History

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat
Stanmore O Levels |Karachi Cambridge School | The Academy School Block H Campus| The Academy Gulshan
Campus Contact: 0345-2149814

CHAPTER: 01
How successful were the religious thinkers in
spreading Islam in the subcontinent during the
18th and 19th centuries?
SHAHWALIULLAH
Early Life
∙ He was a Muslim religious reformer, born in 1703, in Delhi.
∙ His real name was Qutub-ud-Din but due to his Piety he got the title of “Shah Waliullah” (SWU). ∙ His father,
Shah Abdul Raheem, was the founder of a famous religious school “Madrassa Rahimiyia” in Delhi where SWU
completed his education.
∙ Later he started teaching in the same institute and after the death of his father he became the principal of
Madrassa Rahimiyia.
∙ In Saudi Arabia he was strongly impressed & influenced by the famous scholar “Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim”
and he made his mind to reform the Muslim society in India.
Why Shah Waliullah wish to revive Islam in Subcontinent?

∙ He strongly believed that the main reason of the miserable condition of the Mughal Empire & Muslims
was their ignorance and distance from Quran, Sunnah & Islamic obligations.
∙ As far as the social condition of the Indian Muslims was concerned, they were divided among different
religious groups & there was a constant trouble between the Shia & Sunni sects, which was a serious
threat to Muslim society. Shahwaliullah wanted to remove the disunity between them.
Work and contribution

▪ Translation of Holy Quran into Persian:
Shah Waliullah recognized that the principles of Islam could not be followed properly unless the Holy Quran
itself was understood. As the Indian Muslims did not understand the Holy Quran in Arabic since it was not
their language thus Shah Waliullah translated the Holy Quran into Persian, which was the main language of
the Indian Muslims of that time.
▪ Hujatul Baligha:
In this book, Shah Waliullah discussed at length the principle & fundamentals of Islam. In this he explained the
methods of changing the Muslim society into a real Muslim society.
▪ Izalat-al-Akhfa:
Is another renowned book of Shah Waliullah in which he has written the explanation of the Holy Quran. Shah
Waliullah wrote extensively on Hadith &Fiqah. He altogether wrote 51 books, out of which 23 are in Arabic &
28 are in Persian.

▪ Shia Sunni unity:

Shah Waliullah very firmly rejected the belief of some Sunnis that the Shias were not Muslims. He tried to
bridge this difference opinion by writing an account of the first four Khalifas of Islam in a way that should
acceptable to both the sects.
▪ Separate national identity:

Shah Wailullah worked for the unity of Muslims and to develop separate national identity. He created
separate national identity among Muslims and convinced them to fight for their rights. He rejected combine
unity and insure religion as only identification of Muslims.
▪ Saved Muslims from Jats and Marathas:

When his efforts of writing to the Muslim kings & Nawab resulted in nothing their finally. Shah Waliullah
invited Ahmed Shah Abdali to attack India. In his letter Shah Waliullah encouraged Ahmed Shah & pleased him
to launch an attack, as it was the only way left to save the Muslims of India.
▪ Economic development:
Shah Waliullah was very concerned about the economic conditions of the Indian Muslims. He requested the
workers to work for more hours & spend less. He laid great stress on Adi &Tawazen that is Justice and
Equilibrium.He stressed labour; peasants & craftsmen should be justly rewarded. He also urged the traders &
businessmen to adopt a fair system of trading & making money.
.Death
Shah Waliullah was laid to rest in 1762. His sons & followers ably continued his work. Under his successors the
Madrassa-I-Rahimya also continued to flourish.

Q- Why Shah Waliullah wanted to translate the Holy Quran into Persian language?
Reason 01:
He did so because he strongly believed that the biggest reason for the decline of Indian Muslims & Mughal empire was
that they had forgotten the message of Quran. They were not acting upon the teachings of Quran. Especially the ruling
& elite-class of Muslims had gone away from Quran & Islam. They were badly indulged in pleasure-seeking.
Reason 02:
Moreover Quran is In Arabic Language which was not the native language of India. So only a small number of Indian
Muslims & scholars could understand the meanings of the verses of Quran. Shah Waliullah strongly believed that until
the Indian Muslims understand the meanings of Quran in their own language they would not be able to act upon its
golden teachings.
Reason 03:
Moreover Persian at that time had been the official language of India since the Peak period of Mughal-Empire. So
the majority of the common people living in India could easily write, speak and understand Persian very well that’s
why he selected Persian language to translate Quran.
SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARELVI
Early Life
∙ Syed Ahmed was born near Lucknow in the town of Rae Bareli.
∙ He was faithful following of Shah Abdul Aziz.

∙ In 1806 he enrolled in Madrassa of Shah Waliullah (Madrassa-I-Rahimiya).
∙ He graduated from Madrassa & joined a Pathan military force led by Amir Khan.
∙ He learnt about European weaponry including use of Artillery.
Aims and Objective

∙ The purpose of Syed Ahmed’s life & struggle was not only confined to the spread of Islam by preaching &
persuasions but he believed in taking practical steps for this purpose.
∙ The main purpose before Syed Ahmed & his followers was the establishment of a state, which was
based on the Islamic principles.
∙ His approach to freedom was based on the armed struggle & confrontation against the foreign
(British) &non-Muslim forces.
.

▪ Jihad Movement:
The Jihad Movement was started in 1823 by Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi against the cruel Sikh rule of Maharaja Ranjit
Singh (the founder of Sikh Empire in Punjab). Their religious liberties had been suspended by the sikh govt. They were
not allowed to practice Islam. Azaan was banned and to further insult Muslims, sikh army had converted Bad-shahi
Masjid of Lahore into the stable of their horses.
S.A.S.B believed that to over throw the cruel Sikh-rule and to re-establish Muslims’ rule, an armed struggle was
necessary. So he raised an army of 80 thousand muslim volunteers/Mujahideen to Launch his Jihad-Movement against
Sikhs .This army inflicted crushing defeats to sikh army at many places especially at Akora-Khattak & Hazro in K.P.K (now
KPK). He & his assistant Shah Ismail (the grandson of Shah-Waliullah) were killed in a surprise attack by Sikh forces at
Bala-kot in N.W.F.P.
Q- Why the Jihad Movement of SASB failed?
Reason 01:
After the successes in the wars against Sikhs, Ranjit Singh created disruption in the camp of the Mujahedeen through
his agents who called the reforms of Syed Ahmed as Un-Islamic. A conspiracy was hatched against, the movement
and an attempt was made on the life of Syed Ahmed by poisoning him, which he survived.
Reason 02:
Sardar Yar Muhammad was bribed to betray to Syed Ahmed & joined the Sikhs against Mujahideen. Some
misunderstanding arose between the Pathans and the Mujahedeen& the Pathans now deserted the
Movement.
Reason 03:
Lack of proper funds to provide for different expenses of the Movement, Poor war equipment, Lack of proper
military training in the Mujahideen fighters.
HAJI SHARIATULLAH
Early Life
∙ Haji Shariatullah was born in the district of Faridpur in the year 1781.
∙ After receiving his early education in his village he got an opportunity to perform Haji at the age of 18 He
stayed there in Hejaz for 20 years & studied religion & Arabic.
∙ He returned to Bengal in 1806.
Aims and Objective

∙ The British traders & the Hindu Zamindars were giving them a rough treatment.
∙ The Muslims there had also gone far away from the paths of the true religions Islam being influenced
by the Hindus; they were sunk in various superstitions.
∙ Haji Shariatullah was deeply moved by these prevailing conditions of the Muslims of Bengal & decided
to improve it.
∙ Thus he started the Faraizi Movement among the Muslims.

▪ Faraizi Movement:
Haji Shariatullah started his Faraizi Movement, The Faraizi Movement emphasized on performing of Faraiz,
which were the religious duties, imposed by Allah. He also asked his Muslim brothers to give up all the un
Islamic practices. His followers thus came to be known as Faraizi’.
▪ Adopting Tauba:
Haji shariatullah urged from his followers to adopt ‘Tauba’ as a manifestation of repentance for all the past
sins and a pledge to lead a righteous & God-fearing life in future.
▪ Declared India as Dar-ul-Harb:

Haji Shariatullah declared India as Dar-ul-Harb (Lands of Infidels) where Eid and Friday prayers could not be
offered. The Movement of Haji Shariatullah was direct, Jihad against the religious oppression & superstitions.
It infused a new life among the Bengali Muslims & especially among the peasants. With this movement his
sowed the seed of independence in Bengal.
Death
Haji Shariatullah breathed his last in the year 1840 and was succeeded by his son Dadu Main who continued
his father’s movement.

CHAPTER: 02
What were the causes and consequences of the
decline of the Mughal Empire?
Who were Mughals?
The Mughal rule was founded by Babur in 1526. Six great rulers, from Babur to Aurangzeb, expanded and
consolidated their rule 1526 to 1707. During this period they excelled in literature, music, painting and
architecture, building several monuments like Taj-Mehal in Agra. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, there
were corrupt and inefficient rulers who failed to run the affairs of a huge empire. The process of decline
continued till the British overthrew them after the 1857 War of Independence. The last Mughal ruler, Bahadur
Shah Zafar, was exiled to Rangoon and imprisoned. The British thus replaced the Mughals to make India their
colony.
Why Mughal Empire declined?

▪ Policies of Aurangzeb:
Prejudiced and intolerant policies of Aurangzeb, who adopted strict measures against the non-Muslims. He
imposed the discriminatory Islamic tax Jizya on the non-Muslims that had earlier been abolished by Akbar,
though he tried to defend himself by waiving some other taxes. He also demolished a number of Hindu
temples, and adopted a harsh attitude towards the Sikhs. He also tried to ban the Hindu custom of Suttee. In
order to meet huge expenses of military campaigns, he imposed heavy taxes, and the money collected by
taxes was spent on luxurious buildings, a tradition of the Mughal rulers.
▪ Weak successors:
Weak successors of Aurangzeb fell victim to extravagant and luxurious lifestyles and paid little attention to the
defense and consolidation of the empire. They became morally corrupt and comfort-loving, and could not
overcome the difficulties faced by various parts of the huge empire.
▪ No law of succession:
The Mughals did not have a definite law of succession. On the death of an emperor, the princes got engaged in
conspiracies, intrigues and making loyal groups that always led to regicidal wars of succession. Success of a
candidate often depended on the support he could get from the military and ministers. Thus, state resources
were wasted on mutual fights instead of public welfare and defense of the empire.
▪ Marathas:
Marathas were the militant Hindu community concentrated mainly in the southern Indian state of Mahrashtra.
The Maratha Empire was founded by the ferocious Marathan commander Shivaji in the 1670s. They gradually
organized themselves and began to offer stiff resistance to the Mughals. Aurangzeb spent about 25 years in the
Deccan desperately trying to eliminate the Marathas. On his return, he found the state treasury almost empty
and this added to his difficulties.
▪ Arrival of British:
Mughal rule was perhaps driven by the British, who began to dominate the political horizon of India, 1750
onwards. The tottering Mughal Empire was no match to the British supremacy in warfare. The British very
skillfully established themselves in India and eventually replaced the Mughals annexing all important states
between 1757 and 1856. They started their victorious journey from north-eastern India, and moving
southwards, they turned to the western territories of Sindh, Punjab and Kashmir.
East India Company (EIC)

The British East India Company (EIC) was a trading company) made by a group of merchants, led by Sir Thomas
Smyth .They got permission from Queen Elizabeth-1 of England in 1600.They wanted to have trade with the
eastern countries. They got monopoly (full control) over the trade between Britain and the eastern countries.
The first trade-ship of EIC landed in Surat (a seaport in India) in 1608 but in 1612 they got official permission
from the Mughal Gov. to have proper trade with India. This written Permission was granted by the governor of
Gujrat Prince Khurram, the future Shah Jehan. Later this business firm started interfering into the domestic
politics of India and it paved the way for the British Rule in India.
Why EIC attracted toward subcontinent?

▪ To boost industrialization in Britain:
India became known as the "golden sparrow" because of its fabulous wealth and resources such as cotton,
silk, jute, indigo, jewelry and even the addictive drug opium. British needed these to feed their factory industry
as they were a fast industrializing nation.
▪ Access to warm water:

Indian peninsula was surrounded by a warm water sea where multiple ports could operate throughout the
year. Such ports (as founded by the British in a planned way) could greatly help British expand their trade in
multiple directions from India.
▪ To remove rivals:
British wanted to expel other European colonial powers such as the Dutch, Portuguese and French from India
in order-to enjoy monopoly of trade in India. Dutch had driven British out of South East Asia and British had to
turn towards India.
British expansion from (1750 to 1852)

▪ Battle of Plessey 1757:
The French encouraged the Nawab of Bengal to attack the EIC base at Calcutta. Furthermore the Fortification
of British post on Calcutta was also against agreement with the Nawab of Bengal. Siraj-ud-Daulah marched
over Calcutta and seized Fort William and locked the British residents in a small room. 23 out of 65 people
died and so Battle of Plessey began. Robert Clive succeeded in defeating Siraj by bribing one of his key men
Mir Jaffer. Jafar was made the new Nawab of Bengal and Bengal came under EIC’s rule.
▪ Battle of Buxar 1764:

The Battle fought between the forces under the command of the British East India Company, led by Hector
Munro, and the combined armies of Mir Qasim. Nawab of Audh Shujauddaula and the Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam II, accompanied by Raja Balwant Singh of Kashi made an alliance with Mir Qasim. The battle was fought
at Buxar, a "small fortified town" within the territory of Bihar, located on the banks of the Ganga River. It was
a decisive victory for the British East India Company.
▪ Anglo Mysore War 1799:

The ruler of Mysore Hyder Ali, and then his son Tipu Sultan fought three fierce wars against the British_ the
Anglo-Mysore wars from 1770's to 1799. Hyder Ali, assisted by his son and the French naval force got a
significant victory in 1780-1782. After his sudden death in 1782, his son Tipu continued to resist the British. He
defeated Brigadier Mathews in 1783 and captured Bandore and Bangalore. With success from both sides, the
2nd Anglo-Mysore war ended in 1784 under the Treaty of Mangalore. In 3rd Anglo-Mysore war tipu lost some
territories. In 4th Anglo-Maysore war, Got martyred.
▪ Annexation of Sindh 1843:

In 1841, all British troops were killed in a rebellion in Afghanistan causing a serious damage to the British
prestige. In order to undo this damage, they decided to annex Sindh. The Amirs of Sindh had been friendly to
the British, since 1809, under the Treaty of Friendship. They were provoked by the British general Charles
Napier so much that they attacked the British Residency in 1843. The British, in turn, attacked and annexed
Sindh by defeating the Amirs the same year.
▪ Annexation of Punjab and NWFP 1849:

After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, there was a political crisis in the Punjab. The Sikhs, violating the Treaty
of Perpetual Friendship of 1809, attacked the British and were defeated in the Battle of Aliwal in January 1846.
They were penalized and forced to sign the Treaty of Lahore. In the Second Sikh War, 1848-1849, the Sikhs
were defeated again and the Sikh Empire came to end. The British annexed the Punjab and the NWF on 30th
March 1849. Gulab Singh, the ruler of Kashmir, bought the state, and was made the Maharaja of Kashmir as a
reward for his support to the British.
▪ Doctrine of lapse 1852:

In 1852, Governor General Lord Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of Lapse. Under this, if a state ruler died
without a natural/male heir, the EIC would annex/occupy the state. Soon the states of Satara, Nagpur and
Jhansi were annexed by the EIC under this black-law. The Indian rulers resented the policy greatly, especially
when it was misused to take the state of Oudh in 1856, on the death of its Nawab though he had many sons.
Dalhousie annexed Oudh with the excuse of bad governance on behalf of Nawab.
British attempts to westernize India
▪ Christian Missionaries:
Christian missionaries came to India to spread Christianity by various means. Several missionary schools were
set up in all the major Indian towns where teaching of the Bible to the local students was introduced. In these
schools the missionaries taught Christianity and expected local religions to be given up which was resented by
Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs alike.
▪ English Language:
The British replaced Persian and Sanskrit with English as the official language in the 1830's. This deeply upset
both the Muslims and Hindus as these had been the popular languages of India for centuries.
▪ Co-education system:
Modern British education was resisted by the Indians. Moreover, they were required to send their children to
co-educational schools which was hated since it appeared to impose the British traditions on the Indians
without due regard to their religious and cultural feelings.
▪ Ban on pardah system:

They were more infuriated when they were forced to abandon 'purdha'/Hejab which had been an Indian
custom for centuries. The Muslim community, in particular, opposed such steps as they went against the
fundamental teachings of Islam.
▪ Ban on suttee:
Suttee was the Hindu ritual of burning a widow alive on the cremation of her husband. When the British
abolished it first in Bengal and then in the rest of the country, they faced fierce opposition by some of the
Hindu tribes.
CHAPTER: 03
What were the causes and consequences of the
War of Independence 1857–58?
Why war of independence 1857 started?

▪ Social factors:
When the Hindu custom of Suttee was banned and remarriage of the widow was encouraged the Hindus
reacted strongly. Therefore, when British changed these traditions, Hindus took this step as interference in
their religious traditions. Similarly the introduction of the coeducation system and a discouraging attitude of
the observance of Hijab/Purda were resisted by the Muslims for whom these steps were against their socio
religious traditions.
▪ Educational factors:
Westernization of Indian educational system was also not welcomed by a majority of Indians because of Lord
Macaulay's contemptuous remarks about the Indian educational standard, when English began to replace
Urdu and Hindi as the official language, in 1834, both Hindus and Muslims opposed this as they took such
measures as an onslaught on local cultural traditions.
▪ Religious factors:
Growth of the activities of the Christian missionaries during the second half of 19th century also promoted a
sense of insecurity among Indians specially when there were reports of forcible conversion of Indians into
Christianity. Christian missionaries were active at all public places like, schools, parks, markets and they
believed it was their duty to impose a superior culture and religion on all Indians.
▪ Military factors:
The British officers treated Indian subordinates in an arrogant way and they were denied any promotion
regardless of their services for the British. Indian sepoys were given lesser salaries as compared to the British
soldiers. This inculcated hatred and frustration among Indians. Muslim troops were reluctant to fight the
fellow Afghan Muslim troops in the Company's army.
▪ Doctrine of Lapse:
British policy of annexation was also very alarming for Indians, specially the way the Doctrine of lapse was
enforced in 1852 by Lord Dalhousie. Under this, any state whose ruler didn't have a son was annexed by the
EIC. States of Nana Sahib Peshwa (Kanpur) and Rani of Jhansi were unjustly annexed as both had sons.
▪ Economic factors:
Heavy taxation on Indians and exploitation of local raw materials and wealth for the British factories in
England was another major reason. As factory made better cotton began to replace the local hand processed
cotton, millions of hand weavers of cotton were rendered jobless and suffered from starvation and died.
▪ Cartridge issue:
New cartridges for the Enfield rifles were introduced. It was rumored that they were wrapped in the fat of cow
and pig and they had to be chewed out before use. Hindus accorded motherly status to cows whereas for
Muslims pig was Haram (forbidden). So, both Hindu and Muslim troops refused to use these cartridges.
Events of the war of independence

▪ Meerut:
On 6th May, 1857 A.D. 85 out of 90 Indian soldiers at Meerut refused to bite the greased cartridges with their
teeth. These 85 soldiers were court-martialed and imprisoned for 10 years. They were stripped off their
uniforms in the presence of the entire Indian crowd. It was too much of a disgrace and this incident sent a
wave of anger. The Indian soldiers at Meerut broke into open revolt. They released their companions and
murdered a few European officers. On the night of 10th May the mutineers marched to Delhi and reached
there on 11th May.
▪ Delhi:
The revolutionaries reached from Meerut to Delhi on 11th May, 1857 and the small British garrison at Delhi
was not able to resist and consequently fell into their hands within 2 days. The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur
Shah Zafar, was proclaimed Emperor of India. In order to regain Delhi, Sir John Lawrence sent a strong British
force commanded by John Nicholson. After a long siege of four months, the British recovered Delhi in
September 1857 A.D. The Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured, his two sons and a grandson
were shot dead before his eyes and he was sent to Rangoon where he died in the year 1862 A. D.
▪ Kanpur:
In November-December 1857, the rebels led by Nana Sahib Peshwa, captured Kanpur, near Lucknow and held
it out for three weeks. They killed the British officers and slaughtered 300 women and children while taking
several as captives. The British sent reinforcements and recaptured the city. Nana Sahib escaped. The
captured rebels were given horrible punishments in revenge.
▪ Lucknow:
The struggle for independence at Lucknow was led by Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah. The Chief Commissioner, Sir
Henry Lawrence, sought refuge with 1000 English and 700 Indian soldiers inside the Residency. The Indians did
not make any concession and killed most of the Englishman, including “Sir Henry Lawrence and the notorious
English General O’ Neil. At last, the Commander-in-Chief General Collin Campbell marched towards Lucknow
and captured it after a fierce battle in March 1858.
▪ Jhansi & Gwalior:

The leader of the revolutionaries in Central India was Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi. General Sir Huge Rose attacked
Jhansi in March 1858 but the brave Rani Laxmi Bai kept the British General frightened for quite some time. She
with the help of Tantya Tope created problems for the British troops. A fierce battle was fought between the
British and the revolutionaries under Rani Laxmi Bai and Tantya Tope from June 11 to June 18, 1858 A. D. But
the personal velour of Rani and TantyaTope could not match the resources at the command of the British.
Tantya Tope was betrayed by the Gwalior Chief Man Singh and fell into the hands of the British. He was
subsequently hanged on April18, 1859.

Why war of independence 1857 failed?

▪ Lack of unity:
Right from the beginning the Hindu-Muslim divide was evident. Hindus had no reason to fight for the
restoration of the Mughal rule in India. So, on many fronts both communities did not support each other. At
many places different groups fought for different reasons.
▪ Lack of planning:
The uprising was a hasty step taken by the troops from selected provinces without any proper planning and
this became a major reason for the failure. As the uprising spread to other provinces, there was no
coordination among troops about the future line of action.
▪ British strength:
They were one of the powerful nations of the world with the most modern weapons and a regular and
professionally trained army. They had highly skilled military commanders against the rebels who did not have
any such leaders to counter the British. British army had been trained in dealing with such emergencies.
Did war of independence achieve something for Indians?

Negative Impacts
▪ Persecution on Muslims:
Muslims were exclusively targeted because British had taken political control from them and they wanted to
erase any sense of "imperial pride" from their minds. At many places mass executions were carried out
publicly and the dead were stitched in the pigskin. Muslims were denied all respectable posts.
▪ Mughal empire abolished:

Mughal rule was officially abolished and the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon
(Myanmar/Burma) where his sons were beheaded and he himself was given death sentence that was
commuted to life imprisonment due to his advanced age.
▪ Martial race:
British also became cautious and selective in military matters. They began to recruit troops from the relatively
loyal provinces such as Punjab KP and Kashmir, and followed the policy of encouraging the "martial race" of
Pathans and Punjabis.
Positive Impacts
▪ Political awareness:
Indians had learned the hard lesson that militarily they were no match to the British. Therefore, now they
would resist British rule politically. As a result Indians began to develop political awareness and founded
political parties.
▪ EIC abolished:
British government abolished the EIC under Allahabad Declaration of 1858. Under this, all annexation policies
were abandoned e.g. the doctrine of lapse. British government promised respect of local religious faiths and
practices. They also decided to train Indians in politics by introducing political reforms periodically.
CHAPTER: 04
How important was the work of Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan to the development of the
Pakistan Movement during the 19th century?
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

He was a great Muslim political and social reformer. He was born in 1817. He was a retired judge,
archaeologist and a famous educationist too. He served the Muslim community of India in politics and
education. When Muslims had severe type of reservation about the British Gov. schools then he set up many
schools for the Muslim them in Ghazi pur, Muradabad and Ali Gharh. His most famous Educational projects
were MAO (Muhammadan Anglo Oriental School) and MAO College. This college became university (Ali-Gharh
Muslim University) after his death which proved to be a base-camp for Pakistan-Movement. He was the
creator of “Two Nation Theory”. He was the first person to demand separate electorate for Indian Muslims to
protect their political rights. He founded many educational, scientific, social and political organizations for the
Muslims of India. He died in 1898.
Why Sir Syed wanted to improve the relations between Muslims

and British?
▪ To change the minds of Muslims:
British had replaced Muslims as the new rulers of India but Muslims still carried a sense of imperial pride due
to their glorious past. It was important for them to accept the drastically changed political scenario of India.
He also tried to change the British mind in favor of Muslims.
▪ To improve Muslims socio-economic status:

Sir Syed knew that Muslims could hope for an improved socio-economic status only by making friends with the
British who had complete political control of India. If Muslims distanced themselves from the British, they
would continue to remain a backward and poor community. By improving relations with the British, Muslims
had a better opportunity to get better jobs.
▪ To educate Muslims:
Hindus had already started improving their relations with the British because for them it was only a matter of
changed rulers. They began to acquire modern British education which most of the Muslims considered un
lslamic. Sir Syed knew that this would cause a growing social and economic disparity between Hindus and
Muslims and this would bring more troubles for the Muslims.
Why Sir Syed presented Two-Nation theory?

▪ Hindi-Urdu controversy:
Hindus demanded that Hindi should be declared the official language of India in place of Urdu that enjoyed
the same status since 1825. Urdu, written in Persian-Arabic script was one of the marks of cultural identity of
Muslims. Hindi, with its Devanagri script, reflected the future plans of Hindu Raj over India. Sir Syed strongly
opposed this demand and predicted that in future there might be separation between Hindus and Muslims.
▪ Separate electorates:
Hindu-dominated INC made two more demands that were apparently democratic but in reality against the
interest of Muslims. It demanded that elections of the councils in India should be held on the bases of modern
Western democracy. Sir Syed countered this demand by saying that Hindus, being a majority, might win
election on all seats. He suggested the idea of separate electorates for Muslims.
▪ Civil services examination:

He opposed another demand of the Congress that asked for the competitive examinations for the Civil
Services in India. He knew that Hindus were far more educated than Muslims and therefore, there was little
chance for Muslims to get any seat in the Civil Services. He argued that only when equal education
opportunities were provided to both the communities could such an idea work.
Why Sir Syed advised Muslims to acquire modern education?

▪ For better socio-economic condition:
Unless Muslims acquired modern British education, they could not get better jobs, and therefore, could not
hope for improving their socio-economic condition. After the War, they had been denied any respectable post
in India and this further added to their miseries.
▪ To compete with Hindus:

Muslims also lagged behind Hindus in almost all walks of life as the latter had already started equipping
themselves with the modern education. Hindus, therefore, were fast becoming prosperous, rich and advanced.
Muslims, therefore, needed to compete with Hindus in order to ensure their survival and dignity in India.
Educated Muslims had a better chance of being in the good books of the British who hardly trusted them.
▪ To develop political awareness:

Sir Syed also told Muslims that it was vital to get modern education if they wanted to develop political
awareness and insight. Though in the beginning Sir Syed discouraged Muslims from participating in politics,
with the emergence of the Hindu- dominated INC and its pro-Hindu policies, he had to change his views.
Therefore, he wanted Muslims to beware of the clever policies of INC.
Work and contribution of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

▪ Political efforts:
He opposed the Hindu demand of making Hindi as the official language because by this demand the future
Hindu aims of ruling India became apparent. He also opposed two more demands of INC in the 1880's:
competitive examinations for the civil services and the joint electorate for the elections of the legislative
councils. He advocated a system of separate electorates for Muslims and a fixed quota for Muslims in the
competitive examinations.
▪ Social efforts:
Sir Syed also tried to create awareness among Muslims by convincing them to accept the British as the new
rulers of India and so, it was wise to make friends with them. He highlighted the similarities between Islam and
Christianity by writing "Taba'yeen-al-Kalam". In another book he proved that it was not un-lslamic to dine with
the Christians. He wrote a book in response to Sir William Muir's book "Life of Muhammad" that contained
some objectionable remarks about the Holy Prophet.
▪ Literary efforts:
While convincing Muslims Sir Syed worked to convince British about changing their stance regarding Muslims.
He wrote two pamphlets shortly after the War of Independence. In "Essays on the Causes of Indian Revolt" he
proved that Indians alone were not responsible for the Revolt but British too were to blame for their failure to
understand the Indian mindset. In "Loyal Muhammadans of India" he defended Muslims and proved that they
were as loyal to the British as any other community in India.
▪ Educational efforts:
He set up a series of institutes, issued magazines and wrote books.
1- In 1859 he opened a school in Muradabad,
2- In1864 another school in Ghazipore,
3- In 1863 Ghazipore Scientific Society, In it modern scientific writings of the West were translated into Persian
and Urdu.
4- In 1866, he issued the Aligarh Institute Gazette from Aligarh to encourage Muslims to acquire modern
education.
5- He visited England in 1869 and decided to set up an institute for Muslims after observing the Cambridge
and Oxford Universities,
6- In 1875, he set up the MAO College, Aligarh where both western and local education was imparted. This
institute produced many prominent leaders like Liaqat Ali Khan and several workers of the Pakistan
Movement.
7- In 1886, Muhammadan Education Conference was established in order to launch a campaign for raising
educational standard of Muslims. It held regular meetings in several cities.
8- Launched a magazine 'Tahzeeb-ul-Akhlaq'.
CHAPTER: 05
To what extent have Urdu and regional
languages contributed to the cultural
development of Pakistan since 1947?
Importance of national language

National language is necessary to identify a country. It is to be recognized worldwide. It helps to show the
culture. The literature poetry is found in national language. It links one another. It helps in official work and is
the language of communication.
Why Urdu was chosen as a national language of Pakistan?

▪ Vast history:
One of the reasons of choosing Urdu as the national language was its long history of affiliation with the Muslim
community of India. It flourished a lot during the period of the Sultanate of Delhi when poets like Amir
Khusrau and Wali Dakni composed Urdu poetry. Later, during the Mughal period it was promoted by the
Mughal kings and eventually it became the court language.
▪ Rich background:
Urdu has a rich literary background both in prose and poetry. Three great poets, Mir Taqi Mir, Mirza Ghalib and
Iqbal composed world class poetry while during the 19th century Urdu prose also began to flourish .At the
same time Urdu religious stock also grew when translations and commentaries on the Quran, Hadees and the
Islamic law were written. Sir Syed's Aligarh Movement also contributed to the development of Urdu.
▪ Urdu as uniting force:

Pakistan has a huge variety of culture in its provinces with four major regional languages. In such a country
one common language was thought to be a source of promoting a sense of National unity. Urdu was the only
option which could serve as a uniting force between several cultural communities living in Pakistan.
Promotion of national and regional Languages
Urdu
Historical Background:
Urdu was the most developed language with a strong and rich literary background. In its journey of evolution
many Urdu novels, short stories, essays, religious and non-religious writings had become popular much before
the creation of Pakistan. Urdu is among those few languages that have as many as three great poets: Mir Taqi
Mir, Ghalib and Iqbal. Translations of the Quran, Hadith, biography of the Holy Prophet and Islamic
jurisprudence further enriched the Urdu literature.
How government of Pakistan promoted it:
It was made the medium of education in the public sector educational institutes while in the private sector
institutes it became a. compulsory subject in the primary and secondary education level. Special awards were
offered to the best writings in prose and poetry by the government. Most of the programs, plays and news are
broadcast on radio and TV in Urdu. Federal Ministry of Information has been issuing the monthly "Mah-i-Nau"
from Lahore, and a quarterly "Adabiyat" is issued by the Academy of Letters, Islamabad.
Sindhi
It is the older language which is spoken in Sindh. It was written in Marwari and Arz Nagri Script. It was later
written in Arabic script. It has a number of famous poets and prose writers as Sachal Sarmast and Shah Abdul
Latif Bhitai. In nineteenth century a famous journal Talim-ul-Alkashaf-ul-Tauheed was published.
Bazm-i-Talib-ul-Maula" in 1954, and later, Sachal Sarmast Academy. A department of Sindhology was set up in
the Sindh University, Jamshoro to encourage research on Sindhi language and literature. Under the 1972
Language Bill, Sindhi and Urdu were declared the national languages of Sindh. Radio stations of Karachi,
Hyderabad and Sukkur, and PTV Karachi have been broadcasting programs in Sindhi.
Punjabi
It is the regional language of Punjab. It was first used by Hafiz Barkhurdar in 1080. It was called Al-Hindko. It
has words from Arabic, Persian, Turkish languages - famous folk tales are Heer Ranjha, Sohni Mahiwal, Sussi
Punnu etc. Famous poets were Waris Shah, Baba Farid, Bullah Shah etc.
University of the Punjab has been encouraging research work on Punjabi language and literature Government
has supported poets and writers like Munir Niazi, Dr Anwar Sadeed, Habib Jalib and Ustad Daman for their
work. PTV and Radio Pakistan, Lahore has been broadcasting Punjabi plays and other programs for the
promotion of Punjabi. Movies, theatre and literary organizations like "Punjabi Adabi Sangrat” have also been
patronized by the government.
Pashto
The first period of Pashto poet was Amir Khan Pehilvan. The second period begins with the Mughal invasion of
India in the early thirteenth century and lasted for about one hundred years, during this period the quality of
Pashto prose was at its peak. Perhaps the greatest scholar in this period was Hazrat Mian Umar. The third
period extends to the establishment of British rule and is also considered to be a golden period for Pashto
literature, as so much high quality writing was produced. Famous writers from this period include Akhund
Dardeeza and Khushal Khan Khattak.
Peshawar University was set up in 1950 and the Academy of Pashto was established in 1954 for the promotion
of Pashto language and literature. This institute under the chairmanship of Maulana Abdul Qadir took great
pains to compile the first Pashto dictionary. Pashto is taught at college and university level, and post graduate
classes are held in Peshawar University". Radio Pakistan Peshawar and PTV Peshawar broadcast a variety of
programs in Pashto. Abasin Arts Council has been promoting Pashto theatre.
Balochi
Balochi is the language spoken by the majority of people in Baluchistan. There are many kinds of Balochi,
'Sulemanki' and 'Makrani'. The Balochi language was brought into Baluchistan by tribes which migrated from
north-west Iran. They were nomadic People who rarely settled in any one place for long periods of time. This
explains why there has been little development in Balochi poetry. Before partition, Balochi literature was
beginning to decline there were few books or magazines published in Balochi and even the Baluchistan
gazetteer was published in English.
Balochi is the least developed regional language of Pakistan. Radio Pakistan Karachi, and later, PTV Karachi
broadcasted programs in Balochi after independence. After the establishment of PTV Quetta, many more
programs began to be telecasted. Baloch Literary Association was set up for the same purpose. Newspapers
like "Awaam" and some weekly and monthly magazines like "Omaan", "Sangat" and "Mahatak" were issued in
Balochi. Government has patronized prominent poets and writers in Balochi that include Atta Shad, Ishaq
Shamim, Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din.
Why regional languages promoted by Pakistani government?

▪ Sindhi’s association with Islam:
Sindhi, among all regional languages, was the first to have adopted the Arabic script. This reflects its close
association with Islam. Several sufi poets, such as Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai and Sachal Sarmast wrote Sindhi
verse. Therefore, it was important to promote it.
▪ Pushto’s association with Pakistan movement:

Pashto is spoken in Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa (former NWFP) and its literature carries a strong element of
resistance against the foreign rule. Such an element of resistance is quite visible in the poetry of Khushhal
Khan Khattak and Rehman Baba. This way Pashto became associated wifh the Pakistan movement.
▪ Balochi under developed language:

Balochi is spoken in the largest province in terms of its area but the least populated province. It had
traditionally been underdeveloped due to a lack of its preservation in written form. Also, the people of
Balochistan had to be assured of their significance as a cultural unit of Pakistan and so, it had to be promoted.
CHAPTER: 06
How far did the Pakistan Movement develop
during the early 20th century?
Proclamation act:
Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar had been deposed in 1857 at which point control of British India was
transferred to the Crown from the East India Company (EIC). Victoria was offered the position of empress after
the EIC was dissolved; she accepted it on 1 May 1876 with it being officially proclaimed in India on 1 January
1877.Victoria was adamant that freedom of religion be observed in the country having respect for Indians and
their various beliefs.
Why Bengal was partitioned in 1905?
▪ Vast and densely populated province:
Bengal was the most populated province with a population of more than 80 million. This huge population was
spread over a small area, making it a very densely populated province. It was difficult to govern such a big
province as it created problems in maintaining law and order, collection of taxes and providing emergency help
in times of floods and cyclones. So, it was sensible to divide it into two provinces.
▪ Economic disparity:
The western part of Bengal had a population of 54 million with a Hindu majority, whereas the eastern part had
31 million inhabitants with a Muslim majority. There was a growing economic disparity between the Hindus
and Muslims. Hindus were the dominant community enjoying monopoly over industry, trade and politics.
Muslims on the other hand, were generally backward and poor. British perhaps wanted reduce this disparity.
▪ INC demanding for self-rule:

British also closely observed the political activities of the INC in the 1890's when leaders like Bal Gangadhar
Tilak had to be in prison as they delivered provoking speeches in which they demanded self-rule for India.
Therefore, the British decided to distract the attention of the INC towards a new issue.
Why Indian national congress opposed partitioned?

▪ Divide and rule policy:
For the INC, it was yet another example of the old British policy of "divide and rule". By doing so the British
were strengthening their grip on the Indian political affairs while dividing the two major communities, Hindus
and Muslims. The British power lay in the communal differences of India.
▪ Indian nationalism:
The INC also viewed the partitioned as a step against the Indian nationalism. It believed that all people living in
India were primarily Indians regardless of the cultural and religious differences and identities. So, all
communities living in Bengal were equally Indians whether they were Hindus or Muslims.
▪ Loss of economic monopoly:

The Hindu dominated INC was also unhappy over the loss of monopoly over the economy and politics of
Bengal. In East Bengal, Muslims were a decisive majority and had formed their own government. Therefore,
their economic condition began to improve.
Why partition of Bengal reversed in 1911?

▪ INC resistances and protests:
A country-wide anti-partition campaign was launched. Mob rallies were organized and shutter down strikes
were observed as a token of resentment against the partition. With the passage of time, the opposition to the
partition became fierce and eventually adopted the terrorist behavior. Many senior British officials were
attacked including Lord Minto who survived a murder attempt.
▪ Swadeshi movement:
The INC started the Swadeshi Movement in which boycott of the British goods and institutions was observed.
British titles given to the Hindus were returned and the attendance in various institutes dropped significantly.
At many places, the British factory made cotton cloth was thrown in the bonfire to mark the hatred against the
foreign goods. This created serious economic difficulties for the British.
▪ King George coronation ceremony:

King George V was scheduled to visit India in 1911. The INC, threatened to boycott the Coronation ceremony
of the King that was a royal tradition and a hallmark of British authority over its colonies. This threat of the INC
was a serious blow to the pride and prestige of the British who were now pressurized to reconsider the
partition.
Simla deputation 1906:

On 8th October 1906, a delegation of 36 Muslims led by Sir Aga Khan, called on the Viceroy Lord Minto (in the
pic) at Simla. The delegation conveyed to him a set of demands that included the right of separate electorates
for Muslims, and recognizing them in respect of their political importance and the service they had rendered
to the Empire. It asked for a higher percentage of seats in the councils than their numerical strength. The
Viceroy promised to convince the British government for the acceptance of these demands. This success
became the immediate reason for the formation of the ML (Muslim League) in December 1906.
Why partition of Bengal reversed in 1911?

▪ British sympathy toward Muslims:
The British showed their sympathy towards Muslims. The Muslim delegation was able to persuade the British
to accept them as an important Indian community. This was possible mainly due to the attempts of Sir Syed
and his colleagues to improve relations with-the British. Now, their efforts had started bearing fruit as the
British were prepared to work with the Muslims and grant them concessions like the separate electorates.
▪ Political awareness among Muslims:

Success of the Simla delegation also showed the growing political awareness among Muslims about their rights
and status in India. Since the Hindus had already started making progress in all walks of life, the rivalry
between Muslims and Hindus was bound to grow. This rivalry was now going to be visible in the constitution,
too. The Muslims had started realizing that they needed to secure a better position in the British India.
▪ Sense of Nationalism among Muslims:

It also showed the growing sense of nationalism among Muslims. By asking for separate electorates and a
greater share in the legislative councils and the government jobs demonstrated that Muslims had started
working on proving themselves a distinct and important community of India. For this reason, the Muslims
decided to make their own political party only after two months on 30th December 1906.
Why was the Muslim league founded in 1906?

▪ INC Hindu dominated party:
The INC claimed to represent all communities of India but it mainly worked for the interests of Hindus. Its
reaction on the partition of Bengal in 1905 was a shocking experience for the Muslims as they realized the
hidden INC aims of denying Muslims to make any progress.
▪ Victory of labor party in England:

In February 1906, the Liberal Party won elections in England. It was generally more sympathetic towards the
Indians and especially at times towards Indian Muslims. It announced that it would expand the legislative
councils by including more Indians. Muslims realized it was time to think of making a Muslim political party
because the INC had not been sincere towards them.
▪ Success of simla deputation:

Another reason for the formation of ML was the success of the Simla Delegation. In October 1906 about 36
Muslim delegates led by Sir Aga Khan called on the Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla. It demanded a greater share
of Muslims in the councils and separate Muslim electorates. Lord Minto's encouraging response convinced the
delegates that the organized efforts were more likely to be successful.
Morley-Minto reforms 1909:

Lord Minto and Secretary of States John Morley worked together to draw a series of reforms which were
passed by the British Parliament in 1909 as the Councils act.
(i) The number of the members of the Legislative Council at the Center was increased from 16 to 60.
(ii) The number of the members of the Provincial Legislatives was also increased. It was fixed as 50 in
the provinces of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and for the rest of the provinces it was 30.
(iii) Right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims.
(iv) The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets, suggest the
amendments and even to vote on them.
(v) Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs. (vi) The
Governor General was empowered to nominate one Indian member to his Executive Council.
Why were Morly-Minto reforms opposed by INC?

▪ Nominal powers to the center:
The INC was disappointed by the reforms. The reforms gave nominal powers to the central and provincial
legislative councils. They could not make, change or annul any of the laws. Instead, the members could only
ask questions on important matters express their opinions or advise the government respectfully.
▪ Want greater size of councils:

The INC also wanted a greater increase in the size of the councils at all levels so that a greater number of
Indians could make way to the power corridor. The British knew all this and therefore, they increased the size
of the councils according to their own policies as they were in no mood to raise the legislative councils to the
status of a parliament
▪ Separate electorates to Muslims:

The INC sharply criticized the granting of separate electorate to the Muslims. It was unhappy on Muslims
getting a relatively higher position in the councils despite their much smaller numbers. The INC declared this
an undemocratic step because such a special concession to Muslims directly threatened the Hindu dominance
in Indian politics.
Lucknow Pact 1916:
The British failed in granting more rights to Indians in the period upto 1914, which brought the Muslim league
and Congress closer together. In 1916, both the communities held their annual session in Lucknow. This was
called the Lucknow pact. Congress and the League presented their demands infront of British which were
accepted. Lucknow pact led to much succession.
(i) There shall be self-government in India.
(ii) Muslims should be given one-third representation in the central government.
(iii) There should be separate electorates for all the communities until a community demanded joint
electorates.
(iv) A system of weightage should be adopted.
(v) The number of the members of Central Legislative Council should be increased to 150.
(vi) The size of provincial legislatures should not be extended.
(vii) Voting rights for all
(viii) No bill concerning a community should be passed if the bill is opposed by three-fourth of the members of
that community in the Legislative Council.
(x) The term of the Legislative Council should be five years.
(xi) Half of the members of Imperial Legislative Council should be Indians.
(xii) The Executive should be separated from the Judiciary.
Why Lucknow pact was signed in 1916?

▪ Hindu Muslim unity:
The INC and the ML decided to work together. INC persuaded the ML leaders to change the policy of "loyalty
to the British" and make a demand for self-rule. This brought ML closer to INC that already was demanding
"Swaraj" (self-rule). Gradually both parties realized it would be better to ask for constitutional reforms jointly.
▪ British policies of repression:

The British policy of repression during the WW1 also brought the two parties closer to each other. Therefore,
both parties set up joint councils to improve common understanding on key issues. So, both decided to
cooperate with each other in order to generate feelings of goodwill and friendship.
▪ To reduce mutual friction between ML and INC:
ML and INC also wanted to reduce mutual friction and to accommodate each other. The main figure in this
regard was Mr. Muhammad AN Jinnah who believed in a unity between the INC and the ML. He was,
therefore, given the title of the 'ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity' by Mr. Gokhle.
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1916:

These reforms were jointly drafted by the Secretary of State, John Montague and the Viceroy Lord
Chelmsford.
(i) The Central Legislature was to consist of two houses, Upper House (Council of the State), and the Lower
House (Legislative Assembly). Council of the State was to consist of 60 members. The Legislative Assembly was
to consist of 144 members. The duration of the Upper House was five and of the Lower House was three years.
(ii) Powers were divided between the center and the provinces.
(iii) The system of Diarchy’ or a kind of double government in the Provinces was introduced. (iv) The Governor
General had the power to nominate as many members to his Executive Council as he wanted. (v) The franchise
was limited.
(vi) Both the houses had equal legislative powers. In case of a tie, the Governor General was to call a joint
meeting where the matter was to be decided by majority vote.
(vii) The Executive Council was not responsible to Legislate.
(viii) Provincial Legislatures were supposed to be unicameral.
(ix) Besides Muslims, other minorities including Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Christians and Europeans were also given
the right of separate electorate.
(x) New reforms were to be introduced after ten years.
(xi) The Council of the Secretary of State was to comprise of eight to twelve people. Three of them should be
Indian.
∙ Muslims partly accepted the Montague-Chelmsford reforms with certain reservations and demands
regarding the safety of Muslim states.
∙ Gandhi categorically rejected this scheme and congress denounced it as inadequate, unsatisfactory and
disappointing.

Rowlett Act 1919:

The British anticipated a violent reaction to the Mont-Ford reforms. They appointed an investigative
committee under Justice Rowlatt in Dec. 1917. In the light of its report the Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919.
The Act empowered the local administration/police to arrest anyone without warrant, detain him without the
right of bail and decide where the people in a province should live. Gandhi launched a countrywide strike
against it, and Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest. A protest by 20,000 unarmed
people led to the tragic massacre at JillianwalaBagh, a public park, in Amritsar, in April 1919.
Amritsar Massacre 1919:

As part of protest against the Rowlatt Act, there was unrest in Amritsar and five Europeans were killed. An
angry mob of 20,000 gathered in a public park, Jillianwala Bagh. Though all were peaceful protesters, General
Dyer, the local British Commander was determined to restore peace as he had banned all public meetings. He
sealed the only exit of the park and ordered a shootout without warning. Over 1600 rounds were fired and
about 400 people were killed while another 1200 were wounded. Dyer was trialed under the Hunter
Committee and was removed from his service without any further punishment.

CHAPTER: 07
How successful was the Khilafat Movement in
advancing the Pakistan Movement?
What was Khilafat Movement?

It was started in 1919 by the Muslim religious leaders of India to save the respect of Turkey and the institute of
Khilafat. Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were.its major
leaders. Gandhi merged his non-cooperation campaign with it. Three Khilafat Conferences were held, a
delegation was sent to the British PM Lloyd George in February 1920 to persuade him for a fair treatment of
Turkey. Thousands of Muslims migrated to Afghanistan in the Hijrat Mpvement in 1920. Jinnah and the ML
stayed away from it but supported the cause of the Khilafat Movement. The Movement ended in 1924 with
the abolition of the Khilafat by Kemal Attaturk.
Why Khilafat movement was emerged?

▪ To save Turkey’s caliphate system:
The British promised that no harm would be done to the Caliphate and the Muslims troops fought for the
British on this reassurance in WWI. However, after the War, through the peace treaties such as the Treaty of
Sevres, it became evident that Britain and France would punish Germany and abolish the Turkish Empire by
dividing its slices among the victors.
▪ Muslims sentiment with Ottoman Empire:

They had a special respect for the Turkish Ottoman Empire as the Sultan of Turkey was also the spiritual head
or Khalifa of the entire Muslim world. He was the custodian of all the holy places of Islam in Arabia and other
Middle Eastern states. Therefore, any punishment of Turkey meant an insult of the Khalifa and that
tantamount to hurting the religious sentiments of the Muslims.
▪ To develop political awareness:

Many Indian Muslim leaders believed that British wanted to indulge a fear of Hindus so that Muslims could be
forced to cooperate with the British wherever needed. For this reason, leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
sharply criticized the Muslims who had joined the British army.
Why Khilafat movement failed?

▪ Gandhi’s withdrawal (Chaura Chauri incident):
Gandhi withdrew his support at a critical moment. When in 1922 an angry mob took control of a police station
in the UP town of Chauri Chaura and burned 22 policemen alive, Gandhi reacted on this violent event and
announced the withdrawal of his support for the Khilafat Movement. It was a deadly blow to the movement.
His withdrawal proved fatal because he had unified the two largest communities of India -— Hindus and
Muslims.
▪ Moplahs uprising:
It was a violent uprising by the Moplahs, the Muslim peasants in South India during the Khilafat Movement.
Moplahs were basically the descendants of Arab traders who had settelled in the coastal areas of Malabar
district in ancient times. Their anger was against Hindu landowners and the British. In August 1921, nearly
10,000 Moplahs at Tirur destroyed the police station-and seized all arms and also destroyed Hindu property
including temples. The British troops reacted quickly and killed more than 4,000 Moplahs while several more
were wounded. There were only 100 British casualties. With this the communal violence spread to other parts
of India.
▪ Hijrat Movement:
The Khilafat leaders in 1920 declared India as Dar ul Harb, a land under the enemy rule and asked Muslims to
migrate to an independent Muslim state/Dar ul Islam. Afghanistan. They reminded the migrant Muslims of the
Holy Prophet's migration to Madinah in 622 AD. About 18,000 Muslims sold their properties and left for
Afghanistan. Their leaders had promised them a bright future but the people and the Government of
Afghanistan refused to accommodate them. Accordingly, they had to return to their homeland to face further
miseries. This was a reason for the failure of the Khilafat Movement.
▪ Mustafa Kemal Ataturk:

Military leader Kemal Attaturk (Mustafa Kemal Pasha). In 1922 under a military revolution, Turkey became a
republic and the last Khalifa Sultan Muhammad/Mehmet VI was deposed. Attaturk, in the meantime, had
regained some of the lost Turkish terror ties and forced the Allies for a new peace treaty, the Treaty of
Lausanne. This made him a hero in the eyes of the Turkish people. In 1924, the new Turkish Government led by
Kemal Attaturk, abolished the institute of Khilafat and later sent the last Khalifa into exile. This proved to be a
decisive blow to the Khilafat Movement.
Short Answer Questions

Q. What was Satyagraha?
It was the famous ideology of Gandhi which meant “to follow True Path by passive-resistance”. According to
this ideology a man must not respond violence with violence. We should use peaceful ways to resist injustice
and violence e.g by hunger strikes, long-march, civil-disobedience and non-cooperation etc. Gandhi used this
policy against the British rule continuously. So it was an effective tool for the struggle of Indian Independence.
Gandhi wanted to be on the right path and he stressed the British for self-rule (swaraj) for India.
Q. What was the Hindu Mahasabah?

Hindu Mahasaba was formed in 1923 by Pandit Mohan Malaviya, a Congressman. It contested its first
elections in 1926. The party made progress when V.D Sawarkar became president. In 1947, the party
condemned the partition settlement as a national disorder and believed that Gandhi's religious tolerance was
a threat to Hindu purity. A fanatic Hindu member of Mahasaba Killed Gandhi on 30th January 1948.
Q. What was the treaty of Lausanne?

In 1923, The Treaty of Lausanne was signed in a city of Switzerland (Lusanne) led to the international
recognition of the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. As
there were five major agreements with Turkey. There should be:
1- End of Ottoman Empire in Turkey.

2- Complete ban on Islam in Turkey
3- Turkey cannot exploit own resources, but have to import.
4- Usurp all the expanded areas of Ottoman Empire.

5- No trading ship will pay tax to Turkey while using its Bosporus sea.










CHAPTER: 11
How successful was the establishment of an
independent nation between 1947 and 1948?
EARLY PROBLEMS (1947-1948)
∙ Division of financial assets:
Pakistan was to receive 750 million rupees, which was initially delayed by the Indian government. After
the protest of Pakistan India agreed to pay 200 million rupees. As the war between Pakistan and India had
started on the issue of Kashmir in 1948, India again stopped the rest of the amount by saying that Pakistan
could use it to but arms. After the protest from Pakistan and the threat of hunger strike from Gandhi,
Nehru forced to pay another 500 million rupees. However, the remaining 50 million rupees are still not
paid.
∙ Issue of princely state:
Kashmir Issue
In 1947 Hindu Raja Hari Singh ruled the State of Jammu and Kashmir. This was one of the largest princely
States in the Subcontinent and the fact that it had boundaries with Tibet, China, Afghanistan and Russia
gave it strategic importance. In spite of the wishes of a large Muslim majority (4 million=77%), Maharaja
did not want to join Pakistan. In September 1947 he started a campaign to drive many Muslims out of the
Kashmir. Over 200,000 fled to Pakistan and finally the Muslims rose in rebellion. The maharaja forced to
India. India forces entered in Kashmir through Gurdaspur, which provided India with the only exit to
Kashmir.
Junagadh Issue
Junagadh was a small state on the coast, 300 miles South of Karachi with a population of 700,000. The
population was mostly non-Muslims, but its prince was Muslim. After the independence the request for
accession with Pakistan was accepted by Quid-e-Azam. But the Indian government refused to accept the
accession. An economic blockade of Junagadh was imposed and states were surrounded by Indian force.
There was food shortage. By the end of October 1947, the ruler of the Junagadh was force to leave the
state. On 9th November 1947 Indian army occupied the state ignoring the strong protest of Pakistani
government India held referendum and majority of the voters cast their vote in favor of the accession with
India.
Hyderabad Issue
Majority of its population was Hindu but ruler whose title was ‘Nizam’ was a Muslim Hyderabad being a
prosperous state and because of its prestige and importance wanted to maintain its independent status
but Lord Mount batten told him this was not possible. As being Muslim, he wanted to accede to Pakistan.
The Indian government, however, was determined not to allow Hyderabad to join Pakistan. It began
pressurizing the Nizam to join Pakistan. on 13th September 1948 just two days after the death of Quaid-e
Azam, Indian troops entered Hyderabad, dismantled the state and incorporated it into different provinces
in India.
∙ Social Problems:
Immediately after the establishment of Pakistan language controversy was started between East and West
Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam declared, “Urdu and Urdu alone would be the National Language of Pakistan”.
Advice of Quaid temporarily took the heat out of Language Movement but the issue was not settled it
exploded later after the death of Quaid-e-Azam. In West Pakistan people had different traditions, cultures,
languages and lifestyle. Pakistan was not comprised of a single united people and there was much work to
do in convincing every one of the wisdoms of joining the new state. Various cultural communities of
Pakistan had little in common except for Islam.
∙ Refugee Problems:
Another big problem was the accommodation of refugees coming from India. After partition of India,
Muslims living in the Indian Punjab and the neighboring districts were forced to migrate to Pakistan. The
migrating families were attacked in an organized way by the militant Hindus and Sikhs. Pakistan began to
receive trains loaded with the dead and the injured. The government of Pakistan had little to provide
shelter, medical care and food to millions of refugees on urgent grounds. They were accommodated in
refugee camps and military barracks without appropriate facilities of living.
∙ Economic Problems:
E.P had the Jute factory but it didn’t have any industry to develop it which mainly were in Calcutta. Mostly
business community were Hindus who were transferring their assets to India. Chittagong port was in E.P
which wasn’t developed enough to handle the large-scale export of Jute to other countries. Pakistan had to
send its Jute through Calcutta to India on low price. W.P was better economically where industries were
established by British in few areas.
∙ Geographical Problems:
East and West Pakistan were separated by a 1600 km long Indian territory. This created difficulties of
communication between the two wings of Pakistan. People living in the two wings were often ignorant of
the problems of each other. This geographical gap was exploited by India to create difficulties for Pakistan.
No road and railway access between East and West Pakistan.
∙ Administrative Problems:
There was a shortage of the state buildings, office equipment and devoted and experienced politicians.
Also, there were not many experienced officers and civil servants to run the state affairs. Except for Jinnah,
Liaqat Ali Khan and few others, most of the politicians were either inexperienced or insincere. Pakistan
found it difficult to build a strong political base. The process of making a constitution was also delayed as
there were not many experts in the Constituent Assembly.
∙ River Dispute:
After partition the head works of Ferozepur and Madhupur which controlled the rivers in Pakistan were left in India.
India claimed that it had complete rights over the head works. So, it stopped the water flow in 1948. Without

control on these rivers, the prosperity of the Indus Plain could become endangered because Pakistan is an agro
based country. The problem was solved by the UN in 1960.
∙ Division of military assets:

Pakistan needed funds and military equipment to run the state affairs and ensure its defense. India
unwillingly gave damaged and worn-out weapons to Pakistan under the agreed ratio of 36% of military
assets for Pakistan. Pakistan’s immediate requirement for an army of 150,000 soldiers and 4000 officers.
There were only 2500 Muslim officers were available. There were 16 ordnance factories and all were
situated in India. Eventually a financial settlement was made and Pakistan was given 60 million rupees
towards its share in the ordnance factories.
Role of Jinnah as a Governor General:

∙ Formation of government:
He declared Karachi as the capital of Pakistan and inaugurated the headquarters of the armed forces and
the civil secretariat. He made it clear that the sole role of the army was to be 'the servant of the people'.
As the first Governor General (GG) of Pakistan he appointed the first Constituent Assembly and the first
cabinet with Liaqat Ali Khan as the Prime Minister. The 1935 Act was adopted as the interim constitution
with some amendments. He urged the civil servants to dedicate their lives to the service of the nation.
∙ Building Nation:
Jinnah declared Urdu as the national language, so that it could unify various linguistic groups in Pakistan,
though this step was strongly resented by the East Pakistan where all people spoke Bengali. They
considered this as a step of West Pakistan's domination over East Pakistan. In order to ensure the
protection of religious minorities Jinnah declared himself as the "Protector General of Minorities". In his
address to the Constituent Assembly, he had made it clear that all Pakistanis were free to follow their
religion without any fear.
∙ Rehabilitation of Refugees:
He set up the Quaid-e-Azam relief fund for the accommodation of refugees and shifted his headquarter
temporarily from Karachi to Lahore to personally supervise the process of accommodation. He urged the
people of Pakistan to help their fellow Muslims generously coming from India. However, despite his best
efforts millions of refugees continued to suffer for many years.
∙ Building Economy:
He inaugurated ‘the State Bank of Pakistan in July 1948, and Pakistan issued its own currency in both
paper and metallic form. A Development Board was set up in 1948 for planning a strategy for the industrial
development. When India closed the Firozpur and Madhupur headworks, Pakistan faced serious shortage
of water. Mr. Jinnah persuaded the Indian government to release some water so that Pakistan's agriculture
was not destroyed. The issue of canal water.
∙ Princely states matter:

Jinnah wanted to resolve the issue of the three princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh and Jammu and
Kashmir but could not get any success as India occupied the first two states by force and imposed a war on
Pakistan for Kashmir in April 1948. Thus, Jinnah's dream of peaceful relations with India was shattered.
Conclusion
In the light of above factors, it may be concluded that Jinnah was quite successful in overcoming most of
the early problems because, against all odds and wishes of India, Pakistan not only survived but also began
to make progress in various sectors of economy and became an important country in the regional and
global politics.
Why Pakistan faced with a refugee problem in 1947?

∙ Communal Violence:
The communal violence reached its peak as Hindus and Sikhs were opposed to the creation of Pakistan.
They began to target Muslims living in the non-Muslim majority areas and forced them to leave India. The
migrating families were attacked by the armed mobs and this caused numerous human tragedies including
rape and massacre.
∙ Lack of resources:
A huge number of Muslims had left all their possessions in India and so, they reached Pakistan without any
assets. Pakistan began to receive trains loaded with the injured and the dead migrants. The newly made
government of Pakistan did not have resources to provide food, clothing, shelter and medical care to so
many refugees.
∙ Safe exit of minorities:
At the same time, Hindus and Sikhs living in Pakistan became victim of similar violence and were forced to
migrate to India. Thus, the government of Pakistan faced the additional problem of monitoring a safe
departure of these non-Muslims migrating to India while receiving Muslim refugees coming from India.
Possible Questions
4 Marks Questions
The problems also can be asked as 4 Marks Question (i.e Canal water dispute / Refugee problem
etc). 14 / 10 Marks Questions
Q. Formation of a government was the most important challenge faced by the newly created state of
Pakistan in 1947. Do you agree? Explain.
Q. "Dealing with economic issues was the most important contribution made by the Quaid-e-Azam as the
first Governor-General of Pakistan." Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
Q. How successful was Jinnah in solving the early problems of Pakistan? Explain.

CHAPTER: 12
How far did Pakistan achieve stability following
the death of Jinnah?
GOVERNER GENERALS OF PAKISTAN
Mohammad Ali Jinnah 15th August 1947 – 11th September 1948
Khuwaja Nazimuddin 14th September 1948 – 17th October 1951

Malik Ghulam Mohammad 19th October 1951 – 15th October 1955
Major General Iskander Mirza 16th October 1955 – 22nd March 1956
PRESIDENTS AND CHIEF MARTIAL LAW

ADMINISTRATORS OF PAKISTAN
Major General Iskander Mirza 23rd March 1956 – 27th October 1958
General Ayyub Khan 27th October 1958 – March 1969
General Yahya Khan 25th March 1969 – 20th December 1971
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto 20th December 1971 – 15th July 1977
Chaudhry Fazal Elahi 14th August 1973 - 16th September 1978
General Zia-ul-Haq 15th July 1977 - 17th August 1988
Ghulam Ishaq Khan 17th August 1988 - 8th July 1993
MARTIAL LAWS IN PAKISTAN
1st Martial Law Iskander (7th October 1958) – Ayyub (1st March 1962)
2nd Martial Law Yahya (25th March 1969) – Bhutto (1st March 1972)
3rd Martial Law Zia-ul-Haq (7th March 1977) - Zia-ul-Haq (December 1985)
PRIME MINISTERS OF PAKISTAN
Liaqat Ali Khan: He became the 1st Prime Minister of Pakistan on 15th August 1947, shot dead on 16th October
1951.
Khwaja Nazim uddin: Assume power on 17th October 1951, dismissed by Ghulam Mohammed on 17th
April 1953.
Mohammad Ali Bogra: Appointed (twice by Ghulam Mohammad on 17th April 1953, Ghulam
Mohammed dissolved the Constituent Assembly on 11th August 1955.

Chaudri Mohammad Ali: Elected by the members of the members of the Constituent Assembly as the
Prime Minister on 11th August 1955, forced to resign when lost majority in the Assembly on 12th
September 1956.
Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy: Assume power on 12th September 1956, forced to resign when lost majority in
the Assembly on 17th October 1957.
Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar: Assume power on 18th October 1957, forced to resign when lost majority in
the Assembly on 16th December 1957.
Feroz Khan Noon: Assume power on 18th December 1957, removed when Martial Law was imposed on
17th October 1958.
General Ayyub Khan: On 22nd October 1958, Major General Iskander Mirza appointed General Ayub Khan as
the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
Noor-ul-Amin: Nominated by General Yahya Khan on 7th December 1971, removed after the separation of
East Pakistan on 20th December 1971.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto: He became the 1st democratically elected Prime Minister of Pakistan on 12th August
1973, removed by General Zia-ul-Haq on 5th July 1977, when Martial Law was imposed on the country.
Mohammad Khan Junaijo: Appointed by General Zia-ul-Haq as the Prime Minister of Pakistan on 23rd
March 1985, dismissed by Zia-ul-Haq on 29th May 1988.
Benazir Bhutto: After the election held in October 1988, Benazir Bhutto (daughter of Z.A. Bhutto) becoming
the 1st woman Prime Minister of Pakistan in November 1988.

Liaquat Ali Khan (1947-1949)
Objective Resolution:
In 1948 Constituent Assembly set up a Basic Principles committee, to decide the principle on which constitution of
Pakistan should be based. It contained the principle of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice as laid
down in Islam. Muslims and other religious groups should bind in accordance with their faith. Minorities and poor
should be protected and fundamental rights be guaranteed. Judicial system be independent of government. This
resolution was presented by Liaquat Ali Khan in 1949 as a base for future constitution.
Q- Why was it not accepted?
Reason 01: The religious parties declared it insufficiently Islamic.

Reason 02: East Pakistan objected to equal share in the parliament as it had 10% more population than West Pakistan. It
also criticized on Urdu being the only national language because Bengali was also a developed and only language spoken
throughout Pakistan.
Reason 03: Opposition by the regional politicians that most of the powers is in the hands of governor general and
center. Liaquat Nehru Pact:
It was signed to stop the movement of minorities across the Pak-India border. In April 1950, Pakistani PM
Liaqat Ali Khan and Indian PM Jawahar Lal Nehru signed this agreement. It was agreed that each country
would provide protection and religious freedom to the religious minorities living in Pakistan and India so that
these minorities would be encouraged to stay back in their native state. However, the movement of people
belonging to religious minorities continued to migrate across the border as they did not trust any such
statements made by the government about giving them protection.
PRODA act:
Liaqat Ali Khan managed to keep Pakistan's economy growing by presenting surplus budgets. Also, he
implemented the PRODA (Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act) in order to curtail corruption
in Pakistan. However, corruption would continue to bother future governments.
Rawalpindi Conspiracy:
Liaqat Ali Khan was able to foil a coup of about 20 military officers who were unhappy over the presence and
influence of British officers in the Pakistan Army. In March 1951, in the famous Rawalpindi Conspiracy case,
Major Akbar Khan and fourteen other officers were arrested. However, in October 1951. Liaqat Ali Khan was
killed in Rawalpindi while addressing a public rally.
Malik Ghulam Mohammad (1951-1956)
Achievements:
1- Malik Ghulam Muhammad became the 3rd Governor General in Oct. 1951.
2- Being an expert in financial affairs he introduced the scheme of 6 Year Plan that was later changed into a 5
Year Plan. Its aim was to make economic planning regarding agriculture, industry, power and transport sectors.
3- He set up a Planning Board in 1953 to review various developments schemes.
4- A major jute processing plant was set up in 1952 in East Pakistan as a result of efforts for exploring oil and
gas reserves, natural gas was discovered at Sui in Balochistan in 1952.
5- In 1952-53 Pakistan had positive Balance of Payment (BOP) due to a huge demand of cotton and jute in the
wake of the Korean war that caused large scale export of these commodities.
Challenges:
1- During the same period, however, there was serious food shortage due to severe drought in East and West
Pakistan. This caused unrest and violence that was aggravated by an anti-Qadiani movement.
2- Religious parties demanded removal of Qadinis /Ahmadis from key posts including the foreign minister Sir
Zafar Ullah Khan.
3- Malik Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Khawaja Nizam ud Din in April 1953 on his failure to control the crisis.
4- When Mohammad Ali Bogra tried to limit the powers of Governor General, Malik Ghulam Mohammad
dismissed Bogra's government and dissolved the Constituent Assembly in September 1954. The new
Constituent Assembly was elected in June 1955.
General Iskandar Mirza (1956-1958)
Achievements:
∙ 1956 Constitution:
First Constitution that was implemented in March 1956. It introduced federal, parliamentary form of
government though the President had powers to appointment and dismiss the P.M. Under the One Unit
Scheme, East and West Pakistan had equal seats in the one house parliament, the National Assembly.
∙ One Unit Scheme:
Introduced in Oct., 1955 was aimed at unity by merging together all provinces of West Pakistan to make two
provinces East and West Pakistan. It, however was bitterly opposed by E. Pakistan and smaller provinces of W.
Pakistan.
∙ Developments:
Mirza also started some industrialization and development plans as well as rural development schemes.
Karachi airport was completed, railways were modernized and telephone network was expanded. Steps were
taken for provision of health and education.
Failure:
∙ Political Crisis:
Mirza failed to have good relations with his Prime Ministers and dismissed them at short intervals. Ch. M. Ali
was replaced by Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy in Sept,1956. Suhrawardy was replaced by I.I. Chandigarh in
Oct,1957 who himself was dismissed in Dec.,1957. Malik Feroze Khan Noon was the last civilian P.M. under
Mirza from Dec, 1957 to 7th October, 1958.
∙ Martial Law:
Finally, on 7th Oct., 1958 he declared Martial Law and appointed General Ayub Khan as the CMLA (Chief
Marital Law Administrator).
Q- Why there were so many governments between 1951 and 1958?
Reason 01: Pakistan did not have a good team of skilled politicians. Jinnah died in 1948 without accomplishing his
mission of providing a strong political base to Pakistan. Murder of Liaqat Ali Khan in 1951 worsened the political
conditions as the newly created state of Pakistan lost the two most experienced leaders and the country went in the
hands of inexperienced and selfish politicians
Reason 02: The Indian government was bent upon creating difficulties for Pakistan. It continued to delay the release of
Pakistan's share of assets and announce the accession of the State of Kashmir to Pakistan. It imposed a war on Pakistan
in 1948 as a result of which Pakistan was forced to pay more attention on its defense instead of building a strong political
foundation.
Reason 03: East Pakistan wanted a share in the government according to its population size that was 10% greater than
that of West Pakistan but it was given equal seats in the National Assembly under the undemocratic One Unit Scheme
and the rule of parity.

General Ayyub Khan (1958-1969)
Why Ayyub Khan came in power?

∙ Political Instability:
Political instability worsened between 1955 and 1958 as several Prime Ministers were dismissed in this period.
Differences between West and East Pakistan grew as the latter wanted a share in the government according to
its population size, undemocratic One Unit Scheme and the rule of parity.
∙ Change of governments:
President Iskander Mirza terminated as many as four governments between 1955 and 1958 as a result of
which he began to lose popularity and power. PM Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy gave very tough time to Mirza
by uniting the major political leaders of Punjab and Bengal against him. He challenged Mirza to hold a vote in
the Assembly to test his popularity. Mirza feared a defeat and, therefore, decided to declare martial law.
∙ Executive head:
Ayyub had already declined an offer from Ghulam Muhammad to take over the country as its executive head.
Now he could see the nominal powers of Mirza who was holding his post forcefully. Therefore, Ayyub decided
to assume power himself. He removed Mirza from office and himself became the executive head of state.
Reforms of Ayyub Khan

∙ Agricultural Reforms (Green Revolution):
1- Under the 1959 land reforms, no land owner could possess more than 1000 acres of un-irrigated or 500
acres of irrigated land holdings. The excess land was to be taken by the government and given to the poor
farmers.
2- In order to produce agricultural raw material and feed a growing population agriculture was modernized.
Under this, mechanization, chemical fertilizers, HYV (High Yield Variety) or GM (genetically modified)
seeds, insecticides /pesticides and modern irrigation methods were introduced.
3- Under the Indus Water Treaty 1960, three new dams and several perennial canals were built.
4- Loans were given to poor farmers.
Result: These reforms caused economic disparity between the rich and the poor farmers because the main
beneficiaries were the rich farmers.
∙ Industrial Reforms:
1- Foreign aid was given to Pakistan by the USA, UK and Germany.
2- Oil refinery was setup at Karachi to reduce the import cost of oil.
3- To extract minerals, the Mineral Development Corporation was setup.
5- To encourage the private sector, a number of incentives were offered that included subsidies and taxes,
tax holiday and the Export Bonus Scheme (EBS).
6- Large scale industrialization took place in the 1960s that resulted in a robust economic growth rate of
7%, one of the highest in the world.
Result: However, these reforms too caused huge disparity between the rich and the poor. By 1968 only 22
families (mostly from W. Pakistan) owned 66% industries and 80% banking and insurance. Hence, sense of
deprivation grew among the E. Pakistanis as most of the development was in W Pakistan.
∙ Political Reforms:
1- Ayyub introduced the Basic Democracies (BD's) under the Basic Democracies Order, Oct., 1959 it was a four
tier system under which elections were held at village, tehsil, district and division level to elect the union
council, tehsil council, district council and divisional council.
2- In the first elections of 1959-60, 80,000 BD's were elected which, were later increased to 120,000. These
BD's were responsible for local development including health, education, local taxes, water and sanitation and
roads.
3- They also formed an Electoral College to elect the members of the assemblies and thence to the President.
4- Two PDAC's (Provincial Development Advisory Councils) were created to coordinate between BD's E & W
Pakistan.
5- Ayyub shifted the Capital from Karachi to Islamabad.
Constitution of 1962:
∙ Introduced Presidential form of government.
∙ President, elected by the Electoral College for five years, had all executive powers. ∙
President could pass any laws and reject / annul any laws made by the National Assembly. ∙
President could dissolve the assemblies under his emergency powers.
∙ The National Assembly, also elected by the Electoral College, had equal seats of E & W Pakistan under the
One Unit Schemes.
∙ There were two provincial assemblies one each for E & W Pakistan.
Result: These reforms ensured political stability for many years but the indirect election and powers of the
President were criticized specially by E Pakistan.
∙ Social Reforms:
1- New curriculum for schools and new textbooks were published.

2- Government began an extensive literacy program, building new schools and colleges.
3-Ayub khan appointed General Azam Khan the rehabilitation minister to settle 75,000 refugees in newly built
dwellings near Karachi.
4- Laws were passed that factory owners had to provide accommodations for their workers at a reasonable
rent.
5- Family Planning Programs were also launched (funded by America).
6- Medical facilities were also improved.
7- Medical and Nursing schools were also set up to increase the number of doctors and nurses.
Result: These had some degree of success.
Why Islamabad was chosen as the new capital of Pakistan?

∙ Climatic factor:
Karachi has a warm and humid climate whereas Islamabad was located at the Margalla hills near Murree with
a pleasant climate suitable for working. It was an abandoned place where it was easier to build a planned city
with a desired layout.
∙ Less distance from GHQ:
Ayyub wanted to be closer to the army's command headquarters (GHQ) in Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab
which he considered vital in times of martial law. Also, he got closer to Punjab and the NWFP (KPK) that
provided bulk of troops for the armed forces of Pakistan.
∙ Karachi not safe:
Karachi's location on the Indus Delta Coast made it vulnerable to attacks by the Indian navy. In such a case,
there was a fear of huge cost of reconstruction if it was destroyed by the Indians in case of a war. Islamabad,
being a land locked city, was at a reasonable distance from the Pak-lndia border and was a much better option.
Why Ayyub khan fall from power?

∙ Economic disparity:
His agricultural reforms had created huge disparity between the rich and the poor farmers. As a result of
his industrial reforms, only 22 families of West Pakistan became owners of 66% of Pakistan's industries and
80% of banking and insurance companies. East Pakistan also felt frustrated as most of the beneficiaries of
Ayyub’s reforms were from West Pakistan.
∙ Rigging in 1965 elections:
His political reforms also became target of criticism as he was accused of intimidation and vote-rigging in
the second presidential elections that were held in January 1965. In these, Fatimah Jinnah managed to get
about 36% votes against Ayyub Khan. Concentration of powers with the president was considered
undemocratic as the National Assembly could not pass any law without his consent.
∙ Tashkent Accord:
Ayyub had been assuring his people of Pakistan's victory in the war but the Tashkent Accord of 1966
contained no reference to this or the Kashmir issue. Bhutto resigned in protest and founded the
PPP/Pakistan People’s Party in 1967. Being a very charismatic leader, he mobilized masses and launched an
anti-Ayyub campaign.
CHAPTER: 13
Why did East Pakistan seek and then form the
independent state of Bangladesh?
Background:
∙ Ayyub Khan hand over power to General Muhammad Yahya Khan, on March 25, 1969. ∙ General
Yahya Khan decided to transfer power to the elected representatives of the people and announced
that the general elections would be held on October 5, 1970.
∙ The one-unit plan and the ‘1962ʹ Constitution were annulled and Pakistan’s four provinces
reestablished and from Jan1970 political activity resumed.
∙ The various parties began campaigning to elect a national assembly of 300 members. ∙
The assembly would have 120 days to draw up a new constitution.
∙ The elections were finally held on 7 Dec. 1970 and for the first time ever were held on the principle of
one man one vote.
∙ The results were such a shock that they created constitutional crises in Pakistan.
Result of 1970 Elections:

West East All Pakistan total
Awami League - 160 160
PPP 81 - 81
Muslim League (PML) 9 - 9
Other parties 33 1 34
Independence 15 1 16
Total 138 162 300
Why East wanted to become independent from West

Pakistan?
▪ Economic disparity:
Economic disparity between East and West Pakistan grew with time. Unfortunately, this gap was widened
mainly due to the economic policies of Ayyub Khan in the 1960s. West Pakistan became the major beneficiary
of his industrial and agricultural reforms. The 22 richest families of West Pakistan owned 66% of the industries
and 80% of banking and insurance companies of Pakistan. East Pakistan was the largest producer of jute in the
world (producing 75% of the total world jute) but its economic growth was slower than that of West Pakistan.
∙ Political factors:
East wanted a share in the government according to the size of the population that was 10% greater than West
Pakistan. This was denied to them under the One Unit Scheme and rule of parity as enforced in the 1956 and
1962 Constitutions. Most of the political decision making was done in West Pakistan. East Pakistan was
under-represented in the armed forces arid the Civil Services as the headquarters of the armed forces were
located in West Pakistan. The Awami League of Sheikh Mujeeb in East Pakistan won an overall majority in the
1970 elections. Mujeeb was denied power and arrested that led to a civil war in East Pakistan.
∙ Cultural factors:
Jinnah declared Urdu as the only national language on the basis of "One Nation One Language". This was
resented by East Pakistan as Bengali was a fully developed and the only language spoken throughout East
Pakistan. The Bengalis took this as a step of West Pakistan's attempts to dominate them. After protests and
violence, Bengali was also declared as the national language with Urdu.
∙ Geographical factors:
East and West Pakistan were separated by a 1600 km long Indian territory and this caused difficulties in communication
between the two wings. East Pakistan was regularly ravaged by floods and cyclones that further weakened its economy.
Sheikh Mujeeb’s Six Points
(i) A directly elected government.
(ii) The federal government to control defense and foreign policy. all other decisions to be made at
provincial level.
(iii) Separate currencies and financial policies foe East Pakistan, to stop all the money flowing from
East Pakistan to West Pakistan.
(iv)The provinces to tax their people and send a share to the federal government. The federal government
not to tax people.
(v) Each province to set up its own trade agreements with other countries and to control the money
spent through this trade.
(vi)Each province to have its own troops.
Operation search light:

It was a military operation launched by General Yahya in March 1971. Its aim was to crush Bengali nationalism
as Yahya thought the Awami League's campaign was a threat to Pakistan's unity. Under the operation, Bengali
intelligentsia, academics and Hindus were targeted. Thousands of Bengalis were killed and press censorship
was imposed in East Pakistan. In retaliation, on 26th March 1971, the Bengalis announced in a secret radio
broadcast the formation of the 'Sovereign People's Republic of Bangladesh'. Yahya sent more troops but the
situation continued to worsen and escalated to the third Pak-lndia war in December 1971.
Why was India successful in 1971 war?

∙ More powerful Indian forces:
India was militarily superior. The 1965 war was fought on the two gross miscalculations of Ayyub Khan who
thought India was not prepared for a full-scale war. He also expected a massive Kashmiri uprising in favor of
Pakistan army. However, against all his expectations, India attacked with full force and Lahore was caught
unprepared on 6th September 1965, though Pakistan defended it well.
∙ No western aid to Pakistan:
Pakistan could not receive the Western aid in the two wars. The US military aid was stopped for both Pakistan
and India. It affected Pakistan more as India continued to receive the Soviet aid. Americans and Chinese
wanted Pakistan to resolve the matter on its own. Pakistan also expected some aid by the SEATO but that too
was not provided.
∙ East Pakistan’s support to India:
India supported East Pakistan by training and equipping the Bengali militant separatist body, the Mukti Bahini
against Pakistan. People of East Pakistan, in general, wanted freedom from West Pakistan. Therefore, they did
not support West Pakistan's army.
Why did the victory of Awami League cause a

constitutional crisis?
∙ Entire cabinet from East:
AL won 160 out of a total of 162 seats of East Pakistan and 300 seats of the National Assembly against the PPP
of West Pakistan that managed to win only 81 seats. Such a huge victory of the Awami League allowed it to
form the government on its own. In other words, the future Prime Minister and his entire Cabinet could come
from East Pakistan without involving the PPP of West Pakistan.
∙ Bhutto’s resistance:
Bhutto did not want to sit in opposition, he kept all MNAs from attending national assembly session which has
to be held in Dhakka. He threatened MNAs to break the legs of those who attend session. This promotes
hatred and anger among the Bengalis MNAs as they felt betrayed. The session of Dhakka was postponed.
∙ Mujeeb’s controversial six points:

AL had won the election on the basis of Mujeeb's six points that asked for a complete internal autonomy of
East Pakistan. He wanted provincial governments controlling foreign trade and taxation policy. This would
greatly reduce the funds available to the central government in West Pakistan in addition to limiting its powers
in general.
CHAPTER: 14
How successful was Pakistan in the twenty
years following the “Decade of Progress”?
ZULFIQAR ALI BHUTTO (1971-1977)
Background:
∙ The 1970 election however had given the PPP an overwhelming majority in the NA. ∙ 20
December 1971, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became President and chief martial law administrator.
Immediate Steps taken by Bhutto:

▪ Simla Agreement:
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visited India and signed a peace treaty with the Indian PM Mrs. Indira Gandhi on 2nd July
1972, at Simla. India agreed to return 90,000 POWs (Prisoners of War) of the 1971 war. In return, Pakistan
promised to discuss the Kashmir issue with India directly and not raising it on any international forum such as
the United Nations, though Z.A. Bhutto did not give up the claim for Kashmir. The agreement improved Z.A.
Bhutto's popularity in Pakistan.
∙ Constitution of 1973:
On 14 august 1973 the new constitution became law. The most significant features of the new
constitution were:
(i) There would be two houses, the senate and the Assembly. The assembly would be elected for a period of
5 years and the members of the senate would be nominated in equal numbers from each of the 4
provinces.
(ii) The leader of the party with a majority in the Assembly would become PM and select a
cabinet. (iii) The president became largely a figurehead, whose orders had to be signed by the
PM. (iv)Pakistan was an Islamic Republic and both the PM and president had to be Muslims.
(v) Pakistan was a federal state. Each province had its own assembly, elected by universal adult suffrage
with the majority party forming the provincial government. The national Assembly could only change the
political leadership in the provinces by amending the constitution which required at least a 75 % majority
in a vote.
(vi)All fundamental basic human rights were guaranteed.
Reforms of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.

∙ Industrial Reforms:
Bhutto was inspired by communism and socialism with an aim of ensuring control of the government on
sources of production and to improve the standard of living of industrial workers. Most of the large-scale
industries were nationalized, only cotton textile sector was spared. To finance these industrial units, five
commercial banks were also nationalized. Industrial growth slowed down as the nationalized units were given
to civil servants who were not trained for the job. However, many industries survived at the time of world wide
economic crises when many industrialists were about to close down their units.
Q- Why industrial reforms of ZAB failed?
Reason 01:
Many of the nationalized industries were 'mismanaged. Capable factory owners were often replaced by civil servants
with little understanding of commerce and civil services were already notorious for their inefficiency. Moreover,
Pakistan's education system was not yet producing sufficiently educated workers to take managerial positions in the
industries under the Federal Ministry of Production.
Reason 02:
The Federal Ministry had a huge job to do for coordinating the nationalization process across the country. It was a time
taking process and needed a hurdle free working environment but unfortunately, it was often got bogged down in
bureaucratic muddle.
Reason 03:
The changes took place at a time when the world was going through an economic recession that had lowered the
demand of various products of industries. The newly nationalized industries, therefore, could riot improve their output in
such conditions.
∙ Agriculture Reforms:
Bhutto believed that improved technology and better farming methods had raised production. So, landowners
could maintain their income on smaller, more productive, areas of land. He therefore cut the ceiling to 250
acres from 500 acres irrigated and 500 from 1000 acres un-irrigated. The surplus land could be sold to the
smaller peasant/farmers to make better profits. Bhutto also wanted to give tenants security of tenure of the
land they farmed. The tenants can purchase their farmed land from landlord but cannot sell to a third party
who might then evict the tenants. Such a measure encouraged tenants to make improvements on their lands
as they knew they knew they would not be evicted.
∙ Educational Reforms:
In order to improve literacy and ensure a uniform standard of education, most of the private sector schools
were nationalized. Primary education was made free and compulsory. New Schools were opened and the old
ones were upgraded.
Q- Why educational reforms of ZAB failed?
Reason 01:
The nationalized schools could not perform better. Due to nationalization of schools, there was a drop in the standard of
education as they were over-burdened and could not cater to the increased number of students without an increase in
the trained staff. The government had allocated only 13% of the education budget to primary schools. With such a small
amount of funds the desired results could not be achieved.
Reason 02:
Improving literacy rate and educational standard is a time taking process. It is not possible to change the curriculum,
trained teachers and develop the educational infrastructure in a short time. As a result, there was only 1% increase in
literacy even after 5 years.
Reason 03:
Most of the rural families were not interested in the formal education or literacy. They usually preferred to make their
children work on the farm and thus share the economic burden of the family. They could not afford the loss of earnings
even if they were offered free education. Perhaps providing them agricultural education along with formal education
might have been a better option.
∙ Health Reforms:
To provide health care to all, and to improve life expectancy and infant mortality rate (IMR) several BHU's
(Basic Health Units) and RHU's (Rural Health Centers) were set up. New medical colleges and hospitals were
set up. Under the new drug policy, brand names of drugs were abolished, so that medicines were available at
cheaper prices. This, however, resulted in declining earning of chemists and many pharmaceutical companies
closed their business in Pakistan.
Why Bhutto adapted the policy of nationalization?

∙ To raise living standard:
He wanted to raise the living standard of the industrial workers who, together with other ordinary people,
constituted bulk of his vote bank. Profits from the nationalized companies were to be spent on improving
public services such as health and education
∙ To promote economic growth:

He wanted to promote economic growth and bring inflation down from a high level of 25%. By nationalizing
industrial units, the government could control industrial output and channel the profits and investment into
industrialization. This way the popularity of his party, the PPP, was also expected to increase with the urban
populace that was an important sector of the party's support.
∙ To remove Ayyub’s economic disparity:

He also wanted to even out the inequalities resulting from Ayyub’s industrial reforms the 1960s. These
reforms had benefitted only some people, the famous 22 families that had become owner of about 80% of
Pakistan's large-scale industry.
Federal Security Force (FSF)

Z.A. Bhutto wanted to limit the powers of the army as it had become unpopular after its defeat in the 1971
war. He set up a paramilitary force in October 1972 under his direct command. Ostensibly, its task was to assist
the civil administration and the police in the maintenance law and order without requiring the intervention of
the military. However, Bhutto's critics called it a private army whose real duty was to curtail any opposition
against him. The FSF was misused to crush or punish Bhutto’s rivals even though they had been loyal to him
previously. It was dissolved by General Zia in 1977.
Why Bhutto arrested and executed?

∙ Failure of reforms:
As his industrial and educational reforms began to lose popularity, Bhutto was sharply criticized.
Nationalization of industries led to a decline in economic growth. Similarly, nationalization of private
educational institutes resulted in overcrowded classrooms and poor pace of improvement in literacy rate.
∙ PNA resistance:
The election results of 1977 were rejected by the combined opposition, the PNA (Pakistan National Alliance)
on the; basis of large-scale rigging in elections, though rigging had been reported only in some constituencies.
Bhutto miscalculated the opposition and was forced to negotiate with the PNA but it was too late.
∙ Zia’s took over:

The Army took it Bhutto's weakness, and the military chief General Zia-ul-Haq toppled his government on 5th
July, 1977 and thus 3rd Martial Law was imposed on Pakistan. Bhutto and opposition leaders were arrested.
∙ Murder of Nawab Mohammad Khan:
An old murder case against Bhutto was reopened: murder of Nawab Muhammad Khan, father of Ahmad Raza
Kasuri who was a PPP leader but had developed differences with Bhutto. The Lahore High Court and then the
Supreme Court of Pakistan awarded death sentence to Bhutto.
General Zia-ul-Haq (1977-1988)
Background:
∙ When political tension reached its climax due to the deadlock between Bhutto and the leadership of
Pakistan National Alliance on the issue of general elections, Zia-ul-Haq took advantage of the situation. ∙
On July 5, 1977, he carried out a bloodless coup overthrowing Bhutto's government and enforced Martial
Law in the country.
Reforms of Zia-ul-Haq.
∙ Economic Reforms:
In order to win the confidence of the investors, he renounced Bhutto's policy of nationalization. Industrial
units were returned to their owners. The industrial growth began to improve. Moreover, millions of overseas
Pakistanis began to send heavy remittances that were spent on several development schemes. From the
Middle East alone $ 4billion were sent every year by the Pakistani workers.
∙ Afghan war benefits:
Pakistan became the greatest beneficiary of the 'Afghan Miracle’. Pakistan became the frontline state to
counter the Soviets in Afghanistan. It received heavy US aid for many years. Pakistan was given soft term loans
and aid of $ 1.6 billion, £ 1.5 billion and then $ 4.2 billion military and economic aid between 1980 and 1986.
Pakistan's GNP (Gross National Product) was 6.2% in three years.
Drawbacks on Economic reforms / Afghan war

Inflation increased, an increased power consumption and loss of skilled workers to other countries. Since no new power
plants were set up, Pakistanis had to experience load shedding. Easy availability of drugs and weapons led to drug
addiction and violence in the country.
∙ Islamization:
He also wanted to endorse the popular belief that Pakistan was created in the name of Islam. Accordingly,
he enforced a series of Hudood Ordinances in 1977. Under these, Islamic punishment were prescribed for
major offences such as Zina/adultery (100 stripes), theft (cutting off the right hand), drinking (80 stripes)
and Qazaf/false accusation of adultery (80 stripes). Under the Blasphemy Law a punishment of
imprisonment or fine or death sentence was prescribed for those found guilty of showing disrespect to the
Holy Prophet (PBUH). Under the Zakat and Usher Ordinance of June 1980, a wealth tax of 2.5% was levied
on the bank savings.
Q- Why Zia introduced Islamization between 1979 to 1988?
Reason 01:
He wanted to justify his rule. Since he had toppled the elected government of Z.A. Bhutto, he had to ensure a strong and
Stable government managed by people committed to Islamic teachings. He enforced a strict Islamic legal code named
the Hudood and Qazaf Ordinance, so that the people of Pakistan would not object to his ignoring of the political process.
Reason 02:
He planned to prove that Pakistan had been created in the name of Islam, and therefore, people should live according to
the Islamic teachings. So, he introduced Islamic education like compulsory teaching of Islamiyat in schools and colleges.
In order to make sure that people showed due respect to the Holy Prophet, he enforced the Blasphemy Law under which
strict punishments were given to those showing disrespect to the Holy Quran and the Holy Prophet.
Reason 03:
He wanted to make Pakistan a truly Islamic welfare state where needs of the poor and the unsupported were satisfied by
the government according to the financial teachings of Islam. In order to achieve this, he promulgated the Zakat and
'Ushr Ordinance under which Zakat was deducted from the public savings deposited in the banks, in addition to being
collected by the Zakat Committees.

∙ Social Reforms:
Programs on Radio and TV were started to promote Arabic language, and teaching of Islamiyat and Pak
Studies was made compulsory. Extra marks were given to the memorizers of the Quran in the Civil Services.
Interest-based banking was replaced with the profit - loss sharing banking.
∙ Council of Islamic ideology:
The Council of Islamic Ideology was created to advise the government to make laws according to Islam. Also,
the Federal Shari'at Court was created to examine the existing laws and Islamic theme. The Laws were strongly
resisted by the women activist groups and minorities as both felt insecure under these Laws.
∙ Constitutional Reforms:
1. Zia had to legitimize his stay in power and overcome the opposition, led mainly by the PPP.
2. He had suspended the 1973 constitution, and through the PCO (Provisional Constitutional Ordinance) he
restrained all the Courts from challenging any of the decisions of the military rule.
3. He appointed several military officers in civil services. In 1984 he held a referendum asking people if they
wanted Islamisation in Pakistan or not. With a poor participation of 10% he got elected as the President for
five years.
4. In 1985, elections were held on non-party basis, and a very obedient parliament was elected. PML led
leaders were appointed as Chief Minister (Nawaz Sharif) and Prime Minister (Muhammad Khan Junejo).
5. Zia restored the Constitution with the 8th amendment (article 58-2(b) that empowered him to dismiss the
elected government and dissolve the assemblies.
Q- What difficulties did Zia find in ruling Pakistan during the late 1980s?
Reason 01:
There was a serious breakdown of law and order during the late 1980s. Sindh, with Karachi as the largest city of
Pakistan, became a victim of violence, sectarian riots, kidnap for ransom and drug trafficking. Arrival of the Afghan
refugees facilitated the availability of weapons and drugs like heroin. The MQM emerged as a popular party in urban
areas of Sindh. It represented the Urdu speaking migrants from India and it went into a clash with the Sindhi speaking
population. There were several incidents of communal violence in Karachi and Hyderabad.
Reason 02:
Zia's strict Islamic reforms resulted in sectarian differences leading to armed clashes between the Sunni and the Shi'a
community of Pakistan. Extremist religious organizations got weapons to fight against the rival groups. Jhang, a city in
Punjab, began to breed many extremist organizations. The NWFP (now KPK) had also developed differences with the
central government of Zia over his plans of building the Kalabagh Dam.
Reason 03:
In April 1988, the explosion at the Ojhri damp in Rawalpindi caused deaths of several innocent people, and the PM Mr.
Junejo announced to conduct a transparent inquiry of the tragedy. This created a serious difficulty for Zia as he feared
inclusion of top military officers in the inquiry. He could not afford the loss of military support, and therefore, dismissed
Junijo's government in May 1988. This worsened the political crisis for Zia.

Afghan Miracle:
The USSR/Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979. This made Pakistan a vital ally of the US, and
Zia a leader of a Muslim state on the frontline against the Soviet communist forces. The US and the Western
Europe extended huge financial and military aid to Pakistan. Military aid was given to help the Afghan
Mujahideen whereas the purpose of the economic aid was to enable Pakistan to accommodate millions of
Afghan refugees. Zia was able to use some of these funds for the economic growth of Pakistan by starting
several development projects. This way the Soviet attack on Afghanistan became a miracle for Zia's military
rule.
Karakoram Highway:
Pakistan and China started a joint project in 1966 to construct an 800-mile highway connecting Pakistan with
China. The project was completed in 1978 by following the old Silk Road route in China. It was financed by
China and built mainly by its engineers. It passes through the dangerous highlands of Gilgit Baltistan and
enters China through the Khunjerab Pass/several thousand workers were killed during the construction. It is
known as the Friendship Highway in China.
Ojhri camp incident:

On 10th April 1988, an army weapons dump at Ojhri Camp, Rawalpindi blew up mysteriously. It caused
hundreds of deaths of the civilians with thousands more injured as the dump was located in a densely
populated area between Rawalpindi and Islamabad. PM Junejo announced an immediate transparent inquiry
into the explosion and promised the nation that he would bring the responsible people before the justice even
if it meant the dismissal of senior military officers. Zia and army could not afford such an inquiry. Therefore, on
29th May 1988, using his powers under the 8th constitutional amendment, Zia dismissed Junejo's government
and dissolved the National Assembly.
CHAPTER: 15
How effective were Pakistan’s governments in
the final decade of the 20th century?
Benazir Bhutto’s First Term (1988-1990)
Steps taken:
∙ Ended bans:
She ended a ban on the making of trade unions and students' unions in order win the confidence of industrial
workers and students
▪ Services for women:

She took some steps exclusively for the welfare of women. First Women's Bank was opened in 1989. She
recruited women in police and civil services under a special scheme and appointed for the first time women
judges of the High Courts.
∙ Foreign policy:
Pakistan rejoined the Commonwealth in October 1989 as Pakistan had been recognized as a country with a
democratically elected government. She paid a successful visit to the USA in June 1989 and the Bush
administration promised an aid of over $400 million. Indian PM, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi visited Pakistan. It was a big
success because for the first time an Indian Prime Minister had visited Pakistan. Both countries signed two
agreements in 1989 to promote mutual peace and cooperation.
Challenges:
∙ Couldn’t legislate:
She tried to make Pakistan a democratic Islamic republic while abandoning the strict Islamic policies of Zia but
this was hard to achieve. She couldn't make any legislation in this regard because the opposition dominated
the Senate and the largest province Punjab was under her rival Mr. Nawaz Sharif.
∙ No confidence motion:
Nawaz Sharif was able to table a no confidence motion against Benazir by the end of 1989 in the National
Assembly. Though the motion was defeated by just twelve votes, it was a serious blow to her government.
∙ Hudood ordinance of Zia:
No new laws were made to improve the status of women despite all her claims mainly because the Hudood
Ordinance could not be repealed.

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Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Why Shah Waliullah wish to revive Islam in Subcontinent?

Work and contribution

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

▪ Shia Sunni unity:

▪ Separate national identity:

▪ Saved Muslims from Jats and Marathas:

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARELVI

∙ He was faithful following of Shah Abdul Aziz.

∙ He learnt about European weaponry including use of Artillery.

Aims and Objective

Work and contribution

∙ He returned to Bengal in 1806.

Aims and Objective

∙ Thus he started the Faraizi Movement among the Muslims.

▪ Declared India as Dar-ul-Harb:

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Why Mughal Empire declined?

East India Company (EIC)

Why EIC attracted toward subcontinent?

▪ Access to warm water:

British expansion from (1750 to 1852)

▪ Battle of Buxar 1764:

▪ Anglo Mysore War 1799:

▪ Annexation of Sindh 1843:

▪ Annexation of Punjab and NWFP 1849:

▪ Doctrine of lapse 1852:

▪ Ban on pardah system:

Why war of independence 1857 started?

Events of the war of independence

▪ Jhansi & Gwalior:

Pakistan Studies By Sir Khizar Hayat

Why war of independence 1857 failed?

Did war of independence achieve something for Indians?

▪ Mughal empire abolished:

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Why Sir Syed wanted to improve the relations between Muslims

▪ To improve Muslims socio-economic status:

Why Sir Syed presented Two-Nation theory?

▪ Civil services examination:

Why Sir Syed advised Muslims to acquire modern education?

▪ To compete with Hindus:

▪ To develop political awareness:

Work and contribution of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Importance of national language

Why Urdu was chosen as a national language of Pakistan?

▪ Urdu as uniting force:

Promotion of national and regional Languages

How government of Pakistan promoted it:

How government of Pakistan promoted it:

Why regional languages promoted by Pakistani government?

▪ Pushto’s association with Pakistan movement:

▪ Balochi under developed language:

▪ INC demanding for self-rule:

Why Indian national congress opposed partitioned?

▪ Loss of economic monopoly:

Why partition of Bengal reversed in 1911?

▪ King George coronation ceremony:

Simla deputation 1906:

Why partition of Bengal reversed in 1911?

▪ Political awareness among Muslims:

▪ Sense of Nationalism among Muslims: