Alexandria Engineering Journal (2023) 71, 263–308

H O S T E D BY
Alexandria University

Alexandria Engineering Journal

www.elsevier.com/locate/aej
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REVIEW

New trends and future directions in load frequency

control and flexible power system: A comprehensive
review
Irfan Ahmed Khan a, Hazlie Mokhlis a,b,*, Nurulafiqah Nadzirah Mansor a,
Hazlee Azil Illias a, Lilik Jamilatul Awalin b,*, Li Wang c

a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Advanced Technology and Multidiscipline, Universitas Airlangga, Gedung Kuliah Bersama, Kampus C UNAIR,
Jl. Mulyorejo, Surabaya 60155, Indonesia
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Cheng
Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan

Received 8 September 2022; revised 8 March 2023; accepted 14 March 2023

Available online 28 March 2023

KEYWORDS
Hybrid power system;
Flexible power system;
Load frequency control;
Renewable energy;
Energy storage
Abstract In recent years, the conventional power system is becoming a hybrid power system with
increments in the interconnection of Renewable Energy (RE) sources, High Voltage Direct Current
(HVDC), and Energy Storage (ES). At the same time, the power system network is also becoming
more flexible in managing demand and supply variability. These factors posed a challenge in achiev-
ing frequency stability when there are abrupt changes in the power system such as load increment/
decrement, loss of generators, and faults. Due to this, load frequency control (LFC) has shifted

Abbreviations: BD, Boiler Dynamics; BESS, Battery Energy Storage System; CA, Cultural Algorithm; CDM, Coefficient Diagram Method; CES,
Capacitive Energy Storage; COA, Coyote Optimization Algorithm; CSA, Cuckoo Search algorithm; CTD, Communication Time Delays; DE,
Differential Evolution; DER, Distributed Generation Resources; DIA, Data Integrity Attack; DoS, Denial of Service; DSA, Dragonfly Search
Algorithm; ESS, Energy Storage Systems; EV, Electric Vehicles; FA, Firefly Algorithm; FACTS, Flexible AC Transmission System; FDI, False
Data Injection; FESS, Flywheel Energy Storage System; GA, Genetic Algorithm; GDB, Governor Dead Band; GOA, Grasshopper Optimization
Algorithm; GRC, Generation Rate Constraint; GSA, Gravitational Search Algorithm; GWO, Grey Wolf Optimizer; HHO, Harris Hawks
Optimization; HSCOA, Harmony Search Cuckoo Optimization Algorithm; Hsfs, LUS, Hybrid Stochastic Fractal Search and Local Unimodal
Sampling; HVDC, High Voltage Direct Current; IAE, Integral Absolute Error; ICA, Imperialist Competitive Algorithm; IGWO, Improved Grey
Wolf Optimizer; IMO, Ions Motion Optimization; IPFC, Inter-Line Power Flow Controller; IRENA, International Renewable Energy Agency;
ISE, Integral Squared Error; ITAE, Integral Time Absolute Error; ITSE, Integral Time Squared Error; IWSE, Integral Weighted Square Error;
LFC, Load Frequency Control; LQG, Linear Quadratic Gaussian; MEO, Modified Equilibrium Optimization; MFO, Moth flame optimization;
MISE, Modified Integral Squared Error; PSO, Particle Swarm Optimization; PV, Photovoltaic; RES, Renewable Energy Sources; RFB, Redox
Flow Battery; SCA, Sine Cosine Algorithm; SMES, Supermagnetic Energy Storage; SOS, symbiotic organisms search; SSA, Salp Swarm
Algorithm; SSSC, Static Synchronous Series Compensator; STATCOM, Static Synchronous Compensator; TCPS, Thyristor-Controlled Phase
Shifter; TCSC, Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor; TLBO, Teaching Learning Based Optimization; VSC, Voltage Source Converter; WCA,
Water Cycle Algorithm; WGA, Wild Goat Algorithm; YSGA, Yellow Saddle Goatfish Algorithm
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: hazli@um.edu.my (H. Mokhlis).
Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.03.040
1110-0168 Ó 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
264 I.A. Khan et al.

from traditional controllers to hybrid controllers and from traditional optimization methods to
hybrid metaheuristic optimization to achieve better stability in hybrid power systems. This paper
provides a comprehensive review of load frequency control (LFC) and power system flexibility.
Other frequency stability mechanisms that support further LFC i.e. application of frequency nadir
and rate of change of frequency (RoCoF), control in wind turbines, and demand response are also
presented. This review also highlights the research gaps and potential future research direction of
LFC for multi-area hybrid power systems.
Ó 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.1. Overview of load frequency control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.2. Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
2. Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
2.1. Hybrid controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
2.1.1. Fractional order hybrid controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
2.1.2. Fuzzy hybrid controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
2.1.3. Higher degree of freedom controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
2.1.4. Controller modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
2.2. Metaheuristic optimization techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
2.2.1. Recent and modified algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
2.2.2. Hybrid metaheuristic algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
2.3. Virtual inertia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
2.3.1. Redox flow batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
2.3.2. Aqua electrolyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
2.3.3. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
2.3.4. Supercapacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
2.4. Generator modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
2.4.1. Thermal power generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
2.4.2. Gas power generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
2.4.3. Hydro power generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
2.4.4. Diesel generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
2.4.5. Photovoltaic power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
2.4.6. Wind turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
2.4.7. Biodiesel generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
2.4.8. Hydrogen aqua Electrolyzer-Fuel cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
2.5. Energy storage devices modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
2.5.1. Super magnetic energy storage device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
2.5.2. Redox flow battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
2.5.3. Battery energy storage system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
2.5.4. Flywheel energy storage system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
2.5.5. Capacitive energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
2.6. FACTS devices modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
2.6.1. Static synchronous series Compensator (SSSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
2.6.2. Thyristor controlled phase shifter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
2.6.3. Thyristor controlled series capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
2.6.4. Inter-Line power flow controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
2.6.5. Static synchronous Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
2.6.6. HVDC Tie-line model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
2.7. Cyber attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
2.7.1. Major types of Cyber-attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
2.7.2. Cyber-attack protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
2.8. Power system flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
2.8.1. Flexibility’s critical role in future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
2.8.2. Flexibility enhancements with RESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
2.8.3. Virtual power plants – The future of power system flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
2.9. Other load frequency control methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
New trends and future directions in load frequency control 265

2.9.1. Application of frequency nadir and rate of change of frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

2.9.2. Torque command control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
2.9.3. Demand response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
2.9.4. Deloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
2.9.5. Speed of response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
2.10. Research gap and future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
3. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Acknowledgment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

1. Introduction
1.1. Overview of load frequency control
A continuous supply of electricity has become a necessity for
life, modern industry, and the economic growth of a country
that is produced by power-generating systems. A stable power
system can withstand disturbances, fluctuations, and varying
load demands. If the power system becomes unstable, load
shedding may occur, and in the worst-case scenario, it would
lead to blackouts. In power systems, loads are highly unpre-
dictable and uncertain because of the change in load demand,
which directly affects the system frequency and tie-line power
to fluctuate from their nominal values [1]. Power systems are
generally interconnected with multiple power-generating areas
to supply power to high-demand regions. A disturbance that
occurs in one area could affect the other interconnected power
system [2]. Therefore, stabilizing the frequency of a power sys-
tem is a major concern for a power network operator. To sta-
bilize the frequency and tie-line power, area control generation
(AGC) is used to bring back the system to its steady-state by
adjusting the generator output power by maintaining a balance
between power generation and load demand [3]. This mecha-
nism of keeping the frequency within nominal limits under a
change in load demand is called load frequency control
(LFC). LFC is an important aspect of power system stability
that maintains the power balance between interconnected
areas under various load conditions. If the system’s load
demand exceeds or falls behind the generator’s power, the fre-
quency of the system will become imbalanced and go beyond
the threshold limits. To maintain the nominal frequency, an
automated control action is initiated, either to start load shed-
ding or to trigger protection relays to disconnect generators
from the grid [4]. To ensure a reliable power system operation,
the frequency undershoots, overshoots, and settling time
should be kept to a minimum, which can be achieved by incor-
porating external controllers [5]. Optimization techniques are
used to fine-tune the controller gains for robust damping of
frequency oscillations. Over the years, researchers have
worked hard to improve the controller design and employ
modern optimization approaches to efficiently stabilize multi-
area power systems. A generalized multi-area LFC model with
RESs and energy storage devices connected through the
HVDC link is presented in Fig. 1, where m denotes the number
of generating units in an area, KPSi and TPSi denotes the gain
and time constants of the power system of ith area, respectively;
ACEi is the area control error; Ui is the controller output; Bi is
frequency bias factor; ai1 , ai2 , and aim are the participation fac-
tor of each generating unit; Ri1 , Ri2 , and Rim are the speed reg-
ulation constant of generating units; TGi1 , TGi2 , TTi1 , and TTi2
are the time constants of governor and turbine of each gener-
ating unit, respectively;DPDi is the load;DPGi1 , DPGi2 , and
DPGim are the change in generating power of each unit;
DPTIEi;j and Tij are the tie-line power and time constant
between area i and j, respectively; N is the number of intercon-
nected areas; and Dfi and Dfj are the change in frequency in
area i and j, respectively.
A large power system can be divided into subareas where
neighboring generators in each area are closely coupled to
form a coherent group. Such a coherent area is called a control
area that responds in unison to load changes. As a result, the
frequency in a control area is considered to be the same under
static and dynamic situations [6–9]. A multi-area power system
model with various generating units is presented in Fig. 1,
which is another way of representation of generator swing
equation through the transfer function model [10]. The gener-
ating units are mathematically modeled according to their
rated power and specifications in terms of gains and time con-
stants which is useful in analyzing complex power systems
through modeling and simulation. These tools are used by
power system designers and operators to simulate the behavior
of electric power systems, which is of great importance in a
variety of planning and operational situations [11,12].
Since wind and PV are the most common renewable energy
sources, they are typically integrated with conventional power
generation sources to form a hybrid power system. Therefore,
a generalized functional block diagram of LFC with wind and
PV is presented in Fig. 2, where KPV1 and KPV2 are the gains
and TPV1 and TPV2 are the time constants of the PV system
with MPPT, respectively; Kpw1 , Kpw2 , and Kpw3 are the gains
of the wind turbine, and Tpw1 and Tpw2 are the time constants
of the doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine,
respectively [13].
The practical applications of LFC include stabilizing the
system frequency, balancing the generation and demand, and
economic load dispatch. Several real-world applications have
been investigated using LFC, including the Egyptian power
system, which is composed of seven zones with a variety of
generation sources, including the actual data from the Zafar-
ana wind farm with 1200 turbines each generating 850 kW
[14–16]. A study of the LFC of an operational power system
in the southwest of Iran (Khozestan) consists of two hydro
power plants with capacities of 520 MW and 1000 MW,
respectively, which are interconnected to other areas of the
country [17]. A LFC analysis is conducted for the Eastern
266 I.A. Khan et al.

Fig. 1 RESs and energy storage devices connected through HVDC link in a multi-area power system.

Fig. 2 LFC functional block diagram for wind and PV generation.

Japan power system with the Kita-Hon HVDC link between between Great Britain, Continental Europe, and Nordic areas
Hokkaido and Honshu [18]. South Korean power system has using HVDC [21]. In addition, an analysis of continental Eur-
been investigated for LFC with thermal plant and ESS in ope synchronous area separation under actual conditions is
[19,20]. A case study examines a trilateral balancing coupling presented in [22].
New trends and future directions in load frequency control 267

1.2. Motivation
To address carbon emissions issues and as an alternative to
fossil depletion, high penetration of RESs including photo-
voltaic (PV) and wind farms are added to the mainstream
power grid to meet the load demands. RESs technologies
becoming less expensive over time enabling large-scale imple-
mentation than the least environmentally friendly coal facili-
ties. International renewable energy agency (IRENA), an
intergovernmental organization, mentioned in their report that
when the global solar deployment capacity doubled, the instal-
lation cost of solar power decreased by 34 %. IRENA reported
that between 2010 and 2020, the weighted-average levelized
cost of electricity is reduced by 85 % for solar PV, 68 % for
concentrating solar power, 56 % for onshore wind farms,
48 % for offshore wind farms, and 4 % for geothermal power
[23]. Moreover, IRENA report for the global growth of RESs
over the past decade is presented in Table 1. It is noted that the
RESs generation has increased exponentially up to 17 times for
solar PV, 7 times for onshore wind farms, 11 times for offshore
wind farms, 5 times for concentrating solar power, and a
cumulative of 60 GW for bioenergy during 2010–2020.
According to the report, RESs may replace 800 GW of world-
wide coal-fired capacity, saving up to USD 32 billion annually
and lowering CO2 emissions by up to 3 gigatons.
Global PV production alone is doubled every two years,
with an average of 48 % annually since 2002 [24]. However,
the high penetration of RESs introduces a new challenge by
significantly reducing systems inertia, causing more frequency
instability because the electronic devices used with RESs have
no inertia [25,26]. As a result, effective LFC management is
critical when significant RESs are added to the grid [27]. The
complexity of power systems increases when more areas with
hybrid power systems are interconnected for power exchange
over long distances. To prove this concept, we adopted a
unique way to conduct statistical analysis on multi-area power
systems. The authors proudly claim that this is the first time
that a statistical summary is presented in a review paper in
terms of the number of publications on LFC considering RESs
in multi-area power systems, as shown in Table 2. The data
were collected on May 22, 2022, utilizing the database of
Web of Science and Scopus [28,29]. A boolean search method
is applied to collect the data, for example, ‘‘Load Frequency
Control” AND ‘‘Renewable” AND ‘‘two area”. The search
databases are intelligent enough to provide results that include
a variety of typing formats, such as hyphens and plurals e.g.,
‘‘two-area” or ‘‘two areas”. In the Web of Science, 3,274 doc-
uments on LFC have been published, 697 of which include
RESs. The overall number of documents on LFC in Scopus
was 4,049, with 698 on RESs. In two, three, four, five, and
six areas, 131, 37, 20, 1, and 7 documents were found on the
Web of Science; 270, 63, 26, 3, and 10 were available on Sco-
pus, respectively. This analysis clearly shows that there has
been relatively little work done on the LFC of renewable
sources in large multi-area power systems. It is worth mention-
ing that, although the titles of published articles do contain
keywords ‘‘multi-area” or ‘‘large power systems”, however,
in reality, the majority are limited up to four area power sys-
tems due to complexity. Furthermore, if the terms ESS and
HVDC are added to the Boolean search, the number reduces
even more. This analysis is likely to draw the researcher’s
attention to contribute to large power systems that would
eventually aid in reducing carbon emissions.
In addition, another analytical analysis has been performed
on the web of science to investigate researchers’ interest
towards utilizing metaheuristic algorithms and controllers for

Table 1 Worldwide RESs installation capacity during the year 2010 – 2020 [23].
RESs Year 2010 Year 2022
Generation Weighted-average cost of electricity Generation Weighted-average cost of electricity
(GW) (USD/kWh) (GW) (USD/kWh)
Solar PV 42 0.381 714 0.057
Onshore wind 178 0.089 699 0.039
Offshore wind 3.1 0.162 34.4 0.084
Concentrating solar greater than1 0.34 6.5 0.108
power
Bioenergy – 0.076 60 GW added 0.076
Hydropower 881 0.038 1,153 0.044

Table 2 Publications on LFC in multi-area power systems.

Boolean Search fields Web of Science [28] Scopus [29]
Total Journal Articles Others Total Journal Articles Others
Load Frequency Control 3,274 1,972 1302 4,049 2,130 1,919
LFC + Renewable 697 440 257 698 373 325
LFC + Renewable + Two-areas 131 96 35 270 181 89
LFC + Renewable + Three-areas 37 29 8 63 37 26
LFC + Renewable + Four-areas 20 15 5 26 18 8
LFC + Renewable + Five-areas 1 1 0 3 1 2
LFC + Renewable + Six-areas 7 6 1 10 9 1
268
LFC investigations over the last decade. From Fig. 3 it is
noticed that the demand for both controllers and metaheuristic
algorithms is rising annually.
The majority of past literature review papers on LFC have
covered topics related to controllers, optimization techniques,
energy storage devices, renewable power generation, micro-
grids, and multi-area power systems but did not address the
impact of cyber-attacks and power system flexibility specifi-
cally the virtual power systems as discussed in this article. Fur-
thermore, this paper has enlightened the shifting trend of
adoption of hybrid controllers and hybrid metaheuristic opti-
mization techniques for robust LFC, which is not discussed
in previous literature review papers. For the first time, this
review paper has presented the integration of various technolo-
gies into power systems supported with block diagrams.
This literature review is divided into sections to make it
easier to read as shown in Fig. 4. The introduction to the
LFC and the motivation for this work are presented in the first
section. The second section demonstrates that hybrid and cas-
caded controllers are becoming widely adopted. The hybrid,
modified, and new metaheuristic techniques employed for
Fig. 3 Researcher’s inclination towards metaheuristic algorithms and controllers for LFC studies in the last decade.
Fig. 4 Organization of literature review.
I.A. Khan et al.
LFC are discussed in section three. In the fourth section, a
hybrid implementation of ESS, HVDC, and FACTS devices
is discussed to enhance the power system stability. Power sys-
tem modeling of large-scale power generation system, renew-
able sources, energy storage systems and FACTS devices are
presented section 5, 6, and 7 respectively. The defense mecha-
nism against cyber-attacks that induce LFC instability is
examined in section eight of this research study. In section
nine, the importance of power system flexibility in presence
of variable renewable sources is discussed. In section 10, other
LFC methods such as torque command control, de-loading,
demand response, application of frequency nadir and RoCoF,
and speed of response are discussed. Finally, the conclusion
and future scope are compiled in the last section.
2. Literature review
2.1. Hybrid controllers
Due to its simple and efficient characteristics, the PID con-
troller is widely utilized. The standard proportional-integral
New trends and future directions in load frequency control
(PI) controller is the most extensively deployed for several
types of LFC controllers [30]. The PI and PID controllers
are easy to design as well as they provide a better response,
however, their performance degrades as the system becomes
more complicated owing to disturbances such as load variation
in an interconnected grid. A PDF plus (1 + PI) controller for
the LFC in distributed power generation is proposed. The pro-
posed adaptive differential evolution optimization significantly
outperformed the DE technique and proposed controller over
PID. The proposed controller has proven to be more efficient
for the LFC as compared to the PID controller [31]. The
benchmark results indicated that the suggested PI-(1 + PD)
control scheme, when combined with the grasshopper algorith-
mic (GOA) technique, outperforms existing control systems in
a marine microgrid system [32]. In a microgrid with an ITAE
objective function, the imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA)
is implemented to optimize the C-PDF(1 + PI) controller vari-
ables. The designed controller enhanced the dynamic perfor-
mance at large compared to PI, PID, and PIDF controllers,
along with GA and cuckoo search algorithm (CSA) [33]. In
a two-area power system, a (1 + PD)-PID cascade controller
optimized by the dragonfly search algorithm (DSA) is investi-
gated with and without HVDC and system nonlinearities. The
comparison is made to the literature, which reveals that the
designed controller is efficient in terms of objective function
values, frequency settling time, and tie-line deviations [34]. In
the presence of traditional turbines, the GOA-based PDF plus
(1 + PI) controller effectively controls the AGC with flexible
AC transmission system (FACTS) devices [35]. To dampen
the frequency oscillations caused by load changes, a cascaded
PD with filter and PI (PDn-PI) controller is used with the coy-
ote optimization method (COA) for PV and wind farms [36]. A
cascaded PI and PD controller with filter (PI-PDF) is imple-
mented with moth flame optimization (MFO). The robustness
of the controller is par excellence under random load changes.
The supremacy of the provided approach is proven robust in
dealing with frequency oscillation in comparison with the per-
formance of the PI-PDF controller compared with traditional
controllers such as PI, PID, and PIDF controllers [37].
In a three-area system with RESs, a cascade (CPDN-
PIDN) controller is adopted. The controller parameters are -
fine-tuned by applying the artificial flora optimization method.
The suggested controller delivers better dynamics responses
than that of the PI and PIDN controllers, as well as the system
performance improves in the presence of an AVR loop [38]. In
a four-area deregulated power system, a calculus-based cas-
cade tilt-integral-tilt-integral-derivative (CC-TI-TID) con-
troller is designed, with gains adjusted by the water cycle
algorithm (WCA). Here the TI acts as the master controller,
whereas the TID acts as the slave controller. The dominance
of WCA is investigated via GA, DE, TLBO, and CC-TI-TID
controllers, and PID and CC-PI-TD controllers. In terms of
peak deviations, settling time, and objective function, the sta-
bility of the WCA-tuned CC-TI-TID controller surpasses the
other controllers [39].
A new robust LFC strategy relies on an optimal design of
the coefficient diagram method (CDM) supplemented with
the GOA algorithm in a three-area power with the ITSE objec-
tive function. Nonlinearities in the thermal generation system,
such as governor dead band (GDB), generation rate constraint
(GRC), and time delay (TD), are considered. The success of
the CDM control methodology is demonstrated by a compar-
269
ative analysis, especially when it is plugged with a redox flow
battery (RFB) [40]. A dual-mode PID controller is employed
in a three-area thermal system tuned by ions motion optimiza-
tion (IMO) technique with IAE objective function. System
nonlinearities like generation rate constraints and time delays
are considered. The dynamic characteristics of the control
methodology mentioned above are compared with the PID
controller and bacteria-foraging optimized integral controller
to establish its supremacy [41]. A reinforced learning neural
network-based PID (RLNN-PID) controller is suggested with
a GOA optimization method. A three-area hybrid distributed
deregulated power system comprised of RESs, ESS, and
HVDC demonstrates robust performance in the face of
demand disturbances [42]. The application of various LFC
controllers is presented in Table 3. The most commonly used
control input signal is the area control error (ACE) in the
majority of publications, however, in [34], two more input sig-
nals, DF and DPtie , are used to provide great LFC stability.
DPC , is the output signal of the controller which is then fed
to control the power generation plant. The complexity of the
controller architecture and the additional controller parame-
ters required lengthy computations for parameter optimiza-
tion. A detailed literature comparison for the hybrid
controllers used to stabilize the LFC is shown in Table 4.
The multi-area LFC controllers can adapt to a wide range
of disturbances, such as load fluctuations, short-circuits [43–
45], transmission line outages [46–48], and generator outages
[20,49,50]. An investigation of a short-circuit of five cycles is
simulated on the PV power plant connected to a three-area
power system where other generators are supported in the
event of disturbance and the system was able to restore its sta-
bility within a short period [44]. In a three-area power system,
a three-phase line to ground fault occurred near a wind farm,
the power system stability was restored by the separation of
the wind farm [45]. LFC of a two-area hybrid power system
with a wind turbine, FACTS, and capacitive energy storage
is examined for the transmission line outage where both areas
act as isolated areas and attain stability quickly [46]. In a two-
area power system with a parallel transmission line, in the first
case, one of the tie-line is tripped and reclosed for 0.2 s, the
power flow from the parallel line increase during the fault,
and power flow is settled down after reconnection. The second
case involves the removal of the tie-line completely, stressing
the system, and shifting its equilibrium point [48]. However,
in a four-area thermal power system with MPC controller,
the system becomes instable in the event of tie-line disconnec-
tion [47]. LFC of a 9-bus test system is examined for generator
outage with and without ESS to compensate the balance for
frequency deviation [54]. The frequency response of a genera-
tor trip of 1 GW is investigated for South Korean power sys-
tems with multiple ESS for the primary LFC of a power system
[55].
In rare cases, LFC may not be enough to restore the fre-
quency to 50 Hz or 60 Hz due to multiple generator outages,
transmission line faults, and equipment failures. Even though
these events are rare, they do occur, and arrangements need
to be made in order to cope with them. The deviated frequency
may trigger a load-shedding or generation-shedding mecha-
nism to restore a balance between supply and demand and
to protect the system. A failure to regulate frequency could
result in the system collapsing completely (blackout), which
will lead to a longer time for the system to be reconnected.
270 I.A. Khan et al.

Table 3 Controller input, output signal’s location, and constraints.

Ref. Application Controller Controller Controller Output Signal Constraint Advantages
no. Type Input location DPC
signal
[51] Two-area TDF/ ACE Input to the governor of Suitable for small power Enhances tuning, restricts
microgrid (1 + TI) a thermal power plant. systems. rejection ratio, and is highly
adaptable to different system
parameterizations.
[32] Maritime PI- DF To control bio-diesel More testing is required for Significantly reduces the high-
microgrid (1 + PD) governor, solid oxide applications with larger frequency noise than PID
fuel cell, freezer, and power systems. controller.
heat pump.
[34] Two-area power (1 + PD)- ACE, To control thermal- Large computational time is
Has five degrees of freedom to
system with PID hydro-gas power plant. required for controller gain design the controller.
HVDC link DF, and optimization.
An additive advantage for
DPtie better stability by using three
input signals.

Tends to reject disturbance
fast.
[35] Three-area power PDF plus ACE Input to the governor of Large computational time
system with GRC (1 + PI) a thermal reheat power Simple structure and is easy to
and FACTS plant. implement.
devices
[52] Two-area PIFOD- ACE To control micro Tested for small power Provide fast stabilization with
microgrid with (1 + PI) turbine and bio-diesel system fewer under and overshoots.
tidal power generator.
application
[53] Three-area power 2-DOF- ACE To control thermal,
Complex controller A robust non-integer controller
system FOPIDN- hydro, and wind design. provides great flexibility to
FOPDN generator.
14 controller parameters control the complex restructured
to be optimized which system.
puts an extra burden on
computation.
[54] Three, four, and FO- ACE Input to the governor of
Complex controller Improved disturbance rejection
five-area power 3DOF- the thermal generator. design. ability.
system TID
Optimization of 10 con-
with GRC & GDB troller parameters
requires more computa-
tional time.
[3] Two-area power 3DOF- ACE To control the governor Increased complexity with More freedom to control various
system FOPID of a thermal generator, nine controller parameters. controller parameters to provide
hydro, and diesel plant. great stability.
[55] Two-area with a FOI-TDN ACE Input to a thermal Tested for a small-scale Simple controller design and easy
capacitive energy generator, hydro, and power system. to implement.
storage device and wind plant.
TCPS
[56] 2-area power FPIDN- ACE To control the thermal, Based on a Fuzzy controller Large flexibility to handle load
system FOPIDN hydro, and gas plant. that is dependent on human variations.
knowledge and expertise
[33] Two-area C-PDF ACE To control the Limited application to Provides a better dynamic
microgrid with (1 + PI) microturbine, diesel microgrid scale response than the traditional PID
solar and wind generator, and fuel cell. controller
farm
[57] Two-area power (PIkD- ACE To control the thermal, Sophisticated expertise is Better noise rejection response
system FPIkD) hydro, and nuclear needed to optimize the nine for both nominal and uncertain
power plant. controller parameters. cases.

2.1.1. Fractional order hybrid controllers
In a two-area microgrid, a [PIFOD-(1 + PI)] controller is fine
tuned with the yellow saddle goatfish algorithm (YSGA). The
suggested controller’s superiority is demonstrated by compar-
ing the results to conventional PID, and FOPID tweaked via
PSO, FA, SSA, and YSGA algorithms [52]. A cascade PIDF
and one plus fractional-order derivative PIDF(1 + FOD) con-
troller is proposed to increase the degree of freedom and elim-
inate the disturbances rapidly. The SSA algorithm is deployed
to optimize the control parameters. The suggested model is
validated on a two-area power system involving an HVDC
tie-line as well as a static synchronous series compensator.
 New trends and future directions in load frequency control
Table 4 Literature comparison for LFC controllers.

Ref. Year Controller No. of Generation Energy Non- Optimization Object Function Comparison
no. Type Areas Source Storage linearity algorithm
Algorithm Controller Overshoot (Hz) Undershoot (Hz) Settling Time (s)
Devices / type
HVDC
[51] 2021 TDF/ 2-areaPV, Wind Battery, – Modified SCA ITAE = 0.2306 PSO, GA PI, PID DF1 = 0.0028 DF1 = 0.0067 DF1 = 4.6815
(1 + TI) Micro Micro turbine, Flywheel DF2 = 0.0023 DF2 = 0.0045 DF2 = 5.8750
grid Diesel Gen., DPtie12 = 0.0038 DPtie12 =0.0005 DPtie12 = 8.8124
Fuel Cell
[32] 2021 PI- marine Wind, Tidal, – – GOA ISE = GA, PSO, PID, PIDN DF1 = 0.0007 DF1 = 0.0076 DF1 = 2.792
(1 + PD) microgrid Marine Bio- 1.67  10-8 FA, CA
diesel, Fuel
cell
[34] 2021 (1 + PD)- 2-area Thermal, HVDC GDB DSA ITAE = 0.0110 MGWO, PIPD, PID, DF1 = DF1 = 0.0361 DF1 = 0.35
PID hydro, gas SFS, hSFS- Multistage PID 8.1  10-4 DF2 = 0.0086 DF2 = 1.17
LUS, DF2 = 0 DPtie12 = 0.0032 DPtie12 =
(hSFS- DPtie12 = 0 0.74
LUS)
[35] 2021 PDF plus 3-area Thermal FACTS GRC GOA ITAE = 0.00422 PSO, GA DF1 = 0.000740
PI, PID, PIDF DF1 =0.0007415 DF1 = 34.22
(1 + PI) DF2 = 0.000735 DF2 =0.0007567 DF2 = 37.07
DF3 = 0.00055 DF3 =0.006845 DF3 = 38.12
DPtie12 =0.001674 DPtie12 =0.008423 DPtie12 = 42.68
DPtie23 =0.001458 DPtie23 =0.010127 DPtie23 = 37.84
DPtie31 = 0.001467 DPtie31 =0.010113 DPtie31 = 40.96
[36] 2022 (PDn-PI) 2 PV, Wind, – GRC COA ITAE = 0.071210 GA, MFO, PI, PID DF1 = 0.0002820 DF1 =  0.10540 DF1 = 0.49010
Thermal FA DF2 = 0.005790 DF2 =  0.05861 DF2 = 3.03840
DPtie12 = 0.000820 DPtie12 = 0.003040 DPtie12 = 4.50310
[52] 2020 PIFOD- 2-area Wind, Tidal, – – YSGA IWSE = 2.816  10-7 PSO, FA, CPID, FOPID DF1 = 0.00016 DF1 = 0.002622 DF1 = 9.550
(1 + PI) Microgrid Biodiedel, SSA DF2 = 0.00061 DF2 = 0.002619 DF2 = 7.646
Microturbine DPtie12 = 0.000294 DPtie12 = 0.000621 DPtie12 = 9.72
[53] 2022 2-DOF- 2-area Thermal, – GRC, WGA ITAE = 1.1729 PSO, DE PID, DF1 = 0.0044 DF1 = 0.0034 DF1 = 2.81
FOPIDN- Hydro, Wind, GDB, 2-DOF-PIDN- DF2 = 0.0065 DF2 = 0.0019 DF2 = 5.51
FOPDN Gas, Diesel BD PDN DPtie12 = 0.0029 DPtie12 = 0.0006 DPtie12 = 4.74
[54] 2020 FO- 3-area Thermal, – GRC, HHO ISE = 1.0238  10-5 DE, GWO, PID, TID, DF1 = 0.002 DF1 = 0.008 DF1 = 4.6
3DOF- Wind GDB, SSA, FA, FOPID, 2DOF- DF2 = 6.04  10-5 DF2 = 0.0018 DF2 = 5.91
TID GOA PID, 3DOF- DF3 = 3.52  10-5 DF3 = 0.0013 DF3 = 5.26
PID DPtie12 = 0 DPtie12 = 9.87  10-4 DPtie12 = 4.23
DPtie23 = 5.13  10-4 DPtie23 = 0 DPtie23 = 4.5
DPtie13 = 4.77  10-4 DPtie13 = 0 DPtie13 = 4.22
[3] 2020 3DOF- 2 Thermal, small GRC, SSA ITAE =0.07  10-4 DE, TLBO PID, FOPID, DF1 = 18.15  10-3 DF1 =11.862  10-3 DF1 = 19.09
FOPID hydro, diesel, hydro GDB, 2DOF PID, DF2 = 0 DF2 =2.4432  10-3 DF2 = 3.28
plant BD 2DOF FOPID, DPtie12 = 0 DPtie12 =1.5492  10-3 DPtie12 = 4.27
3DOF PID
[55] 2022 FOI-TDN 2 Thermal, TCPS GRC, hybrid SCA with ISE = 0.00009, PSO, FA, PID, FOPID, DF1 = 8.5  10-5 DF1 = 0.0006 DF1 = 18.3
hydro, Wind and CES GDZ, Fitness IAE = 0.0147 FSO FOTID DF2 = 4.4  10-5 DF2 = 0.0041 DF2 = 17.6
CTD Dependent ITSE = 0.00003, DPtie12 = 0 DPtie12 = 0.00097 DPtie12 = 13.8
and BD Optimizer ITAE=0.0006

(continued on next page)

271
272 I.A. Khan et al.

According to the simulations, it aided in inertia emulation con-

DPtie12 = 5.9091
Settling Time (s)

DPtie12 = 22.58
DPtie23 = 14.29
DPtie13 = 20.88
trol and boosted the power transmission capacities between the

DF1 = 2.3297
DF2 = 4.2613

DF1 = 14.91
DF2 = 14.29
DF3 = 15.89
areas [58].

DPtie12 = 1
DF1 = 0.84
DF2 = 0.89
The LFC of a hybrid power system is examined using a
water wave optimization to fine-tune the FOPID plus
second-order derivative (FOPID + DD) controller. Variable
disturbances and system nonlinearities such as TD, GDB,

DPtie23 =0.729  10-3

DPtie12 = 6.14  10-3

DPtie13 =6.11  10-3

and GRC are used to evaluate the suggested approach’s effec-

DF1 =20.92  10-3

DF2 =12.33  10-3
DF3 =11.95  10-3
DPtie12 =0.00018
tiveness. The suggested control strategy dramatically improves

DPtie12 =0.0008
DF1 = 0.00077
Undershoot (Hz)

DF1 = 0.0146
DF2 = 0.0174
DF2 =0.00038

stability when compared to PID, FOPID, PID + DD, CC-

TID, and I-TD controllers, with lower frequency deviations,
overshoots, and undershoots [59]. A chaos game optimization
is used to tune the (FOPID-FOPI) controller. On a two-area
and three-area power system, the proposed technique is vali-

DPtie23 = 0.4539  10-3

dated [60]. A cascade controller (FOPI-FOPD) tuned by the
DF1 = 5.5381  10-3 DSA technique is investigated in two and three areas power
DPtie12 = 0.0023

system. Simulations proved the proposed controller’s contribu-

Overshoot (Hz)

DF1 = 0.0016
DF2 = 0.0018
DPtie12 = 0

DPtie12 = 0

DPtie13 = 0
tion to improving frequency and tie-line power oscillation
DF1 = 0
DF2 = 0

DF2 = 0
DF3 = 0

undershoot, overshoot, and settling time [61]. An EV-

integrated two-area power system is investigated for LFC with
variable load disturbances. The controller gains are calculated
using a FOPI-FOPD controller and the SCA algorithm. Com-
PI, PID, and

hPID-FPID
PID, FPID,

PID, FPID,

pared to PI-PD, PI, and PID controllers, the findings of the

Controller

FOFPID

recommended controller efficiently provide stability [62].

PIDF

A disturbance rejection-based FOPID controller (DR-

FOPID) is tuned with a biogeography-based krill herd opti-
Comparison

DE, TLBO

SOS, ICA,

mization algorithm. Simulations are examined on a three-

Algorithm

GA, CSA

HSCOA
IGWO,

area with RESs and ESSs. Results demonstrate that the pro-
posed controller significantly reduces the response undershoot
and overshoot, and also decreases the settling time. Addition-
ally, the objective function values are reduced by 95 % in com-
ISE =6.21  10-7

ITAE = 4.4828

parison to other controllers. The effect of renewables and EVs

Object Function

ITAE = 0.004

on system stability is also studied. Moreover, the result analy-

5.12  10-7,

sis verifies the strength of the FOPID controller under dynamic

ITAE=
ITSE=

IAE=

0.0038
0.002,

load variation [63].

A PI-FOPID controller fine-tuned with gorilla troops opti-
mizer improves maximum overshoot/undershoot and settling
OrganismSearch

time. System of microgrids the suggested controller is validated

Optimization

fuzzy based
Storage linearity algorithm

Symbiotic

using real wind speed and sun irradiance measurements on a

(FSOS)

two-area microgrid. The suggested scheme’s results, when

ICA

ICA

compared to PSO and GA, show an improvement in maximum

overshoot, undershoot, and settling time [64]. The efficacy of
GRC,

the proposed hybrid (PIkD-FPIkD) controller is demonstrated

GRC

GDB
Non-

Devices / type

Battery, –

in two and three-area networks by employing a symbiotic

Flywheel

organism search, which certainly improves the responses of

HVDC
Energy

SHP

second, third, and fourth-order systems. The simulations pro-

–

vide evidence that supports the superiority of the proposed

approach [57]. For a three-area power system, a new cascade
microturbine,
diesel, Fuel
Generation

hydro, gas

fractional-order PD with filter and FOPID with filter

PV, wind,
Thermal,

Thermal
microgrid thermal,
Source

(CFOPDN-FOPIDN) is used with artificial flora optimization.

cell

The proposed controller is capable of stabilizing both LFC

and AVR deviations. In the presence of redox flow batteries,
simulation results demonstrate that the cascaded controller is
No. of

2-area
Areas

superior to the PI, PIDN, and FOPID controllers in terms of

2,3
2
Table 4 (continued)

drastically reduced oscillations and settling time [65]. A frac-

Year Controller

FOPIDN

tional high-order differential feedback controller (FHODFC)

(1 + PI)
2021 FPIDN-

FPIkD)
2021 C-PDF

2021 (PIkD-

is suggested and optimized using PSO to reduce the ITAE per-

Type

formance index. A two-area coupled by HVDC connection

and RESs are used to examine and assess the LFC prob-
lem under varying loading conditions, and with/without the
GRC and GDB. The results indicate that the designed controls
Ref.

[56]

[33]

[57]
no.
New trends and future directions in load frequency control
outperform other existing controllers in terms of dynamic
response and robustness [66].
To manage a wide range of disturbances, TIDF and hybrid
fractional-order (HybFO) controllers are used in parallel. Fur-
thermore, the controller parameters are optimized using a mar-
ine predator optimization technique. The system is being
evaluated in two regions, one with PV and wind generators
and the other with dispersed EV. The results show that the
suggested controller outperforms traditional controllers in
controlling low-inertia situations [67]. To discover the optimal
controller parameters, a hybrid FOPID - TID controller is
used in conjunction with an artificial ecosystem optimization.
The simulation findings confirmed two areas of interconnected
power systems with EV and several types of RESs verify the
proposed method’s better performance for achieving high-
frequency fluctuation reduction and fast response during tran-
sients [68]. The merits and demerits of various fractional order
controllers are summarized in Table 5.
2.1.2. Fuzzy hybrid controllers
A fuzzy (FOPIk + PIDN) and Fuzzy (PIkf + PIkDN) are
designed for the LFC of a hybrid deregulated power system.
An opposition-based volleyball premier league algorithm is
used to determine the optimal control settings of the con-
troller. Furthermore, an HVDC link with inertia emulation
is proposed and validated for the effectiveness of the proposed
LFC approach in contrast to other classic controllers [70] and
[71]. A fuzzy-based PDF plus PI controller (FPDF + PI) with
Sunflower optimization is presented to fine-tune the controller
parameter. The simulation results demonstrate the superiority
of the proposed algorithm over GA and PSO, as well as the
effectiveness of the suggested controller over PID and PDFPI
controllers [72]. A hybrid fuzzy-based (FFOPI + PIDN) con-
troller is presented for plug-in EV in a deregulated environ-
ment. To compute the controller gains, a quasi-opposition-
based equilibrium optimizer is deployed. Although the pro-
posed solution improves frequency management in multi-
area, but controlling the tie-line power error during the peak
demands remains a challenge [73].
Table 5 Merits and demerits various fractional order controllers [69].
Controller Merits
Type
Classical:
An extensive study has been conducted.
FOI, FOPI,
The design process is simple
FOPID, etc.
Cascaded:
Easy to model a system of higher order to a system of
FOI-TDN, lower order.
FOPI-FOPID,
Capable of withstanding parametric variation and
PIFOD- uncertainty.
(1 + PI), etc.
Fuzzy based:
Suitable for linear and non-linear models alike.
FL-FOIDF,
Able to handle both internal and external disturbances.
FOFLPID,
Improve dynamic response as compared to classical and
FL-PIDN- cascaded fractional order controllers.
FOI,
FL-FOPI-
FOPD,
FL-PIDN-
FOPIDN, etc.
273
A fuzzy cascaded (CFFOPI-FOPID) controller that is cali-
brated using a stochastic ICA method is explored with a GRC.
The results show that the proposed controller outperforms
other commonly used controllers. The test evaluates the con-
troller’s robustness with sensitivity analysis and random fluctu-
ations in power demand [74]. A fuzzy cascade controller
(FPIDN-FOPIDN) is proposed with an ICA algorithm to op-
timize its gains. The control strategy outperforms several other
techniques in terms of settling time, oscillations, over/under-
shoots, and various performance indexes [56]. For the two-
area integrated with the EV fleet, a cascade fuzzy-fractional
order integral derivative with filter (CF-FOIDF) controller is
used. With variations in load demand, the presented controller
facilitates power plants in the rapid arrest of frequency oscilla-
tions [75]. To investigate LFC in a three-area power system, a
cascaded fuzzy-PD-PI controller is developed and imple-
mented using the GOA optimization technique. The proposed
Fuzzy-PD-PI controller’s superiority is demonstrated by
benchmarking it against PID and fuzzy-PID tweaked with
the Ant lion optimization method to minimize the ITAE objec-
tive function [76]. A cascaded type-2 FLC and FOPID
(T2FLC-FOPID) is examined in two-area multi-machine
power systems under diverse perturbations. The controller
variables are optimally adjusted using non-dominated sorting
genetic algorithm-II. Results demonstrated that the dynamic
performance of T2FLC-FOPID has leverage when compared
with the traditional controllers [77].
An SSA algorithm optimized fuzzy PID with filter (FPIDF)
controller for multi-area is investigated. The controller’s effec-
tiveness was validated by comparing the system performances
of the sine–cosine algorithm-based PI controller (SCA-PI) and
the SSA-PID controller [78]. The SSA algorithm is utilized to
adjust the parameters of a novel fuzzy-based (F1PD-PI) con-
troller as well as the fuzzy membership functions. The useful-
ness of LFC controllers is evaluated on a two-area multi-
source system interlinked with RESs. Nonlinearities caused
by the GDB and GRC are also investigated. The findings show
that the suggested controller outperforms its competitors in
terms of the lowest settling time, undershoot and overshoot
Demerits

Suitable for only a few operating conditions.

An approach based on higher-order controllers.

Iterations take a longer time to complete.

Incompatible with nonlinear dynamics.

The selection of the inner and outer loops is a crucial factor in
achieving effective dynamic responses.

A prominent level of pre-knowledge is required in order to
select the parameters.

The tuning process takes more time.

The complexity of this controller is higher than classical and
cascaded fractional order controllers.

The selection of the membership function affects the dynamic
performance.
274
response [79]. In a hybrid renewable energy system, a 3D
fuzzy-PID controller (Fuzzy-3D PID) is paired with a hybri-
dized harmony search and random search algorithm. The
superiority of the proposed controller has been validated by
several comparison studies [13]. An intelligent LFC controller
is suggested that employs a fractional-order adaptive fuzzy
PID controller with filter (FOAFPIDF) and a modified SSA
optimization approach. The proposed algorithm is bench-
marked with the SSA, MFO, GWO, PSO, and SCA algo-
rithms. In the presence of various ESS, the suggested
controller displayed a better control action to suppress fre-
quency variations against random load changes [80].
For LFC in a two and five-area power system, a fuzzy-tilt-
fractional order integral-filtered derivative ((FTIDN)-Dk) con-
troller is developed. To optimize the controller parameters, the
ICA and bacterial forging algorithms are used. The superiority
of the approach is demonstrated by comparing the results of
modified grey wolf/DE-based PID and DE-based TID con-
trollers, which demonstrate fewer peaks and the lowest fre-
quency deviation settling time [81]. A fuzzy TID controller
with a filter plus double integral (FTIDF-II) controller is pre-
sented in a hybrid power system utilizing the whale optimization
technique. The simulation results show that the proposed
approach is practical for abrupt load scenarios, system parame-
ter changes, and nonlinearities [82]. A type II fuzzy PID (T2-
FPID) controller calibrated with a WCA algorithm is tested
on a multi-area comprising of traditional and nuclear units with
ESS. Simulation results reveal the usefulness of the given con-
troller with other recent fuzzy controllers [83]. For the LFC
of a multi-area system, an optimized Adaptive Fuzzy based PI
controller (AFLC-PI) is proposed. The simulation analysis with
ALFC-PI delivers fewer transients and more excellent stability
under various load perturbations if compared to GA-tuned
PI, fuzzy-tuned PI, and FA-optimized PI controllers [84].
A fuzzy-based (FIPID) controller was fine-tuned using
hybrid TLBO and modified SCA algorithms. The impacts of
time delays, system nonlinearities, and step load perturbations
are all considered. The simulation findings indicate robustness
to stabilize frequency deviations in comparison to TLBO-PID,
MSCA-PID, TLBO-FIPID, and MSCA-FIPID [85]. For
microgrid LFC oscillation damping, a fuzzy-based (FPIDF)
controller is tuned with an enhanced chaotic multi-verse opti-
mizer. The results are also compared to control schemes such
as MVO PID, IAYA PID, JAYA PID, and GA PID. Better
dynamic performances are reported under stochastic wind
power, solar irradiance, and load variations [86]. In a two-
area islanded microgrid, a fuzzy PD-(1 + I) controller with
the mayfly optimization method is utilized. The results demon-
strate that this strategy combines the benefits of fuzzy theory
and the advantages of cascade control to improve the capabil-
ity of load disturbance rejection and damp frequency varia-
tions caused by RESs penetrations [87].
A hybridized FOFPID-LQG controller in a microgrid opti-
mally tuned with multi-verse optimization is showcased. Simu-
lations were conducted with the suggested controller to
benchmark it to PID, fuzzy PID, and fuzzy PID-LQG con-
trollers, as well as PSO and GA optimization. The suggested
hybrid FOPID and LQG controller is claimed to be robust,
therefore there is no need to reset the controller parameters
when the system parameters change significantly [88]. The
fuzzy tilt-integral-derivative with filter (FTIDF) controller is
assessed in a microgrid for LFC stabilization using the compe-
I.A. Khan et al.
tition over resources algorithm. The superiority of the FTIDF
controller is demonstrated by comparing the results to those of
the PIDF, fuzzy PIDF, and fuzzy TIDF controllers. Simula-
tions validated the efficacy of the proposed controller [89].
For an isolated two-area microgrid, class topper optimiza-
tion is used for a cascaded fuzzy PI-PD controller. ITAE
objective function has been used for tuning. The proposed con-
troller significantly outperformed against wide fluctuations
and random load disturbances [90]. The sailfish optimizer is
presented to optimize a fuzzy-based TID controller in a dis-
tributed microgrid with ESS. Real-time data on sun irradia-
tion, wind speed variations, and load fluctuations are used to
validate the suggested method. Furthermore, a comparison
of the suggested controller with ID and PID controllers reveals
that it outperforms other controllers with the shortest settling
time [91]. A hybrid fuzzy-based controller (FO-T2F-PID) is
used to regulate a microgrid with a cluster of distributed RESs
and ESS. Where the controller parameters are fine-tuned by
the moth swarm algorithm. To validate the suggested
approach’s feasibility, it is compared to h-DE-PS: 2DOF/
PID, I-JAYA: fuzzy PD/PI-PD, hybrid DFPS: TID, and Krig-
ing: FOPID techniques [92].
2.1.3. Higher degree of freedom controllers
To compensate for the generation and demand power, a two-
degree of freedom fuzzy PID (2DOF OFPID) controller is
developed, which is utilized in conjunction with a hybrid fuzzy
adaptive symbiotic organism search and passing vehicle search
algorithm. The passing vehicle algorithm computes the fuzzy
rules; however, the FLC specifies the critical parameters of
the SOS algorithm. The PVS algorithm determines the FLC
rules in the proposed algorithm. The proposed approach is
more efficient than many of the recently proposed techniques
for LFC in two-area and three-area systems with different load
conditions [93]. A 2-degree-of-freedom PID (2-DOF-PID)
controller combined with a regular PID controller is imple-
mented for centralized control schemes with a less computa-
tional burden. The proposed method is tuned using the
invasive weed optimization method, and simulations confirm
its superiority over PID and 2-DOF-PID controllers [94].
A 2-DOF-FOPID controller is proposed for the LFC with
the CSA to optimize the gains parameters of the proposed con-
troller. When compared to the PI and PID controllers, the sug-
gested controller exhibits higher stability with lower transients
[95]. Selfish herd optimization is used to optimize the LFC of a
two-area with five RESs using a (2-DOF-FOPIDN-FOPDN)
cascaded controller. The nonlinearities of the system were con-
sidered, and a transient analysis with load disturbances was
performed. The results achieved with the suggested cascaded
controller are flawless and distinguishable from PID, FOPID,
and 2-DOF-PIDN-PDN controllers. In addition, the proposed
optimization was found to be better than a hybrid firefly
algorithm-pattern search technique [96]. A hybrid of dragonfly
algorithm and pattern search algorithm is proposed to opti-
mize the variables of a 2DOF-PID controller for load fre-
quency management in a microgrid system. The results
outperform PSO, GA, and the DSA tuning methods [97]. With
a 2DOF-PID controller, a heuristic quasi-oppositional JAYA
optimization approach is proposed. The system is evaluated
on a two-area and three-area nonlinear system. When com-
pared to JAYA and TLBO algorithms, the results were shown
New trends and future directions in load frequency control
to be highly robust [98]. A novel quasi-oppositional-based salp
swarm method (QSSA) incorporating system nonlinearities is
built on a 2DOF-FOPID controller. In contrast to a 2DOF-
PID controller and DE, TLBO, and ICA algorithms; the
robustness of the developed controller established a better
dynamic response in the two-area system [99].
A hybrid SSA-DE algorithm is used to tune the (2DOF-
TIDN) cascaded controller for the distributed generation of
RESs. For a more realistic approach, physical constraints and
nonlinearities are included. By comparing the suggested work
to other well-known controllers, the robustness and efficacy of
the proposed work have been confirmed [100]. Harris hawk’s
optimization (HHO) is a powerful approach for optimizing an
(F2DOFTID) controller with two degrees of freedom. Relevant
GRC and GDB are considered for thermal plants. Integration
of HVDC tie-line and ultra-capacitors energy storage simula-
tion provides an excellent enhancement in system performance
while being resilient under normal and unstable conditions
[101]. The WGA optimization technique, PSO, and DE are used
to fine-tune three controllers: PID, 2-DOF-PIDN-PDN, and 2-
DOF-FOPIDN-FOPDN. The designed approach is used to dis-
patch the scheduled and unscheduled power under various con-
tracts such as poolco, bilateral, and contract violation-based
transactions. The nonlinearities in the power system and boiler
dynamics are also considered. The results demonstrate that the
2-DOF-FOPIDN-FOPDN with WGA algorithm outperforms
other controllers [53].
The performance of a three-degree-of-freedom tilt-integral-
derivative with filter (3DOF-TIDN) controller is examined in a
three-area deregulated environment. The mine blasting algo-
rithm, a revolutionary optimization technique, is used to opti-
mize the controller variables. The experimental simulation
results validate the superiority of the presented controller over
Integral, TIDN, and 2DOF-TIDN Controllers [102]. A cas-
cade fractional-order controller (CC-FOC) composed of
3DOF-PID and TID controllers is designed to mitigate LFC
in a multi-area power system. The 3DOF-PID and TID con-
trollers are utilized as master and slave in a DFIG wind power
system. The suggested controller’s efficacy is demonstrated by
comparing its results to those of 3DOF-PID, 2DOF-PID,
TID, and conventional controllers [103].
A fractional-order-based (FO-3DOF-TID) controller effi-
ciently analyzes the uncertain profile of wind velocity and then
enhances the control strategy. HHO is used to investigate the
optimal gains of the proposed controllers. Moreover, the
robust stability of the suggested control scheme is validated
through Kharitonov’s stability theorem, with a ± 25 %
change in system parameters [54]. To increase the system per-
formance, an improved squirrel search algorithm with an
ITAE objective function is utilized to optimize the parameters
of PID, 2DOF-PID, 3DOF-PID, and 2DOF-PID-FOI. Other
optimization approaches are also compared, notably PSO and
the squirrel search algorithm. According to the findings, the
presented control approach provides the best dynamic stability
among the controllers [104].
A hybrid SSA simulated annealing approach is presented to
improve the competency of a 3DOF FOPID controller by
optimizing controller gains. The proposed framework was
used in two small hydrothermal facilities. Furthermore, sensi-
tivity and robustness analyses are performed, and the efficacy
of the proposed technique was found to be significantly
effective [3]. The WGA algorithm optimization is used in the
275
design of a 3DOF-FOPIDN-FOPDN controller to stabilize
frequency and tie-line power fluctuation and provide excellent
dynamic performance. The controller manages and ensures
resilience against variable load disturbance as well as power
fluctuation in a two-area hybrid system with a PV unit [105].
A new WCA algorithm is introduced to fine-tune the 3DOF-
PID controller with ITAE objective function. The proposed
controller possesses merits such as good transient behavior,
disturbance rejection abilities, and insensitivity to parameter
changes [106].
2.1.4. Controller modeling
This section covers the mathematical modeling and the struc-
ture of some of the recently developed modern controllers in
literature for LFC applications. The majority of these cas-
caded/hybrid controllers are based on the modified structure
of PID and fractional order controllers to combine the benefits
and provide robust control for better frequency stability with
fewer undershoots and overshoots. One of the major draw-
backs of these controllers is that it takes a lot of time for the
controller parameters to be optimally tuned because of the
large number of controller parameters.
2.1.4.1. FOI-TDN controller. Traditional PID controllers are
based on derivative modes to enhance system stability and to
increase controller reaction speed, but it imposes an unreason-
able amount of control input on the plant. Practical applica-
tions often experience large plant input signals due to noise
in the control signal. In order to solve this problem, an addi-
tion of a filter to the derivative element minimizes the noise
interference. Therefore, a filter-based hybrid FOI-TDN con-
troller is presented in Fig. 5 to address the limitations of
PID controller, where ACE is an input signal and UðsÞ is an
output control signal. The mathematical representation of
the controller is illustrated in (1) that indicates the tuning of
seven controller parameters, where, Kp , Ki , and Kd are the
gains of proportional, integral, and derivative controller,
respectively; n is the tilt gain of the proportional component;
N is the coefficient of the derivative filter; k and l are the frac-
tional order integral and derivative parts of non-integer orders
[55].


Ki Kp Nsl
UðsÞ ¼ ACE k  1 þ K d ð1Þ
s sn N þ sl
Fig. 5 Structure of a FOI-TDN controller [12].
276 I.A. Khan et al.

2.1.4.2. FTIDF-II controller. A fuzzy logic controller uses 2.1.4.5. PDF plus (1 + PI) controller. A cascaded PDF plus
human experience to incorporate it into the controller. In this (1 + PI) controller is proposed for the application of LFC
way, it is easier to automate tasks already performed success- on a multi-area thermal power system incorporating various
fully by humans. Therefore, a fuzzy-based FTIDF-II con- FACTS devices as illustrated in Fig. 9 [35]. Corrective action
troller is presented in [107] as shown in Fig. 6, where ACE is performed by accepting ACE as the input signal and produc-
and UðsÞ denotes the controller input and output signals; K1 ing UðsÞ as an output control signal. The mathematical repre-
and K2 are the scaling factors of the fuzzy logic controller sentation of the controller is illustrated in (5), where KP and
(FLC) inputs from ACE and the derivative of ACE, respec- KPP are the proportional gains; KI and KD are the integral
tively; KP , KI , KI1 , and KD are the gains of proportional, first and derivative gains; and N is the coefficient of the derivative
integral, second integral, and derivative controllers, respec- filter, respectively. All these parameters are tuned to minimize
tively; n and NC denotes tilt gain of the proportional compo- error signals while maintaining system stability and speed.
nent and coefficient of the derivative filter; y is FLC output 



Ns KI
that is multiplied with TIDF-II controller to produce UðsÞ as UðsÞ ¼ ACE KP þ KD 1 þ KPP þ ð5Þ
Nþs s
shown in (2).


 
KP KI sNC KI1
UðsÞ ¼ y 1 þ þ KD þ 2 ð2Þ 2.1.4.6. FO-3DOF-TID controller. A fractional order three-
sn s s þ NC s
degree of freedom TID controller (FO-3DOF-TID) for
multi-area power systems to substantially improve the distur-
2.1.4.3. PIFOD (1 + PI) controller. For microgrid applica- bance rejection capability under sudden load fluctuations
tions with hybrid RESs, a concept of integrating a PI con- and uncertain wind power is shown in Fig. 10 [54]. The overall
troller enabled with fractional order differentiator and transfer function of the controller is computed using (6), where
(1 + PI) controller is proposed in [52]. The controller structure UðsÞ, EðsÞ, DðsÞ, and YðsÞ are the control input, error input,
is illustrated in Fig. 7, where ACE and UðsÞ are the controller input disturbance, and signal measurement, respectively; kp ,
input and output signals respectively, where six controller ki , kd and kff are the proportional, integral, derivative, and
parameters need to be tuned. From (3) KPi , KIi , KDi ; are the feed-forward gains, respectively; b and k are the fractional
gains of proportional, integral, and derivative controller gains power of the integrator and differentiator; N is the gain of
of ith area respectively; and li is the differentiator operator of the derivative filter; n is the tilt parameter; and DW and PW
the ith area. are the derivative and proportional weights, respectively.


   9
DW >
kN
¼ kp sn PW þ skbi þ kd ssk þN
UðsÞ 1
KIi Kli >
UðsÞ ¼ ACE KPi þ þ KDi  sli 1 þ KPi þ ð3Þ EðsÞ >
>
s s   =
n
1 k
UðsÞ
¼ kp s þ sb þ kd sk þN
ki s N
ð6Þ
i >
YðsÞ
h  >
>
k >
;
¼ k k sn þ i þ k s N
UðsÞ 1 k
2.1.4.4. PI-(1 + PD) controller. A dual-stage PI-(1 + PD) DðsÞ ff p sb d sk þN
controller is proposed for effective LFC in a maritime
microgrid system as shown in Fig. 8, where energy is har-
vested from tidal, wind, fuel cell, and diesel generators 2.1.4.7. TDF/(1 + TI) controller. A cascaded TDF/(1 + TI)
[32]. Where DF and UðsÞ are the input and output signals controller, incorporating the benefits of tilt, derivative filter,
of the controller, respectively. The controller is consisting and the integral controller is developed for microgrid applica-
of two proportional gains KP and KPi , an integral gain KI , tion with RESs [51]. The controller structure requires tuning of
and a derivative gain KD as given in (4). By optimizing these six controller parameters as modeled in Fig. 11 and its mathe-
parameters, performance is enhanced in both steady-state matical representation is illustrated in (7) where ACE and UðsÞ
and transient conditions, and high-frequency noise is also are the controller input and output signals, respectively; KD
eliminated [32]. and KI are the derivative and proportional gains; KT and

  KTT are the tilt controller gains; N is the coefficient of the
KI
UðsÞ ¼ DF KP þ ð1 þ KPi þ KD  sÞ ð4Þ derivative filter; and m and n are the components of the tilt
s controller, respectively.

Fig. 6 Structure of a FTIDF-II controller [107].

New trends and future directions in load frequency control 277

Fig. 7 Structure of a PIFOD-(1 + PI) controller [5].



 

KIf KIi sN
UðsÞ ¼ ACE w1 KPf þ kf y þ w2 KPi þ ki þ KDi
s s sþN
ð8Þ

2.2. Metaheuristic optimization techniques

2.2.1. Recent and modified algorithms

Fig. 8 Structure of a PI-(1 + PD) controller [32].




KT Ns KTT KI
UðsÞ ¼ ACE 1 þ KD 1þ 1 þ ð7Þ
sn sþN sm s
2.1.4.8. Fuzzy PIkf + PIkDN controller. A Fuzzy PIkf + PIkDN
controller is developed from a parallel combination of PIkDN
and fuzzy PIkf controllers to effectively suppress noise and
enhance transient response with more degree of freedom in
comparison with traditional controllers [71]. This controller
consists of 12 parameters that need to be tuned as shown in
Fig. 12 and their mathematical representation can be seen in
(8) where ACE and UðsÞ indicate the input and output signals
for the controller; K1i and K2i are the scaling parameters of
FLC; y is the output of FLC; w1 and w2 are the weights for
adaptive control; KPi , KPf , KIi , and KIf are the proportional
and integral gains of PIkDN and fuzzy PIkf controllers, respec-
tively; N and KDi are the filter coefficient and gain of the
derivative controller; and ki and kf are the fractional order
integral parameters, respectively.
Researchers have been interested in intelligence-based
approaches because of the search mechanism’s ability to adjust
the controller gain depending on the fitness function. A WCA
algorithm is used to optimize a fuzzy-PID controller for load
frequency regulation of a two-area multifuel power system
linked by an HVDC/AC parallel tie-line. The simulation
results revealed that the proposed approach is successful at
dampening frequency variations in less time [108]. The sun-
flower optimization technique has been used to design a FOF-
PID controller for frequency regulation. The proposed method
outperforms TLBO and GA-based PID and Fuzzy-PID con-
trollers[109]. The Tribe-DE algorithm is used to optimize the
parameters of the input/output membership functions of a
fuzzy PID controller to minimize the ITAE objective function.
The method is validated on two and three-area power systems.
The suggested approach has advantages such as good transient
behavior and disturbance rejection ability [110]. For hybrid
power system stability, a satin bower bird algorithm is
employed to optimize a resilient cascaded FOID-FOPD con-
troller. A comparison of the proposed controller to other
recent controllers establishes its superiority [111].
The lion algorithm is used to calculate the appropriate
gains of the fractional-order PI (FOPI) controller for LFC

Fig. 9 Structure of a PDF plus (1 + PI) controller [35].

278 I.A. Khan et al.

instabilities. The proposed method outperforms the GWO,

HAS, BBO, and PSO algorithms [112]. To address the draw-
backs of conventional optimization strategies, a new arith-
metic optimization algorithm is proposed to fine-tune the
fuzzy-PID controller. The proposed method is tested on a
microgrid with an HVDC link and a high penetration of
wind energy. The simulation findings support the proposed
approach’s effectiveness and robustness over DE and TLBO
with varying loads and high wind penetration [113]. On a
two-area system, the Archimedes optimization algorithm is
investigated using the integral derivative tilted (ID-T) con-
troller. The suggested controller is compared to PID,
FOPID, TID, and I-TD controllers, and the proposed
method with PSO and the whale optimization algorithm.
The results reveal that the proposed technique was phenom-
Fig. 10 Structure of a FO-3DOF-TID controller [54]. enally successful in dealing with the LFC problem in a

Fig. 11 Structure of a TDF/(1 + TI) controller [51].

Fig. 12 Structure of a Fuzzy (PIkf) + PIkDN) controller [71].

New trends and future directions in load frequency control
multi-area power system [114]. A quantum chaotic game
optimizer (QCGO) is employed to tailor the gains of the
suggested combination TD-TI controller. The efficacy of
the suggested approach is validated on two-area hybrid
power systems integrated with EV and a wide range of
RES to achieve power grid stability [115].
To optimize the FOPID controller for LFC in two-area
with RESs, a modified meta-heuristic optimizer called the
modified hunger games search optimizer was designed. Other
recent techniques such as the Runge-Kutta-based optimizer,
equilibrium optimizer, marine predator’s optimizer, artificial
ecosystem optimizer, and movable damped wave algorithm
are compared to the suggested methodology. The results
proved the proposed algorithm’s ability to ensure reliable
operation in the event of load interruptions [116]. A modified
equilibrium optimization (MEO) approach is used to tune the
interval type-2 fuzzy PID (IT2FPID) controller for load fre-
quency management in the multi-area hybrid power system.
The proposed technique has an advantage over the T1FPID
and PID controllers in terms of overshoots , undershoots
and settling time [117]. A two-area with six generating plants
backed by ESS is investigated where an (FOI-PD) controller
is calibrated with an improved-fitness-dependent optimizer.
The proposed method outperforms when benchmarked with
other approaches in terms of less overshoot, settling time,
and undershoot [118]. A modified SCA method is used to opti-
mize a multistage fractional-order PD-PI controller of an iso-
lated AC microgrid. PID, PI, and I controllers, as well as
optimization methodologies such as GA, artificial bee colony,
sine cosine, CSA, crow search, GSA, and DSA algorithms, are
used to illustrate the usefulness of the suggested controller
[119]. In a two-area power system integrated with a thermal
generator and a PV grid, a modified whale optimization using
a PIDF controller is introduced and it outperforms a standard
PID controller in terms of efficacy [120]. An improved light-
ning attachment procedure optimization technique is devel-
oped on a robust RPID controller that evolved from a PID
and a linear quadratic gaussian (LQG) controller. The results
reveal that the suggested controller provides reliable perfor-
mance for power grids supplied with a considerable share of
RESs under various load disturbances [121].
An improved ant colony optimization is proposed to tune a
fuzzy-PID controller for the LFC of two area systems with
nonlinearities coupled by an HVDC tie-line. Five different
objective functions are used to optimize the controller param-
eters. The proposed method outperforms the GA and hybrid
PSO-Pattern search algorithms [122]. A mine blast algorithm
with an objective function to minimize the ITAE is examined
to tune a fuzzy PID controller. The proposed technique is
tested on a multi-area power system under huge step load
demand and disruptions. The collected results validated the
algorithm’s superiority over the ant lion, artificial bee, hybrid
DE-PSO, and hybrid PSO-pattern search algorithms [123]. A
marine predator algorithm-based fuzzy-PID with filter
(MPA-FPIDF) controller is designed for a two-area hybrid
microgrid system with various RESs and ESS. The proposed
method outperforms MPA-PIDF, PSO-PIDF, and other tradi-
tional controllers in terms of frequency deviation stabilization.
The proposed controller has the shortest settling time and
proves to be robust for wind speed fluctuations and solar irra-
diance variations [124].
279
2.2.2. Hybrid metaheuristic algorithms
A Hybrid of PSO and modified SCA algorithm is presented to
optimize a fractional order hybrid PID-fuzzy-PID (FO-hPID-
FPID) for three area power systems with system nonlinearities.
It is revealed that the suggested controller and optimization
algorithm offers better performance over PID, FOPID, FPID,
FOFPID, and hPID-FPID controllers [125]. A hybrid modi-
fied PSO and GA (MPSOGA) is examined on a double TIDF
controller. The proposed approach is proven on a two-area
power system backed by virtual inertia devices and an HVDC
link to achieve adequate system stability [126]. A heuristic
Hopfield neural network is designed to decrease the Lyapunov
function. To address the power system dynamics, a hybrid
PSO and GSA optimization strategy is adopted. The con-
troller’s effectiveness is evaluated in two- and three-area sys-
tems using plug-in electric automobiles [127].
A hybrid of oppositional-based learning and the SCA algo-
rithm is used to tune the (FOPI-D) controller. When compared
to the grey wolf, SCA, and hyper-spherical search algorithms,
the results indicate higher efficiency. The findings further sug-
gest that the proposed approach has improved performance
under uncertainties and random load perturbation [128]. The
hybrid SCA algorithm with fitness-dependent optimizer is
employed to optimize the FOI-TDN controller. Practical non-
linear constraints, such as controller dead band, communica-
tion time delay, boiler dynamics, and generation rate
constraint, are included in the supplied system model for more
realistic analysis. The superiority of two areas combined with
ESS and thyristor in mitigating frequency variations are
demonstrated [55]. To address LFC stability difficulties in
power systems, a hybrid SCA and HHO optimization tech-
nique is introduced with high RESs penetration. The other
optimization technique, such as HHO, MFO, sine cosine, grey
wolf, SSA, and gravity search algorithm, is used to validate the
effectiveness of the proposed metaheuristic optimization algo-
rithm. To achieve improved control of frequency oscillations,
an adaptive fuzzy PID controller is combined with the pro-
posed metaheuristic optimization technique [129].
A hybrid optimization approach consists of modified big
bang big crunch optimization and the pade approximation
algorithm is applied for the reduced-order modeling and
fractional-order internal model control. Simulation analysis
of the test system proved the suggested approach simplifies
the controller design and demonstrates minimum undershoot
and settling time in comparison to conventional integer order
and fractional order controllers [130].
A hybrid MFO and generalized hopfield neural network
(GHNN) are proposed to optimize the FOPID controller for
a multi-area RESs power system. The findings revealed that
the proposed technique outperformed the GHNN-PID,
MFO-FOPID, and PID controllers in terms of stability
[131]. A fusion of the flower pollination algorithm and adap-
tive tabu search optimization technique is presented, which is
applied to tune the FOPID controller for the LFC in power
systems with three types of turbines. Simulations show that
the proposed strategy is superior in terms of providing stability
in the event of frequency variations [132]. A hybrid algorithm
is proposed based on SSA and pattern search algorithm
(hSSA-PS) to tune the gains of a fuzzy-PID controller. Under
the stochastic nature of PV and wind energy, simulation results
280
show that the suggested algorithm outperforms SSA, GA, and
PSO algorithms [133].
A blended optimization technique based on a lightning
search algorithm and wavelet is presented to tune the
multi-resolution PID (MRPID) controller. This strategy
has the advantage of keeping the system frequency close
to its nominal value, by regulating system output, and main-
taining power balance under changes in load. The simulation
results while considering the system nonlinearities, show that
the developed power system model outperforms the other
traditional controllers [134]. A composite optimization tech-
nique based on flower pollination and pattern search
(hFPA-PS) is developed to adjust the output feedback slid-
ing mode controller (OFSMC) f or a multi-source linked
deregulated power system [135]. To adjust the PID con-
troller gains, a hybrid of artificial intelligence (AI) and meta-
heuristic anopheles search algorithm (MASA) optimization
is multi-adopted. The proposed model is used in a three-
area system to effectively suppress undershoots and over-
shoots [136]. Using the Hankel approach of model order
reduction, the LFC of a two-area multi-source hybrid power
system is explored. The cascade (PI-PD) controller was used
in conjunction with a hybrid PSO and GSA optimization
technique. The results indicate that this cascade controller
outperforms traditional controllers [137].
Quasi-opposition-based harmonic search (QOHS) method
is applied to a fractional order-Fuzzy PID controller to opti-
mize its gains. The system under discussion consists of multiple
RESs, and ESS is tested with a variable load that introduces
power system oscillations. The obtained results are then exam-
ined in conjunction with the FO-PID and PID controller to
illustrate the usefulness of the algorithm adopted [138].
A careful determination of the objective function of the
optimization technique is necessary to achieve optimal fre-
quency control in interconnected or isolated power networks.
To improve the efficiency of the system, some studies
employed an objective function that contained frequency devi-
ation(Df), area control error (ACE), or tie-line deviation
(DPtie ). However, changing the objective function to a multi-
objective function will significantly improve the efficiency
and performance of the system dynamics. Various objective
functions could be used for LFC optimization. There are
numerous error-based objective functions for multi-objective
control systems, including the integral time squared error
(ITSE), the integral time absolute error (ITAE), the integral
absolute error (IAE), integral squared error (ISE), recently
enhanced integral weighted square error (IWSE) [52], and
modified integral squared error (MISE) [69] as shown in (9)-
(14).
Z Tmax n  2 o
JITAE ¼ t  jDfi j2 þ DPtie;ij   dt ð9Þ
Tmin ¼0
Z Tmax n o
2
JITSE ¼ t  ðDfi Þ2 þ DPtie;ij  dt ð10Þ
Tmin ¼0
Z Tmax n o
2 model comprises a fuel cell, wind turbine, PV, and diesel
JISE ¼ ðDfi Þ2 þ DPtie;ij  dt ð11Þ
Tmin ¼0
Z a BESS and flywheel actively contributes to stable operations
Tmax n  2 o
JIAE ¼ jDfi j2 þ DPtie;ij   dt ð12Þ
Tmin ¼0
I.A. Khan et al.
Z Tmax Z Tmax
JMISE ¼ Wi  ðDfi Þ2  dt þ Wij  DPtie;ij  dt ð13Þ
Tmin ¼0 Tmin ¼0
Z Tmax Z Tmax
JIWSE ¼ Wi  ðDfi Þ2  dt þ Wij  DPtie;ij  dt ð14Þ
Tmin ¼0 Tmin ¼0
The objective functions IWSE and MISE are estimated by
the net deviation in tie-line power and frequency by consider-
ing weights Wi and Wij . These weighted objective functions
need to be minimized for simultaneous reduction in system fre-
quency tie-line power ensuring better performance and robust-
ness [52].
2.3. Virtual inertia
In recent years, a new trend has evolved among scientists, aim-
ing to optimize LFC for renewable energy power generation by
adding virtual inertia. It is because the electricity generated by
RESs is transported to the power grids via inverters. Since the
rotating mass is the source of inertia, and on the contrary, the
inverters are based on power electronics that are inertia-free.
As a result, when compared to a traditional power system
operated by synchronous generators, the high penetration of
RESs power generation reduces the total system inertia.
Although RESs power plants are helpful in terms of environ-
mental effects and fuel cost savings, due to low inertia, they
have a negative impact on power system stability, particularly
system frequency, which is closely related to the quantity of
inertia in the system [139,140]. From 2008 to 2010, the Electric-
ity Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) faced elevated fre-
quency deviations due to the high penetration of RESs
triggered by a reduction of overall system inertia [141]. To per-
mit high penetration of RESs in the power system, a control
strategy that can also offer inertia support to the power system
is called virtual inertia control, which is also referred to as a
virtual synchronous generator, synchronverter, or virtual syn-
chronous machine [140].
Virtual inertia consists of an inverter, a controller for vir-
tual inertia emulation, and ESS. The virtual inertia is majorly
injected through ESS that includes several types of batteries,
mechanical storage devices such as flywheels, superconductive
magnetic and super-capacitive energy storage devices, Aqua
electrolyzer and fuel cell, etc. The merits and demerits of major
ESS devices are presented in Table 6.
A combination of various storage devices like Battery
Energy Storage System (BESS), Flywheel, and EV injected
accumulated virtual inertia in a multi-microgrid with a range
of power generators inclusive of a fuel cell, micro turbine ther-
mal unit, diesel generator, solar and wind sources [33]. A
microgrid enriched with RESs in islanded mode with BESS
and Flywheel operated by Sliding Mode Control transmits
vast virtual inertia for robust damping of frequency oscilla-
tions during severe disturbances and uncertain conditions
[142]. BESS facilitated in achieving the LFC stability of a
micro-grid where a controller is employed with a hybrid PSO
and GSA with a chaotic map algorithm. The microgrid system
engine generator [143]. A multi-microgrid system backed by
under load disturbances and frequency deviations linked with
PV, wind turbine, and diesel generators [97]. By use of a
New trends and future directions in load frequency control
Table 6 Merits and demerits of various ESS devices.
Type Merits
Flywheel based ESS
Environment-friendly

High power density

Minimal maintenance costs

Longer life span
Superconducting magnet-based ESS
Rapid charging and discharging

High energy density

High efficiency (90 %)

Long life span (25–30 years)
Supercapacitor based ESS
Fast response

Superior alternative to conventional batteries
because it involves no chemical interactions.

High peak output

Capable of up to one million charge and
discharge cycles

Large-scale energy storage
Redox flow Batteries
Low chances of electrolyte contamination

Large life span

Efficiency between 75 % and 85 %
Hydrogen fuel cell-based ESS
Ecofriendly and clean power generation

Low per-unit generation cost
flywheel and a battery energy storage device, the hybrid
FOFPID-LQG controller reduces disturbance oscillations in
a microgrid comprising synchronous generators, PV, and wind
turbines [88]. A battery storage system with a fuzzy controller
regulates frequency fluctuations in a hybrid power system and
facilitates a diesel generator and a wind turbine [144]. Battery
energy storage with MPC controller is integrated in a two-area
microgrid incorporating hydro, thermal, PV, and wind power
sources [9]. FACTS and ESS in the presence of EV are ana-
lyzed for improved system dynamics in a hybrid restructured
power system [111]. A novel combined solar-gas turbine is
demonstrated in a dual-area microgrid with an HVDC link
backed by an energy storage device, a biodiesel generator,
and a wind turbine [145]. In a deregulated environment,
pumped hydro energy storage is explored in a three-area sys-
tem composed of wind turbines, solar-thermal, thermal-
biogas, and thermal-biodiesel units. Additionally, a dynamic
response comparison study is carried out, taking into account
many mechanical energy storage devices such as flywheel and
compressed air energy storage; the analysis shows that pumped
hydro energy storage surpasses the others [102]. A fmincon sol-
ver is used for active power control of a two-area microgrid
based on a thermal-hydro power plant integrated with wind
and solar power generation sources. Each microgrid is comple-
mented with a battery energy storage system to effectively
dampen frequency oscillations [7].
Affordable storage is widely seen as a game changer since
renewables would no longer require fossil back-up capacity. In
addition, with the increase in extreme weather events, demand
for storage to act as back-up capacity during an outage is
increasing. According to DOE Global energy storage database,
a subsidiary of US department of energy, there is currently
approximately 191 GW of storage operational or under con-
struction worldwide [146]. Most of this storage is pumped hydro
consisting of 181.2 GW (95 %). Fig. 13 represents the global ESS
installations over the past decade where battery-based storage
(electrochemical) makes up about 3.78 GW (1.98 %) of this
281
Demerits

Large capital investment

High self-discharge (3 % to 20 % per hour)

Less dense energy

Requires cooling system

High installation costs

High self-discharge

Expensive

Low energy density

Can store energy for short periods

Requires external pumps to flow the electrolyte

Low energy density

Mostly used in Microgrids

Efficiency 40 % to 60 % due to heat losses
storage and this segment is growing. Other main storage
technologies include thermal storage which is about 3.2 GW
(1.68 %) and electromechanical e.g., compressed air and fly-
wheel 2.58 GW (1.35 %), and hydrogen storage with very negli-
gible volume at 0.02 GW. Whereas Fig. 14 represents the global
installation of energy storage devices by the year 2020, excluding
pumped-hydro. The majority share of storage is held by
Lithium-ion battery 3.02GW, sensible heat 2.96 GW, com-
pressed air 1.61GW, and flywheel 0.97GW. While the other stor-
age technologies cumulatively are<10 % [146].
2.3.1. Redox flow batteries
In recent years, researchers’ attention has shifted from tradi-
tional to redox battery storage devices for LFC. Redox batter-
ies have a huge life cycle in theory because the electrolyte is
separated into two cylinders, eliminating the risk of contami-
nation [147]. These are appropriate for large stationary ESSs,
and they are also independent of energy capacity and power
generation. These can be fully charged and discharged without
causing significant negative effects [148]. Virtual inertia is
injected in two-area hydro-thermal and wind-generating units
with a RFB in the presence of a thyristor-controlled phase shif-
ter. The proposed methodology stabilizes the transients
quickly to enhance the system frequency stability during load
instabilities [149].
The RFB incorporated with TCSC in a two-area with six
multiple generations units outperforms with less in over-
shoot, undershoot, and settling time [118]. In a deregulated
environment to achieve a good margin of stability, tradi-
tional generators are examined with Hydrogen Energy Stor-
age and a Fuel cell [150]. The optimal design of the CDM is
considered in conjunction with deviation in a three-area
thermal power system equipped with RFB for LFC [40].
RFB enhanced the stability by adding virtual inertia to
three-area power systems based on thermal-wind, thermal-
solar, and hydrothermal-geothermal power plants [65].
282
Fig. 14 Global installation of energy storage devices by the year 2020 (excluding pumped-hydro).
RFB contributes to providing inertia in a disturbance rejec-
tion scheme based on a FOPID controller for a three-area
hybrid power system [63]. A five-area thermal power system
supported by RFB is analyzed to minimize frequency and
power deviations [151]. Virtual inertia is introduced in a
multi-area multi-source with a RFB battery that regulates
the frequency of the interconnected power system [78].
Under the random and stochastic nature of RESs, a RFB
is investigated in a hybrid power system[133].
I.A. Khan et al.
2.3.2. Aqua electrolyzers
In recent years, scientists have been particularly interested in
incorporating aqua electrolyzer to manage LFC instabilities.
The aqua electrolyzer absorbs the variable output power from
PV and wind generators and converts it to hydrogen gas for
fuel cells after an electrolysis process. A fuel cell then trans-
forms hydrogen into electrical energy. In a Fuel Cell, a proton
exchange membrane absorbs hydrogen and provides DC elec-
tricity, which is then transmitted into the power grid via a DC/
New trends and future directions in load frequency control
AC converter to fulfill peak load demand[152]. The primary
advantage of combining a hydrogen and aqua electrolyzer with
a fuel cell (HAE-FC) is that it improves the power supply qual-
ity and reliability, which is particularly effective for wind tur-
bines, PV arrays, and/or battery stacks. Under sudden load
disturbances, HAE-FC responds quickly to restore system fre-
quency to normal [107].
The stability of an integrated power system with hydro-
thermal, wind, diesel, and gas units, a hydrogen-aqua-
equalizer with a hydrogen repository tank, and the fuel cell
is analyzed [72]. In a two-area thermal power system with dis-
tributed generation, a wind turbine is explored with an aqua
electrolyzer, a fuel cell, and a BESS [153]. The impact of vari-
ous energy storage devices such as the hydrogen aqua elec-
trolyzer, SMES, and RFB was investigated [154]. This study
focuses on a microgrid that comprises a collection of dis-
tributed generating power sources such as PV and wind, and
other electric storage devices such as electrochemical batteries,
flywheel systems, and EVs [92]. A hybrid power system using a
plug-in EV with a fuel cell and an aqua electrolyzer to compen-
sate for power imbalances in a renewable energy integrated
power system [155]. The effect of a biogas turbine generator
and a biodiesel engine generator is studied when an aqua elec-
trolyzer and a fuel cell unit are combined in a microgrid [86].
The global hydrogen power plants are negligible, 0.02GW,
but it is growing. In Germany, for example, Hydrogenics put
in 2.4 MW of power-to-gas. South Korea’s Shinincheon Bit-
dream Fuel Cell Power Plant of 79.8 MW has now become
the world’s largest hydrogen fuel cell power plant [156]. In
the year 2020, Saudi Aramco exported 40 tons of blue ammo-
nia to Japan for use in zero-carbon power generation due to
the additive advantage of blue ammonia over hydrogen
[157]. Since ammonia doesn’t need to be cooled to extreme
temperatures, it’s more portable and storable than liquid
hydrogen. By contrast, hydrogen storage systems are costly,
purity requirements are high, and transportation is challeng-
ing. In energy-intensive sectors, such as power generation
and transportation, ammonia is an attractive option for decar-
bonizing the industry.
2.3.3. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
SMES store energy in the form of a magnetic field generated
by a direct current flowing through a superconducting coil.
When current runs through a standard wire, some energy is
lost as heat due to electric resistance. However, in SMES,
the wire is made of a superconducting material that has been
cryogenically chilled below its critical temperature. As a result,
electric current can pass with almost little resistance, allowing
SMES to store more energy for a longer period [158]. The
stored energy can be released back into the network by dis-
charging the coil. An inverter/rectifier is used, in the power
conditioning system, to convert AC to DC or vice versa. In
each storage/discharge cycle, the inverter/rectifier consumes
2 % to 3 % of the total energy. In comparison to other ESSs,
SMES has the lowest losses and is exceptionally efficient, with
a 95 percent efficiency rate [159]. The most significant benefit
of SMES is the minimal time delay between the charge and dis-
charge cycle. Power is accessible instantaneously, and high-
power output can be delivered. Due to the excessive cost of
superconducting wire and the need for refrigeration, SMES
is used for short-term energy storage [160].
283
SMES devices were initially proposed as enormous energy
storage rings with capacities of up to 1GW. One ambitious
project from the previous century in North America would
have had a storage capacity of 2400 MW. This would have
involved an underground storage ring with a diameter of up
to 100 km. Due to the enormous infrastructure costs and the
expensive superconducting wire at the time, the project was
subsequently eventually declared uneconomical. In the
1980 s, the US Bonneville Power Administration commis-
sioned one of the first SMES devices to be used commercially.
This unit featured a 30 MJ storage capacity and a 10 MW
power rating. To dampen the power swings on the Pacific
Intertie, the device could release 10 MJ of energy in a third
of a second. A typical commercial unit nowadays has a 3 MJ
(0.83 kWh) storage capacity and can deliver 3 MW of power
for one second. By using modern technology, small commer-
cial SMES with capacities ranging from 100 kW to 100 MW
can now be developed. So far, the largest SMES has been
installed, with a capacity of 10 MW. These devices can store
10 to 30 kWh of energy, which is not a lot but enough for
quick grid support [161].
A. Kumar & Shankar, [162] explored the addition of virtual
inertia by integrating SMES and RFB to support a two-area
power system in a deregulated power system that consists of
a thermal-gas plant, EV, Dish-stirling solar thermal system,
and wind turbine. SMES and TCSC hybrid adoption addresses
the LFC in a two-area hydro-thermal system by providing vir-
tual inertia [106]. Participation of SMES to induce virtual iner-
tia is investigated in a deregulated three-area hydro-thermal
hybrid distributed generation system interconnected via AC/
DC parallel links, revealing robust performance against load
disturbances [42]. The involvement of a Fuzzy hybrid con-
troller for the stabilization of LFC with SMES is examined
[163,82]. SMES is used in conjunction with the hybrid FOPID
and TID controllers to dampen electromechanical oscillations
[164]. After simulations, it was discovered that an HVDC tie-
line with SMES provides enough inertial energy for system sta-
bility in a two-area network [126].
2.3.4. Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors can store and deliver energy at an extremely
fast rate but for a short duration. However, they are good
options to compensate for the high peak of usage during short
periods under load disturbance in a power grid [165]. A hybrid
backup BESS comprising an ultra-capacitor, an aqua elec-
trolyzer, and a flywheel is placed to support three wind tur-
bines, two solar-thermal generators, three diesel generators,
and two fuel cells plant. The proposed approach can maintain
LFC with variable wind velocity and solar radiation [166]. To
support the power system under variable load disturbances, A
supercapacitor energy storage is employed in a two-area power
system [55] and an ultra-capacitor in a three-area deregulated
environment [136] with multiple generating sources facilitated
by a thyristor control phase shifter. To enhance dynamic
response, an ultra-capacitor significantly improved the
dynamic stability in a gas-hydro-thermal system with an aqua
electrolyzer and a fuel cell [167]. The load disturbances are
effectively optimized using a three-area interconnected power
system with ultra-capacitors and HVDC tie-line infused with
heavy-duty gas turbines, reheat thermal, and solar thermal
power plants [101].
284
2.4. Generator modeling
To reduce carbon emissions, more RESs are being added to
the power grid. However, still the major power generation con-
tribution worldwide is from thermal, gas, diesel, and hydro
power plants. These generating sources have an advantage
over RESs that they provide more power system stability
due to rotating mass and are capable of producing continuous
power irrespective of weather conditions. On the other hand,
carbon emissions from fossil fuels and increasing fuel costs
are significant disadvantages.
This section discusses the control model of different power
generator types; thermal, gas, hydro, diesel, PV, wind, biodie-
sel, and hydrogen aqua electrolyzer fuel cell. The integration of
each technology in the power system supported with a block
diagram is illustrated where UðsÞ and Df are the control input
signal and change in frequency; DPD is the load variation; Kp
and Tp are the gains and time constants of the power system;
and R is the droop control, respectively.
2.4.1. Thermal power generator
A thermal power system consists of a governor, turbine, and
reheat system, which generates power and feeds it to the power
system. The power system is controlled with a droop control
feedback loop and control input signal to manage the load
variations. The block diagram representation of the thermal-
reheat power system is illustrated in Fig. 15(a) and a thermal
power system with GRC and GDB nonlinearities is repre-
sented in Fig. 15(b) [168,169]. Generally, the application of
GRC and GDB leads to higher deviations in frequency and
tie-line power signals, resulting in reduced dynamic perfor-
mance. The governor of a large thermal generator takes some
time to respond to a change in valve position when the load
and power generation are mismatched until the input signal
reaches a threshold value. Thus, such non-linearities must be
Fig. 15 Block diagram of a thermal generator (a) with reheat system (b) with GRC and GDB non-linearities.
I.A. Khan et al.
considered in thermal power plant modeling [30]. In Fig. 15
(a) and 15(b), Kr and R are the reheat system gain and droop
control, respectively; Tg , Tt , Tr , and Df are the time constants
of the governor, turbine, reheat system, and change in fre-
quency, respectively.
2.4.2. Gas power generator
The gas power generator equivalent model is represented in
Fig. 16 which consists of valve position, governor, fuel com-
bustion, compressor discharge, and gas constant blocks
[170]. Where Kg is the gain of gas turbine, xg is the valve posi-
tioner, bg is the constant of the valve positioner, respectively; xc
and yc are the lead-lag time constant of speed governor; Tcd ,
Tcr , and Tf are the compressor discharge volume time constant,
combustion reaction time delay, and fuel time constant,
respectively.
2.4.3. Hydro power generator
Hydropower is one of the largest RES that offers high effi-
ciency, operational flexibility, and low operating and genera-
tion costs. There are many challenges associated with large
hydro development, including high investment costs, long con-
struction cycles, and long payback periods. In addition, they
may encounter opposition due to their impact on the reloca-
tion of populations, water availability, and environment
[171]. A hydro power plant model is illustrated in Fig. 17
which consists of a governor, droop compensation, turbine,
and hydro constant blocks [170]. Where TRh and TRs are the
trainset droop and reset time constants; Tgh is the governor’s
main servo time; Tw is the water starting time in penstock;
and Kh is the gain of a hydro turbine, respectively.
2.4.4. Diesel generator
A diesel generator provides continuous and reliable electricity,
as well as a higher degree of stability due to its rotating mass.
New trends and future directions in load frequency control 285

Fig. 16 Block diagram of a gas power generator.

Fig. 17 Block diagram of a hydro power generator.

The main drawbacks of diesel generators are the high levels of
pollution and the rising fuel costs. The diesel generator pro-
vides electrical power output via a synchronous generator that
is connected to the diesel engine. Fig. 18 illustrates the diesel
generator model connected to the power system where Kdies
is the constant gain of a diesel generator [168].
2.4.5. Photovoltaic power plant
PV power plants are widely used to harvest clean energy and
assist in reducing carbon emissions. Solar radiation varies
throughout the day, resulting in fluctuating power production.
To overcome this problem, Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) control coupled with a battery backup harvests max-
imum stable power. The transfer function model of the PV
plant with MPPT is illustrated in Fig. 19 where KPV1 and
KPV2 are the gains; TPV1 and TPV2 are the time constants of
the PV system with MPPT, respectively [169].
2.4.6. Wind turbine
Fig. 20 represents a doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG)
based wind turbine model that transforms wind energy into
electricity with output power, PW ¼ 0:5qACP V3W , where q is
the air density, A is the swept area of wind turbine blades,
CP is the power coefficient, and VW is the wind speed, respec-
tively. The authors in [169], have presented a DFIG-based
wind turbine linearized transfer function
Kpw1 ð1þsTpw1 Þ Kpw2 Kpw3
GW ¼ 1þs
 1þsTpw2  1þs as shown in Fig. 20, where
Kpw1 , Kpw2 , and Kpw3 are the gains of the wind plant, respec-
tively; and Tpw1 and Tpw2 are the time constants of the wind tur-
bine system, respectively.
2.4.7. Biodiesel generators
Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source, and it can be pro-
duced from both waste oils and by-products from other indus-
tries. Biodiesel engines emit fewer pollutants since they contain
less sulfur and less carcinogenic benzene than standard diesel
engines. Aside from that, it has reduced the emission of
unburned hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide. Additionally,
biodiesel fuel has a high lubricity, which reduces wear and
tears on engines, allowing them to last longer. Despite the
potential benefits of biodiesel fuel, there are some limitations

Fig. 18 Block diagram of diesel generator.

286
Fig. 19 Block diagram of PV generating system.
Fig. 20 Block diagram of a wind generator.
to its widespread use. Various engine sizes and shapes must be
tested to build confidence among consumers and manufactur-
ers. Among the technical problems are the difficulty to operate
the engine during the winter, the clogging of the filter, and the
degradation of other rubber components. Biodiesel fuel avail-
ability and cost remain obstacles to the widespread use of the
fuel. Furthermore, an industry-standard must be established
for the performance properties of biodiesel fuel that can
accommodate different processing methods of biodiesel fuels
[52].
A block diagram representation of biodiesel is shown in
Fig. 21 which consists of a valve regulator and combustion
engine. Where KVR and TVR are the gain and time constant
of the valve regulator; and KGCE and TGCE are the gain and
time constant of the combustion engine of the biodiesel gener-
ator, respectively.
2.4.8. Hydrogen aqua Electrolyzer-Fuel cell
Hydrogen is a promising alternative to fossil fuels for generat-
ing electricity. By decomposing water molecules, hydrogen is
produced, which is then stored and converted into electricity
via a fuel cell. Typical hydrogen-to-water conversion efficiency
Fig. 21 Block diagram of biodiesel generator.
I.A. Khan et al.
is 65 % and hydrogen-to-fuel cell conversion efficiency is
between 65 % and 70 %, giving an overall efficiency of
20 % to 40 % [172]. This methodology can provide long-
term and large-scale power support to the power grid system.
It offers many benefits over other power generation systems,
such as low pollution, re-usability of exhaust heat, and ease
of maintenance/installation on site. The real systems have
high-order dynamics and nonlinearities, however, for simplic-
ity, the authors of [172,172] have presented transfer function
KHAE
as 1þsTHAE
 1þsT
KFC
FC
which is also illustrated in Fig. 22. Where
KHAE and THAE are the gain and time constants of hydrogen
aqua electrolyzers; KFC and TFC are the gain and time
constants of a fuel cell; and ACE is the input signal,
respectively.
2.5. Energy storage devices modeling
2.5.1. Super magnetic energy storage device
The SMES provide frequency regulation by injecting or
absorbing power from or into the grid to maintain the system
frequency. The SMES transfer function model is illustrated in
Fig. 23, which is established with a two-stage lead-lag
New trends and future directions in load frequency control
Fig. 22 Block diagram of hydrogen aqua electrolyzer and fuel cell power generation system.
Fig. 23 Block diagram of SMES model.
compensator [169]. Where PSMES is the generated output
power; T1, T2, T3, and T4 are the time constants of a lead-
lag block; and KSMES and TSMES are the gain and time con-
stant of the SMES, respectively.
2.5.2. Redox flow battery
Redox flow battery (RFB) is known to be excellent energy
storage devices as well as being capable of responding rapidly
ensuring dynamic frequency control. The RFB transfer func-
tion model for LFC is presented in Fig. 24. Where KRFB is
the gain of RFB, TdRFB is the time delay constant, and TcRFB
is the time constant to reset RFB, respectively. The RFB is
usually designed with the restriction that the maximum permis-
sible discharge of energy must equal the maximum permissible
deposit of energy. As a result, the limit of PMin and PMax are
generally set to 0.01 and 0.01p.u. respectively [173].
2.5.3. Battery energy storage system
The battery energy storage system (BESS) adequately supports
the frequency control processes with high penetration of RESs.
A BESS allows electricity from renewable sources to be stored
and released during times of peak demand, resulting in lower
costs and a smoother electricity supply. Among various types
of BESS, lead-acid battery is a well-established technology that
offers low cell costs (50–600 $/kWh) and good energy effi-
ciency (80–90 %). They have a short cycling life (up to 2500
Fig. 24 Block diagram of redox flow battery.
287
cycles) and a low energy density (20–30 Wh/kg) [174]. Also,
the high depth of discharge negatively impacts its lifespan.
Lithium-ion batteries have a high efficiency of up to 90 %, a
significant energy density (90–190 Wh/kg), and a long lifetime
when compared with lead-acid batteries. The temperature of
the cell is the primary factor affecting the lifespan of the cell.
The use of lithium-ion batteries has become the dominant tech-
nology for electric vehicles. Even though it is still relatively
expensive, this battery storage was widely adopted for grid-
connected applications [175]. A block diagram of BESS is
shown in Fig. 25, where a change in frequency Df is the input
signal; KBESS , TFESS , and DPBESS are the gain, time constant,
and output power of BESS, respectively [169].
2.5.4. Flywheel energy storage system
The Flywheel Energy Storage System (FESS) plays an impor-
tant role in microgrids. FESS serves in maintaining microgrid
stability by charging and discharging power. It works on the
principle of accelerating a rotor to a very high speed to store
energy in the form of rotational energy. FESS is known for
its low maintenance requirements, long life (up to 100,000 full
discharge cycles), and low environmental impact. Since fly-
wheels do not wear out or contain chemicals, regular mainte-
nance is not required. A major disadvantage is the high
capital costs associated with high speed, due to the need for
special materials including light masses and high-speed mag-
netic bearings. Also, due to their limited energy storage capac-
ity of 15 min, FESS is not suitable for long-term, long-
duration applications. Therefore, FESS is used primarily to
regulate and optimize power systems rather than to store elec-
tricity for a long period of time [176]. The equivalent model of
FESS is presented in Fig. 26 where KFESS and TFESS are the
gain and time constants of the FESS system; DPG is the power
generated from other sources; DPD is the variation in load; Kp
288
Fig. 25 Block diagram of battery energy storage system.
and Tp are the gains and time constants of the power system;
and Df is the change in frequency that acts as an input signal
to produce the FESS power output DPFESS , respectively [51].
2.5.5. Capacitive energy storage
Capacitive energy storage (CES) can store and release large
amounts of electrical energy. CES devices hold tremendous
potential for LFC applications to regulate system frequency
variations caused by system transients. When a sudden load
demand occurs, the CES unit instantly releases its stored
energy to the grid. CES has many advantages, including a fast
charge–discharge cycle without compromising its efficiency,
higher power density, quick response time, longer lifespan,
large power capacity to supply grid demand, environmentally
friendly, maintenance-free, and low-cost operations. Although
CES is 95 % energy efficient, but there are certain disadvan-
tages associated with the self-discharge, internal leakage, and
energy conversion mechanism [55]. The block diagram of
CES is shown in Fig. 27 where Df is the change in frequency
acts as an input signal; T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 are the phase adjust-
ment block time constants, respectively; DPD is the variation in
load; DPG is the power generated from other sources; Kp and
Tp are the gains and time constants of the power system; and
KCES and TCES are the gain and times constants of the CES,
respectively.
2.6. FACTS devices modeling
FACTS is a technology based on power-electronic con-
trollers designed to improve the efficiency of transmission
networks by maximizing their capacity. FACTS controllers
are capable of operating at a high rate of speed, thereby
extending a transmission system’s safe operating limits with-
out undermining its stability. FACTS devices dynamically
control high-voltage AC lines’ voltage, impedance, and
Fig. 26 Block diagram of flywheel energy storage system.
I.A. Khan et al.
phase angle. Through better utilization of existing transmis-
sion assets, FACTS devices provide strategic support for
improving transmission system management, enhancing grid
stability during dynamic and transient situations, increasing
transmission system reliability, and enhancing power supply
quality for sensitive industries such as semiconductor manu-
facturers [177]. Further merits and demerits of FACTS
devices are illustrated in Table 7.
Over the years, different types of FACTS devices have been
developed and used in power systems [181], however, recent
major LFC studies are focused on Static Synchronous Com-
pensator (STATCOM), Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifter
(TCPS), Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Static
Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), and Inter-Line
Power Flow Controller (IPFC) [58,106,182–184].
2.6.1. Static synchronous series Compensator (SSSC)
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is a FACTS
device connected in series, that utilizes a voltage source con-
verter (VSC) connected to a transmission line via a trans-
former. SSSCs act like controlled series capacitors and
inductors. The main advantage is that it eliminates the need
for inductors and capacitors, which are bulky passive compo-
nents. Furthermore, it can supply or absorb reactive power.
The SSSC frequency stabilization controller is shown in
Fig. 29 where a SSSC is placed near to area-1 and is connected
to the DPtie12 tie-line in series [185]. The proposed controller
receives frequency changes in each connected area, Df1 and
Df2 , acts as an input signal. SSSC consists of a gain block
KSSSC ; a lead-lag block with time constants T1 , T2 , T3 and
T4 , respectively; and a proportional block with the time con-
stant of TSSSC , respectively.
2.6.2. Thyristor controlled phase shifter
A TCPS controller is used in series to dampen power fluctua-
tions due to local and inter-area fluctuations and increase the
power transfer capabilities of a transmission line. By altering
phase angles, the TCPS unit maintains real power flow in
tie-lines under adverse conditions, dampens frequency fluctua-
tions, and regulates system voltage [55]. The modeling of
TCPS is shown in Fig. 30 where a TCPS is placed near to
area-1 and is connected to the DPtie12 tie-line in series. Where,
frequency changes in each connected area, Df1 and Df2 , acts as
an input signal; KU is stabilization gain; and T12 and TTCPS are
time constants of tie-line and TCPS, respectively.
New trends and future directions in load frequency control 289

Fig. 27 Block diagram of a capacitive energy storage system.

Table 7 Merits and demerits of FACTS Devices [178–180].

Merits Demerits

FACTS devices boost transmission line power transfer capacity, saving money
The output signal of FACTS devices is harmonically dis-
on the cost of building a brand-new transmission line. torted by power electronics and switches.

By raising the thermal capability of the transmission line, it increases its load-
A major disadvantage of FACTS devices is their high
ing capacity. initial cost.

Transmission lines benefit from reduced reactive power. Hence, the transmis-
Maintenance costs can be high if power electronics are
sion line can transmit more active power to the load. damaged

It enhances the system’s power quality, voltage stability, transient stability,
thermal stability, and power factor.

Fig. 28 Block diagram of HVDC tie-line integration.

Fig. 29 Block diagram of SSSC.

2.6.3. Thyristor controlled series capacitor
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) is composed of
a series capacitor bank, which is driven by a thyristor-
controlled reactor, to achieve a smooth variation in series
capacitive reactance. TCSC consists of a one-port circuit that
is connected to the tie-line in series, has a low switching fre-
quency, and does not contain any significant energy storage.
By adding capacitive reactance to the line, the total impedance
is lowered, resulting in a virtually shorter line which results in
voltage stability [186]. Fig. 31 represents the TCSC model con-
nected to the tie-line where it is placed near to area-1 and is
connected to the DPtie12 tie-line in series. Where, frequency
changes in each connected area, Df1 and Df2 , acts as an input
signal; KTCSC is stabilization gain, T12 and TTCPS are time
290 I.A. Khan et al.

Fig. 30 Block diagram of TCPS.

Fig. 31 Block diagram of TCSC.

constants of tie-line and TCSC respectively; and T1 , T2 , T3 and
T4 are the lead-lag block time constants, respectively [187].
2.6.4. Inter-Line power flow controller
An Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) is a series-series
FACTS compensator that balances active and reactive power
flow in tie-lines and maximizes the efficiency of the transmis-
sion system [188]. In the IPFC, several inverters are connected
via a common DC link, that allows them to transfer real power
to each other across transmission lines, thus facilitating the
transfer of real power between transmission lines. The IPFC
can compensate both real and reactive power [189]. The block
diagram of IPFC is shown in Fig. 32 where it is placed near to
area-1 and is connected to the DPtie12 tie-line in series, k1 and k2
are the elements of the state feedback gain matrix; KIPFC is the
gain of IPFC block; TIPFC and T12 are the time constants of
IPFC and tie-line respectively; whereas, the change in fre-
quency of area-1 acts as an input signal; and Df2 is the area-
2 frequency deviation [190].
2.6.5. Static synchronous Compensator
A Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is a fast-
acting device that can absorb or provide reactive current
and, as a result, regulate the voltage on the power grid. STAT-
COM mainly consists of a transformer, VSC, and a DC capac-
itor to store energy. A DC voltage regulator provides active
power exchange between STATCOMs and the power grid.
The AC voltage generated by the VSC is calculated from
(15)-(18). The AC and DC voltage regulators are represented
in Fig. 33 and Fig. 34 respectively [184]. Where m is the mod-
ulation ratio of the VSC signal; w is the phase angle of the VSC
signal; VDC and VL are the voltages of DC capacitor and AC
line; x is the angular frequency; Kpac , Kpdc , Kiac , and Kidc and
are the proportional and integral gains of the AC and DC volt-
age regulators, respectively; Tac and Tdc are the time-constant
of AC and DC voltage regulators, respectively; DP is the input
signal which is active power deviation at the point of common
coupling. DUi is the additional damping controller output sig-
nal; KU is the controller gain; Tw is the time constant of wash-

Fig. 32 Block diagram of IPFC [190].

New trends and future directions in load frequency control 291

Fig. 33 Block diagram of STATCOM AC regulator [184].

Fig. 34 Block diagram of STATCOM DC regulator [184].

out filter; and T1, T2, T3 and T4 are the time constants of a HVDC link; TDC is the time it takes for DC current to settle
lead-lag block, respectively. after a step load perturbation; DPD is the variation in load;
v0 ðtÞ ¼ mVDC sinðxt  wÞ ð15Þ DPG is the power generated from other sources; and Kp and
Tp are the gains and time constants of the power system,


 respectively [66].
Kidc STdc
w¼ Kpdc þ ðVDCref  VDC Þ ð16Þ
s 1 þ STdc
2.7. Cyber attack



Kiac STac
m ¼ Kpac þ ðDVL ref  DVL þ DUi Þ ð17Þ
s 1 þ STac Modern large power systems consist of a complex infrastruc-
ture comprised of remotely located generation units, sensors,
STw 1 þ ST1 1 þ ST3 command and control centers, and smart devices which are
DUi ¼ KU DP ð18Þ
1 þ STW 1 þ ST2 1 þ ST4 connected through a communication network to help regulate
the power flow and detect faults [192]. Hackers attack the com-
munication network to get control over the power system, then
2.6.6. HVDC Tie-line model
with different attack strategies such as False Data Injection
The HVDC system is capable of delivering bulk power over (FDI), Denial of Service (DoS), manipulating the critical vari-
long distances using underground cables and submarine ables of the LFC that cause abnormal behavior of the power
cables. An advantage of HVDC systems is that they can inte- system resulting in large scale chain failures of interconnected
grate separate AC networks, such as 50 Hz and 60 Hz. It can systems that leads to countrywide blackouts [193].
also connect systems operating at the same frequency but with Table 8 represents the major cyber-attacks on power sys-
different phase angles. HVDC offers lower line losses and tie- tems. The first attack happened in Serbia in 1982 when a mali-
lines of the same length cost less than those using HVAC. cious attack exploded a gas pipeline by malfunctioning a gas
However, the cost of power electronics and converter trans- valve [194]. In 2010, Iran’s nuclear power plant was under
formers is huge and harmonics produced during the conver- attack by a Stuxnet worm that shut down its reactor [195].
sion process by electronic converters are widely recognized as In 2013, the United States was under a serious malware attack
one of the most significant problems. They affect power qual- developed by Dragonfly hackers, causing a massive energy
ity and can even contribute to system oscillation [191]. Fig. 28 data breach [196]. In Ukraine’s 2015 cyber-attack, BlackE-
illustrates a linearized model of an HVDC link where Df rep- nergy hijacked the power system and disconnected thirty sub-
resents the frequency deviation, KDC denotes the gain of the stations affecting more than 22,500 customers [197,198].
292
Table 8 Huge cyber-attacks on power systems.
Year Country Cyber-Attack Description
1982 Siberia Malicious manipulation of the gas
transportation pipeline valve control system led
to a pipeline explosion [194].
2010 Iran A nuclear power plant was hacked by a Stuxnet
worm which shut down its reactor [195].
2013 USA A huge malware attack by Dragonfly hackers
causes an immense energy data breach [196].
2015 Ukrainian BlackEnergy virus hijacked the power system
and disconnected thirty substations affecting
more than 22,500 customers
[197,198].
2016 Israel’s Ransomware was used by unidentified hackers
that paralyzed the computer systems in the
electric power department.
[194,199].
2020 Brazil The hacker demanded a $14 million ransom by
injecting Sodinokibi malware into a local electric
service company that encrypted files on
Windows-based operating systems [200,201].
Ransomware was used by unidentified hackers to paralyze the
computer systems in Israel’s electric power department in the
year 2016 [194,199]. Brazil faced a cyber-attack in 2020, where
the hacker demanded a $14 million ransom by injecting Sodi-
nokibi malware into a local electrical service company that
encrypted the files on windows based operating systems
[200,201].
Modern deregulated power system uses open communica-
tion network which is highly prone to malicious attacks like
an injection of false data, time-delay attack, jamming of com-
munication network, Denial of Services, modifications in a
load of power system, etc. [202]. Fig. 35 represents a single-
area power generation system connected with the control cen-
ter connected through a communication network that acts as a
hub for cyber-attack. The cyber-attackers take advantage of
the limitation in LFC schemes which generates control signals
Fig. 35 General block diagram of cyber-attack points in LFC.
I.A. Khan et al.
in seconds. This LFC control loop cannot afford to implement
a complex time-consuming data validation method to validate
data. Cyber-Attackers take this advantage and alter the data
easily [203].
2.7.1. Major types of Cyber-attacks
DoS is one of the common types of attack which is malicious
in nature that affects the information available in communica-
tion channels by adding a heavy burden on the communication
network through excessive bandwidth usage, however, it is
easy to detect [192]. The Data Integrity Attack (DIA) is the
modification of data where false data is injected by corrupting
the real-time data such as frequency and Area Control Error.
DIA is considered one of a serious threat in nature that can
compromise stable operations [204]. A replay attack is a type
of DIA, where the cyber-attackers monitor and record the sen-
sor measurement and during the attack replay the recorded
data to replace the actual measurements[205]. A covert attack
is a stealthy and powerful cyber-attack technique that requires
comprehensive knowledge of the system operations to access
and inject data at measurement and actuation channels. Time
Delay Switch attacks are purposely embedded time delays in
sensor and control loops to degrade the system stability [206].
2.7.2. Cyber-attack protection schemes
The researcher has shown great interest in cyber-attack protec-
tion and defense mechanism schemes. [207] investigated the
cross-layer DoS attacks which are controlled by interval
type-2 Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy control strategy in a four-area
power system. A switching system-based approach for DoS
attacks is proposed in [208] for a three-area conventional
and deregulated power system. Further, a PI controller for a
dual-loop communication channel has been found resilient
against DoS attacks. [209] have probed DoS attacks for an
open bandwidth-limited network leveraged by stochastic
event-triggered communication scheme (SETS) and switching
like H-infinity control. The system is then tested on EV based
to illustrate the efficacy of the proposed scheme.
New trends and future directions in load frequency control
[210] emphasizes a generalized extended state observer for
disturbance rejection. Effective utilization of LQR controller
with LMI technique is analyzed on a two-area system and
compared with PI/ PID controllers to leverage the security
and stability of the power system. [211] highlighted the appli-
cation of observer-based predictive event-triggered LFC in a
two-area smart grid power system with EV penetration under
a prolonged period of DoS attacks. [212] emphasized an event-
triggered-based generalized extended state observer (ET
GESO) for the detection of FDI attacks. The proposed model
is tested on a two-area and IEEE 39 bus test system which
established that the event-triggered mechanism shall not exhi-
bit Zeno behavior. [213] proposed a high-order observer-based
sliding mode control (HODO-SMC) strategy for the islanded
microgrid to measure the cyber-attacks and physical uncertain-
ties in the power system.
The design and development of interval type-2 Takagi-
Sugeno fuzzy model for DoS attack in physical and cyber lay-
ers for a three-area smart-grid is investigated by [214]. The
DoS and cyber-physical sensor attacks are modeled by random
Bernoulli processes. [215] highlighted the application decen-
tralized resilient H-infinity LFC scheme for DoS cyber-
physical attacks in a three-area system. A cloud-based
model-free method approach is considered by [216] to demon-
strate the LFC control strategy under DoS attack based on
actor-critic reinforcement learning backpropagation neural
networks (actor-critic RL - BPNN) employed with a
sparsity-constrained optimization model. Experimental results
on 14, 24, and 57 IEEE bus test systems confirm the effective
stability of a power system under DoS attacks.
The Hybrid pre-defined PI and mode-dependent state feed-
back controller is proposed and simulated on a three-area
power system [217]. Hybrid DoS and FDI attacks to deal with
the bandwidth reservation and allocation approach for smart
grids [218]. [219] investigated the Virtual inertia control scheme
via the linear matrix inequality (LMI) technique to handle
Hybrid DoS and Deception attacks. Further, the proposed
schemes are validated in a low inertia four-area power system.
[220] has suggested a two-stage Kalman filter for simultaneous
state and cyberattack estimation. The efficacy of the proposed
filter is validated on two-area, three-area, and five-area power
system models with hybrid FDI, DoS, data replay, ramp, and
scaling attacks.
Distributed economic MPC (DEMPC) is suggested for FDI
attacks and model-based intrusion detection in high EV partic-
ipation. Four-area power system Simulation analyses are con-
ducted, and the results leverage the effectiveness of the
intrusion detection unit and event-triggering conditions [221].
[222] focused on decentralized Memory Event-Triggered H-
infinity (DMET-H1) in LFC; where turbine, governor, and
generators are imitated by differential equations based on cir-
cuit analysis. The results proved resilience against the limited
bandwidth and deception attacks. [223] introduced a decentral-
ized output-based control algorithm for dynamic event-
triggered feedback control with periodic DoS attacks and
deception attacks. [224] present a multifunctional scheme that
effectively distinguishes between the cyber-attacks and faults
the scheme is tested on a two areas system connected through
a 300 km HVDC line. Authors of [225] have evaluated the DoS
and time-varying FDI cyber-attacks on a two-area system with
AC/DC transmission lines.
293
2.8. Power system flexibility
The concept of a flexible power system refers to a system that is
capable of reliably managing demand and supply variability
across a wide range of timescales in a cost-effective and reliable
manner [226]. The power system industry has undergone sub-
stantial alterations during the previous fifty years and will con-
tinue to do so. The two primary drivers of transformation are
reduced carbon emissions and fuel costs. The amount of research
on large-scale RESs has expanded, as have the regulations and
procedures required to facilitate their expansion. Even though
RES penetration provides low-cost clean energy, its stochastic
nature due to weather conditions makes meeting load demand
and maintaining power system stability difficult as well as it
reduces the overall system inertia causing frequency deviations
[141]. It is vital to enhance power system flexibility to counter
the negative technical effects of high penetration of RESs.
2.8.1. Flexibility’s critical role in future
After the Paris agreement of the United Nations framework of
climate change in 2015, the majority of countries agreed to limit
global warming to two degrees Celsius. According to this agree-
ment by 2050, global energy production shall be achieved 85 %
from RESs and 15 % from non-renewables, with solar and wind
power representing 60 % of RES production [227]. Therefore,
the global energy system must undergo a profound transforma-
tion, moving away from fossil fuels to RESs. As a result, many
countries will have to gradually transform their power systems
into renewable energy systems, using solar and wind power as
the backbone of their electricity production [226].
Flexibility capabilities must be considered from the plan-
ning stage to ensure that grids are designed to be flexible and
resilient. In contrast to RESs such as solar and wind power,
grids were built for continuous, centralized power production.
To accommodate RESs, a more flexible and adaptable grid is
required. Several factors contribute to the adoption of grid
flexibility, including the incorporation of variable RESs into
the grid, the age of existing infrastructure, its ability to handle
two-way power flows, as well as the need to strengthen grid
resilience in light of increasing natural disasters [226,228].
2.8.2. Flexibility enhancements with RESS
RESs can significantly improve flexibility because they can be
installed at both the supply and demand ends of the power sys-
tem. The increased movement for green energy is having a sig-
nificant impact on the penetration of RESs like solar and wind
power. Residential microgrids have also been progressively
built using rooftop solar PV, wind turbines, and hybrid energy
systems with capacities ranging from 10 to 1000 kW [229]. The
policy and modeling options for the integration of large-scale
RESs into the Indian power system that can support flexible
sources while supporting the country’s national development
goals are presented in [230]. It provides recommendations for
the adoption of the framework and how it can enhance power
system flexibility by integrating a balanced Renewable energy
analytical framework to the technical economic performance
of major flexible sources. [231] explored the medium and
long-term flexibility development pathways and policy recom-
mendations to integrate 44.3 GW of PV and 125.9 GW of wind
power by 2035 into China’s primarily coal-based power
294
infrastructure. Further strategies for RES-based flexibility for
power systems are presented in [232].
2.8.3. Virtual power plants – The future of power system
flexibility
Virtual Power Plant (VPP) is a new practical approach to
energy service for maintaining and facilitating the exchange
of energy even at peak load periods. In this manner, geograph-
ically scattered energy sources, such as distributed power
sources, and storage batteries, are controlled remotely in
real-time by IoT devices according to the ever-changing supply
and demand situation. VPP helps stabilize renewable power
supply by adjusting demand and supply. Fig. 36 represents
the elements of VPP which is defined as ‘‘a cloud-based plat-
form that aggregates Distributed Generation Resources
(DER), loads (i.e. controllable, shift-able, and fixed loads),
fixed storages and EV, providing real-time monitoring via a
bidirectional communication system, aims to establish a dis-
tributed and decentralized power plant enhancing energy man-
agement and trading across the power system”[233].
The need for VPP arises with the high penetration of RESs
which brought new challenges. For example, in windy weather,
RESs, especially wind turbines, can overproduce low-cost
energy, causing grid congestion, and making it challenging
for grid operators to handle the surplus. These situations often
result in the grid operator paying extra amounts for thermal or
renewable plants to shut down, while at the same time paying
thermal units located in high-demand areas to ramp up [235].
However, an intelligent DER system could manage the ramp-
up in energy generation and sharp demands efficiently.
A VPP has substantial advantages over conventional power
plants due to its efficient transmission facilities, flexible physi-
cal characteristics, and highly regulated control architecture
compared with a conventional power plant. The power distri-
bution is coordinated via cloud-based administration software
Fig. 36 Elements of virtual power plant [234].
I.A. Khan et al.
[233]. In [236], future enhancements for VPPs are proposed,
and the idea includes a decentralized control environment
based on AI, IoT, smart inverters, advanced communications
protocols, cyber-security, and intelligent solutions. That would
pre-identify the exact quantity of power to be supplied in loads
hence bringing ease for energy trading in the future.
According to a report by Fortune Business Insights, the vir-
tual power plant market was valued at USD 0.87 billion in
2019 and is expected to grow to USD 2.85 billion by 2027,
reflecting a compound annual growth rate of 27.2 % [237].
In 2019, ABB installed a VPP in China that connects 11 dis-
tinct types of flexible energy resources. In stage one of the pro-
ject, approximately 26.5 MW capacity was connected. An
additional 226 MW capacity is expected in the next phase.
The project will meet the needs of 12.4 million people upon
completion [238]. In July 2020, Portland General Electric
announced to launch of a pilot VPP project of 4 MW using
residential energy storage batteries, in Portland, Oregon, to
improve grid capabilities integrated with RESs [237,239]. Cur-
rently, the largest global VPP project in development is in
South Australia with Tesla, which includes the installation of
50,000 solar panels and Tesla Powerwall home batteries [236].
2.9. Other load frequency control methodologies
2.9.1. Application of frequency nadir and rate of change of
frequency
The grid frequency response is composed of three major con-
trol stages that operate on different time scales: primary fre-
quency response, secondary frequency response, and tertiary
frequency response as illustrated in Fig. 37 [240]. Primary control
is handled by the speed governors of the generating units, which
react quickly to sudden load variations for up to 30 s. In secondary
control, generators’ outputs are adjusted so that frequency is
restored to its nominal value and power exchange is maintained
New trends and future directions in load frequency control
Fig. 37 Frequency response time scales [240].
between areas. Transients of secondary control response are for a
few minutes. Tertiary control entails an economical dispatch for
driving the system in an efficient manner [241].
The frequency nadir is an important indicator for monitor-
ing and controlling primary frequency response. It refers to the
lowest frequency reached during a transient [242]. The fre-
quency response support and its system value are calculated
by reducing the operating costs of the wind plant [243].
Every power grid’s transmission system operator imposes
several restrictions on operational metrics to guarantee the
grid’s reliable and secure operation [244]. The most important
operational metrics for frequency control are the rate of
change of frequency (RoCoF) limit, frequency nadir limit,
and RES penetration level limits. In the event of sudden load
variation, the system frequency changes at a certain rate, and
the kinetic energy stored in the rotating mass of both generator
rotors and wind turbine blades is extracted and then sent to the
power grid to arrest the RoCoF. In general, for a 50 Hz power
system, the RoCoF response threshold is typically set between
0.1 and 1 Hz/s; for a 60 Hz system, it is set between 0.1 and
1.2 Hz/s [245]. If this limit is exceeded, under-frequency load
shedding is activated as a last resort because the system
RoCoF above 2 Hz/s makes it difficult for wind, hydro, and
steam power plants to synchronize [246].
Enormous RES penetration has resulted in notable changes
in these operational metrics around the world as shown in
Table 9. In 2007, the Australian Energy Market Operator
established an allowable RoCoF limit of 1 Hz/s for 1 s in
the generation access standards of the Australian power grid
[247]. By the time this standard was revised and the new
RoCoF limit is now 3 Hz/s for 1 s with an operating frequency
range 49.5–50.5 Hz and the lowest operation limit is set to
47.5 Hz [248,249]. In early 2010, EirGrid and the Northern Ire-
land system operator considered a high RoCoF value to be a
potential problem; however, it was revised from 0.5 Hz/s to
1 Hz/s to facilitate increasing RES penetration, and the lowest
frequency nadir limit was set to 47 Hz [246]. The maximum
RoCoF limit in the United Kingdom power system has been
increased from 0.125 Hz/s to 0.5 Hz/s in order to keep the sys-
tem frequency within 1 % of the nominal value. The current
RES penetration level is 25 % and it is expected to rise in
295
the future. As a result, the RoCoF limit is expected to exceed
0.5 Hz/s by 2025–2030 [247,250]. RoCoF limit of 2.5 Hz/s is
adopted in Denmark. The lowest acceptable frequency nadir
is 47.5 Hz and the normal operating frequency range is 49.0–
51.0 Hz [251,252].
2.9.2. Torque command control
In variable-speed wind turbines, torque control aims to extract
maximum power from the potential aerodynamic power of the
wind below the rated wind speed [254]. A maximum power
coefficient must be maintained in order to reach the objective.
Traditionally, torque control has been done using quadratic
algorithms, which are effective, stable, and provide smooth
control. A major drawback of the traditional torque control
method is its slow response when applied to large wind tur-
bines especially multi-megawatt wind generators [255]. Turbu-
lence wind and large rotor inertia require rapid torque control
response. The traditional torque control method using optimal
mode gain can manipulate generator torque rapidly in order to
increase rotor speed in multi-megawatt wind turbines. Torque
control methods include traditional torque-mode control, tor-
que control by accelerating generators, and torque control
through aerodynamics [256].
2.9.2.1. Traditional Torque-Mode control. In traditional
torque-mode control, the torque demand of a generator is
derived proportionally to the square of its speed using the tra-
ditional torque control method as Tg ðtÞ ¼ Kopt X2g ðtÞ and
qpR5 Cp;max
Kopt ¼ 2k3opt n3gb
where R is the blade radius, kopt is the optimal
value of tip speed ratio k, Xg is the generator speed, Cp;max is
the maximum value of the power coefficient Cp , ngb is the gear
ratio and q the air density. For maximum power, Tg ðtÞ is
derived from the steady-state relation in a torque-speed plane.
In small-scale wind turbines, this torque control method is
intrinsically stable. However, as turbine size increases, its effi-
ciency decreases because of slower response time. In multi-
MW wind turbines, wind speed variations cannot be precisely
tracked due to large turbine inertia. The torque control in the
partial load region thus becomes crucial for optimizing the
dynamical regimes [257].
296 I.A. Khan et al.

Table 9 The impact of RES integration on RoCoF standards in power systems [246].
Reference Service Operating frequency Earlier RoCoF New RoCoF limit Permissible frequency Revised allowable
Operator range (Hz) limit (Hz/s) (Hz/s) nadir limit (Hz) time limit (s)
[251,252] Energinet, 49–51 2 2.5 47.5 20
Denmark
[247,249] AEMO, 49.5–50.5 1 3 47.5 9
Australia
[253] EirGrid, 49.5–50.5 0.5 1 47.0 20
Ireland
[247,250] National Grid, 49.5–50.5 0.125 0.5 49.5 10
Britain

2.9.2.2. Generator acceleration torque control. In torque control consumption during peak hours or shift their energy usage
based on the generator acceleration method, an additional tor- to off-peak times [263]. Demand response programs are
que demand is calculated based on rotor acceleration as increasingly important because they contribute to smart grids
Tg ðtÞ ¼ Kopt X2g ðtÞ  Kd X_ g ðtÞ. In this equation, Kd represents [264]. In response to voltage and frequency fluctuations, it reg-
the proportional gain of a generator acceleration signal. ulates load on the demand side while satisfying grid operators’
Through this technique, the generator speed can be adjusted technical and economic concerns.
more rapidly as the wind speed changes. A significant part of grid frequency stability is dictated by
demand response, which receives a lot of attention from
2.9.2.3. Aerodynamic torque control. In the aerodynamic tor- researchers. A dynamically controlled load for grid frequency
que control method, an additional torque demand that is pro- stabilization is investigated using domestic refrigerators [265].
portional to the torque error between the original torque and Using blockchain technology, a secure demand response man-
aerodynamic torque is agement system is presented for the management of the energy
n o used as
load of industrial, commercial, and residential, buildings [266].
Tg ðtÞ ¼ Kopt X2g ðtÞ  Ka  Ta ðtÞ  Kopt X2g ðtÞ where Ka is a pro-
An analysis of the impact of combining the demand-response
portional gain for the torque error signal. This method also and variable speed wind power plants on multi-area power sys-
allows the generator speed to respond more rapidly to changes tems’ frequency control is discussed. examines how combining
in wind speed by reducing the torque error [258]. variable-speed wind power plants with demand response
In recent years, researchers have been interested in torque improves the frequency stability of multi-area power systems
control for frequency stability. A DFIG system with a in a significant way and lowers frequency nadirs[267]. An
600 kW generator and a 690 V grid is considered in [259] where adaptive latency compensator is proposed using an IEEE 39-
modeling of a hydraulic system is presented to demonstrate bus test power system with wind farms, responsive loads,
how hydraulic torque is influenced by mechanical torque, as and battery energy storage [268]. The paper presented an inves-
well as a control technique to achieve mechanical torque tigation of how intelligent demand response can help LFC
adjustments utilizing the generator. An offshore wind turbine with RESs when it comes to smart grids where Frequency devi-
with variable torque is proposed using NREL’s 5 MW off- ations are minimized by using a linear quadratic regulator con-
shore turbine model and a radial basis function neural network troller [269].
[260]. A simulation of the torque active power control method- The potential peak demand savings in the United States
ology confirms that it can provide more sustained primary fre- increased from 2018 to 2019 about 125 MW (0.4 %), from
quency control responses under certain derating conditions 30,895 MW to 31,020 MW as demonstrated in Table 10. The
[261]. On a 2.75 MW wind turbine, torque control methodolo-
gies that rely on the traditional torque-mode method are pre-
sented [256]. The simulation results show that torque control
methods based on torque mode have the benefit of reducing Table 10 Demand Response Programs at Retail: Peak
power fluctuations better than PI controllers based on speed Demand Potential [270].
mode for real turbulence winds. Region Annual Potential Peak Demand Savings
(MW)
2.9.3. Demand response
2018 2019
According to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission,
New England 245.2 197.3
demand response is defined as ‘‘Changes in electric usage by Middle Atlantic 1,632.9 1,463.6
demand-side resources from their normal consumption pat- Mountain 2,182.2 1,968.0
terns in response to changes in the price of electricity over time, Pacific 2,213.0 1,803.2
or to incentive payments designed to induce lower electricity West South Central 2,382.6 2,238.7
use at times of high wholesale market prices or when system East South Central 4,600.2 4,343.1
reliability is jeopardized” [262]. Demand side management East North Central 4,708.0 5,362.8
(DSM) involves converting consumer energy demand into West North Central 5,045.1 5,554.1
financial incentives and educating consumers on energy- South Atlantic 7,939.8 8,106.8
Total 30,895.0 31,019.5
saving practices. Consumers are encouraged to reduce energy
New trends and future directions in load frequency control
greatest potential peak demand savings were reported by util-
ities in the West North Central, East North Central, and South
Atlantic regions. Residential, commercial, and industrial peak
demand savings in 2019 were 8,866.9, 6,906.9, and
15,245.7 MW, respectively. Furthermore, in 2019, over 1.1 mil-
lion (12 %) more customers enrolled in retail incentive-based
demand response programs across the United States [270].
Global demand response markets are expanding. There has
been an increase in demand response capacity in European
markets since 2020. The demand response capacity of Euro-
pean markets has increased since 2020. In France, the
demand-side flexibility market continues to grow rapidly, with
2.4 GW of selected bids in 2022, an increase of approximately
1 GW over 2021. In 2022, the United Kingdom secured
528 MW of demand-side resource capacity, more than dou-
bling its capacity in 2021. At the beginning of 2022, Korea’s
demand response markets were projected to have approxi-
mately 4.55 GW of registered capacity, which will be particu-
larly useful in reducing peak summer and winter demand. In
December 2021 alone, 29 GWh of consumption was avoided
in Korea through economic demand response. In Belgium’s
first four-year-ahead capacity auction of October 2021, 4.45
GW of overall capacity was selected; however, only 8 % of
those were from the demand and storage sides [271].
To support demand-side flexibility important mea-
sures were implemented in the past years. In Australia, with
the launch of the national electricity market’s five-minute set-
tlement, a wholesale demand response mechanism was
launched that allows consumers to sell demand response and
encourages investors to invest in batteries [272]. The Korean
government launched the Energy Pause program in 2019 for
small consumers with electricity consumption under 70 kW.
In 2020, Korea implemented a fast demand response program
to improve frequency stability. A demand response program,
Plus Demand response, was introduced the following year to
minimize curtailments of renewable energy. Demand response
regulations were approved in Colombia, along with the
advanced metering infrastructure that will facilitate demand
response. The Indian government has approved guidelines
for facilitating the integration of energy storage into grid flex-
ibility and services. For highly congested areas, Netherlands
regulatory has introduced a mandatory participation require-
ment for producers and consumers over 60 MW [271].
2.9.4. Deloading
To participate in frequency control, a variable-speed wind tur-
bine is operated in a suboptimal mode to ensure that a certain
amount of spinning reserve margin is always available to sup-
ply additional active power. For more than 85 percent of the
event duration, modern offshore wind farms can maintain
5 % of rated power as a spinning reserve [245]. Deloaded oper-
ation of a wind turbine can reduce investment in conventional
spinning reserves to some extent. As a result, de-loading con-
tributes to long-term frequency regulation from both economic
and stability perspectives. Fig. 38 illustrates the de-loading
methods, which include rotor speed and pitch angle control
[273].
2.9.4.1. Rotor speed control. Rotor speed control de-loads wind
turbine output power by relocating the operating point to the left
or right of the maximum power point curve while keeping the
297
Fig. 38 De-loading techniques of wind turbine [273].
rotor speed below the maximum limit. It is unstable for the wind
turbine to operate at sub-optimal levels on the left because it will
stall the wind turbine in the event of a frequency disturbance.
[274] states that over speeding has a better performance but a
smaller regulation range than pitching. For a wind turbine to
operate efficiently over a full range of wind speeds, it must oper-
ate on the right sub-optimal curve. With the right sub-optimal
operation, a permanent magnet synchronous generator wind tur-
bine is able to contribute kinetic energy and active power to the
regulation of primary frequency. As a result, it allows the rotor
speed to gradually decline from a de-loaded operating point to
maximum power [245].
2.9.4.2. Pitch angle control. The purpose of pitch control in a
wind turbine is to prevent overloading of the generator and
power converter, as well as over speeding of the rotor [245].
A pitch control needs to be adjusted based on wind conditions
for frequency regulation. The Pitch angle is initially set to keep
a certain power reserve for potential primary frequency regula-
tion. The response time of pitch control appears slower than
that of power converter-based rotor speed control because of
the servo time constant. Pitch angle controllers are slow
because they have a high mechanical time constant, leading
to fatigue. Pitch angle controllers are typically coordinated
at the wind farm scale [275]. In power systems, load varies con-
stantly, requiring frequent pitch angle adjustments, which is
not recommended since it may result in blade wear and tear
and increase maintenance costs. This can lead to a reduced
lifespan and an increase in maintenance costs for wind gener-
ators. It is therefore preferable to avoid frequent pitch angle
adjustments [276]. Simulations of a small isolated power grid
with a 9 MW wind farm and 76 MVA thermal station for
under-frequency and over-frequency events are presented in
[277].
2.9.5. Speed of response
Robust and rapid response to stabilize the power system under
load changes has always been of utmost importance. SMES,
supercapacitors, redox flow batteries, flywheel energy storage,
and pumped hydro are just a few of the LFC technologies con-
sidered as viable solutions for the development of a sustain-
able, reliable, and resilient power grid with significant
298
penetration of renewable energy sources. In order to maintain
the system frequency, these devices provide frequency regula-
tion by dynamically injecting or absorbing power to or from
the grid. Known for their impressive efficacy, speed of
response, and enormous lifecycle, they have emerged as highly
potential frequency regulation technologies. They may therefore
be able to provide frequency support in low-inertia grids as a
result of RES penetration. The response time of various LFC
technologies is represented in Table 11. Supercapacitors, SMES,
and flywheel energy storage devices have a very quick response
time in milliseconds with the highest efficiency, to contribute
towards the grid stability in an event of load variation. However,
these technologies have limited rated power and could inject vir-
tual inertia for a short duration of time. On the other hand, the
pumped hydro reserves could provide power for up to days and
have a response time in the range of seconds to minutes. How-
ever, pumped hydro requires a vast area and a specific geograph-
ical location to be constructed [175].
2.10. Research gap and future directions
High penetration of RESs such as PV and wind farms are
added to the mainstream power grid in order to address car-
bon emissions issues and to meet load demands. RESs tech-
nologies are becoming less expensive over time enabling
large-scale implementation than the least environmentally
friendly coal facilities. Globally, renewable energy sources such
as PV and wind are heavily incorporated into the power sys-
tem, which reduces inertia, resulting in frequency oscillations
when the load changes. Therefore, fine-tuned controllers with
virtual inertia backup support from energy storage devices
are needed to handle load fluctuations and preserve the sys-
tem’s stability. Power system flexibility has the potential to
address the high penetration of RESs, and grid congestion
and respond to changes in demand and supply.
The majority of articles considered a simplified controlled
approach, neglecting the physical constraints that exist within
the power system. In reality, large thermal power plants are
not able to change their power output too quickly due to the
limitations of thermal and mechanical movements. There are
several constraints that are commonly ignored or studied sep-
arately, including the GRC, GDB, Communication Time
Delay (CTD), and boiler dynamics [30]. During the actual
operation of a power system, GRC and GDB significantly
degrade the system’s stability, resulting in decreased stability
and longer overshoots and settling times [169]. Additionally,
a delay in communication has become an increasingly signifi-
cant challenge to system performance and may even be a con-
tributing factor to system instability [278]. Also, the boilers in
thermal power plants control steam flow by adjusting their
ignition process where a rapid rise in the steam mass flow rate
Table 11 LFC response time of various technologies [175].
Energy Storage Technologies Power Range (MW) Response Time Discharge Time Lifetime (Year) Daily Self-Discharge (%) Efficiency (%)
SMES 0.1–10 < 100 ms
Supercapacitors 0–0.3 8 ms
Redox Flow Battery 0.3–3 sec
Flywheel Energy Storage 0.1–20 < 4 ms - sec
Pumped Hydro 10–5,000 sec-min
I.A. Khan et al.
causes an increase in dynamic effects [279,280]. Therefore, for
a more realistic and practical analysis, it is essential to take
these limitations into account when analyzing the LFC of
multi-area power systems of a large scale.
To achieve an accurate result that is as close as possible to
reality, all practical aspects should be considered during the
modeling process. However, the power system modeling will
become too complex and time-consuming for simulation and
analysis. Therefore, researchers proposed some assumptions
to simplify the modeling such as neglecting the higher order
part of the linearized model, fixed Step Load Perturbation,
GRC, GDB, CTD, and boiler dynamics. The consideration
of specific assumptions is depending on the details and scope
of the studies. Such simplifications are not feasible if the study
requires more accurate results. For example, several LFC stud-
ies employ a simple first-order transfer function model that
neglects the dynamic behavior of PV systems and the effect
of the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique,
however, authors of [169,281] have considered the higher-
order PV model with MPPT to achieve realistic system
response. Furthermore, a 33 MW wind farm in Egypt consist-
ing of Nordex N43 turbines is modeled including its dynamics
to represent the real system [282].
To conduct high-impact research on multi-area LFC,
researchers should consider the following points:

A multi-area power system comprising of at least four
areas.

In the presence of traditional large-scale power plants, gen-
eration sources include various RESs.

Virtual inertia injection incorporating hybrid ESSs

Use of hybrid emerging controllers to reduce undershoots,
overshoots, and settling time.

Application of hybrid, modified, and novel metaheuristic
optimization techniques

Grid congestion studies due to over production of renew-
able energy and its mitigation strategies with VPP.

System resilience against cyber-attacks and other unfore-
seen weather conditions.

Industrial application feasibility, including cost-benefit analysis.
An extensive literature review has led to the following rec-
ommendations for future research on the integration of large-
scale RESs:

Discover recent optimization algorithms for fine-tuning
controller parameters.

Investigate enhanced objective functions as a way to
improve LFC accuracy.

Study the unexplored zero-carbon power, blue ammonia,
for power generation for LFC studies, as it offers a range
of advantages over hydrogen-based plants.
ms-8 sec 20+ 1–15 95
ms-hr 20+ 20–40 90–95
sec-10 hrs 5–10 small 85–90
ms – 15 min 15 24–100 90–95
1–24 hr+ 40–60 Very small 70–85
New trends and future directions in load frequency control

Consider ways to strengthen VPP cyber-security since most
energy sources are integrated via cloud.

Investigate technological advancements as well as budgeted
solutions to adopt VPPs at a mass scale.
3. Conclusions
This paper provided a detailed review of the literature on major
developments and future perspectives in LFC. To attain higher
stability in hybrid power systems, researchers’ interest has shifted
drastically from traditional PID and FOPID controllers to
hybrid and cascaded controllers. Similarly, the implementation
of hybrid and new metaheuristic optimization techniques is pre-
ferred to tune the controller gains. In the last decade, the instal-
lation of RESs such as PV and wind becomes more economical
than a coal-fired power plant and have the leverage to reduce car-
bon emission. However, PV and wind have a drawback of low-
ering overall system inertia. To address this issue, virtual inertia
injection is becoming more popular as a new standard to com-
bat LFC stability issues. For greater stability, various ESS are
connected in parallel to form hybrid virtual inertia, which combi-
nes the benefits of two or more energy storage devices, such as
SMES, supercapacitors, RFB, flywheels, aqua-electrolyzers,
and fuel cells. Furthermore, coupling the HVDC tie-line with
FACTS devices enhances power transfer across multiple areas.
Despite all these control measures, the power system’s stability
is still vulnerable to cyber-attacks. Recent advancements for
major cyber-attacks are also covered in this article for LFC.
Power system flexibility via VPP is promising to address grid con-
gestion with high penetration of RESs. Moreover, this study will
assist researchers in bridging the gap between current and future
LFC trends by establishing a minimum requirement for doing
excellent research on large-area hybrid power systems.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work has been supported by Universiti Malaya
under International Collaboration Grant (ST027-2022) and
Impact-Oriented Interdisciplinary Research Grant
(IIRG001A-2020IISS).
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