See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/311144278

The role of food processing and appropriate storage technologies in ensuring

food security and food availability in Africa

Article in Nutrition & Food Science · January 2017

DOI: 10.1108/NFS-03-2016-0037

CITATIONS READS

53 14,213

1 author:

Samuel A. O. Adeyeye
Hindustan University
128 PUBLICATIONS 1,536 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

oyedeleh@gmail.com View project

United Nations University Project View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Samuel A. O. Adeyeye on 26 December 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0034-6659.htm

The role of food processing and Food security

and food
appropriate storage technologies availability

in ensuring food security and

food availability in Africa 1
AQ: au Samuel Ayofemi Adeyeye Received 26 March 2016
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Revised 25 September 2016
21 October 2016
Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria 27 October 2016
Accepted 28 October 2016

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to review scientific contributions that are essential to reduce the challenges to
food security in Africa through food processing and appropriate storage technologies.
Design/methodology/approach – Several literature studies on the role of food processing and
appropriate storage technologies in ensuring food security and food availability in Africa were critically
reviewed.
Findings – The study revealed that the world faces multiple challenges to food security including under
nutrition and overconsumption, rising food prices, population growth, rapid diet transitions, threats to
agricultural production, inefficient production practices and supply chains and declining investment in food
system research. Many people lack adequate amounts of foods that are rich in the nutrients needed for a
healthy and productive life. According to FAO, 1996, chronic undernutrition affects 43 per cent of the Africa’s
population or some 215 million people in sub-Saharan Africa. Food security is highly instrumental to the
economic growth and sustainability of any country. The use of simple but effective on- and off-farm storage
facilities and agro-processing technology should be promoted to add value to products and increase their
shelf-life. The Strategic Grain Reserve Scheme should be modernized, strengthened and upgraded to a
National Food Reserve Program, which will enable it to handle all staples and essential food products. This
will help in attainment of national food security goal. It is also crucial to promote and develop agro-processing
in the various African countries for the evolution of virile agro-allied industries and rural micro-enterprises.
Research limitations/implications – The paper reviewed the role of food processing and appropriate
food storage technologies in ensuring food security and availability in Africa. There are insufficient data and
information on adoption of new food processing and appropriate storage technologies in Africa. Although,
there have been some instances where the introduction of modern techniques has resulted in products rejection
by consumers.
Practical implications – The paper helps in reviewing food situation in Africa and how to make food
available for the people and Africa food secured.
Social implications – This paper revealed strategies that could be used to improve food security and
ensuring food availability in Africa.
Originality/value – This review paper is of value to policymakers, government agencies responsible for
food quality control and assurance and consumers to make food available and affordable for the people.
Keywords Africa, Food, Processing, Food security, Appropriate storage
Paper type General review

Introduction
Despite the general worldwide reduction in food insecurity, Africa’s food security and Nutrition & Food Science
Vol. 47 No. 1, 2017
nutrition situation is worsening. Africa has been experiencing several episodes of acute food p. 000
insecurity, causing an immense loss of life and livelihoods over the past decade. African © Emerald Publishing Limited
0034-6659
countries have collectively made the least progress toward achieving the Millennium DOI 10.1108/NFS-03-2016-0037
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

NFS Development Goal of reducing hunger by half by 2015, and currently close to one-third of its
47,1 population lives in chronic hunger (FAO, 2010).
Many people lack adequate amounts of foods that are rich in the nutrients needed for a
healthy and productive life. Nearly 240 million people in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), or one
person in every four, lack adequate food for a healthy and active life, and record food prices
and drought are pushing more people into poverty and hunger (FAO, 2010).
2 Today, almost 33 per cent of the population of SSA, or close to 200 million people, are
undernourished, of which close to 60 per cent are in countries affected by conflicts. Chronic
undernourishment is widespread throughout the region, but most of the increase in the
number of undernourished over the past 10 years took place in conflict countries – often
endowed with abundant mineral resources – while the situation in other countries has, in
general, improved, although unevenly and at a very slow rate. The region, as a whole,
remains susceptible to frequent food crises and famines which are easily triggered by even
the lightest of droughts, or floods, pests, economic downturns or conflicts.
In the face of this bleak situation, major efforts are required by national governments and
the international community to bring about reductions in malnutrition and micronutrient
deficiencies (FAO, 2001).
Increased food production and access are crucial to achieving major nutritional
improvement. More foods should be produced that are rich in all the essential micronutrients,
available in sufficient quantities and accessible to people all year round. This requires the
collaboration of people working in agriculture, fishery, forestry, small animal husbandry,
industry, marketing, communications, women’s participation, home economics and
nutrition. The wide application of proven technologies and approaches in these fields, as well
as the development of new concepts, will contribute to solving nutritional problems. The
results of research must be transmitted to farmers, and efforts must be made to build on
farmers’ indigenous knowledge. Consumers, too, need to be involved and educated on how to
prevent nutritional deficiencies (FAO, 2001).
Access to stable and sustainable food supplies is a precondition for the establishment of
food security at the household level. Greater and more sustained yields from the farming
system will increase the potential access of the household to an adequate diet. Similarly,
farming practices that improve the regular flow of a variety of different foods into the
household throughout the seasons enhance food security for its members (FAO, 2001;
Agyare-Kwabi, 2003).
National food production is crucial to national survival and buoyancy in Africa. It is the
vital tripod stand of national-food security, agro-processing and agro-exports; and
hence-national-self-reliance, employment and foreign exchange generation. In all aspects AQ: 1
and considerations, the essential target of national food security is the assurance of readily
available food supplies in adequate quantities and quality within the purchasing power of
even the poorest consumers all the year round – a target that hinges heavily on enhanced
production, processing, storage and distribution (FAO, 2001; Agyare-Kwabi, 2003).
Food security involves the availability of safe, nutritious and acceptable food for people.
Along with other professions, the field of food science and technology is directly involved in
ensuring food security. One of the many ways by which food insecurity could be ameliorated
is in the area of food processing and value-chain addition, adequate storage and effective
distribution system, for instance, in composite flour utilization in the making of baked foods,
thereby reducing the cost of such products (Olaoye et al., 2006; Olaoye and Onilude, 2008;
Adeyeye and Akingbala, 2015). The practice makes use of substitution of flours, obtainable
from locally available vegetable crops, in wheat flour that is normally imported in many
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

developing countries; this permits reduction in the quantity of wheat flour being used during Food security
production of food items. and food
By this process, the use of local vegetable crops is encouraged and could lead to increased availability
profit margins. Such concerted efforts have been made by some researchers in partial
substitution of vegetable flours, from soybeans, plantain, tigernut, etc., in wheat for
successful production of breads and biscuits (Olaoye and Ade-Omowaye, 2011; Udofia et al.,
2013; Adeyeye and Akingbala, 2015). 3
It is important to emphasize that more food production does not necessarily mean more
food for those who need it. Most experts would agree that the largest part of the production
increase has to come from yield increases. Current levels of agricultural productivity and
production indicate little about potential levels, because they are simply a response to
present levels of demand and price/market conditions. It is, however, important to note that
food production is not the same as food availability, and that aggregate availability and the
ability to acquire food are very different things. The yield of roots and tubers in Africa is the
lowest in comparison to the other regions of the world (McGranahan et al., 1999; Lund, 1989;
FAO, 2001). While food production undoubtedly influences food entitlements (ability to
acquire food), the connections are complex and other matters are also involved.
Clearly, food insecurity is basically a problem of poverty, affecting those social groups
with the weakest or most fragile food entitlements, both in terms of access to social networks
and safety nets or productive assets (capital, land and agricultural inputs) (Lund, 1989; FAO,
2001; Agyare-Kwabi, 2003; FAO, 2010).
Therefore, for integrated food production and food processing, it is necessary to
strengthen the interdependence and complementarity of agriculture and agro-processing
industries to improve food availability and food security in Africa.
This study was conducted to identify the challenges of food availability and food
insecurity in Africa, and to formulate strategies for ensuring food security and identifying
the role of food processing and appropriate storage technologies in this direction.

The food security and African countries

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an
active productive and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996). Achieving food security
requires that:
• Sufficient quantities of appropriate foods are consistently available.
• Individuals have adequate incomes or other resources to purchase or barter for food.
• Food is properly processed and stored.
• Individuals have sound knowledge of nutrition and child care that they put to good
AQ: 2 use, and have access to adequate health and sanitation services2.

Food security is at the top of the list of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) with the goal
of eradicating poverty and hunger. More than 60 countries are making great progress toward
achieving the MDG hunger target 1.C, which is to halve, between 1990 and 2015, the
proportion of people who suffer from hunger. Achieving food security in SSA, however,
remains a great challenge. Despite some advances, most of the region is not on track to reach
the MDG hunger target, and rapid population growth makes tackling hunger even more
challenging (FAO, 2010; Olaoye et al., 2014).
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

NFS Food production, food supply and nutritional status trends in SSA
47,1 Agriculture is the backbone of the economies of most SSA n countries. In 1994, 69 per cent of
the economically active population in SSA were engaged in agriculture, as compared with 84
per cent in 1961 (FAO, 2001, 2010).
Table III shows average annual production (in tonnes) and rates of growth of major food crops
in SSA during four periods. The analysis is based on five-year averages up to 1985 and a
4 four-year average for 1991 to 1994, to reflect the long-term changes over the time span from 1961
to 1994. The rate of growth in production of cereals increased from an average of 1.3 per cent
during the period from 1961 to 1965 to 3.6 per cent during the period from 1971 to 1975. It
remained stable at a rate of 2.5 per cent from the period from 1981 to 1985 to the period from 1991
to 1994. Among the grains, the fastest growth in output was achieved in rice, but its effect on the
growth of total cereal output was limited because of the relatively small share of rice in cereal
production. It is notable that the growth rate of pulse production has declined substantially since
the 1960s and that the rate of growth of production of oil crops, after suffering a rapid decline
during the 1980s, recovered significantly during the early 1990s (FAO, 2001, 2010).
For SSA as a whole, exports of cereals declined and imports expanded rapidly during the
1970s and 1980s (Table II). Imports nearly doubled between the 1960s and 1970s and trebled from
then to the 1990s, reflecting both structural food deficits resulting from rapid population growth
and food shortfalls caused by drought and civil disruption in various parts of Africa, especially
during the 1980s and early 1990s. In the mid-1980s, 20 per cent of the staple food requirements of
SSA were provided by imports. This proportion is predicted to rise by the end of the 1990s (FAO,
2001, 2010).
Since the 1980s, availability of basic food staples for consumption has expanded as follows:
cereals and cereal products by 30 per cent, roots and tubers by 40 per cent, pulses by 35 per cent
and oil crops by 33 per cent (Table III). Population growth is the main factor responsible for
increases in food supply and energy requirements. For the region as a whole, the estimated
annual rate of population growth for the past three decades was about 3 per cent as compared
with a rate of growth in food production of around 2 per cent and rate of growth in cereal
production of 2.5 per cent. A significantly greater growth in food production will be needed in the
future if dependence on commercial or concessionary imports is to be avoided (FAO, 2001, 2010)
(Tables I to III). T1-3

Major causes of food insecurity in Africa

The following important factors are among those responsible for food insecurity in many
African countries.

Mean 1961-1965 Mean 1971-1975 Mean 1981-1985 Mean 1991-1994

Crop Production Growth Production Growth Production Growth Production Growth
group (’000 tonnes) rate (%) (’000 tonnes) rate (%) (’000 tonnes) rate (%) (’000 tonnes) rate (%)

Wheat 900 3.2 1,300 1.2 1,500 ⫺3.4 2,200 ⫺0.4

Rice, paddy 3,600 3.8 5.2 4.5 6,600 2.9 10,800 3.3
Cereals, total 32,700 1.3 39,300 3.6 45,600 2.5 59,800 2.5
Roots and
Table I. tubers 49,700 3.3 66,000 3.2 77,800 2.9 113,500 2.5
Average annual food Pulses, total 3,200 3.7 4,100 2.0 4,400 ⫺1.8 5,900 0.3
production and its rate Oil crops,
of growth for sub- primary 3,900 2.0 4,200 1.8 3,900 ⫺0.4 5,000 3.2
Saharan Africa, 1961-
1975 to 1991-1994 Source: FAO (2001)
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

Food spoilage and infection Food security

Spoilage of food constitutes a large percentage of the factors affecting food security in many and food
African countries. Foods spoil because of many reasons, of which the most important are
lack of storage facilities. Where available, the required power to make them functional could
availability
be lacking (Olaoye and Ntuen, 2011). Infection of food with pathogenic microorganisms could
also threaten public health if such food has not been adequately processed. This is a
challenge that could be resolved by taking appropriate steps. The government could provide
necessary assistance in the form of credit facilities to small-scale food processors to enable 5
them to procure storage systems that would prevent food spoilage. An enabling environment
should also be provided, especially in terms of power availability to maintain such storage
systems. Food handlers should be encouraged through adequate extension work and
required training on the need to observe good manufacturing practices and personal hygiene.
This would help in preventing or reducing possible infection by unwanted microorganisms
in food.

Inadequate and inefficient processing and preservative techniques

Many forms of processing and preservative techniques were used in Africa. Many of these
techniques are obsolete and inadequate and could not help in promoting food security. There
is a need to upgrade the existing techniques and facilities to meet the current challenges and
needs of the people. This ensures adequate processing and preservation of agricultural
produce and availability of food throughout the year. (Olaoye et al., 2014).

Poverty
This is a major cause of food insecurity in many African countries. Incomes of many Africans are
not enough to cater to their daily dietary requirements. Unfortunately, even in Nigeria, the current
minimum wage of 18,000 naira is not enough to guarantee food security for the earners (Olaoye

Mean 1961-1965 Mean 1971-1975 Mean 1981-1985 Mean 1991-1994

Crop Net Net Net Net
a
group Imports Exports trade Imports Exports trade Imports Exports trade Imports Exports trade

Cereals,
total 2000 700 ⫺1,300 3,836 1,906 ⫺2,930 9,254 646 ⫺8,607 11,667 671 ⫺10,996
Pulses, Table II.
total 66 190 124 51 213 161 116 122 6 219 128 ⫺91 Average annual
Oilseeds 23 2,383 2,360 53 1,308 1,255 61 430 369 103 368 265 exports and imports of
basic food staples for
Note: a Net trade ⫽ exports minus imports SSA, 1961-1965 to
Source: FAO (2001) 1991-1993

Mean Mean Mean Mean

Crop group 1961-1965 1971-1975 1981-1985 1991-1992

Cereals and cereal products, including beer 27,920 34,393 47,046 60,937 Table III.
Starchy roots and products 38,935 50,147 60,693 85,335 Food available for
Pulses and products 2420 3,059 3,504 4,721 consumption for sub-
Oil crops and products 1,594 2,269 3,236 4,294 Saharan Africa,
1961-1965 to 1991-
Source: FAO (2001) 1992 (’000 tonnes)
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

NFS et al., 2014). In the UK, the average minimum pay is £5/h (⬃£40/day;
47,1 1 day ⫽ 8 h of work). This has been found to be sufficient in meeting the nutritional requirements
of the people in this country, even after payment for standard accommodation and other essential
domestic bills (Olaoye et al., 2014).

Lack of education/training of food handlers

6 Lack of education and/or proper training of many food handlers may also constitute a problem in
the management of food security in Africa (Olaoye et al., 2014). Farmers, food processors and
handlers are usually peasants in Africa, and this has serious implications for food security and
food availability. There is a need for training and retraining of food processors and food handlers
for adequate hygiene and cleanliness to prevent food contamination and enhance consumers’
health.

Factors responsible for high post-harvest food losses in African countries

High post-harvest food losses, arising from limited food preservation capacity, are a major factor
constraining food and nutrition security in African countries where seasonal food shortages and
nutritional deficiency diseases are still a major concern. It is estimated that about 50 per cent of
perishable farm produce including fruits, vegetables, roots and tubers and about 30 per cent of
food grains including maize, millet and rice and soon are lost after harvest in West Africa.
Ineffective or inappropriate food processing technologies, careless harvesting and inefficient
post-harvest handling practices, bad roads, moribund rail systems, bad market practices and
inadequate or complete lack of storage facilities, packing houses and market infrastructures are
some of the factors responsible for high postharvest food losses in African countries.
The capacity to preserve food is directly related to the level of technological development and
the slow progress in upgrading traditional food processing and preservation techniques in many
African countries; this contributes to food and nutrition insecurity. Traditional technologies of
food processing and preservation date back thousands of years, and unlike the electronic and
other modern high-technology industries, these long preceded any scientist understanding of
their inherent nature and consequences. Traditional foods and traditional food processing and
preservation techniques form part of the culture of the people. Traditional food processing and
preservation activities constitute a vital body of indigenous knowledge handed down from parent
to child over several generations which could be upgraded to improve food availability. (Olaoye
et al., 2006; Olaoye and Onilude, 2008; Olaoye and Ade-Omowaye, 2011).

Causes of food spoilage

Food spoilage is undesirable changes taking place in food which eventually leads to its
rejection (Defroster et al., 1971; Lund, 1989). Food spoilage can be caused by the following
factors:
• action of insects and pests;
• action of enzymes present in the food;
• purely chemical reaction in the food;
• action of microorganisms, e.g. bacteria, yeast and moulds; and
• physical changes on the food.

The roles of food processing/preservative techniques in food availability and

food security
The term food preservation refers to any one of a number of techniques used to prevent food
from spoiling (Defroster et al., 1971; Lund, 1989). In SSA, where approximately 70 per cent of
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

the population lives in rural areas, crop and animal production, fisheries and forestry Food security
activities are direct sources of food and provide income with which to buy food. Increased and food
and diversified production of food for family consumption or as a source of income is a basic
prerequisite for improved household food security. Better home and community food
availability
processing, preservation and storage and access to marketing facilities can also contribute to
household food security by alleviating seasonal shortages in food supply and stabilizing
market prices.
Agricultural practices and technology, as well as the establishment of small-scale 7
agro-processing industries, can significantly increase employment and income-generating
opportunities and thus positively affect household access to food. Food safety and quality,
secured through effective food quality control at all stages of production, processing and
handling, also influence nutritional well-being.
In Africa, most the preservative techniques used are traditional and rudimentary which
do not encourage large-scale production to meet the increase in need of the people in the
continent. It includes methods such as curing, pickling, drying, smoking and addition of
chemical additives such as salting. The preservative methods have several shortcomings
that need to be taken care of, if the challenges facing African countries are to be overcome.
Modern food preservation has become an increasingly important component of the food
industry, as fewer people eat foods produced on their own lands, and as consumers expect to
be able to purchase and consume foods that are “out of season”.

Pickling
It is the process of soaking food in a solution containing salt, acid or alcohol. It can be used
with most foods, including fruits, vegetables, meats, seafood, legumes and eggs. Most
methods require no special equipment. However, pickled foods can be unsafe if prepared
carelessly or stored at room temperature. Pickling is often combined with another method,
such as fermenting, canning or just refrigerating.

Curing
It is similar to pickling, and uses salt, acid and/or nitrites. It is used for meat and fish. Simple,
modern curing methods often reduce the amount of salt and nitrites, which may require
refrigeration or freezing of the final product. Shelf-stable products require the use of
adequate amounts of nitrites and a complex drying process using special equipment and
exacting technique. Some curing methods also use a secondary process such as fermenting,
smoking or sealing.

Smoking
Early humans probably discovered by accident that certain foods exposed to smoke seem to
last longer than those that are not (Davies, 1997; Abowei and Tawari, 2011). Meats, fish, fowl
and cheese were among such foods. It appears that compounds present in wood smoke have
anti-microbial actions that prevent the growth of organisms that cause spoilage.
Today, the process of smoking has become a sophisticated method of food
preservation with both hot and cold forms in use. Hot smoking is used primarily with
fresh or frozen foods, while cold smoking is used most often with salted products. The
most advantageous conditions for each kind of smoking – air velocity, relative humidity,
length of exposure and salt content, for example – are now generally understood and
applied during the smoking process. For example, electrostatic precipitators can be used
to attract smoke particles and improve the penetration of the particles into meat or fish
(Davies, 1997; Abowei and Tawari, 2011).
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

NFS So many alternative forms of preservation are now available that smoking no longer
47,1 holds the position of importance it once did with ancient people. More frequently, the process
is used to add interesting and distinctive flavours to foods (Davies, 1997; Abowei and
Tawari, 2011).

Drying
8 Because most disease-causing organisms require a moist environment in which to survive
and multiply, drying is a natural technique for preventing spoilage. Indeed, the act of simply
leaving foods out in the sun and wind to dry out is probably one of the earliest forms of food
preservation. Evidence for the drying of meats, fish, fruits and vegetables goes back to the
earliest recorded human history (Emokpae, 1979; Eyo, 1997).
Today, a host of dehydrating techniques are known and used. The specific technique
adopted depends on the properties of the food being preserved. For example, a traditional
method for preserving rice is to allow it to dry naturally in the fields or on drying racks in
barns for about two weeks. After this period of time, the native rice is threshed and then dried
again by allowing it to sit on straw mats in the sun for about three days (FAO, 1969; Abowei
and Tawari, 2011). AQ: 3
Modern drying techniques make use of fans and heaters in controlled environments. Such
methods avoid the uncertainties that arise from leaving crops in the field to dry under natural
conditions. Controlled temperature air drying is especially popular for the preservation of
grains such as maize, barley and bulgur (Lund, 1989).
Vacuum drying is a form of preservation in which a food is placed in a large container
from which air is removed. Water vapor pressure within the food is greater than that outside
of it, and water evaporates more quickly from the food than in a normal atmosphere. Vacuum
drying is biologically desirable, as some enzymes that cause oxidation of foods become
active during normal air drying. These enzymes do not appear to be as active under vacuum
drying conditions, however (Anthonio, 1970; Abowei and Tawari, 2011).
Freeze-drying is a method of preservation that makes use of the physical principle known
as sublimation. Sublimation is the process by which a solid passes directly to the gaseous
phase without first melting. Freeze-drying is a desirable way of preserving food, as it takes
place at very low temperatures (commonly around 14°F to ⫺13°F [⫺10°C to ⫺25°C]) at
which chemical reactions take place very slowly and pathogens survive only poorly. The
food to be preserved by this method is first frozen and then placed into a vacuum chamber.
Water in the food first freezes and then sublimes, leaving moisture content in the final
product as low as 0.5 per cent (Anthonio, 1970; Abowei and Tawari, 2011).

Salting
The precise mechanism by which salting preserves food is not entirely understood. It is
known that salt binds with water molecules and thus acts as a dehydrating agent in foods. A
high level of salinity may also impair the conditions under which pathogens can survive. In
any case, the value of adding salt to foods for preservation has been well known for centuries
(Lund, 1989).
Curing is used with certain fruits and vegetables, such as cabbage (in the making of
sauerkraut), cucumber (in the making of pickles) and olive. It is probably most popular,
however, in the preservation of meats and fish. Honey-cured hams, bacon and corned beef
(“corn” is a term for a form of salt crystals) are common examples (Lund, 1989).

Fermentation
Fermentation is a naturally occurring chemical reaction by which a natural food is
converted into another form by pathogens. It is a process in which food “goes bad”, but
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

results in the formation of an edible product. Perhaps the best example of such a food is Food security
cheese (Lund, 1989). and food
Cheese Fresh milk does not remain in an edible condition for a very long time. Its pH is
such that harmful pathogens begin to grow in it very rapidly. Early humans discovered,
availability
however, that the spoilage of milk can be controlled in such a way as to produce a new
product, cheese.
Bread Bread is another food product made by the process of fermentation. Flour, water,
sugar, milk and other raw materials are mixed together with yeast and then baked. The 9
addition of yeast brings about the fermentation of sugars present in the mixture, resulting in
the formation of a product that will remain edible much longer than the original raw
materials used in the bread-making process (Olaoye and Onilude, 2008; Olaoye et al., 2006).

Iru
Iru (locust bean) by extensive hydrolysis of its indigestible components by microbial
enzymes fermentation improves the flavour and texture of raw agricultural produce,
imparting a desirable sour taste to many foods, such as garri and pap, and leading to the
production of distinct flavour component characteristics of many fermented foods.
Fermentation may lead to significant improvement in the nutritional quality of foods by
increasing the digestibility of proteins through hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids,
increasing the bioavailability of minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, zinc and iron through
hydrolysis of complexing agents such as phytate and oxalate, increasing nutrient levels,
especially B-vitamins, through microbial synthesis. The locust bean’s name might seem
deceiving – while only distantly related to beans, it is actually a tree. It is indigenous to the
savanna regions of Africa, and most commonly found in the band stretching from Senegal to
Uganda.
The fruit pulp and seed extracts provide nutritious ingredients for traditional soups,
sweet meats and condiments across West Africa. The production and sale of dawadawa, the
fermented extract of locust seeds, constitute an important economic activity for women
across West Africa. The locust bean is also extremely hard; it is well suited to a wide range
of soils, it survives fires, thrives in semi-arid tropical climates and has a low susceptibility to
pests and diseases. The tree has a wide-reaching crown and can grow more than 20 m tall.
Often, people climb all the way to the top to pick the fruit – long pods, containing small seeds
and a sweet edible pulp, that can grow as long as your forearm.

Roasting
Roasting is another method of preserving food; this affects desirable sensory qualities,
enhances palatability and reduces anti-nutritional factors. Peanuts are roasted by stirring in
hot sand in a flat-bottom frying pot over hot flame (Lund, 1989; Olaoye and Onilude, 2008;
Olaoye et al., 2006).

Blanching
It is a method of preservation of food. It inactivates plant enzymes and minimizes oxidative
changes, leading to deterioration in sensory and nutritional qualities (Lund, 1989) such as
enzymatic browning, e.g. slices of yam for elubo (yam flour) production are heated in hot
water in a pot for various durations.

Cellaring
It is the process of storing foods in a temperature-, humidity- and light-controlled
environment. It can be used with many foods, especially vegetables, grains and nuts, as well
as fermented foods and dry-cured meats. There are many different methods for cellaring
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

NFS food, all of which are relatively easy to do. This could be used to extend the shelf-life of the
47,1 produce and make them available for a longer period of time.

Shortcomings of the traditional preservative techniques

The various traditional preservative techniques discussed above have several shortcomings
which make food security unattainable in African countries. These shortcomings include:
10 low productivity, poor and non-uniform quality of products, poor shelf-life of products from
the methods, etc. The adoption of modern preservative techniques such as freezing, canning
or bottling and irradiation would remove the challenges of traditional food preservative
techniques and enhance food availability and food security in Africa.

Modern methods
Freezing
Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food
spoilage are killed or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less
effective in food preservation than thermal techniques such as boiling because pathogens are
more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures than hot temperatures. In fact, one of the
problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that
pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the
frozen food thaws (Lund, 1989; Anthonio, 1970; Abowei and Tawari, 2011).
A number of factors are involved in the selection of the best approach to the freezing of
foods, including the temperature to be used, the rate at which freezing is to take place, and the
actual method used to freeze the food. Because of differences in cellular composition, foods
actually begin to freeze at different temperatures ranging from about 31°F (⫺0.6°C) for some
kinds of fish to 19°F (⫺7°C) for some kinds of fruits (Anthonio, 1970; Abowei and Tawari,
2011).
The rate at which food is frozen is also a factor, primarily because of aesthetic reasons.
The more slowly food is frozen, the larger the ice crystals that are formed. Large ice crystals
have the tendency to cause rupture of cells and the destruction of texture in meats, fish,
vegetables and fruits. To deal with this problem, the technique of quick-freezing has been
developed. In quick-freezing, a food is cooled to or below its freezing point as quickly as
possible. The product thus obtained, when thawed, tends to have a firm, more natural,
texture than with most slow-frozen foods (Anthonio, 1970; Abowei and Tawari, 2011).

Canning or bottling
Canning is a process that requires canning equipment and the ability to use a heat source. AQ: 4
Foods preserved by this method are sealed in a closed container, such as a can, glass or bottle;
such foods can be stored for up to a year. The cost of canning or bottling can be expensive
after purchasing the equipment and using heating fuel. It is a fiddly process that requires
sterilization and knowledge of the temperature involved. There is a risk of severe food
poisoning if the process is not followed properly, especially the case of low-acid foods such as
vegetables and meat. Lack of quality control in the canning process may allow an ingress of
water or microorganisms. Most of such failures are rapidly detected as decomposition
within; it can cause gas production, and it can swell or burst. However, there have been
examples of poor manufacture (under-processing) and poor hygiene allowing contamination
of canning food by the obligate anaerobe Clostridium botulinum, which produces an acute
toxin within the food, leading to severe illness or death. This organism produces no gas or the
obvious taste and remains undetected by either taste or smell. Its toxin is denatured by
cooking (Lund, 1989).
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

Irradiation Food security

Food irradiation is a physical method of preserving food. It has been thoroughly researched and food
over the past decade and is recognized as a safe and wholesome method. It has the potential
disinfecting both dried food to storage losses and fruits and vegetables to meet quarantine
availability
requirements for export trade. Low doses of irradiation inhibit spoilage losses due to
sprouting of root and tuber crops. Food-borne diseases due to contamination by pathogenic
microorganisms and parasites of meat, poultry and fish are on the increase. Irradiation of
these solid foods can decontaminate them of pathogenic organisms and thus provide safe 11
food to the consumer (Lund, 1989).
One of the most important advantages of food irradiation processing or preservation is
that it is a cold process which does not significantly alter the physico-chemical characters of
the treated product; it can be applied to food after its final packaging. One of the most
important limitations of food irradiation preservation is its slow acceptance by consumers,
due inter alia to a perceived association with radioactivity. The food industry tends to be
reluctant to use the technology in view of uncertainties regarding consumer acceptance of
treated foods (Lund, 1989).

The roles of post-harvest handling and storage of produce

Improving food distribution
Food should be equitably distributed, but it often is not, even where sufficient food is
available. More equitable distribution can be achieved by:
• improving communication to ensure that excess stocks in one area reach another area
that has a shortage of the commodity;
• better trading facilities, i.e. more food markets and shops, better stocks of nutritionally
valuable manufactured and preserved foods in village shops at reasonable prices,
improved marketplaces and more cooperative-type food shops;
• promoting equitable distribution within the family to ensure fair share of food,
especially nutritious foods, for children and increased supplies of food for pregnant
and lactating women;
• instituting midday meals in day schools, and encouraging children to take food to
school and improving meals in boarding schools;
• making special foods available for young children and developing special recipes for
toddlers;
• paying wages weekly instead of monthly and encouraging better family budgeting;
and
• ensuring availability of midday meals and subsidized canteens or rations for
labourers.

Improving food and crop storage

In some developing countries, an estimated 25 per cent of all food produced is never
consumed by humans. Instead, it spoils or is eaten by insects, rats and other pests. Measures
to correct this situation can be taken in fields, households, shops and warehouses. These may
include:
• control of rats by trapping, poison, rat-proofing grain stores, etc.;
• control of insects by use of insecticides, better food stores and airtight food containers;
• control of fungi and food rot by storage of food in as dry a state as possible and by use
of better containers;
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

NFS • control of birds by destruction, especially in millet and wheat areas; and
47,1 • protective measures against monkeys, baboons, porcupines, wild pigs and other
destructive animals, even elephants.

Storage of roots, tubers, bananas and plantains

Roots, tubers, bananas and plantains account for some 40 per cent of total food supplies (in
12 terms of food energy) for about one-half of the population of SSA, where overall food supplies
are at very low levels. Production could be increased to meet future needs, although
consumption has been tending to decline. The decline has been associated with increased
urbanization, which does not favour highly perishable and labour-intensive products.
Further research into converting starchy roots into less perishable and more convenient food
products for the urban population could help reverse these trends.
Fresh cassava tubers, once harvested, deteriorate rapidly and therefore are best left
unharvested until needed. Sweet potatoes and yams, however, exhibit a period of dormancy,
and their storage life can thus be extended by curing. Alternatively, yams, cocoyams and
cassava may be stored in underground pits after harvesting. In a study in south-eastern
Ghana, 91 per cent of farmers surveyed practiced underground storage of unharvested
cassava, but only 5 per cent of the respondent households used this technique for yams.

Mycotoxins, food storage and the food supply

Mycotoxins are chemical substances that contaminate various agricultural commodities,
either before or after harvest. Of these, aflatoxins are produced by the moulds Aspergillus
flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which infect drought-stressed maize and groundnuts in
the field. They also infect these crops and many others, including copra, cottonseed, pepper,
other cereals, nuts, oilseeds, legumes and certain dried fruits, when the crops are handled
improperly and stored under inadequate conditions. The toxic aflatoxin M1 can occur in milk
from dairy cows fed contaminated feed.
Aflatoxins have been observed to cause liver cancer in laboratory animals. Together with
the hepatitis B virus, they are seen as cofactors in the high incidence of primary liver cancer
in tropical Africa. Chronic low-level exposure to mycotoxins may result in serious
debilitating effects, especially for malnourished individuals. Animal studies indicate that
youth and poor nutrition increase susceptibility to aflatoxins, as do certain specific vitamin
and trace metal deficiencies. Protein supplementation of the diets of aflatoxin-exposed
animals reduces toxicity. A speculated causal relationship between aflatoxin intake and the
development of symptoms of kwashiorkor in malnourished children remains unproved
despite considerable supportive information (Hendrickse, 1988).
International trade in agricultural commodities such as wheat, rice, barley, maize,
sorghum, soybeans, groundnuts and oilseeds amounts to hundreds of millions of tonnes each
year. Many of these commodities carry a high risk of mycotoxin contamination. Regulations
on mycotoxin levels have been set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission and are
enforced by most importing countries. Economic losses arising from the export of
mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed are often very considerable. In domestic markets,
economic losses occur at various levels, from the commodity producers to the brokers, the
processors and the animal producers.
Losses can be reduced by following good agricultural practices during pre- and
post-harvest handling. Avoiding water stress, minimizing insect infestation and reducing
inoculum potential are effective countermeasures, but it is often impractical for farmers with
limited resources to implement them. The adoption of appropriate drying techniques, the
maintenance of proper storage facilities and taking care so that the grains or oilseeds are not
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

exposed to moisture during transport and marketing can also help reduce risks of Food security
contamination. Contamination and subsequent losses are often the greatest at the national and food
level, when the capacity for bulk transportation and storage of basic grains proves
inadequate to meet the needs of a centralized distribution system.
availability

Policies and actions needed to improve household food security and nutrition
in Africa
Knowledge concerning appropriate actions for ending hunger and malnutrition has 13
markedly increased over the past three decades. The focus on food, health, care and
education factors is part of an emerging international consensus concerning the causes of
malnutrition and represents a shift in emphasis from the narrower food supply approaches of
the 1960s and 1970s.
The strategies and actions for improving nutrition are structured along the lines of the
major factors causing malnutrition (FAO, 2010). The actions range from macroeconomic
policies through various agricultural and income policies to specific direct nutrition
programmes and interventions. Efforts to improve nutrition must, from the outset, attack the
detrimental reinforcing linkages among food insecurity, disease, poor sanitation, inadequate
education and undernutrition. Otherwise, the progress made through specific agricultural or
health measures alone will have limited effect on nutritional improvement.
The Rome Declaration on World Food Security, approved by the World Food Summit
(1996) in Rome, calls on all governments to accelerate the efforts and facilitate the actions
needed to achieve the goals of food security and improved nutrition. The following are
priority areas of attention.

Promotion of nutrition-friendly agriculture and food technology

The role of agriculture and of agriculturists in the economic growth of Africa is clear. There
is an urgent need to increase the efficiency of present resource utilization, while
simultaneously conserving and, where possible, enhancing the productive capacity of the
resource base. The strategy must involve sound land-use planning and subsequent
implementation of actions to match demands with the potentials of both the land and its
people. The key to successful implementation is commitment to economic growth, which
should be compatible with securing sustainable livelihoods and improved quality of life for
the poorest communities (FAO, 2010).
In some rural areas, the overriding nutritional problems are more closely associated with
shortage of jobs than with shortage of food. Poor households are more likely to contain
malnourished members. Women and children are often the most severely affected. Growth in
the food and agriculture sector is vital for the alleviation of poverty and for ensuring an
adequate and stable food supply for most of the population in developing countries. Producer
incentives and new technologies that increase production and employment in the
agricultural sector, including the establishment of small- and medium-scale food processing
facilities, can help augment income, alleviate poverty and improve food security (FAO, 2010).
Increased production and diversification of food need to be promoted in such a way as to
offer particular benefit to the rural poor. Measures should include targeted interventions to
increase the productivity of small-scale farmers such as production incentives, development
of an efficient marketing infrastructure and more research on rain-fed and disadvantaged
areas (FAO, 2010). The effect of such programmes on nutrition can be strikingly enhanced if
they are accompanied by effective extension services, credit availability for men and women
and encouragement of the use of inputs such as fertilizers and improved seeds. Although
productivity growth is the key to development, it must be realized that technology alone can
achieve little. However, technology combined with investment in people – especially
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

NFS education for men and women farmers, particularly on nutrition, health and population – can
47,1 show high rates of return (FAO, 2001, 2010).
Nutritional considerations in production policies and programmes can avoid some of the
adverse effects sometimes associated with new technology and can foster nutritional
well-being. Developing and testing appropriate technologies for diverse agro-ecologies
will remain major tasks for decades to come. The health and nutrition risks of technological
14 change must be mitigated through an appropriate technology design. There is substantial
scope for agricultural, public health and nutrition workers and researchers to collaborate on
improving the designs of agricultural programmes (FAO, 2001, 2010).
In countries and regions that frequently suffer from serious food shortages, such as those
prone to droughts, programmes in the agricultural sector are frequently complemented by
public measures such as income- and employment-generation programmes and direct food
transfers (e.g. food price subsidies, food rationing and food stamps) as a means of stabilizing
household food security and maintaining nutrition levels for the poorest. A cost-effective but
organizationally more demanding alternative, however, is a system of direct nutrition
interventions (FAO, 2001, 2010).

The roles of food industries and small-scale processing

Food industries are a relatively new commercial area in Africa. Their development has been
based in part on concepts of added value; fostering processing of primary commodities that
are traded internationally, such as tea, coffee and cocoa, and of import substitution; and
fostering production of fruit juices, soft drinks and beer.
Other large-scale food industries are the milling industry, producing cereal flours and the
oilseed milling and extraction industry, making refined edible oils and fats from locally
produced oilseeds. Rural processing plants, including flour and oil mills, are increasingly
being established in many countries. They contribute to the much greater availability of
basic processed food items (e.g. milled flour and vegetable oil) for local purchase and sale,
and they help reduce women’s workload. Small-scale, community-based food processing
plants are as important as large-scale food industries in preserving food quality, preventing
food losses and providing employment and increasing family incomes (FAO, 2001, 2010).
In addition to the basic processing industries, a number of multinational food companies
have started to finance local subsidiary companies to manufacture their products under
licence. These companies produce a variety of consumer goods ranging from breakfast
cereals to instant coffee, dried milk powder, weaning foods, chutneys, sauces and pickles.
Thus, the range and choice of food commodities tend to be wider in the urban areas. However,
many of these commercial products, especially the cooking oils and fats, tend to be priced
beyond the means of the urban poor, who are dependent on urban and pert-urban markets for
most of their food requirements. The purchased food is supplemented by the little food they
can grow in the limited space available, by gifts from visiting rural relatives or by any food
they can acquire during visits once or twice a year to their home village (FAO, 2001, 2010).
More market research is, no doubt, needed for food technology development, with
particular reference to urban consumers’ perceptions, attitudes, preferences, wants, means
and behaviours regarding food. Such research could lead to the commercial development of
convenient versions of some traditional foods or dishes, which might stimulate the
consumption of local foods by urban consumers. Examples of such foods already developed
in West Africa include instant yam (a dried, reconstitutable yam powder intended to
simulate pounded yam) and gari (a fermented, dried, granular cassava product, used to
prepare a sticky, starchy paste called eba). Development of such products can strengthen
rural/urban economic links by enhancing demand for the production of traditional foods in
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

rural areas and by reducing urban dependence on food imports of cereals such as wheat and Food security
rice (FAO, 2001, 2010). and food
The role of agricultural research in food availability and food security availability
National agricultural research organizations
National research organizations, which include universities, research institutes and the
national agricultural research centres, have made tremendous achievements in agricultural
research and added substantially to some of the successes that have contributed to increased 15
and more diversified food production. Notable achievements include the development of
hybrid seeds to suit different ecological zones, as has been done for maize in Kenya, and
integrated pest control measures (FAO, 2001, 2010).
Currently, however, most national agricultural research systems face many financial and
operational problems. Diminishing resources over the years have led to a severely curtailed
level of research output and a severe brain drain of well-trained scientists either to the
industrialized countries in the West or to better-paying regional, international or
private-sector organizations. Those scientists who choose to stay are often not fully utilized
for lack of adequate funding and are usually not well motivated to produce much, even if
there is a possibility to do so (FAO, 2001, 2010).
Another long-standing problem has to do with the dissemination of research findings.
There is reason to believe that much of the earlier research work which generated relevant
data is still confined within the agricultural research institutions, while extension workers
continue to impart outdated information and inappropriate messages to farmers. Few
countries have formalized links between researchers, extension workers and farmers. This
situation is a cause for worry and needs to be addressed immediately (FAO, 2001, 2010).
National research organizations have a mandate to focus their research activities within
the national agricultural research agenda. The enormity of this responsibility is such that
these organizations cannot achieve much on their own. They should therefore, as some of
them have already done, work in close collaboration with the international agricultural
research system. They should also establish and strengthen links with the local farmer and
extension systems, consumer groups and the private sector within their countries to foster
more effective communication and to devise ways of managing resources available both
maximally and efficiently (FAO, 2001, 2010).
The most effective way of passing on the knowledge engendered by research to farmers
is by involving farmers as partners in the entire research process from the start, including the
setting of research priorities and appropriate institutional arrangements, to ensuring that
farmers continue to be heard. Extension workers should also be involved in this process.
Close interaction with farmers can also give research scientists an opportunity to gain useful
knowledge, for example, regarding viable traditional farming systems and practices. The
SADC countries, working closely with ICRISAT’s regional office in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe,
have shown that this kind of collaboration is feasible and highly effective (FAO, 2001, 2010).

International agricultural research centres

The 16 international agricultural research centres of the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) fully recognize the strengths and limitations of many aspects
of the traditional food production systems. They are actively contributing to research on the
development of improved systems to optimize productivity, to ensure sustainability and to
maximize the efficiency of utilization of inputs, within the constraints of smaller producers
(FAO, 2001, 2010).
A number of agricultural research centres have an active role in Africa. The International
Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria has been involved for many years in
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

NFS developing methods of soil mulching and mixed cropping, as well as in screening of woody
47,1 perennials for their potential use in agroforestry systems such as alley farming.
The potential of this system for sustainable production of crops and small ruminants in the
humid and sub-humid tropics has been clearly shown by IITA in collaboration with the
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), which has offices in Nairobi, Kenya, and
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. However, its implementation on a large scale awaits further research
16 into socio-economic aspects (FAO, 2001; FAO, 2010).

Conclusion
Food security in Africa has continued to be a mirage. One of the greatest challenges facing
many African countries today is the upgrading of the traditional methods of food processing/
preservation in most cases. The traditional methods of food processing/preservation remain
at the empirical level and are still rather crude and not standardized. Most of them are not
based on sound scientific principles, making them in their present form, unsuitable for
large-scale industrial production. The process is often laborious and time-consuming, and
invariably, the quality of products from these processes is poor and substandard, thus
requiring substantial improvements in upgrading these technologies for better-quality
products. Although, there have been some instances where the introduction of modern
techniques has resulted in products’ rejection by consumers, however, a number of successes
have been recorded in product innovation such in instant yam flour (poundo yam) production
which has been industrialized in Nigeria.

Recommendations
The use of simple but effective on- and off-farm storage facilities and agro-processing
technology should be promoted to add value to products and increase their shelf-life. The
Strategic Grain Reserve Scheme should be modernized, strengthened and upgraded to a
National Food Reserve Programme in many African countries, which will enable it to handle
all staples and essential food products. This will help in attainment of national food security
goal for many African countries. It is also crucial to promote and develop agro-processing in
the various African countries for the evolution of virile agro-allied industries and rural
micro-enterprises.

References
Abowei, J.F.N. and. Tawari, C.C. (2011), “The classification, facilities and practices of culture fisheries in
Nigeria”, Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Vol. 3 No. 10,
pp. 1096-1107.
Adeyeye, S.A. and Akingbala, J.O. (2015), “Quality characteristics and acceptability of cookies from
sweet potato – maize flour blends”, Nutrition & Food Science, Vol. 45 No. 5, pp. 703-715,
Permanent link to this document, available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/NFS-03-2015-0020
Agyare-Kwabi, P. (2003), “Women and Food Security in West Africa, a paper presented at a seminar on
women, integrated farming systems and food security in West Africa”, Accra, 25-28 November,
p. 17.
Anthonio, Q.B.O. (1970), Fish Marketing Survey in the Kainji Basin: Yelwa Area Study, Nigerian
Institute of Social and Economic Research, Ibadan.
Davies, A.R. (1997), “Modified-atmosphere packaging of fish and fish products”, in Hall, G.M. (Ed.),
2nd ed., Fish Processing Technology, Chapman & Hall, New York, NY, pp. 200-223.
Defroster, J.N. (1971), Technology of Food Preservation, AVI publishing Company, New York, NY. AQ: 5
Emokpae, A.O. (1979), “Organoleptic assessment of the quality of fresh fish”, Nigerian Institute of
Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR) Occasional Paper, No. 12, pp. 1-4. AQ: 6
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

Eyo, A.A. (1997), “Post-harvest losses in the fisheries of Kainji Lake”, A consultancy report submitted Food security
to Nigerian/German (GTZ) Kainji Lake fisheries promotion project, March, p. 75.
and food
FAO (2001), Handbook for Defining and Setting up a Food Security Information and Early Warning
System (FSIEWS), FAO, Rome, p. 128.
availability
FAO (2010), The State of Food Insecurity in the World – Addressing Food Insecurity in Protracted
Crises, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States, Rome.
Lund, D. (1989), “Food processing: from art to engineering”, Food Technology, Vol. 43 No. 1, pp. 242-308.
17
McGranahan, G., Lewin, S., Fransen, T., Hunt, C., Kjellen, M., Pretty, J., Stephens, C. and Virgin, I. (1999),
Environmental Change and Human Health in Countries of Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific,
Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, p. 214.
Olaoye, O.A. and Ade-Omowaye, B.I.O. (2011), “Composite flours and breads: potential of local crops in
developing countries”, in Preedy, V.R., Watson, R.R. and Patel, V.B (Eds), Flour and Breads and
Their Fortification in Health and Disease Prevention, Academic Press, Elsevier, London,
Burlington, San Diego, pp. 183-192, ISBN: 9780123808868.
Olaoye, O.A. and Ntuen, I.G. (2011), “Spoilage and preservation of meat: a general appraisal and
potential of lactic acid bacteria as biological preservatives”, International Research Journal of
Biotechnology, Vol. 2, pp. 033-046.
Olaoye, O.A. and Onilude, A.A. (2008), “Microbiological, proximate analysis and sensory evaluation of
baked products from blends of Wheat-breadfruit flours”, African Journal of Food, Agriculture,
Nutrition and Development, Vol. 8, pp. 192-208.
Olaoye, O.A., Idowu, O.A. and Lawrence, I.G. (2014), “Certain roles of the food scientist in ameliorating
food insecurity in developing countries particularly Nigeria”, ISABB Journal of Food and
Agricultural Science, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 13-19, June, doi: 10.5897/ISABB-JFAS12.001.
Olaoye, O.A., Onilude, A.A. and Idowu, O.A. (2006), “Quality characteristics of bread produced from
composite flours of wheat, plantain and soybeans”, African Journal of Biotechnology, Vol. 5
No. 11, pp. 1102-1106.
Udofia, P.G., Udoudo, P.J. and Eyen, N.O. (2013), “Sensory evaluation of wheat-cassava-soybean
composite flour (WCS) bread by the mixture experiment design”, African Journal of Food
Science, Vol. 7, pp. 368-374.
World Food Summit (1996), Rome Declaration on World Food Security, World Food Summit, Rome.

Further reading
Clay, E. (2002), “Food security: concepts and measurement, paper for FAO expert consultation on trade
and food security: conceptualising the linkages”, FAO, Rome, 11-12 July, Published as Chapter 2
of Trade Reforms and Food Security: conceptualising the linkages.
AQ: 7 Eden, T. (1999), “The art of preserving: how cooks in colonial Virginia imitated Nature to control it”.
Floros, J.D., Newsome, R. and Fisher, W. (2010), “Feeding the world today and tomorrow: the importance
of food science and technology”, Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, Vol. 9
No. 5, doi: 10.1111/j.15414337.2010.00127.x.
Heidhues, F., Atsain, A., Nyangito, H. Padilla, M., Ghersi, G. and Le Vallée, J. (2004)“Development
strategies and food and nutrition security in Africa: an assessment”, 2020 Discussion Paper
No. 38.
Ihekeronye, A.I.J. and Ngoddy, P.O. (1985), Integrated Food Science and Technology for the Tropics,
Macmillan Publishers Ltd, London.
Mack, L. (2001), Food Preservation in the Roman Empire, NC University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Normile, D. (2010), “Holding back a torrent of rats”, Science, Vol. 327 No. 5967, pp. 806-807.
Olaoye, O.A. and Onilude, A.A. (2009), “Assessment of microbiological quality of sachet-packaged
drinking water in Western Nigeria and its public health significance”, Public Health, Vol. 123
No. 11, pp. 729-734.
 tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z xppws S⫽3 1/17/17 Art: 589909

NFS Olaoye, O.A. and Onilude, A.A. (2010), “Investigation on the potential use of biological agents in the
extension of fresh beef in Nigeria”, World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Vol. 26
47,1 No. 8, pp. 1445-1454, doi: 10.1007/s11274-010-0319-5.
Olaoye, O.A., Onilude A.A. and Dodd C. E. R. (2008), “Identification of Pediococcus spp. from beef and
evaluation of their lactic acid production in varying concentrations of different carbon sources”,
Advances in Natural and Applied Sciences, Vol. 2, pp. 197-207.
18 Quinlan, J.J. (2013), “Foodborne illness incidence rates and food safety risks for populations of low
socioeconomic status and minority race/ethnicity: a review of the literature”, International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 10, pp. 3634-3652.
Sanni, A.I. (1993), “The need for process optimization of African fermented foods and beverages”,
International Journal of Food Microbiology, Vol. 18 No. 2, pp. 85-95.
Sanni, L. (1997), Quality Assurance System: The Food Industry, Jedidiah Publishers, Ibara, Abeokuta,
pp. 3-6.
Scallan, E., Hoekstra, R.M., Angulo, F., Tauxe, R.V., Widdowson, M.A., Roy, S.L., Jones, J.L. and
Griffin, P.M. (2011), “Foodborne illness acquired in the United States – major pathogens”,
Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 7-15.
Shepherd, S. (2001), Pickled, Potted and Canned; How The Art and Science of Food Preservation
Changed the World, Simon and Schuster, New York, NY.
Taiwo, K.A., Oladepo, O.W., Ilori, M.O. and Akanbi, C.T. (2002), “A study on the Nigerian food industry
and the impact of technological changes on the small scale food enterprise”, Food Reviews
International, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 243-261.
Wilson, C.A. (1991), Food Preservation from Early Times to the Present, Edinburgh University,
Edinburgh.

Corresponding author
Samuel Ayofemi Adeyeye can be contacted at: saadeyeye@yahoo.com

For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
JOBNAME: AUTHOR QUERIES PAGE: 1 SESS: 2 OUTPUT: Tue Jan 17 12:12:00 2017
/tapraid4/q69-nfs/q69-nfs/q6900117/q692100d17z

AUTHOR QUERIES

AUTHOR PLEASE ANSWER ALL QUERIES 1

AQau—Please confirm the given-names and surnames are identified properly by the colours.
⫽ Given-Name, ⫽ Surname
The colours are for proofing purposes only. The colours will not appear online or in print.
AQ1— Please note that the following sentence is unclear as given. Please consider revising the
sentence for clarity: “It is the vital tripod stand of national-food security, agro-processing and
agro-exports; and hence-national-self-reliance, employment and foreign exchange generation.”
AQ2— Please provide significance of superscript ‘2= in this article.
AQ3— The following citation is not listed in the reference list. Please provide full details for this
citation: FAO (1969); Hendrickse (1988).
AQ4 — Please note that the following sentence is unclear as given. Please consider revising the
sentence for clarity: “ѧand the ability to use a heat source.”
AQ5— Please provide all the authors name for the following reference Defroster et al. (1971).
AQ6 — Please provide location for the following references Emokpae (1979); Eyo (1997); Heidhues
et al. (2004).
AQ7— Please provide an update for the following reference Eden (1999).

View publication stats