease in density means a density
altitude increase.
Density altitude is of significant importance for calculating aircraft performance because the air
density under variable atmospheric conditions is a major factor for lift and engine power.
Aircraft performance at all altitudes is with reference to an altitude equal to the current density
altitude.
Air density p is identified in kg/m3 and is directly dependent on ambient temperature and
pressure. Air density is calculated by the formula shown below:
p = air pressure
R = gas constant
T = temperature in Kelvin
With increasing air pressure and constant temperature, the density also increases. A density value
is therefore possible at different temperature and pressure values.
The conditions of the standard atmosphere for flight altitudes of commercial airplanes are given
in the table below.


Aerodynamics
Airflow around a Body
Streamlines
A streamline is a geometrical tool used in fluid dynamics to help visualize flow characteristics.
Simply put, it could be considered as the flow path of a molecule of gas or liquid.
Laminar Flow
A laminar flow consists of multiple parallel streamlines along which the particles of the fluid
move along without swirling.
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow is an uneven, disordered, intermingled flow, causing the particles to move so
powerful, that they interchange between layers. This phenomenon is called cross-exchange and is
a measure of the turbulence of a flow.
Types of flow
Subsonic Airflow around an Airfoil
Subsonic airflow means that the speed of sound is not achieved at any point on or around the
airfoil. The airflow over the wing's upper surface is accelerated due to the continuity equation,
creating an increase in dynamic pressure. Bernoulli's law states that the increase of the flow
speed leads to a drop in static pressure. In this context, the upper surface is often referred to as
the suction area of the profile. On the airfoil's lower side, the airflow slows down, creating an
area of high static pressure. For a totally symmetrical profile, the changes in pressure balance
each other. However, if the profile is curved characteristically towards the upper surface, a large
pressure difference is created. This difference generates a pressure force, also referred to as "lift".
If the orientation of the airfoil is changed, the streamlines around the airfoil are changed and
have a direct impact on the amount of lift.

Subsonic Airflow
Transonic Airflow (TA) (High Subsonic Speeds) around an Airfoil
Transonic airflow (TA) above certain airspeeds, the airflow around the airfoil reaches the speed
of sound. This speed is called the critical Mach number and, depending on the type of airfoil,
occurs around Mach 0.8. An airflow that contains subsonic as well as supersonic flow around an
airfoil is called transonic airflow.
The transition from subsonic to supersonic speed happens quickly. If the flow velocity towards
the end of the profile drops below the speed of sound, the air piles up and creates a compression
shock. This shockwave is perpendicular to the surface and transfers the airflow rapidly from
supersonic to subsonic speeds. The area behind the compression shock may result in a turbulent
airflow.
Transonic Airflow

Supersonic Airflow around an Airfoil
If the velocity of the airflow around an airplane exceeds the speed of sound at every point, it is
referred to as being "supersonic". In this speed range, the streamlines no longer follow the
contours of the body smoothly, but are erratically redirected by expansion and compression
shock waves.
Supersonic Airflow
Compression Shocks
A compression shock is a non-continual, rapid change of the airflow characteristics around the
airfoil, which only occurs during transonic and supersonic flight. Air density, pressure, and
temperature, suddenly rise while the airflow velocity drops.
Depending on the position of the shock wave in relation to the direction of airflow, normal
(vertical) and oblique (angled) shock waves may occur. A normal shock slows supersonic
airflow to subsonic speeds but doesn’t change its direction. An oblique shock slows the airflow
(not necessarily to subsonic speeds) and changes the direction of the flow.

Compression Shock
Boundary Layer
The boundary layer closely surrounds a body moving through the air. The airflow velocity on the
body's surface is always zero because of aerodynamic drag but increases with distance from the
surface until it is in the free airflow.
Boundary Layer

The airflow in the boundary layer may be laminar or turbulent. The extent to which an airflow is
laminar or turbulent is captured by the dimensionless Reynolds-Number (Re).
The Reynolds Number describes the ratio of the momentum forces to the viscous forces and is
defined as:
p = density of the fluid

v = relative flow velocity of the fluid to the body
d = characteristic length of the body
ƞ = dynamic viscosity
ʋ = kinematic viscosity
The turbulence characteristics of geometrically similar bodies are identical at the same Reynolds-
Number and therefore allow realistic model studies in wind tunnels using smaller models
because they will act identical to the full scale object. Reynolds-Numbers below 500,000 are
defined as a laminar flow, while values above 500,000 indicate a turbulent flow. The point, at
which a boundary layer changes from a laminar to a turbulent flow, is called the "transition
point". The turbulent boundary layer still follows the shape of the profile, but with its decreasing
energy state, may separate from the surface of the object.
Blowing Out the Boundary Layer

The boundary layer can be affected by:
• Boundary layer blowing: Via air nozzle jets on the wing's upper surface, for example
using engine bleed air, air is blown into the lower boundary layer to provide it with
energy. This leads to a stabilization of the boundary layer and delays the transition and
separation point.
• Boundary layer suction: Through small openings on the wings surface, the lower part of
the boundary layer is drawn away. This allows the outer laminar boundary layer to
reattach to the wing surface.
Airflow
• Vortex generators: Small baffles create a swirl in the boundary layer, introducing air from
outside the boundary layer. Even though this results in a turbulent boundary layer, it also
increases the amount of kinetic energy and reduces the chance of flow separation. Vortex
generators are often used in front of flaps or control surfaces to maintain a safe boundary
layer, even during significant changes to the surface profile.
• Boundary layer fences: If a wing is swept backwards, the boundary layer tends to drift
towards the wingtip. This results in a more turbulent and unstable airflow, creating a
strong pitch moment and loss of aileron control during a stall. Vortex generators, saw
tooth profiles, or baffles reduce the drift of the boundary layer.

Boundary layer fences
Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar Boundary Layer Airflow
In a laminar boundary flow, the fluid particles move along their streamlines in a continuous
movement without mixing. The streamlines at a flat plane therefore are parallel to the surface. A
laminar boundary layer is characterized by a smaller friction at the contact surface of the body in
comparison to a turbulent boundary layer. The thickness of the airflow that is impaired by the
body is therefore rather small. If the friction rises due to a rougher surface or higher flow speed,
the boundary layer will transit into a turbulent airflow at an earlier point.
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
A turbulent boundary layer flow is characterized by oscillation, rotation, and turbulence of air
particles that generate a component flow perpendicular to the main direction of flow. Turbulent
boundary layers have much higher friction at the surface and tend to occur at higher flow speeds,
around rough objects, or around irregularly shaped surfaces. Due to the exchange of the particle's

energy, a turbulent boundary layer may contain more energy but is also significantly thicker than
a laminar boundary layer.
Layer thickness
Structure of a laminar and turbulent boundary layer

Free Stream Flow
Free stream flow is the air ahead of an aerodynamic object that has not been influenced by an
interaction (e.g. by deflection, compression, or acceleration). Values that are related to this free
stream is often denoted with the infinity sign, to signify that the conditions are present
infinitely far ahead of the object. Accordingly, the speed of the free stream is written as v∞.
Relative Airflow
The term relative airflow is used to describe the direction and speed of a free stream flow relative
to the airplane or airfoil. It can be given in form of the free stream velocity vector and is opposed
to the speed and direction of the airplane. In everyday language, the terms relative wind or
airflow may be used.
Relative airflow

Relative airflow is generated by an aircraft s movement through the air, wind moving air along a
stationary object, or through a combination of both factors. An aircraft that takes off is therefore
influenced by the relative airflow resulting from both, its own movement and that of the air
relative to the ground (wind). During flight, the aircraft's movement is the only determinant of
relative airflow, because the aircraft is moving with its surrounding 'package' of air. The speed
and direction of a steady wind in flight do not affect the relative airflow acting on the aircraft.
Upwash and Downwash

The linear momentum theory may be used (in addition to differences in pressure) to explain lift.
According to that theory, the lift force is generated by the change in the impulse flow, as the
air mass is deflected downwards at the trailing edge of the airfoil. Linear momentum I of a body
is the product of its speed and mass:
For gasses and fluids, we cannot identify the mass as we do for a solid body therefore, it is
replaced by the mass per unit of time and is shown as the mass flow (m) This changes the
momentum I to an impulse flow IS, which is (due to the transfer to a mass flow) given in the unit
of a force [kg m /sec2 = N].
The law of conservation of momentum implies that the total momentum contained in a system
remains constant through any event (e.g. a collision). If the velocity v of a fluid is changed
regarding its direction or magnitude, there need to be an impulse flow — or in other words a
force acting in the opposed direction.
The momentum flow change is equal to the force required in order to change the velocity of the
fluid mass flow ms by ∆v.

If for example an even plane is hit vertically by a stream of air with the diameter d and velocity
vo, the direction and velocity of the airflow is changed by 900. The amount of the velocity change
is hence:
Thereby, the total impulse flow is transferred into a force.
Momentum Flow Change
If the same airflow hits an even plane now at the angle a, the air is also diverted at an angle. The
force F acting on the plate is now smaller than in the case of the vertical plate, since the change
of the impulse flow is smaller. The force F is:
Momentum Flow Change - Angle
When flowing around an airplane wing, air is being deflected, following the same principles. The
horizontal airflow in the area A is deflected upwards, and deflected downwards in area B. In
addition the speed of the airflow rises along the upper side of the airfoil and decreases below.
The resulting change in impulse flow excretes a force on the airfoil — the force of lift. In
aeronautical terms, the upward momentum flow changes are known as "upwash" and downward
deflection as "downwash".

Momentum Flow Change
The amount of air deflected downwards on the wing' s trailing edge is equal to the total lift force.
This principle is called the "physical impulse flow change". There are two main relationships that
can be derived:
• The higher the airplane's airspeed, the more air is deflected downwards.
• The greater the angle of attack (AoA), the more the air is deflected downward.
Vortices
An aircraft's wing has a defined wing tip at which the pressure difference between the wing's
upper surface (suction) and lower surface (pressure) generates vortices. The magnitude of the
pressure difference is dependent on the wing span and decreases with decreased wing span areas.

Vortices
In addition to wingtip vortices, the different lateral flows on the wing's upper and lower surfaces
create trailing edge vortices along its entire span except for the area at the wing's center. The
trailing edge vortices lose magnitude and intensity rapidly and unite with the wingtip vortices

behind the wing.
The wingtip vortices are commonly referred to as "wake turbulence" and the intensity of this
turbulence is proportional to the pressure differential between the wing's upper and lower
surfaces.
Vortices
The airflow around the wing (bound vortex) and the start vortex in free air form together with the
wingtip vortices to create a vortex ring around the wing. Apart from its imposing visual
characteristics, the wake turbulence of large aircraft can pose a danger to other aircraft. In still
air, wingtip vortices are stationary and expand to a width equal to the span of the airplane that
created them. The distance between the two vortices grows up to roughly twice the aircraft ' s
wingspan. In crosswind conditions, the windward vortices drift may be pushed back directly onto
the runway. The local speeds reached in the vortex are between 2 and 2.5 m/s. Wake turbulence

dissolves after a few minutes and far away from the airplane that generated it. This is a major
reason why there are mandatory minimum distances for arriving and departing aircraft following
each other. Air traffic control separates aircraft in terms of time and distance to prevent the
encounter of wake turbulence.
Wake Turbulence
The intensity of wake turbulence is proportional to the airplane's lift coefficient and wing loading
and inversely proportional to the wing ' s aspect ratio. All of these characteristics change the
local pressure difference between the wing' s upper and lower side, especially along the wingtip.
The pressure difference for a given airplane depends on the following factors:
• Airspeed
• Airplane mass
• Aircraft configuration
• Flight altitude
The intensity of wake turbulence may be further increased by:
• Excessive airplane mass or altitude,

• The "clean" cruise configuration
• Low airspeed at a high angle of attack

Using the criteria shown above, we can see that the strongest wake turbulence would be created
by a large aircraft at maximum takeoff mass with retracted or slightly extended flaps on calm
days at a high altitude airport.
In order to help with aircraft spacing, Air Traffic Control classifies aircraft into different wake
turbulence categories based on their maximum takeoff mass (MTOM):
• Wake turbulence category "Light", MTOM < 6,999 kg, e.g. PA34
• Wake turbulence category "Medium" 7t < MTOM < 135,999 kg, e.g. A321
• Wake turbulence category "Heavy" 136t < c: MTOM, e.g. B747
Another exception exists for the B757. Because its MTOM is less than 136 t, it should belong in
the "Medium" category. However, several incidents have been caused by its very strong wake
turbulence and so it has been moved to the "Heavy/' category for air traffic spacing.
One of the main factors in determining the pressure difference at the wing tip is the wing's angle
of attack (AoA). The greater the AoA, the larger the wingtip vortex becomes. Extending the
wing ' s high lift devices (flaps and slats) can improve the aircraft' s wake turbulence behavior.
This allows the wing to generate more lift without increasing the AoA because the airfoil camber
is increased. The flaps cause small vortices on their edges, but the accumulation of these small
vortices has less effect than the two large vortices generated in clean cruise configuration.
Angle of Attack
Stagnation and Stagnation Point

The stagnation point is found at the most forward point on the surface of an airfoil where the air
separates into upper and lower wing airflow. Theoretically, the air hits the stagnation point at a
right angle, slowing it down to a speed of zero. Compared to the pressures measured at other
areas of the airfoil, the pressure at the stagnation point is the highest and is equal to the total
pressure (the sum of static and dynamic pressures). In the image below, the stagnation point
reappears behind the wing trailing edge.

The stagnation point moves downward along the airfoil's lower side as the AoA increases,
increasing pressure on the lower surface of the wing. The airflow' s speed on the upper surface
increases due to the increased camber of the airfoil, causing the suction on the upper side to
grow. The combination of pressure decrease on the upper side and pressure increase on the lower
side results in an increased pressure difference compared to a lower AoA. An increased pressure
difference generates larger lift and drag forces.
Stagnation Point
Camber
The camber is represented by a line in the airfoil cross section that is always at equal distance
between the upper and lower surface. An airfoil camber is defined as the largest distance
between its camber line and chord line. Highly cambered airfoils will have a higher lift
coefficient than airfoils with less camber.
Camber

Chord
The chord line of an airfoil is defined as the straight line connecting the leading edge with the
trailing edge. The chord is used in profile construction as a reference line and measures of an
airfoil (such as thickness, position of the thickest point and camber) are often given as a ratio of
the chord length. This allows the comparison of airfoils of various sizes. Older aircraft used the
airfoil's lowest point as the chord or reference because of their different construction.
Chord
When calculating the properties of an airfoil, the chord length is used as a reference.
The chord length is defined as 100% (or 1.0), for example:
• The maximum thickness occurs at 20% of the 1.90 m chord length (Calculated x= 20*
1.90/100 =0.38 m) at 0.38 m (from the leading edge).
• The maximum thickness is 12% of the 1.90 m chord length (Calculated: x = 12* 1.90/100
= 0.228 m) at 0.228 m.
Location of maximum thickness (xd/t) distance of the point of maximum airfoil thickness from
the airfoil's leading edge as a ratio of the chord's length.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord
Large commercial aircraft are normally constructed with swept wings comprised of multiple
sections. The chord length and the shape of the airfoil differ between the fuselage and wingtip,
and so the aerodynamic forces change along the length of the wing. Exact aerodynamic
calculations on these wing shapes is very complex and so the concept of a "Mean Aerodynamic
Chord" (MAC) helps to simplify these calculations and aids in comparison of different wing
designs.
The Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) is the chord line of an imaginary rectangular
representation of the wing that features the same aerodynamic characteristics as the real wing
(lift, drag and pitching moment). The MAC is mainly used as a reference line for the position of
the actual center of gravity. The center of gravity of a typical aircraft is situated between 10%
and 40%, of MAC with an average of 25%. The load of an aircraft and the position of the center
of gravity have a significant impact on lift and control forces.
When calculating the MAC, the following terms are used:
• Center of pressure (CP)

The point, through which the sum of the force components of all forces acting on the
wing attack. The pitching moment around this point is o. The position of the CP shifts if
the angle of attack changes.
• Aerodynamic center (AC)

There is a point on the chord, where the pitching moment is independent of the AoA. It
isn't zero but is nearly constant. The distance between the AC and the CP is decreased in
the same relation as the lift force is increased. This is why the AC is often used as a
reference point and for calculations. In most airfoils, the AC is at 25% MAC.
• Center of gravity (CG)

Point, at which the total weight of the aircraft is assumed.
• Pitching moment (PM)

If the aerodynamic forces of the wing aren't directed at the center of pressure but from
another point on the wing, a pitching moment will occur. The moment coefficient CM is
always relative to the AC.
• Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)

The Mean Aerodynamic Chord is a reference area on the wing of the airplane. All
limitations and many definitions regarding performance and loading relate to the MAC.

The variations in chord length, angle of incidence, and airfoil shape change over the span of
large swept wing aircraft and so these variations are considered when calculating the coefficients
for lift CL, drag CD and moment CM.
The principle of the MAC is as follows:
Everybody has a center of gravity (CG). Calculations of the trajectory of a body can be
simplified by assuming all of the body' s mass to be concentrated at that point. A complicated
body can therefore be replaced by a simple point model. Similarly, the complex shape of a wing
half can be expressed in a two-dimensional model of the wing (referred to as the MAC).
The pressure distribution along a wing can be summarized as a single lift force and pitching
moment around the aerodynamic center.
The length cmac of the MAC is equal to the weighted average chord length of the airfoil. The x-
position xmac of the MAC is defined by the position XAC of the aerodynamic center, usually
25% of the MAC.
MAC

The forces acting on different points on a wing vary in terms of direction and strength. All of
these component forces can be summarized to give a single lift force FL, which applies to any
point on the wing along with a pitching moment M.
There is one point on the wing where all forces are balanced. The pitching moment in this point,
the center of pressure (CP), is therefore o. The center of pressure seems to be an ideal reference
point for lift force as there is no pitching moment that would complicate calculations. If the angle
of attack of the wing is changed, the force distribution along the wing changes, shifting the
center of pressure forwards or aft. If we were to choose the above reference point P as the point
to which the lift force is applied, the shifting of the center of pressure creates a pitching moment
relative to the magnitude of the lift force and angle of attack.
r equals the distance between P and the current center of pressure.
Both the lift force FL and the distance r between the center of pressure and the reference point P
are affected by the angle of attack, as is the pitching moment M. The point (P) is therefore no
better suited as a reference point than any other point on the wing.
A special characteristic of the cambered wing is that it has an aerodynamic center, in which the
product of FL and r and hence the pitching moment is not zero but practically independent of the
angle of attack. This reference point is called aerodynamic center (AC).
The concept of using the reference point AC with its fixed pitching moment M is more suitable
for stability calculation than using the center of pressure that moves around as the angle of attack
changes.
Doing so allows us to describe the forces and moments acting on the wing using only lift and
drag as well as the pitching moment as variables applying to the aerodynamic center.
The aerodynamic center of an airfoil in an incompressible, frictionless flow is situated at 25% of

the chord regardless of chord length or curvature. In modern airfoils, there is minimum shift in
the aerodynamic center. The torque M and its coefficient CM relate to the fixed AC.

As the aerodynamic center of a half wing is on the MAC, the y-positions of the MAC and the
aerodynamic center is identical. The aerodynamic center of the complete wing lies exactly
midway between the two aerodynamic centers of the half wings.
A real wing can be substituted with a simple rectangular model wing with a similar airfoil. The
model wing s leading edge has to be situated at xmac, its chord length is equal to cmac
The x positions of the center of pressure and aerodynamic center of a model half wing are the
same as they would be on the real half wing. Lift and pitching moment are also identical, as are
the lift, drag and moment coefficients (CL, Cd and CM), giving the same results as the real wing.
The x position of the MAC isn’t generally the leading edge - this is only the case for trapezoid,
rectangular and triangular wing layouts.
The model wing reduces the geometry of any wing shape to two dimensions:
Position xmac and length cmac of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC).
This is why, among other values, the center of gravity is given as a value that is relative to the
MAC, in percent of the MAC' s length cMAC
Parasite Drag / Profile Drag
Parasite (or parasitic) drag is the sum of form drag, skin friction drag, and interference drag. It is
sometimes referred to as "profile drag". Interference drag is caused by the mixing of different
airflow steams from the fuselage, wing, engine, or external components.
Form drag is a force, acting on an aerodynamic body that arises from its projected shape in the
direction of flow, together with the effects of the boundary layer and possible airflow separation.
The rigid body section influences the surrounding air layers and the flow conditions in their most
basic form; the relative thickness determines the lateral displacement of the airflow.
Profile form and pressure drag

Friction drag (Df) is created in the boundary layer of an aerodynamic body. The boundary layer
is the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of the surface of an airfoil that, due to frictional
forces, has an airflow velocity of zero directly on the bonding surface of the aerodynamic body.
As distance from the surface increases, the flow speed increases to match the full flow velocity
found in the free airstream. Friction drag is referred to as that part of the friction force (ff ) that
acts as the resultant in the direction of the airflow.
Drag as a result of skin friction
Friction forces transfer the kinetic energy of the airflow into thermal energy and result in the
warming of the outer skin of an aerodynamic body. The faster it flows, the higher the friction and
the more the surface is warmed. During supersonic flight of the commercial airplane Concorde,
temperatures of up to 1000C were measured, resulting in an expansion of the aircraft's length by
almost 8 cm.
Methods of reducing surface friction include grinding, polishing and waxing the aircrafts skin.
Irregularities of even a few tenths of a millimeter dramatically increase the friction within the
boundary layer, which, among other things, can change a laminar flow into a turbulent flow. For
this reason, one should also remove all impurities from the surface, especially in the leading edge
regions, before each flight. The accretion of ice in those areas leads to a large increase in drag,
which must be addressed prior to flight.
Since the condition of the boundary layer, as well the generation of vortices at the airfoil, depend
on the surface roughness, the amount of form drag is related to the amount of friction drag. The
combination of form and friction drag are referred to as "profile drag" and describe the resistance
of airflow by the drag coefficient CD.

Drag on a standard airfoil
The drag force FD,0 acting in opposition to the direction of flight depends (besides the drag
coefficient) on the projection area SF, the air density p and on the airspeed v.

Relationship between parasite drag and speed
Drag Coefficient

The aerodynamic coefficients relate as follows:
CD = profile drag coefficient

Cp = pressure drag coefficient
CR = skin friction coefficient
The drag force is calculated as follows:
A = Frontal area of the wing

ρ = Density of the fluid
V = Flow velocity
In the lower speed range and given laminar flow, (Re < Recrit), the Cd decreases as the Reynolds
number grows. This can be explained with the increasing amount of energy contained in the
airflow, which allows it to follow the airfoil for longer, shifting the separation further towards
the trailing edge. The trailing edge vortices hence decrease, lowering overall drag. Above the
critical Reynolds number (Re=Recrit), the laminar flow in the boundary layer becomes turbulent
and grows in thickness. This results in a substantial increase of the friction coefficient just above
Re whereas it remains nearly constant through the medium speed range above Recrit. At larger
airspeeds, the compressibility of the gas has an increasing effect on the friction coefficient, Cd
hence grows quickly. In this range, the Cd value is shown as a reference above the Mach number
(not shown in the diagram).
Induced Drag
The induced drag FD,i is caused by the generation of lift at an aerodynamic body, due to the
equalization of pressure between the wing' s upper and lower surface, and is describes by the
drag coefficient CD,i. The term "induced" thereby is an abbreviation of "lift induced". If a body
generates aerodynamic lift, it creates an equalizing flow of air around the wing tip and the
airfoils trailing edge, creating vortices and thereby drag.

Induced Drag
Design Factors influencing Induced Drag
Induced drag can be influenced rather efficiently during the aircraft' s design phase. In order to
keep the pressure differences between the upper and lower wing surfaces as small as possible to
avoid wingtip vortices and airflow deflection, designers develop computer and wind tunnel
models.
The ratio of the wing span squared to the wing surface area is called the "aspect ratio". An
effective way of reducing the induced drag is to increase the aspect ratio. This can be
accomplished by developing a larger span but maintaining the same wing area. This lowers the
pressure difference per unit of span, which becomes noticeable at the wing tips as the magnitude
of transversal flow components (which create wingtip vortices) decreases. Small and very long
wings (e.g. on a glider) therefore create a much smaller induced drag than the wings found on a
delta-wing aircraft.
Winglets are one way of increasing the wing ' s aspect ratio without increasing its span. Wingtips
that point up or down (and sometimes in both directions) positively influence the wing's lift
distribution by reducing the equalizing flow around the wingtips and thereby reducing the
induced drag. The basic shape of the wing and the generation of lift are not impaired. This effect
is also known as pseudo aspect ratio.

Winglet
The induced drag FD,i like the profile drag, depends on the projection area SF, and the air density
p. In contrast to the profile drag coefficient CD,o, the induced drag coefficient is not constant
over speed, but decreases with airspeed v. The force of the induced drag holds:
Graphical comparison between induced and parasite drag

Another way of looking at induced drag is to consider the induced angle of attack αi approach.
According to this approach, the momentum flow change causes an airflow deflection on the
wing. As this deflection mainly depends the lift coefficient CL, the angle change is described by
the induced AoA q. The difference between the actual AoA α and the induced AoA is called
effective AoA αeff
Induced AoA
By definition, the lift force (lift vector) is perpendicular to the airflow. As you can see in the
figure below, this would mean that the lift vector would be angled slightly backwards as the
airflow is deflected by the wing. The lift vector is therefore angled backwards by the induced
AoA α. Within the induced AoA approach, this backward-directed component of the lift vector
explains induced drag Fd,i

Airflow Deflection
A change of induced drag can be read from the drag polar curve. The minimum of the drag
function can be equated with the coefficient of parasitic drag Cd,o, while the part of the function's
incline can be equated with the induced drag formula CL,i =k *CL2.
Resistance polar:
The polar diagram below shows the development of total drag for different aspect ratios A from
o .5 to 20.

Influence of the Aspect Ratio
Center of pressure
All partial forces acting on a wing are often combined into one resultant force. The theoretical
point where this aerodynamic force acts is called the center of pressure. Since the camber of an
airfoil has a significant impact on the distribution of lift, the point of the biggest curvature and
the thickest part of the airfoil results in the highest amount of lift. Therefore, the center of
pressure is commonly found in the most forward third of the airfoil. As the airflow around the
airfoil (and therefore the distribution of pressure change), the center of pressure is shifted.

Center of pressure
The aerodynamic center is a fixed point on the chord line of a profile, around which the torque
acting on the airfoil due to the movement of the center of pressure remains almost the same. In
subsonic flight, this point is situated at about 25% of the chord (t/4).

Angle of Attack (AoA)
The ability of an airfoil to create lift can be described by a coefficient. The lift coefficient CL
depends on the shape of the airfoil and its orientation (the Angle of Attack).
The angle of attack a is defined as the angle between the chord line and the direction of the
undisturbed airflow. If this angle increases, the airflow on the upper surface is deflected and
accelerated to create more suction. The airflow on the lower surface is decelerated by the higher
angle of attack, leading to a pressure increase.
The resulting lift force is calculated by:
ρ = air density in kg / ms
v = velocity in m/s
S = wing surface area in m2
cL = lift coefficient
The amount of lift created is thereby directly proportional to the lift coefficient CL, the air
density ρ and the wing surface area SF but rises with the square of the velocity v. A doubling in
airspeed therefore leads to an increase of lift by the factor four, whereas a doubling of the lift
coefficient leads to twice the force of lift FL
Besides the lift coefficient, the angle of attack influences the distribution of lift along the airfoil.
As the angle of attack increases, the strongest displacement of airflow moves forward along the
profile creating a greater difference in pressure. Hence, the center of pressure moves forward
with an increasing angle of attack.

Pressure distribution on the wing in relation to angle of attack
A symmetrical airfoil can create lift at a positive angle of attack, even though is does not create a
difference in pressure at a neutral position. The zero lift point describes the angle, at which an
airfoil has a lift coefficient of zero. This is the case for the neutral position of a symmetrical
airfoil. Cambered airfoils create lift because of their curvature, including lift at the neutral
position. Their zero lift point is reached at a negative angle of attack.

'Lift coefficient over angle of attack" diagram
The angle between the chord line and the aircraft longitudinal axis is called the angle of
incidence. It allows the aircraft to achieve the required angle of attack in cruise flight, but keeps
the aircrafts longitudinal axis parallel to the airflow. This reduces the drag of the fuselage and
increases passenger comfort.
Angle of Incidence

Wash in and Wash out
Wing twist (also called wash-out) is a design feature of airplane wings that has a positive effect
on the airplane's handling characteristics in case of a stall. There are two types of wing twist:
geometric and aerodynamic.
If the AoA increases beyond a certain point during flight, the airflow separates resulting in a loss
of dynamic lift. The amount of wing twist helps to achieve a gradual decrease in lift instead of a
total, sudden loss of lift on the entire wing.
In case of an increase in the angle of attack, the wing root section should stall first, while the
outer wing areas are still in normal airflow and create lift. This enables the airplane to remain
controllable as the ailerons are usually situated on the outer wing sections. Additionally, a stall in
the wingtip area is substantially harder to recover than a wing root stall since a change in force at
that point generates a much higher momentum than it does on the wing root.
Geometric Twist
When designing a wing with a geometrical twist, the outer wing rib, (also called the end rib), is
twisted down in comparison to the inner rib (root rib). The root and end ribs feature the same
airfoil and therefore the same maximum AoA, but because of the geometrical twist in the airfoil,
the wing root will reach the critical AoA first. The advantage of a geometric twist is the simple
(and therefore cheaper) construction of the wing compared to using aerodynamic twist. The
downside of the geometric twist is an increased amount of drag.
Geometric twist

Geometric twist - Stall on the inner Wing
Aerodynamic Twist
A wing with an aerodynamic twist has no change to the wing chord angle between the wing tip
and root, but does have a change in the airfoil. The wing tip consists of an airfoil that allows a
higher maximum angle of attack. The degree of change in shape between the different sections
can be linear or abrupt. Although the wing' s total drag increases as well in comparison to a wing
without twist, the effect is substantially lower than for the geometric twist. The drawback of this
approach lies mainly in the increased design complexity.
Geometric and aerodynamic twist

Wing twist slightly impairs the performance of an airfoil while substantially improving the slow
flight handling characteristics of the airplane.
Aspect Ratio
The relationship between wing span and wing area has a substantial influence on the
aerodynamics of any airplane. It is expressed as the aspect ratio and describes the ratio of the
wing span b to the reference area S. The wingspan is defined as the distance from one wingtip to
the other. In technical documentation sometimes b/ 2, the half wing span, is used, as airplane
designs are usually symmetric. The reference area S is the area of a vertical projection of the
wing onto the ground, including a possible part of the fuselage above. The aspect ratio is
calculated by:
The aspect ratio and basic shape of a wing influence the distribution of lift and the induced drag
of a wing significantly. Therefore, it is a significant indicator concerning the aerodynamic
characteristics of a wing, independent of the size.
Typical aspect ratios vary between 35 (for high performance gliders) and 3.5 (for fighter jets).
Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio λ influences the change of the lift coefficient CL depending on the AoA. High
aspect ratios allow a bigger gain in lift at a small change of the AoA, but reach the critical angle
at a much lower value than wings with a low aspect ratio.

Aspect Ratio
Winglets are a way of increasing the wing's aspect ratio without increasing its span. They are
wingtips that point up or down, positively influencing the wing ' s lift distribution by reducing
the equalizing flow around the wingtips and thereby reducing the induced drag. The basic shape
of the wing and the generation of lift are not impaired. This effect is also known as pseudo aspect
ratio.
Winglet

Wing Shape
The wing shape influences the distribution of lift and the aerodynamic characteristics with
regards to stability and controllability when operating throughout its design limits. The wing
shape is defined as the distortion-free vertical ground projection of the wing. In reality, a modern
wing is often not just a simple rectangular design, but consists of a combination of trapezoid,
ellipsoid, or triangular shapes.
Wing Shapes

If the ellipsoid wing shape has a constant profile, it will demonstrate the same lift coefficient in
every section along the wing. The distribution of lift is ellipsoid as well, and generates the least
amount of induced drag for a given wingspan due to the smoothly decreasing pressure difference
towards the wingtip.
Ellipsoid Wing
This wing shape on the other hand, leads to very critical behavior at its aerodynamic limits, since
the critical AoA is reached at the same time over the entire wing. This leads to a sudden
separation of the airflow along the whole wing span, resulting in a massive loss of lift and
controllability. Older fighter planes (such as the Spitfire) with this shape had impressive
performance but were difficult to recover following a stall.
Wing Area of a Spitfire

The mean geometric chord is the chord length at the geometric mean of a half wing. It is not
commonly used and is of lesser design importance than the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
when calculating aerodynamic characteristics.
MAC
If the wing area has a trapezoid shape, the ratio between the chord length at the wing root and at
its tip is called taper ratio. Like the aspect ratio, it influences the distribution of lift, the cross
flow along the wing, and the induced drag.
The shape of a wing is not always parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane. If the wings
are swept back, the sweep is regarded as positive and conversely, if the wing is angled forward,
the sweep is negative. A measure for this is the angle between the 25% line and the longitudinal
axis. This line is also called quarter chord and connects all points at 25% chord along the wing
and is often used as a reference line of the wing.
Furthermore, wings and wing sections can be angled up or down on both sides of the fuselage.
Wing designs with an upward bend are called "dihedral". If the wings point down, the design is
called "anhedral".

Thrust
There are four forces acting on an airplane in steady, straight, and level flight. The forces are
identified as Lift, Weight, Thrust, and Drag.
Balance of forces in an unaccelerated level flight

Thrust is the force that moves the airplane forward in level flight, and acts in the opposite
direction of the drag forces. Thrust can be generated by a propeller or through a jet engine.
A propeller generates thrust by accelerating the airflow passing through it. The change in
impulse flow creates an opposing force, which constitutes the thrust. The blades of a propeller
can be regarded as small airfoils rotating around an axis and generating a lift force perpendicular
to the plane of rotation. The mechanical power that drives the propeller can be supplied by a
piston or a jet engine. The latter combination is called a turbo-propeller (turbo-prop) engine.
A jet engine inducts, compresses, and ignites air continuously. The expanding combustion gases
leave the engine at high velocity and drive the airplane forward. The thrust FT equals the change
in impulse flow.
Jet Engine
The formula for thrust creation is as follows:
Depending on the build, the thrust force does not act along the longitudinal axis, but above or
below it. A change in thrust leads to a momentum around the lateral axis.
High engine mounting points are mostly found on turboprop business and commercial aircraft,
allowing a sufficient ground clearance of the propeller blades. They cause a downward pitching
moment around the lateral axis on takeoff power, impeding the airplane' s ability to rotate. On
the other hand, it counteracts the airplane's natural tendency to pitch up at acceleration,
increasing lateral stability.

Turbojet-engine airplanes usually feature engines mounted on pylons under the wing. This layout
has beneficial effects on the wing's flutter characteristics and engine noise, but generates a pitch-
up moment at takeoff thrust, destabilizing the lateral axis.
Aircraft with engines mounted on the longitudinal axis, such as small sports airplane or business
jets are neutral and stable, exhibiting no or very little pitching reaction to thrust changes.
Influence of the engine on the pitching moment
Weight
The weight of an airplane during steady, level flight is composed of its mass m and the acting
acceleration of gravity g:
It is always directed towards the center of the earth and is compensated in level flight by the lift
force FL.
By solving the equation for CL, we get a general formula for the lift coefficient, as a function of
all outer factors:
Materials should be used that are as stable and light as possible to reduce the overall mass and
provide a higher lift coefficient.

Aerodynamic Resultant
The lift force generated by a wing acts at the center of pressure and is perpendicular to the
relative airflow. The movement through a fluid (air) creates drag, acting at the same point, but
parallel to the direction of flow. Both aerodynamic forces can be combined into one aerodynamic
resultant.
Aerodynamic Resultant
There is also a drag component (D Drag), which acts parallel to the relative airflow and therefore
against the wing's direction of travel. Drag is generated as a natural part of lift creation. These
two forces intersect in a point called the center of pressure. The lift and drag vectors can be
combined, giving a single force vector called the aerodynamic resultant R.
The velocity of the airflow is signified by V∞.
The orientation of the body in relation to the direction of free airflow is captured by the angle of
attack α.
The amount of the aerodynamic force F is determined by the density and velocity of the free
airflow along with the size of the body and its AoA.
Angle of Attack
The angle of attack is defined as the angle between the chord line and the direction of the
undisturbed airflow. If this angle increases, the airflow on the upper surface is deflected and
accelerated more, creating more suction. The airflow on the lower surface is decelerated by the
higher AoA, leading to a pressure increase.
Besides the lift coefficient, the AoA influences the distribution of lift along the airfoil. If it

increases, the strongest displacement of the airflow occurs more forward along the profile,
leading to a greater difference in pressure at that point. Hence, the center of pressure moves
forward with an increasing AoA.
Pressure distribution on the Wing in relation to AoA
Lift Coefficient
The ability of an airfoil to create lift is described by a coefficient (similar to drag). The lift
coefficient CL depends just as CD) on the shape of the airfoil and its orientation, the AoA.
The resulting lift force is calculated by:
Ρ = air density in kg / m3
v = velocity in m/s
SF= wing surface area in m2
CL= lift coefficient
For dynamic pressure (q) the following formula results:

The amount of lift created is thereby directly proportional to the lift coefficient CL, the air
density ρ and the wing surface area SF but rises with the square of the velocity v. A doubling in
airspeed therefore leads to an increase of lift by the factor four, whereas a doubling of the lift
coefficient leads to twice the force of lift FL
Symmetrical airfoils have a lift coefficient ca,o of o if the AoA αo is o (zero lift point).
Asymmetrical airfoil (with a positive camber) have a positive lift coefficient ca,o at an AoA α of
o. The zero lift point of an asymmetric airfoil is reached at a negative AoA. The opposite applies
to negative camber airfoils. The diagram below shows the relationship between AoA and lift
coefficient for symmetrical and positive camber asymmetrical airfoils.
CL AoA
As you can see from the diagram, a positive camber airfoil reaches its maximum lift coefficient
CL max at an AoA α of about 150, which is equal to a minimum airspeed flight state.
Symmetrical airfoils reach maximum lift coefficient CL max at an AoA α of around 170 but the
lift coefficient for symmetrical profiles remain lower than that of a positive camber airfoil. The
minimum airspeed of symmetrical airfoil airplanes is higher.

Aspect ratio and lift coefficient
Drag Coefficient
The property of a body in a flow experiencing a drag force is described by its coefficient CD. It
depends on the body's shape and orientation in the flow, not by its actual size. In subsonic flow,
the drag coefficient includes a parasite component CD,o and an induced component CD,i
The parasite drag involves all effects of friction or pressure loss, whereas the induced drag
results from cross flow and the generation of vortices. The value of the drag coefficient CD can
be determined by experiments in a wind tunnel. The body is suspended in a mount that is able to
measure the acting drag force in the direction of the airflow. The drag coefficient can be
calculated by:
Ρ = air density in kg / m3
v = velocity in m/s
SF = wing surface area in m2
CD = lift coefficient S
The amount of drag created is thereby directly proportional to the drag coefficient CD, the air
density p and the wing surface area SF but rises with the square of the velocity v. A doubling in
airspeed therefore leads to an increase of drag by the factor four, whereas a doubling of the drag

coefficient leads to twice the drag force FD.
The drag force depends on the same factors as lift and differs only in the according coefficient.
Since the lift coefficient as well as the drag coefficient change with the orientation of the body,
or its AoA, they both can be displayed in a common diagram. The characteristic polar diagram is
also called Lilienthal's diagram.
Polar Curve
A polar diagram or polar curve is a graphic representation of the forces acting on a body in an
airflow for different angles of attack. As these forces depend largely on the airflow velocity, they
are represented by dimensionless coefficients for drag and lift. The polar diagram was developed
by Otto Lilienthal to evaluate the aerodynamic characteristics of wings and aircraft. It shows the
relation between the lift and drag forces that act on an airfoil and therefore enable the prediction
of aerodynamic performance.
For a lift coefficient of zero, the total drag consists only of parasite drag, since induced drag is
initially created by lift. A very high AoA (further along the polar curve) increases the lift
coefficient, but increases the induced drag as well. The optimal ratio of lift to drag can be
clarified by drawing a tangential line to the polar curve from the origin of the diagram. At the
connection with Lilienthal's diagram, or the according AoA, the ratio of lift to drag reaches its
maximum.
Polar Diagram

Stall
An airfoil provides a high lift coefficient with increasing AoA and therefore generates more lift
at
constant circumstances. If the AoA exceeds a critical value, the airflow no longer follows the
curvature of the airfoil and separates. This is referred to as a wing "stall". The critical value
depends on the shape of the airfoil and is called critical AoAαcrit.
At angles of attack below this critical value, the air begins to flow along the airfoil from the
stagnation point on the upper and lower surfaces of the profile contour. The boundary layer
reaches its transitional point first as laminar flow becomes turbulent. Turbulent boundary layers
contain more energy due to mixture with the fast moving particles of the free airflow and are
able to follow the contour curves longer. At the separation point, this energy is exhausted and the
airflow separates from the wing surface, with an immediate loss of lift. For small angles of
attack, there are no (or very small) areas of separation at the trailing edge.
Airflow around Wing profile at small AoA
In aerodynamics, the term "stall" refers to the separation of the airflow from the surface of a
body moving through the air. In aviation, stalls may occur on a wing, propeller, rotor blade or
turbine blade. Both laminar and turbulent airflows can stall.
The following two factors are the main causes of stalls:
1. An AoA above the typical value for the respective airfoil.

2. On subsonic airfoils: An airspeed close to the speed of sound. This phenomenon is called
high speed stall or high speed buffet.
A stall is followed by a drastic loss of lift (or a loss of thrust on a propeller). Pilots of fixed wing

aircraft can induce a stall on purpose in order to execute certain maneuvers (e.g. landings, spins).
Most airplanes react to a stall by pitching forward (entering a nosedive), from which
aerodynamically stable airplanes recover without much pilot input.
The effects of a stall depend on the airfoil and wing design of the airplane. Commercial aircraft
are usually designed to feature soft, controllable stalls in order to prevent a sudden loss of lift in
case of an unintended stall. Deep stalls are a type of stall that destroys the airflow around the
elevator and are difficult to recover.
The occurrence of a stall depends on the AoA as well as on the condition and design of the
airfoil. Most airplanes feature variable wing geometries (e.g. using high lift devices) in order to
decrease the minimum speed in slow flight.
Generally, the AoA must be increased if the airplane is intended to fly slower without losing
altitude. If the pilot wants to fly a further turn without losing altitude, he has to increase the AoA
once more as the lift force generated by the wing has to compensate for the additional centrifugal
force that is created during turns. Every airfoil has a characteristic maximum AoA above which
it stalls.
The airspeed, at which an airplane stalls in horizontal flight is called its stall speed. If an airplane
flies faster than stall speed but slower than the minimum airspeed given by the manufacturer, it
enters a nose-high flight state. In this flight state, the airflow around the wings becomes
turbulent, the amount of lift has decreased substantially, and the aircraft loses altitude. The
airflow has not stalled yet and the aircraft is still controllable to a certain degree.
Weight, balance, and air temperature have an effect on the stall speed. Wing icing can further
alter the airfoil's shape resulting in unpredictable changes to the stall speed.
During a high speed stall, the shock waves that are typical for airspeeds close to the speed of
sound cause the airflow to stall just behind the point where they form. If the aircraft is not
provided with substantial amounts of energy (for example by nose-diving), this flight state ends
itself as the shock waves create large amounts of drag, slowing the airplane down.
If the different speeds on the two halves of a wing during a slow turn causes the slower wing half
to stall, the airplane may enter a spin. This is why it is especially important to fly clean,
coordinated turns at low airspeeds and high angles of attack.
The spiral drive is similar to a spin but with one important difference. While the airflow stalls on
one wing during a spin, the airflow stalls on both wings during a spiral drive.
Stalls that happen at low altitudes can have fatal effects, as the decreased lift and increased drag
cause the airplane to fall very suddenly. If the aircraft altitude is not sufficient for the pilot to

recover from the stall, impact with the ground is inevitable. Many airplanes are therefore
equipped with a stall warning system that warns the pilot of an impending stall.
On rotorcraft (helicopters), stalls cause a sudden loss of lift on the main or tail rotor. Rotor
blades stall when the blade pitch angle reaches excessive values. This may happen if the
helicopter is overloaded, for example by lifting heavy cargo on the cargo hook or by performing
unapproved flight maneuvers in mountainous terrain. It can be difficult to recover from rotor
blade stalls.
If the AoA a is increased further to the critical AoA αcrit, the separation point shifts towards the
leading edge of the airfoil and the airflow separates completely. Since the stalled area behind the
separation point is no longer able to generate sufficient suction force for the overall lift balance
of the profile, the airplane suddenly loses lift and enters a stall. If the stall does not occur
symmetrical on both wings, the airplane may tip over or enter a spin (spiral dive). If an airplane
slows down in level flight, it has to increase the AoA in order to create the required lift force.
The airspeed where the critical AoA is reached and a stall appears, is called stall speed vs.
Airflow around a profile at a critical AoA
Airfoil Contamination Including Ice, Snow, Frost

Airfoils and aerodynamic control surfaces are optimized in shape and surface structure to
perform efficiently. Dents, scratches, ice, or even contamination by dust or insects will degrade
their capabilities. Because it can form quickly, and because it has immediate and severe effects,
ice, snow, and frost are regarded as the most serious contaminants.

The accretion of ice is a complex physical process which is influenced by many different factors.
The main factors in the speed of wing icing are the number and size of super cooled water
droplets in the air and the relative speed of the airflow. The icing process is accelerated when the
surface of the airplane is cold.
Influence of ice on the polar
In addition, the accretion of ice increases the airplanes total mass and influences its center of
gravity. Depending on the type and severity of icing on the wing, fuselage, or tail plane, the
center of gravity may shift significantly forward or aft in a short period of time. Due to its higher
mass, the airplane needs a greater lift force. The polar curve shows a decrease in the maximum
lift CL max as well as a smaller critical AoA αcrit of the contaminated wing. This leads to an
increase of the stall speed vs.
Icing on the wing leading edge can reduce the maximum lift coefficient by 30 to 50%. The
changed contour of the airfoil's leading edge section further deteriorates the aircraft ' s stalling
characteristics. The following graph shows the relative increase in stall speed for different slat
positions and types of icing.

In addition, the accretion of ice increases the airplanes total mass and influences its center of
gravity. Depending on the type and severity of icing on the wing, fuselage or tailplane, the center
of gravity may shift significantly forward or aft in a short period of time. Due to its higher mass,
the airplane needs a greater lift force. The polar curve significantly shows a decrease in the
maximum lift CL as well as a smaller critical AoA αcrit of the contaminated wing. The effects of
ice on the fuselage and wing surfaces can also have severe effects on the flight control surfaces
impacting the controllability of the aircraft.
Influence of ice

Theory of Flight
Relationship between Lift, Weight, Thrust and Drag
There are four forces acting on an airplane in steady, straight, and level flight. The forces are
identified as Lift, Weight, Thrust, and Drag.
Thrust is the force that moves the airplane forward in level flight, and acts in the opposite
direction of the drag forces. Thrust can be generated by a propeller or through a jet engine.
Drag is the aerodynamic force generated by the relative movement of the airplane through the
airflow that acts in opposition to the direction of flight.
Weight is the effect of gravity on the airplane's mass and is always directed towards the center of
the earth.
Lift is the force that is directed perpendicular to the direction of flight, which helps to counteract
the weight force.
In a simple theory, lift, weight, thrust and drag act through the aircraft's center of gravity. On a
real airplane, the center of pressure is not necessarily at its center of gravity which leads to a
momentum around the lateral axis. To compensate, a downforce is required at the horizontal
stabilizer. Due to the long arm, the total value of the force can be kept quite small.
In a non-accelerated steady state of flight, the sums of all forces and momentum that act on the
airplane have to equal zero.
Forces acting on the airplane

The airplane is referred to as being "trimmed out" when lift is equal to weight (the sum of all
vertical forces, is o) and the engines are set to produce as much thrust as there is drag (the sum of
all horizontal forces, is o).
Another equilibrium condition is that the moments acting on the airplane in a clockwise direction
are of the same magnitude as those acting in a counter clockwise direction. The sum of moments
is therefore zero.
Moment equals force times lever arm. The lever arm is the shortest distance between the point,
where the respective force is applied and the center of rotation.
It is assumed that all forces act through the airplane's center of gravity, but in reality stable flight
requires that the center of pressure is located behind the center of gravity.
Glide Ratio
Gliding flight is a continuous, non-accelerated descent without any thrust FT. The flight path
angle leads to a partition of the force of gravity FG into a component parallel to the flight path
and another perpendicular component. The lift force FL equals the cosine of the flight path angle
γ times the weight force Fw. During a glide, the lift force FL therefore is smaller than during
powered level flight. The sine share of the weight force Fw is without thrust, the sole drive of the
aircraft and is compensated by the drag force FD.
Glide ratio

The glide ratio E is the ratio of gliding distance SG and altitude height loss hG. Its reciprocal
value is the glide angle γglide, which is defined as the flight path angle between the direction of
travel and a theoretical horizontal line. The larger the glide ratio E, the further an airplane can
glide from a given height without any thrust, as the glide angle γglide decreases. The optimum
glide angle corresponds to the best ratio of the lift coefficient to the drag coefficient, allowing the
largest glide ratio E. Modern gliders reach maximum glide ratios around E > 60 without
problem, while powered airplanes exhibit glide ratios of around E > 20. At a glide ratio of E =20,
an airplane could fly a distance of SG= 2000 m with a height loss hg of 100 m.
Apart from the glide angle γglide, the glide ratio E expresses the relationship between the lift force
FL and the drag force FD. If an airplane has a glide ratio of 20 and a lift force FL of 1000dN
(around 1000 kg), the drag force FD at the optimum angle of attack αEmax and the respective
airspeed is roughly 50dN or 50 kg. The glide ratio E or the glide angle γglide are not constant, they
are only reached at a certain angle of attack (αEmax) and configuration. Deviations to both sides,
from the optimum angle of attack (αEmax) configuration lead to a decrease in glide ratio. The
glide angle increases and the sink rate of the airplane increases.
If the mass of an airplane changes the acting force of gravity FG changes as well. Since the
optimum ratio of lift to drag is not influenced by the weight, the glide ratio E and the glide angle
γglide remain constant. The same partition of the weight force leads to a bigger component acting
in the direction of flight and increases the flight speed as well as the sink rate, keeping the flight
path angle constant.
Steady State Flights

In a simple theory, lift, weight, thrust and drag act at the aircraft' s center of gravity. On a real
airplane, the lift as well as drag and thrust act on different spots, which lead to a momentum
around the lateral axis. To compensate that, a downforce is required at the horizontal stabilizer.
Due to the long arm, the total value of the force can be kept quite small.
The amount of counter clockwise torque, ML, has to be equal to the clockwise torque MR. The
center of pressure is positioned aft of the center of gravity, therefore the lift creates a counter
clockwise torque as well. The thrust of the low mounted engines acts below the CG and
generates a clockwise torque. The drag acts above the center of gravity, but in the opposite
direction and therefore leads to a clockwise torque. The force of gravity acts directly on the
center of gravity, creating no torque at all.
To summarize:
• The lift force multiplied with the lever arm Ll is equal to the sum of thrust time L3, drag
time L4 and elevator force time L2.

• The amount of counter clockwise torque (ML) is equal to that of clockwise torque (MR)
OR:
• The lift force multiplied with the lever arm Ll is equal to the sum of thrust time L3, drag
time L4 and elevator force time L2.
All prerequisites for stable flight are therefore fulfilled - the sum of all horizontal forces is o, the
sum of vertical forces is o and the sum of moments is also o.
Steady state flight
Performance
The performance of an airplane is (in addition to its aerodynamic limits) determined by the
available power. An increase in airspeed leads to a higher drag force and therefore requires a
higher amount of thrust.
The power P of an engine is physically defined as the amount of energy E or work W that is
transferred in a time period t. In the case of a turbine or a propeller, this energy is transferred to a
medium in the form of a force F, the thrust. Hence power can be described as the product of the
acting force times the flow velocity of the medium.
The power of a jet engine is dependent on both thrust and airspeed. If the air leaves a turbine at a
speed v, which matches the airspeed v of the airplane, it generates no thrust, since the mass flow
is not accelerated and no power is transferred. In order to generate positive thrust at increasing
airspeeds, a propeller or turbine needs to provide corresponding increases in thrust.
In the early days of steam engines, their power was compared to that of horses, hence the old unit
"Horsepower", which is still used for car engines. Modern engineering uses the SI unit system
and the power of turbines, piston engines, and electric engines is usually given as Watts [W] or

Kilowatts [kW].
Let us assume a body is moved for a distance of 30 meters using a force of 600 Newton.
The mechanical work is therefore 600 Newton times 30 meters = 18,000 Newton meters.
The term "power" captures how quickly work is executed.
Said differently: Power is force multiplied with distance and divided by time.
Example: A body is moved for a distance of 30 m using a force of 600 Newton for 10 seconds:
This gives us: 600 *30 / 10 =1800 Watt or 1.8 Kilowatt.
Theory of the Turn

When an airplane flies straight and level, the lift and weight forces acting on it are of an equal
magnitude. If it initiates a level turn, it initiates an outward, centrifugal acceleration. It creates
the centrifugal or radial force FR.
Load factor

During a coordinated turn, the vectors of weight force Fw and radial force (centrifugal force) FR
are perpendicular and result at a bank angle ϕ in the apparent weight Fw. In order to keep the
equilibrium of forces, the lift force FL has to increase. The factor by which Fw increases is called
load factor. Using Pythagoras' theorem gives the apparent weight (load factor) as the hypotenuse
of the two vectors. Weight Fw, radial force FR and the apparent weight form a right angle
triangle. It holds:
Using the trigonometric cosine function, the following formula results:
The load factor can be calculated by:
Increasing the load factor to n 1 in a level turn therefore requires the wing to produce
significantly more lift than in non-accelerated horizontal flight. This leads to an increase of the
stall speed vs, since the critical angle of attack is reached at a higher speed due to the higher
demand in lift.
The forces acting on the wing increase as well and may lead to damage or even destruction of the
structure. Therefore, the maximum load factor for any airplane is limited to a certain value.
Influence of Load Factor: Stall, Flight Envelope and Structural Limitations

Influence of the Load Factor: Stall
In aviation, the load factor is defined as the ratio of the lift force of an airplane to its weight
force. It captures the stress (load) that is applied to the airframe in relation to unaccelerated level
flight.
n = Load factor
L = Lift
W = Weight
Being the ratio of two forces, the load factor itself has no dimension. Still, it is often expressed in
'g' to show, that the acting acceleration can be regarded as a multiple of the normal gravity.
Every airplane can, within the limits of its structure, be stalled at any airspeed if the critical angle
of attack is reached. The boundary layer then separates from the wing surface, abruptly changing
the airplane s handling characteristics and causing it to lose lift.
In a level turn at load factor n, the required lift force equals n times the weight force. At the

maximum angle of attack, the stall speed is just sufficient to create the required lift. Slowing
down any further will require a higher angle of attack, which will immediately result in a stall.
The stall speed vs increases in proportion with the square of the load factor. This means that an
aircraft with a stall speed of 50 kt in non-accelerated steady flight can be stalled at an airspeed of
100 kt, if the pilot induces a turn with a load factor of 4 g.
Influence of the Load Factor: Flight Envelope
The flight envelope represents the boundaries of an aircraft s theoretical performance in a load
factor - airspeed diagram. It displays the permissible operation range and allows for comparisons
between the performance and structural limits of different aircraft types.
Load factor
With reference to the above image, the green range identifies the normal operational states and
its upper and lower limits as defined by the maximum positive or negative load factors. On the
right side, it is restricted by the caution range and the maximum allowable airspeed, which are
displayed on the airspeed indicator in the same colors. Exceeding the limiting values may result
in structural damage or even failure. To the left, the airspeed is limited by the stall speed that
increases with the load factor parabolic.
Up to the maneuvering speed, it is not possible to exceed the maximum load factor because the

critical angle of attack is reached before that point and the aircraft would stall.
Influence of the Load Factor: Structural Limitations
The maximum permissible vertical load factors vary depending on the certification specification
of the aircraft. A commercial airplane designed to meet the requirements of CS-25 (large
airplanes) has to be capable of withstanding 2.5 g of positive and -1.0 g of negative load without
showing any signs of plastic deformation. With high lift devices extended, the requirement for
positive load is 2.0 g and negative o g.
Smaller aircraft built to the specifications of CS-23 (small airplanes), depending on their
projected mass, have to fulfill higher requirements of at least 3.8 g positive and -1.0 g of negative
load in the "normal" category and 4-4 g positive and -1.76 g of negative load in "utility".
Aerobatic airplanes are subjected to separate higher requirements.
The higher the airplanes mass, the less vertical load n can be generated by the lift force at a
constant airspeed before entering a stall. This is why heavier aircraft have a higher stall speed vs
and maneuvering speed va as lighter aircraft.
Example
An aircraft with a mass of m= 1000 kg, a wing area SF=20 m2, a maximum lift coefficient camax =
1.5, an air density p = 1.225 kg/m3 and a maximum vertical load factor n= 3.8 would have the
following stall speed vs and maneuvering speed VA.
If, under other constant conditions, the airplane ' s mass increases to m = 1200 kg, the stall speed
vs and maneuvering speed VA grow to the following values:

Lift Augmentation
Airplanes can fly at slower speeds without risking a stall by extending their wing flaps (leading
and/or trailing edge flaps). Wing flaps increase the maximum lift coefficient CL max by
increasing airfoil camber and energizing the boundary layer. Some wing flap systems also
increase the effective wing area SF, which further decreases the stall speed vs.
There are different technical approaches to landing flap systems that require a varying degree of
engineering complexity regarding hinging and setting mechanisms. The degree of technical
complexity increases with the intended difference in the stall speed vso in "landing configuration"
(flaps and gear extended) and the stall speed vs in "clean configuration" (flaps and gear
retracted).
Extending the trailing edge of landing flaps generally causes a shift of the airfoil's chord line and
hence an increased angle of attack. Deflecting the flap furthermore causes a slight shift of the
center of pressure towards the trailing edge, generating an additional downward pitching
moment.
Flaps
Types of Flaps and Slats
• Plain flap
A plain flap consists of a separate wing segment that is hinged in order to allow it to be
deflected downwards. The flap length is usually about 30% of the total wing chord

length. A plain wing flap increases lift by increasing the airfoils camber. For classical
airfoils, the maximum lift coefficient is reached at a deflection of around 40 to 45
degrees. Simple plain flaps also create significant trailing edge turbulence aft of the flap,
resulting in a large amount of drag. An airplane's glide ratio is decreased by the use of
flaps.
Plan flap
• Simple slotted flaps

Simple slotted flaps are similar in construction to plain flaps. When extended, they leave
a gap between the wing and flap nose due to the off-center type of hinges used. This slot
allows a part of the lower wing airflow to pass through to its upper side, energizing the
boundary layer on the upper surface and decreasing its tendency to separate from the
surface. The tendency of the airflow to separate and the turbulent area behind the trailing
edge is substantially reduced.
Compared to a plain flap, a slotted landing flap delivers a higher maximum lift
coefficient at less drag.
Simple slotted flap
• Simple split flap

A split flap is similar to a plain flap; it differs in the regard that only the lower half of the

airfoil is hinged while the airfoil ' s upper section keeps its contour. Split flaps produce
nearly the same lift increase Aca max as a plain flap but produce more drag and less
nose-down pitching moment. This type of flap was used in World War II airplanes but
isn't commonly found on modern designs.
Plain split flap
• Plain split flap (Fowler Flap)

A plain Fowler flap is comparable to a slotted flap, but increases both, the maximum lift
Coefficient cLmax and the wing area SF. Similar to slotted flap designs, Fowler flaps allow
a share of the lower surface airflow to energize the boundary layer on the wings upper
surface. Compared to all other flap types, Fowler flaps deliver the highest maximum lift
coefficient cLmax at relatively low amount of additional drag.
Fowler flaps
• Multiple flaps
Double or triple flaps multiply the effects of single flap systems. The multiple-tier
arrangement allows these systems to suppress airflow separation and trailing edge
vortices, which allows the maximum lift coefficient to grow by up to a factor of 4. This
design requires a more complex construction along with an increase in the number of
mechanical components that require ongoing inspection and maintenance.

Multiple flaps
Modern commercial aircraft usually use double or triple slotted Fowler flaps. Plain and split
flaps are only found in small airplane and glider designs.
Lift coefficient over angle of attack in various flap types

The diagrams show how the critical angle of attack αcrit decreases when flaps without a slot are
being extended. Without energizing the boundary layer, the higher camber increases the lift
coefficient but is prone to earlier stalls. As a result, plain flaps without a slot are rarely used
today.
In addition to the trailing edge high lift devices, it is also possible to improve the lift coefficient
by the use of leading edge flaps or slats.
Leading edge slats are usually a part of the forward wing which can be extended in slow flight
and retracted during cruise flight. The slot created by extension of the leading edge devices
increases the energy of the boundary layer and delays the stall.
Leading edge flaps are comprised of a hinged section of the wing nose airfoil that can be
deflected downwards in order to increase airfoil camber. They are often used on very thin airfoils
where the gain in camber provides a significant change in stall speed.
A slotted leading edge flap combines a slat with a flap and increases both the airfoil camber and
wing area. It includes a slot that allows part of the lower wing airflow to energize the upper wing
surface boundary layer, reducing separation tendencies.
Krueger flaps are a special variation of leading edge flaps. They are basically a part of the lower
wing surface that swing out to increase the wing surface and energize the boundary layer.
Technically, they are simpler to build than leading edge slats or flaps.
Types of leading edge flaps/slat

The jet effect of the slot creates an energized boundary layer on the wing' s upper side, delays a
stall, allowing a higher angle of attack and bigger maximum lift coefficient CL.
Slot effect of a leading edge slat/flap
Combined use of Flaps and Slats
The diagram in the image below illustrates how the extension of slats facilitates a substantially
higher critical angle of attack αcrit compared to a "clean”, cruise configuration wing. If flaps and
slats are used at the same time; the aircraft can deliver a higher maximum lift coefficient at
constant or even higher critical angles of attack αcrit than in cruise configuration. The leading
edge flaps always extend slightly before the trailing edge flaps in order to keep the critical angle
of attack above that of the clean wing. The opposite applies when retracting the flaps/ slats and
the trailing edge flaps retract first. This design reduces the airplane's sensitivity to unintended
stall, as the critical angle of attack always remains above the value for clean configuration. If any
high lift devices extend asymmetrically due to a malfunction, the huge difference in lift and
center of pressure may result in sudden and uncontrollable rolling and pitching moments. This is
why extension and retraction of complex high lift devices in commercial airplanes is controlled
through feedback mechanisms or computers and includes cockpit warnings for asymmetry.
Combined use of flaps and slats

Secondary Effects of High Lift Devices
The center of pressure of an airplane in cruise flight configuration, sits slightly aft of the center
of gravity and generates a negative pitching moment (pitch down) that is counteracted by the
downward elevator force.
Secondary effects of high Iift devices
Extending the high lift devices generally increases airfoil camber, which causes an increase in
negative pitching moment (pitching down). At the same time, the increased induced angle of
attack improves airflow around the elevator. The elevator now produces more downforce,
compensating or even overcompensating the negative pitching moment generated by the wing.
Depending on the airplane type, it may pitch up (elevator moment change > airfoil moment
change) or down (elevator moment change < airfoil moment change) when the flaps and slats are
extended.
High lift devices are structurally limited to maximum airspeeds and load factors for every
position.
If these limits are exceeded, structural damage or failure of the control system could occur.

Flight Stability and Dynamics

Stability refers to the basic characteristic of an airplane to return to its original flight state after it
has been subjected to a disturbance. For an airplane to be stable without any external
disturbance, the forces and moments that act on it have to be balanced. Stability after a disruptive
event requires an input (aerodynamic or manual) that returns the airplane to its original balance.
An unstable airplane would continuously move about its original state, even when subjected to a
minimal disturbance, and would require constant input and adjustment. The pilot of such an
airplane would be overwhelmed if they had to manually counteract all disturbances. Commercial
airplanes are designed in such a way that small disturbances are aerodynamically compensated.
Modern fighter jets, in contrast, are designed to be aerodynamically unstable and are impossible
to fly, even in still air, without computer assistance. Computer control enables significant
increases in aircraft maneuverability that could not be matched by a pilot using mechanical
systems.
• Static stability:
Static stability is based on the existence of a force that returns the airplane to its original
state after a disturbance has subsided. Since this force would also counteract intended
changes of direction, it can be said that a high degree of static stability impairs the
maneuverability of the airplane. Stability and maneuverability are therefore opposites.
There are three types of static stability:
1. Positive static stability

Stable handling characteristics involving a restoring force. Positive static stability can
be explained, using the example of a ball resting at the lowest point in a bowl. If a
disturbance causes the ball to move out of its equilibrium, the bowl ' s concave shape
combined with gravity will make it return to its original state after the disturbance has
subsided.
2. Neutral static stability
Indifferent handling characteristics, since there is no restoring force that returns the
airplane to its original flight state. Going back to our "ball in a bowl" example, this
situation would be represented by a ball resting on an even surface, for example a
kitchen counter top. In its original state, the ball is in a balance around all axes. If there
is a disturbance, the ball is moved away from its original place and will not return to it
on its own. It finds a new balance in its new place.
3. Negative static stability
Unstable characteristics, since the restoring force is negative, pushing the airplane even
further away from its original state. In our ball example, this behavior can be
represented by a ball that rests in balance on an upside-down bowl (or any other
convex surface). As soon as a disturbing force is applied to the ball, it loses its sensitive
balance and is even supported in moving away from the center by the bowl ' s convex

shape and gravity. Without any external input, the ball will not return to its original
place.
Positive static stability
Neutral static stability

Negative static stability
• Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability describes the behavior of a body or system after a disturbance over
time.
Dynamic stability also comes in three basic shapes:
1. Positive dynamic stability

Stable dynamic behavior means that a body returns to its original state after a
disturbance with either a damped oscillation (periodic oscillation with a decreasing
amplitude, like a weakly damped saloon door) or continually without oscillating
(aperiodic movement, like a saloon door with strong damping). Static stability is a
prerequisite for dynamically stable behavior as there needs to be a restoring force.
2. Neutral dynamic stability

Indifferent dynamic behavior means, that the body does not return to its original state
(aperiodic case) or oscillates around the original state with constant amplitude.
3. Negative dynamic stability

Unstable dynamic behavior means, that the body either moves away from its original
state or, that the oscillation around the original state is increasing in its amplitude.
The damping is therefore negative, that is, a force or moment increases the
oscillation. The airplane reaches its original state frequently, but moves further away
from it during every oscillation.

Dynamic Stability
Airplanes should generally show a certain degree of static stability to assist the crew with control
over a long period of time. After a disturbance (such as turbulence), the statically stable aircraft
returns to its original state either in a dynamically stable, indifferent, or unstable manner
depending on its design.
An indifferent or negative dynamic stability requires a control action to regain its original state.
Commercial aircraft designs aim to produce airplanes that are dynamically stable around all axes.
A disturbance will then be counteracted by a restoring force which returns to its original state
with minor or no oscillation. In many cases, computer control systems are used to ensure that the
aircraft remains dynamically stable and no pilot input is required.
Longitudinal, Lateral and Directional Stability

Longitudinal Stability
Longitudinal stability is the stability of an aircraft around its longitudinal axis. The rotation
around the longitudinal axis is called pitch.
Static longitudinal stability refers to the ability of the aircraft to regain its original angle of attack
without any control input after a change has been made to the angle of attack (caused by
turbulence or control movement by the pilot).
This restoring moment is generated by the elevator where the amount of downforce lifts or
lowers the airplane's nose. The position of the center of gravity relative to the center of pressure
is another key factor for longitudinal stability. Large distances between those points leads to a
greater torque around the longitudinal axis. This requires a higher downforce on the elevator to
compensate and achieve stability.

The term dynamic stability refers to the behavior of a body or system after a disturbance over
time. Dynamic longitudinal stability therefore relates to the airplane's dynamic pitching behavior
after a disruption. In order to reach a high degree of dynamic stability around the longitudinal
axis, the horizontal stabilizer must generate a restoring momentum as well as a damping factor.
As flight altitude increases, the effectiveness of the horizontal stabilizer decreases, impairing the
static stability.
The damping action also decreases with increasing altitude so the recovery after a disturbance
will take a longer period of time.
Dynamic longitudinal stability
As shown in the above image:
• Dynamic stability is characterized by a decreasing height amplitude over time.

• The amplitude for neutral stability remains constant and does not change over time.

• Dynamically unstable aircraft will exhibit larger and larger oscillations over time.
The motion of pitching up, climbing, pitching down, and descending is referred to as a "phugoid"
motion. The time period for each phugoid cycle varies in accordance with the amount of
dynamic instability. Short period oscillations are very uncomfortable and can even result in loss
of control of the aircraft.
Lateral Stability
The term lateral stability refers to the ability of an airplane to return to its original flight state
(without control input) after a disturbance to its lateral axis. Lateral stability counteracts the
rolling tendency of an airplane. It is mostly determined by the wing angle (dihedral/anhedral)
and wing sweep, and is further influenced by the vertical position of the wings on the fuselage
(high/low wing).
Static lateral stability produces a rolling moment that counteracts the bank angle and returns the
wing to its original level position (without control input) after a disturbance. If the aircraft
exhibits too much stability around the lateral axis, turns may be difficult. If the aircraft is
laterally unstable, it would require constant control input to keep the wings level. Lateral control
is normally achieved by use of the ailerons and/or flight spoilers.
When an airplane rolls, the wings are subject to vertical speeds that increase in magnitude along
the wingspan. This vertical speed component, along with the airflow velocity, causes different
angles of attack and asymmetric lift for both wings. The angle of attack on the wing that moves
down increases, while the angle of attack decreases for the wing that moves upwards. The
asymmetric lift distribution generates a moment around the longitudinal axis, which counteracts
the rotation.

Airflow conditions during roll
Static lateral stability is improved in aircraft using a dihedral wing layout, a positive wing sweep
angle, and a high vertical stabilizer.
A dihedral wing has a slight "V" shape - the two wing halves are angled upward. If the aircraft is
banked due to a disturbance, the lift force is no longer acting in a vertical direction, causing it to
slip in the direction of the lower wing. This creates a sideways airflow that can be distinguished
into a normal component (perpendicular to the wing) and a tangential component (parallel to the
leading edge). On a dihedral shape wing, the normal component causes the angle of attack to
increase on the windward side and to decrease on the lee side. This causes an asymmetric lift
distribution, resulting in a rolling moment that counteracts the slip and the bank angle.
A slip will generally cause a restoring moment if the wing has a dihedral shape. This moment is
destabilizing if the wing has an anhedral shape.

Influence of a dihedral wing
The term "positive wing sweep" means that the wing' s leading edge is angled backwards relative
to the lateral axis. The sideways airflow created during a slip can be broken into two
components, normal and tangential. The normal component is higher on the windward side than
it is on the lee side, which (similar to the condition on a dihedral wing), creates an opposing roll
moment.
Wing-fuselage interference has a significant influence on the rolling moment. The slipping
motion generates a lateral flow component around the fuselage which is deflected upward or
downward at the wing root section. The overlap of this flow component, and the normal upper or
lower wing surface airflow creates a local increase or decrease in angle of attack.
If the airplane features a high wing layout, the angle of attack increases on the windward side
and decreases on the lee side. This generates a restoring rolling moment. In a low wing layout,
the situation is exactly opposite.
Influence of wing layout

The airflow that results from a slip generates a side force on the vertical stabilizer. If the vertical
stabilizer' s center of pressure is above the center of gravity, the resulting force in combination
with the lever arm generates a restoring rolling moment. If the area of the stabilizer and length of
the lever arm are large, the stabilizer has a significant effect on lateral stability.
.
Influence of the vertical stabilizer
If the vertical stabilizer's influence on static lateral stability is too large and impairs the
maneuverability, a vertical fin on the fuselage ' s underside (referred to as a ventral fin) can be
used to compensate for the excessive force generated by the stabilizer.
Directional Stability
The directional stability or stability around the vertical axis, refers to the ability of an aircraft to
regain its course after a disruption without any control input. The vertical stabilizer is the
primary surface that helps to create directional stability. The greater the distance from the
stabilizer center of pressure to the aircraft center of gravity, the higher the restoring moment due
to the longer lever arm. Since a slip not only affects the stabilizer, but also acts on the fuselage,
its vertical surface also influences the directional stability. The area behind the center of gravity
supports the stabilizer with a restoring moment, whereas the area in front counteracts it.

Weathercock effect
The vertical surface behind the center of gravity can be increased very effectively by equipping
the airplane with additional aerodynamic surfaces on the fuselage and tail. In addition to the
vertical stabilizer, ventral and dorsal fins may be used to affect aerodynamic behavior. At slow
airspeeds and high angles of attack, the vertical stabilizer loses some of its effectiveness because
the airflow on the leeward side of the fuselage and wings is disturbed, resulting in impaired
airflow around the stabilizer. Airflow around ventral fins on the lower surface of the tail plane is
undisturbed and ensures sufficient directional stability.

Effects of ventral fins
Dorsal fins are a forward extension of the vertical stabilizer and increase directional stability at
high airspeeds. If the airflow around the vertical stabilizer in a slip reaches a critical speed, it
may stall (similar to stalls that occur on airfoils) which leads to a sudden drop in the restoring
force. A dorsal fin creates a turbulent and more stable boundary layer around the stabilizer to
assist with directional stability.

Effects of dorsal fins
Besides the tail plane and the fuselage, the wing also has a slight effect on directional stability. A
positive sweep wing increases the directional stability because the lee-side wing produces less
drag than the windward side. This is caused by the fuselage, which shields the wing root section
on the leeward side and by the decreased effective wing span, due to the positive wing sweep.
The difference in drag supports the restoring yaw moment of the tail plane.

Influence of the wing
________________________


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AERODYNAMICS

AVIATION TRAINING HUB

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Center of pressure .................................................................................................................................. 44

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Lateral Stability ............................................................................................................................. 89

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Physics of the Atmosphere

The 7 physical base units for the SI system are:

• Length - meter [m]

Derived units include for example:

• Speed - meters per second [m/s]

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

A fluid is a liquid or a gas that physically acts like a liquid.

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

The air density:

• rises with increasing atmospheric pressure.

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Physics of the Atmosphere

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

The Earth's Atmosphere

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

The following table lists the ISA parameters at sea level:

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

150C — (6.5K/km *11 km) =150C — 71.5 C -56.50C

Pressure altitude can be determined using two methods:

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

on aircraft performance as a decrease in density causes the following performance effects:

• Engine power decreases - as less air mass is inducted

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Subsonic Airflow around an Airfoil

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Transonic Airflow (TA) (High Subsonic Speeds) around an Airfoil

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Supersonic Airflow around an Airfoil

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

p = density of the fluid

Blowing Out the Boundary Layer

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

The boundary layer can be affected by:

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Boundary layer fences

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Structure of a laminar and turbulent boundary layer

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Free Stream Flow

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Upwash and Downwash

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Thereby, the total impulse flow is transferred into a force.

Momentum Flow Change

Momentum Flow Change - Angle

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Momentum Flow Change

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

behind the wing.