Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 163 (2022) 108113

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Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ymssp

Structural health monitoring using wireless smart sensor network

– An overview
A. Sofi a, *, J. Jane Regita b, Bhagyesh Rane b, Hieng Ho Lau c
a
School of Civil Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, India
b
M Tech Structural Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, India
c
Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak Campus, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Structural Health Monitoring is gaining popularity in recent times because of advancements in
Structural health monitoring technology and the increasing need for repair and rehabilitation. The shift from conventional
SHM wired technologies to advanced wireless technologies is also gradually increasing in the past
Bridges
decade. These sensor networks are economical when used for monitoring huge structures with
Wireless networks
Sensors
high design life and safety requirements like highway and roadway bridges, multi-story buildings,
AI chimneys, offshore platforms, and nuclear reactors. Smart sensors when paired along with Arti­
ficial Intelligence tools like Artificial Neural Networks, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, and its
derivatives Convolutional Neural Networks, Hybrid Intelligence, Cloud Computing make the
monitoring system completely automated. This paper is a comprehensive review of advances in
data acquisition, processing, diagnosis, and retrieval stages of Structural Health Monitoring both
academically and commercially. The review primarily focuses on the recently used wireless data
acquisition system and execution of AI resources for data prediction and data diagnosis in RCC
buildings and bridges. The review also indicates the lag in real-world execution of structural
health monitoring technologies despite advances in academia and insists on the development of
standards to gel the gap.

1. Introduction

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is the development and implementation of methods and techniques which are useful for the
supervision and maintenance of the functional value of the structure continuously. The repair and rehabilitation costs of bridges and
high-rise buildings are enormous and this highlights the need for continuous monitoring of structures. SHM can potentially increase
the design life of structures, provide public safety and reduce rehabilitation costs considerably. Damage i.e. degradation of system
performance cannot be prevented but can only be reversed whereas failure or loss of functionality in the structure can be avoided.
Local damage detection, like crack formation and corrosion in RCC structures, can be done through Non-Destructive Techniques
(NDT’s). But concrete is a heterogeneous material and possessing complex rheology makes the structure more vulnerable to physical,
chemical, and mechanical weathering. This makes NDT less reliable.
SHM employs damage detection methods to measure the vibrational response of the structure. The presence of damage in a
structure will alter its mass, stiffness, and damping values. This change can be identified through variation in natural frequency, mode

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: asofi@vit.ac.in (A. Sofi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2021.108113
Received 28 November 2020; Received in revised form 28 April 2021; Accepted 2 June 2021
Available online 10 June 2021
0888-3270/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Sofi et al. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 163 (2022) 108113

shape, and modal strain energy of the structure [1]. By studying the nature and extent of damage through these features, the sensor
type and damage detection strategies are selected appropriately [2]. So SHM is aptly redefined as a practice of employing damage
identification strategies. The methods are also chosen by keeping in mind economic, environmental, and operational constraints [3].
SHM can either be used to gather real-time continuous data or intermittent data. Both the current health of the structure as well as its
future performance can be predicted which leads to optimized maintenance. [4].
SHM is a multi-stage process where the subsequent steps depend upon the outputs from the previous steps. In general, a typical
SHM system comprises three major components: data acquisition (sensing, conditioning, and processing), data communication and
storage, and a health evaluation system (including data diagnostic algorithms and information management tools) [5]. In conventional
wired systems, coaxial cables are used for the connection of the components and transfer of data from the data acquisition units to the
central data repository. The wired networks highly rely on a central server which ensures the reliability and safety of the data collected
and stored. They are easy to handle and cost-efficient only when used on smaller structures or to study a localized area in a structure.
The size of the data acquisition system (in terms of the number of sensors) commands the cost of the entire network. Large scale
structures require a robust and dense sensor network for accurate detection and this, in turn, escalates the cost of installment [6]. They
also demand more labor force, a longer time for installation, and high maintenance. This emphasizes the need for wireless
communication.

2. Wireless Sensor Networks

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) or the Wireless Smart Sensor Network (WSSN) that transfers data over a radio frequency or the
internet is a potential alternative to the customary wired network. It consists of the following hardware components: A location finding
and positioning system most preferably a GPS, a sensing unit with a sensor and analog to digital converter (ADC), a processing unit like
microprocessors or microcontrollers, a radio transceiver with an internal antenna or connection to an external antenna which connects
the sensor node to the rest of the network, a microcontroller or flash memory for data storage, a power source mostly a battery to back
up the entire system [7]. The software components include Operating Systems, Sensor Driver, and Host Middleware with security and
routing modules and algorithms to control these modules [8]. The basic hardware components used in a WSN are shown in Fig. 1.
WSN’s overcome many complexities and drawbacks posed by the wired networks with reduced size of sensors, reduced cost of
installation and maintenance. WSN’s can also be installed and uninstalled quickly and easily making temporary or emergency changes
in health monitoring systems possible at a relatively short time interval [9,10]. The installation of smart sensor units in the Alamosa
Canyon Bridge took only half the time that was taken for the implementation of wired cable systems, previously on the same bridge
[11]. Though WSN has advantages in flexibility and versatility, it also faces challenges of having access to a limited power supply
which is most likely a non-renewable form of energy [12]. They are also highly sensitive to environmental disturbances during sensing
and data transmission. To minimize uncertainties sensitivity studies and reliability assessments using mathematical models must be
carried out which required skilled professionals to add to its complexity [13]. The hardware components at the sensor nodes can also
be subjected to physical damage. Constant researches are undertaken by academicians to overcome such drawbacks and to make the
system more practicable and accurate for real-time applications. This paper reviews the techniques used for wireless data acquisition,
data processing, and data diagnosing methods that are currently adopted and that also have a future scope in monitoring RCC bridges
and buildings.
The idea of WSN is to enable on-site data acquisition (DAQ) and off-site analysis. There are different hardware components to
facilitate this on-site data acquisition [14]. DAQ’s are controlled by software programs developed using computer programming
languages such as C, C++, Java, LabVIEW, Lisp, Pascal. A distributed data acquisition network installed along the New Yamuna Bridge

Fig. 1. Illustration of a Wireless Sensor Network [8].

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or the Naini cable-stayed bridge uses Field point hardware and the NI LabVIEW Real-Time Module to acquire and process around 400
parameters. At the analysis end, a computer with MATLAB application is also commonly used [15,16]. Possessing the benefits of both a
sensor supplemented with computational resources, wireless networks are highly sophisticated and independent in operation. WSNs
must be programmed to know when to act autonomously. In the first decade of the 21st century, various bridges around the world have
been installed with long-term monitoring systems comprising tiltmeters, displacement sensors, temperature sensors, and seismometers
for bridge durability assessments [17,18]. Initially reduction in cost and deployment time was the major cause to shift towards wireless
networks from wired. But later its autonomous functional capacity has kindled further interest. At present a large number of different
wireless sensor platforms for research and commercial purpose are available. In this paper, data processing and data diagnosis are
identified as important stages of SHM and the advances made in these fields are discussed broadly.

2.1. Acoustic sensors in WSN

Data acquisition is an important step in SHM which is subjected to errors. Hence various types of sensors are constantly developed
and upgraded to meet the requirements of SHM through WSN.
Acoustic emission is the dissemination of transient elastic waves owing to the rapid discharge of localized internal energy, in an
elastic material [19]. It is the vibration of particles in a solid material with a very small amplitude and high frequency. An AE sensor
involves sensors to detect strain energy released from expanding cracks. It converts mechanical energy from the elastic wave into an
electrical signal similar to a transducer and is used for real-time damage monitoring [20]. PZT (Lead zirconate titanate) is is generally
preferred as a detection element in AE sensors. It can also efficiently perform under high temperatures. AE waves generated when there
is a crack formation propagate along the surface of the material to reach the PZT inside the AE sensor. The nature of the piezoelectric
material is to generate an electric signal when subjected to force. This signal is then transferred for processing and storage [21,22]. A
simple illustration of acoustic emission sensing setup is shown in Fig. 2.
A 300 m box-girder bridge in South Wales was scrutinized by experts from Cardiff University. Global SHM monitoring was adopted
and high AE activity was observed in the bridge diaphragms from the 4 PAC WDi sensors mounted along the outside edge of the
diaphragm. Acoustic coupling was achieved by using grease which couples the AE sensor to the structure surface to seal the voids
which in turn enables better signal transfer to the piezoelectric crystal. The AE sensor converts the mechanical energy into electrical
energy which is further amplified before transmitting it to the microcontroller. The software in the microcontroller memory processes
the data and transmits it through an antenna to the receiver’s end. AE feature data was registered for 90 min under service loading
before it was transferred for processing [24]. When the source of an AE event is unknown pattern recognition technique is adopted. A
set of labeled data with a similar pattern are categorized from the raw data available. Unlike other techniques, pattern recognition does
not need noise fee or low noise signals to perform effectively. With the development of statistical methods and high-performance
computing methodologies, it is easier to classify crack modes [25].
Waveform features like onset time and amplitude show the intensity of cracking and are useful for crack mode classification. Onset
time is the moment at which the first signal reaches the sensor and amplitude is the voltage of the highest peak. In tensile cracks, the
specimen displaces vertically to the crack plane leading to a change in volume. Whereas under shear cracking the crack moves in
opposite directions, parallel to the crack plane which results in a distorted shape. This basic visual identification is used for first-degree
crack classification. Further by studying the average frequency and energy variation of the wave the crack mode can be precisely
classified [26]. Corrosion in reinforcements of RC beams and pre-stress concrete bridges was monitored by AE testing. The level of
corrosion was determined from the rate of AE activity. A rise in the extent of corrosion showed decreased AE activity [27]. The
corroded regions were located by characterizing the transmitted elastic waves. Their research proves that AE is an effective non-
intrusive method to detect and locate corrosion [28,29].

Fig. 2. AE test setup [23].

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2.2. Global Positioning System for damage localisation and monitoring in WSN

The Global Positioning System technology is a satellite-based positioning system developed to accurately fix geographical loca­
tions. The system utilizes several small receivers that are installed on the structure to monitor. This receiver finds the location from the
time taken for the signal to reach from at least 4 satellites. It can very precisely locate even the slightest movement in the structure,
with accuracy to a few millimeters. Apart from measuring disturbances in bridges and buildings, it can also locate ground movement
such as landslides. In bridges, events such as erosion and settlement due to tidal forces or impact loads or under its self-weight cause
significant static displacements resulting in failure of bridges. This failure may go unnoticed in conventional monitoring systems. Thus
GPS, terrestrial positioning systems, digital imaging methods are referred to as alternatives to monitor long-span bridges. Carrier phase
differential GPS technique, an enhancement of the conventional GPS can be used to improve the quality of damage localization. The
signals are transferred as RF waves to a base station for further processing. The base station can be scheduled to trigger a warning sign
or alarm if the input data collected exceeds the threshold value.
The advances in GPS technology enable real-time monitoring of structures to study static displacements and dynamic characters.
Currently, this technique is widely used for highly flexible structures like multi-story buildings and long spans cable-stayed bridges by
integrating them with other sensors. The Youngjong grand bridge in Korea, the Humen suspension bridge in China, Rosenbrücke
Bridge in Austria are some of the bridges that are employed with GPS systems for displacement study [30]. GPS combined with finite
element analysis can provide real-time stress and strain information of host structures. A high-rise building in Singapore is being
monitored by a conventional accelerometer installed at the roof and basement of the building since 1993. After more than a decade this
system was complemented with a GPS setup to monitor static displacements and dynamic characteristics of the building caused by
wind forces in real-time. Three numbers of Leica SR530 receivers and Ski-Pro software were used for this purpose. The data collected
through this real-time monitoring is also used to frame correlations between loads acting and the response of the building under those
loads, which help predict its structural behavior [31]. The Juarez Bridge is 200 m long and connects two important sections of Culiacan
city in Mexico. Thousands of vehicles pass through this bridge that was built almost half a century back and hence monitoring of the
bridge’s health and reliability is important to avoid mishaps. Risk evaluation of this bridge was done by 6 GPS receivers and 2 GPS base
stations located strategically on the bridge as illustrated in Fig. 3. The probability of failure (pf) and reliability index (β) corresponding
to dynamic displacements was identified through the Double Difference GPS method (DD-GPS). The fundamentals behind the dynamic
displacement calculations were documented and this approach is recommended as an alternative reliability approach by the re­
searchers [32].

2.3. Smart materials in WSN

Combining the beneficial attributes of both polymers and piezoelectrics (PZT), a smart range of paints known as piezoelectric paint
sensors are commercially used for crack detection in SHM. These paint sensors make use of the flexibility of polymers and the high
ability of piezoelectrics to deform under an electric field. This smart paint consisting of minute piezoelectric particles is dispersed in a
polymer matrix and embedded in epoxy resins. They are generally referred to as “0-3′′ piezoelectric composites. The magnified view of
this dispersal is shown in Fig. 4. Epoxy was selected as the binder due to its low density, high electric strength, high impact, and no
shrinkage during curing. After curing, it was coated with silver paste to form an electrode. The surface of the targeted structure is the
second electrode. Piezoelectric materials are activated by poling, in which the material is under a steady electric field till their dipoles
align. The paint sensor electrode is polarized using DC power input under an electric field of 4 kV/mm at room temperature for 10 min.
This sensor coating performed more accurately than conventional strain gauges under impact loads [33]. The sensor paint can also be
manufactured by mixing epoxy resin with Carbon Black (CB) nano-particles to increase its electrical conductivity and sensitivity to
mechanical vibrations [35]. The dynamic responses of structures can be measured by monitoring the voltage signals from the

Fig. 3. Position of GPS receivers in Juarez Bridge [32].

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Fig. 4. Magnified view of PNN-PZT particles in the paint sensor [34] and Piezoelectric paint sample [36].

piezoelectric paint sensor. It can be utilized for damage detection, vibration, and impact monitoring even for curved surfaces, welded
joints, or complex geometries as it adheres well to the host structure. Fig. 4 shows the flexibility of the paint sample to be used on
curved surfaces. These paint sensors are economical, easily implemented, and also reduce power supply as they do not require much
external power source for sensing vibrations [36].
Smart aggregate, a piezoceramic-based element(as shown in Fig. 5) is developed for concrete crack detection in large-scale
structures. The smart aggregates should be pre-embedded in the RC structure. These smart aggregates are used to perform active
sensing. When loaded it generates stress waves across the concrete structure which is received by a signal transceiver module and
further transferred wirelessly. The entire WSN can be categorized into modules. In the data acquisition module, the received stress
waves are converted into charge signals. It then converts the charge signals into voltage signals through a charge amplifier and sends
them to a sampling module. Here the voltage signals are converted into digital binaries and are transmitted to the wireless commu­
nication module. Here a gateway receives the binary digital signals from all the sensors and using RF transfers them through the Zigbee
wireless network. This entire system is powered by the power module. Smart aggregate systems require wireless networks with high
data transfer rates and low power for long-term SHM to cope up with high bandwidth aspects of PZT. Hence Zigbee wireless network is
chosen over Wi-Fi which has high power consumption and Bluetooth which can transmit data only over a limited distance [37].

2.4. Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) sensing technology in WSN

A Micro Electro-Mechanical sensing System (MEMS) is an integrated device that acts as an interface for electrical and mechanical
components on a micrometer level. Based on microfabrication technology, many such small devices combined to accomplish the tasks
of data sensing, processing on the macro meter level [38]. The hardware component generally consists of one or more sensors, an ADC,
an IC chip for data processing like a microcontroller or microprocessor with memory, a transceiver, and batteries for power supply as
shown in Fig. 6. Accelerometers are commercially the most important types of microsensors used for SHM in civil infrastructure.
Additionally, an amplifier, a low pass filter to remove unnecessary signal features, light-emitting diodes, humidity sensors, and
switches are also used for better monitoring and interaction. These hardware components are secured in an enclosure to protect them
against environmental and physical impacts. The software installed to run the MEMS data acquisition system is of prime importance as
it organizes communication between each sensor node, syncs the nodes, measures the physical parameters required for SHM, processes
the sensed data, and monitors the condition and performance of each sensor and other units in the WSN. The software is implemented
as TinyOS components that efficiently manage the memory constraints in sensor nodes and also has a scheduler that triggers the system
at the scheduled time. Both these hardware and software components must work synchronically to create a robust embedded wireless
system [39,40].
MEMS-based WSN was installed for cable tension force monitoring of stay cable bridges. Cable stay forces are monitored utilizing
natural frequency estimations based on vibrational responses. The onsite tests were performed on the Stork Bridge, a 124 m long 2 span

Fig. 5. Finished smart aggregate [37].

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Fig. 6. Hardware setup of a smart sensing unit [40].

cable-stayed road bridge. 6 sensor nodes were installed on 6 cables and an additional sensor node was mounted as a root node.
Communication between the field acquisition unit and the remote control center is established through a standard wireless Universal
Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS). Data processing was the critical stage owing to the limited memory space on the chip. To
overcome this, the algorithms written were divided into tiny sections to occupy less CPU time [41]. Feltrin et al. provide detailed
information about these data processing algorithms [42]. Advanced Design Consulting (ADC), a firm in New York developed tiny
passive sensors that can be dispersed in the concrete mix. Each sensor consisted of 4 or 5 silicon-based MEMS to collect data that affects
the strength and performance of concrete. These tiny sensors enclosed within non-corrosive material can be used for concrete bridge
decks and concrete walls. Fig. 7 projects the minuscule size of these sensors. It is also coupled with a Radio Frequency Identification
Device (RFID) for the measurement of parameters like pH, moisture, and temperature. The sensor transmits the signal over a radio
wave which is received by an RFID reader and interrogator device. The reader then converts the signals into understandable physical
values.

3. Wireless smart sensors in SHM

A summary of sophisticated sensors that were developed through the past decade and made commercially available is listed below.
A standard integrated sensor is upgraded to a smart sensor by complementing it with an on-board microprocessor to boost its intel­
ligence capabilities. The microprocessor decides for how long it should retain the data and when to erase it and when to remain awake
to manage power consumption without human intervention. Wireless Modular Monitoring Systems (WiMMS) were initially developed
two decades back for civil infrastructures by integrating a microcontroller with a wireless radio [44]. The prototype of a basic smart
sensor can be seen in Fig. 8. This system has seen various changes and additions throughout the years. The power of its computational
core is extensively increased [45]. The WiMMS platform was made more versatile by allowing multiple threads (i.e.) installing

Fig. 7. MEMS sensors for concrete monitoring [43].

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software to allow processing and transmitting data to be executed simultaneously [46–48]. A more sophisticated Remote Intelligent
Monitoring System (RIMS) constituting a microcontroller, MEMS piezoresistive accelerometer, and an internet-based wireless modem
was developed for SHM of bridges and buildings [49].
Smart wireless sensor platforms called DuraNode which permitted wired internet data transfer within a known Local Area Network
(LAN) [50] and Husky which when related to an algorithm package like DIAMOND II can be used for anomaly detection were
eventually manufactured [51]. Besides these smart wireless sensor platforms developed by researchers, numerous commercial plat­
forms are available. Mote which was developed at the University of California-Berkeley and commercialized by Crossbow is the most
famous commercialized wireless sensor platform. The development of AutoMonitor, a facility to regulate continuous operations of a
full-scale WSSN incorporates power management services like SnoozeAlarm and ThresholdSentry which permits the data processor to
be kept in sleep mode to reduce power utilization [52]. Smart sensors found on the Berkeley-Mote and Intel-Mote platforms were the
base for next-generation sensors. The monitoring system on the Golden Gate Bridge, USA is a famous example of full-scale deployment
of WSNs in bridges. However due to scalability issues and time delay in capturing data the system was not very successful. In an
attempt to overcome the issue, the Illinois Structural Health Monitoring Project (ISHMP) was initiated. The target was to provide a
more reliable and autonomous real-time data acquisition network with Imote2 sensors [53]. These sensors were installed to monitor
the 2nd Jindo Bridge, South Korea. However, they are no longer produced and commercially unavailable now. Lessons learned from
the function of Imote2 on the Jindo bridge lead to the further development of the hardware and software components of the sensor
resulting in the production of Xnode sensors as seen in Fig. 9.
Xnode sensors are built based on FreeRTOS, a real-time operating system. The real-time scheduler framework provided by Free­
RTOS makes Xnode more flexible and event-driven. Because of its high sampling rate, powerful microprocessor, and open-source
software, the Xnode Smart Sensor delivered satisfactory results. Its hardware component consists of a processor board, radio/
power board, and a sensor board. The processor board includes an LPC4357 microcontroller which is used for data acquisition. The
radio/power board features a power management circuit with a nonvolatile memory of 32 MB used for temporary data storage and
processing. It also has provisions for attaching additional SD cards to expand storage. This board also houses a radio transceiver for
low-power wireless communication. Further, the 24 bit Analog to Digital converter (ADC) in the sensor board has 8 channels in all, 3
for LIS344ALH an analog accelerometer, and the remaining 5 for external analog sensors. The entire setup is stacked within a hard
casing with slots on either side to plug in solar panels, extra sensors, etc. A demand-based Wireless Smart Sensor (WSS) that can capture
data during sudden events is the need of the hour. The demand-based WSS wakes up and initiates sensing when triggered under sudden
events. A wireless sensor node that is always functioning would quickly deplete its battery. On the other hand sudden event monitoring
requires the sensor to be awake and active continuously. To overcome this challenge and extract information without loss, Xnode is
integrated with an ADXL362 Trigger accelerometer. At the onset of an event, if the acceleration detected by the accelerometer exceeds
the pre-defined threshold a signal is sent to turn on the Xnode. Meanwhile, the collected data is stored in a First-In-First-Out (FIFO)
buffer. After the Xnode completes its high fidelity data acquisition it reads and fuses the data from FIFO. The Xnode stops sensing once
the value in the accelerometer falls below the threshold. For natural disasters like earthquakes, the threshold value is determined from
past occurrences [54,55].
Kane et al. developed a versatile smart sensor known as Martlet (shown in Fig. 10) that achieves high-speed data acquisition, real-
time feedback, heterogeneous sensing, and an extensible storage board (a microSD card with memory up to 32 GB). Martlet can be
integrated with various other types of sensors such as accelerometers, strain gauges, displacement sensors to capture the structure’s
response. These features make it an ideal wireless sensor for long-term data acquisition. Multiple sensor boards are stacked up

Fig. 8. Basic smart sensor [38].

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Fig. 9. Xnode Sensors [54].

Fig. 10. Martlet [56].

conveniently through connectors and work with the motherboard. This sensor houses a high-speed dual-core microcontroller
(TMS320F28069) that can collect data at a high sampling rate. A 9-channel 12-bit ADC samples signals from the heterogeneous sensors
through accessory sensor boards known as winged boards. A standard 2.4 GHz low-power radio is utilized for wireless communication.
The dual-core microcontroller facilitates Martlet to use one core for wireless sensing operations while the other core is for data
processing and real-time feedback [56].
Xi Liu et al. have incorporated a total of 15 integrated accelerometers, 20 strain gauges, 2 strain transducers, and 4 magnetostrictive
displacement sensors to study the vibrational response of a bridge in their study [57]. Xinjun Dong et al. have included a strain gauge
wing to the martlet sensor board to acquire strain measurements. Each wing can hold up to 3 strain gauges and 2 commonly used strain
gauges were used in their study [58]. For validation of the Martlet wireless sensor’s performance, Dong et al. installed a sensing system

Fig. 11. Location of sensors in the test frame [59].

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at critical locations of a 2 story, 2 bay concrete frame building as shown in Fig. 11. Its performance was compared simultaneously with
that of a high-precision wired sensing system. These test frames were built in the Structural Engineering and Materials Laboratory on
the Georgia Tech campus, Atlanta, USA. Vibrations are induced through a linear inertial shaker mounted on the second elevated slab of
the structure. The linear shaker utilizes a scaled El Centro earthquake record. The acceleration time histories and modal properties
were compared between wireless and wired systems. The wireless sensing network achieved the same quality data as that of the wired
system [59].
On the whole, the hardware and software components of smart sensors are continuously upgraded, but their implementation as a
full-fledged SHM system to monitor and measure a structure’s response is not always achieved. Scalability of sensors, synchronization
accuracy and data loss during transfer are some of the issues that retain these smart sensors at the research level.

4. Application of AI in SHM

Data diagnosis is a post-processing stage where irrelevant data are removed and the output is narrowed down to meet the aim of
work. The three basic AI concepts of Machine Learning (ML), Deep Learning (DL), and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are recently
used to make documented data available for future analyses and post-processing procedures. These developments in the AI and Data
science domain are potentially used for proper maintenance of structural elements to prevent the unprecedented collapse of the
structure.
Artificial intelligence or machine intelligence is the ability of smart machines to perform human-like activities. AI has the potential
to reduce diagnosis time and error rate in SHM. The Venn diagram in Fig. 12 shows the relation between AI and its tools. Though these
terms are used synonymously with AI, they are only the subsets of AI. Machine Learning (ML) is the ability of machines to perform a
certain task by analyzing numerous similar trial examples given to them. Machines learn and adopt an approach to solve a task
assigned to them through the examples fed beforehand. Their ability to perform independently without human intervention, to identify
the trends and patterns in a wide range of data, the ability to develop more accurate algorithms are being recognized and used widely
for SHM. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is the pivotal tool of machine learning. It consists of hardware, a hidden layer (to convert the
input data into required output), and a software layer which when connected properly with silicon chips and wires or over the internet
can resemble dendrites and neurons in a human brain. The tools are used to convert complex data, identify patterns in data and train
the machine to recognize and remember them. Deep Learning (DL) is a branch of ML that largely relies on ANN. While ML algorithms
require structured data, DL can perform based on unstructured or unlabelled data itself. It programs a computer to filter data through
layers just how the human brain filters [60]. A review of how these AI tools were used for damage detection, data interrogation, data
prediction, and data diagnosis by other researchers are summarized below.

4.1. Damage detection

The vibration of a fictitious railway bridge deck from its finite element model was studied using ANN. Accelerometers were
mounted on the bridge deck for this purpose. The ANN was developed and trained by Neural Network Toolbox available in MATLAB.
The study was undertaken to detect damage induced by dynamic traffic. Damage detection through ANN can be by the model-based or
model-free method. Here a model-free unsupervised technique is followed. In the model-free approach, the algorithm is trained in an
unsupervised manner (i.e.) with unlabelled data to detect damage. These algorithms or novelty detection methods are given the
freedom to identify patterns in data and arrive at conclusions. This technique is superior to the supervised learning method where
labeled data with inputs from previous damage states are required. It also eliminates the need to develop a complex structural model.
The network is trained to predict future deviations based on past acceleration data. The errors in prediction at this stage are sys­
tematically differentiated using a Gaussian process. Finally, by comparing the obtained information with the threshold values a
damaged structure is differentiated from a healthy one [61].

Fig. 12. AI tools used in SHM.

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4.2. Data diagnosis

Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is a new stream of ANN using the concept of Deep Learning. It analyzes data based on visual
imagery. It is useful for pattern recognition and image processing and it is primarily applied in SHM for vibration analysis. Researchers
have combined the benefits of (Piezometric) PZT sensors and CNN architecture in their work. When integrating smart materials like
PZT and shape memory alloys in the WSN, paves way for self-diagnosis and self-monitoring of the structure. The Electromechanical
impedance (EMI-PZT) technique incorporates PZT transducers that are fixed to the structure with a high stiffness adhesive. The PZT
transducer generates an electric signal when stressed mechanically and vice versa. This is used to observe variations in the structure.
Several structural responses are collected through the forced excitation of the sensor which is then transferred to a DAQ. In this study
LABVIEW data acquisition software is used for data sampling. Before feeding it into the CNN network the visual frames have to be
generated. This is done using the colormap function in MATLAB. The RBG frames in JPEG format are used as input for further CNN
processing. This method showed significant development in structural damage detection in terms of accuracy [62].
The NICTA and Winlab have faced many issues while testing the experiental control and management of sensors. The NICTA and
Winlab at Rutgers University have been developing their sensors node in strain, accelerometer, temperature transducers, Zigbee
wireless radio and USB interface which are used in dignotics of bridge using 3G Internet Connection. The data enhanced from OMF’s
functionality can be collected through controller and can be interpret using Ruby interpreter, HTTP and XMPP. The receiving gateway
application is split into 2 parrts in which the sensors acts as executable part and gateway for defining. The OMF specifies language
based on Ruby for users to describe the experiments. The description, design and implementation of the WSN for the test bed for SHM
of bridges. The comparison of strain measuring capabilities of test bed is done with the RTA’s existing system so that to tackle the
onstacles faced during the time [10].

4.3. Data interrogation and anamolies in data sensing

Input data obtained from sensors may contain errors to malfunctioning of the sensor or disturbances in the sensing network or other
environmental changes. Accumulation of such errors unknowingly leads to incorrect results. The relevance of Computer vision (CV),
another AI tool that assists a computer to process visual data and interpret them as a human brain does has also been studied. Re­
searchers are considering CV and DL-supported anomaly recognition methods over modal or vibration-based methods as the latter are
insensitive to minor abnormalities. CV uses computers to identify the change in the structure through photographs or videos. They
interpret visual information through DL algorithms or image processing algorithms and then guide a Deep Neural Network for ab­
normality categorization. Pictures used as input data for CV are taken using unmanned aerial vehicles, robots, or wearable devices. A
structure’s response changes with a change in loading or material behavior or its support conditions. Distinguishing the source of error
is complicated and difficult to monitor. The correlations between such responses are identified from ML and DL algorithms which can
be later employed as an indicator for structural performance. The authors have also illustrated their method through acceleration data
extracted by studying the performance of a long-span cable-stayed bridge [63,64].
Compressive Sampling (CS) or Compressed Sensing is a new nonuniform random sampling technique to reduce data acquisition.
This approach has opened new gateways for signal acquisition and processing as it can overcome the obstacles in abnormal data
diagnostics and sampling [65]. For instance, in civil engineering, only the first few modes contribute to the vibration of the structure (i.
e.) it has a sparse representation. In such cases, a group sparse optimization method is recommended. Sampling analyses only a subset
of the original input to study its trend and identify patterns that are applicable to the large input data set. Using the above-mentioned
method even highly random sampling data can be efficiently reconstructed. This method takes into account the group sparsity of
structural vibration response obtained from several sensors in the frequency domain to come up with the data reconstruction opti­
mization problem. The study showed that even from 10% random sampling data a very efficient set of original data can be recon­
structed. Though a minimal reconstruction error was noticed it did not have much impact on the modal results. This group sparse
optimization method can also be used to recover and correct missing data and incorrect data from WSNs [66].
AI is increasingly used to cope up with monitoring and processing issues that cannot be efficiently handled by traditional
computational techniques. The authors have also suggested the use of Hybrid Intelligence for SHM. Hybrid Intelligence is the com­
bination of Computational Intelligence (CI), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) to create an interactive
monitoring interface. This approach comes in handy for data interrogation which plays a major role in monitoring. This interrogation
of data is carried out by 2 tasks: plausibility check and data analysis. The former procedure is carried out using microcontroller-based
sensor units to check for any inconsistencies in data and the latter is a detailed analysis that requires data mining and ML techniques.
An expert system in AI is a computerized approach that makes computers imitate human conditioning and knowledge to solve
problems. Researchers Smarsly and Hartmann have incorporated these expert systems as an assistance tool for bridge and building
monitoring. They have also suggested trend analysis to study a structure’s long-term behavior. One such analysis was also performed
on the theTriebischseitental valley bridge, a box girder bridge in Germany. The horizontal displacements of the bridge at its bearings
were studied and the results showed an anomalous behavior [67,68].

4.4. Data storage through cloud computing

A cloud computing network consists of remotely located servers hosted on the internet to store and manage data instead of local
servers at the site location. This cloud-based verification can help us in progressive performance analysis from distance and will also
provide progressive possible damage mechanisms. In recent times, the application of cloud computing using sensors, to monitor

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structural components like foundation, beams, columns, cables, and bearings is gaining popularity. A wireless SHM network is capable
of reading physical parameters like internal water content, corrosion, creep, chlorides and alkali attack, carbonation, strain, and
deflection. These sensed data is stored in a cloud base application and can be accessed anywhere anytime by a computer having
internet access. The ability to observe livelily, the static and dynamic movements that affect the serviceability of the structure has
increased its importance drastically.
The collapse of the Polcevera Bridge in Italy shows the damage caused due to exposure of an RCC structure to an aggressive
environment. A cloud-based framework was developed for a research project at the EUCENTRE Foundation in Pavia (Italy). The
monitoring system was made of 3 layers: the data acquisition layer, the device layer, and the cloud layer. The DAQ layer consists of a
wide range of sensors like accelerometers, inclinometer, strain gauge, and LVDT displacement transducer placed at bearings, pier base,
and at midspan of the bridge. Fig. 13 shows the placement of sensors in the bridge used for this study. The accelerometers connected at
mid-span measure the live acceleration acting on the bridge which provides data to the system which are used by researchers. The
accelerometer is also attached to the foundation level, pier caps, and at all other points where acceleration is needed to be calculated.
These sensors fetch data from the structural components and provide it to the system. The other sensors like the LVDT displacement
transducer help us to get the details of the vibration timely for analysis. This system helps us to fetch data from the sensors and get for
the structural health monitoring database of systems. Further, the obtained analog or digital data are converted, filtered, and trans­
ferred in local processing stations. The DAQ is also well developed to receive multimedia content like images from optical and thermal
cameras.
The device layer consists of the OS and broad software framework using general-purpose languages like Java, JavaScript, and
Python or software like MATLAB and LabVIEW to process results more easily. At last, the cloud layer gathers and stores all the
processed data from the device layer. The cloud service for this project was installed in the EUCENTRE Data Lab, where a ProLiant
server with 12 CPUs and 65 GB of RAM runs the Linux-based virtual machines. Apart from easy accessibility and expandable storage
space, cloud computing also helps in data recovery. During natural disasters, it prevents data loss as much as possible and it’s the easier
and cost-effective way for data protection. Cloud services, private clouds in particular are encrypted which secures the data from illegal
use. The software can also be continuously updated to enhance its speed and efficiency [69].

5. Challenges and future scope

The numerous challenges in developing a reliable and fully automated WSN for SHM highlight the areas of development and
potential research. Wireless sensor networks should achieve high fidelity sensing and quick detection of sudden events. For example,
ADXL202E a two-dimensional accelerometer used to monitor strong shaking or disturbances on the Golden Gate Bridge failed to detect
three earthquakes during its deployment period. Limited power supply and response latency (i.e.) the delay between the trigger and
response are major hindrances to detect sudden disasters [54,55].
A sensor network with robust hardware components should be built to resist extreme environmental conditions and accidental
loads (i.e.) hardware components at each sensor node must be durable or secured within a protective case. Secondly, as the world is
shifting towards an eco-friendly approach SHM systems must also be made energy efficient. The WSN should be supplemented with
energy harvesting technologies and low-powered devices. Each operation requires a lot of energy which depletes the battery sooner. A
lot of research is yet to be made to improve energy harvesting and reduce energy consumption. The amount of energy generated from
an energy-harvesting device depends on the climatic conditions too e.g. solar radiation varies with sun time. Energy storage devices
such as rechargeable batteries, low energy Bluetooth, and Ultra Wide Band (UWB) technologies can also be employed. Memory is
another limited resource at each sensor node. Memory decides the amount of data that can be accumulated locally at each node and the
complexity of algorithms that can be performed. Smart resource management techniques like resource allocation, resource scheduling,
and local data filtering enhance transmission efficiency by lowering data size [69,70].
For instance, the MEMS and nanotechnology-based sensors are employed in highway infrastructure condition monitoring. They
detect and examine micro-crack monitoring in concrete, corrosion in steel reinforcements, presence of chloride ions, carbonation, and
leaching of calcium hydroxide. The small size of the sensors and ease of bulk production is an advantage for MEMS. However future
research must be carried out for developing durable packaging, energy supply, data communication, and processing. The operating
system of the software must also be equipped with drivers to support different types of hardware components. Reliable MEMS sensors
at low costs have the potential to revolutionize SHM applications in our day-to-day life [43]. Smart cities are another recent devel­
opment in urban environments for the last two decades. SHM of civil infrastructure plays a major role in such smart cities. This leads to
practical problems like sensor deployment, accuracy, connectivity, coverage, and cost for such a large framework. These nodes can
again be heterogeneous increasing the complexity. Therefore for each specific application, the WSN network must be meticulously
designed. The nodes must be cohesively linked and must be compatible with one another. Using more devices for better coverage, in
turn, consumes more energy. Thus the problem of energy efficiency must also be addressed. Also, as there is always a possibility for the
growth of infrastructures the sensor networks must also be equally expanded. To achieve this, the damage detection algorithms must
be distributed and the network must be scalable [71,72].
Though new sensing components expand the capacity of a sensor node to measure more parameters, the sensor must be within the
size limit. It should be small enough to fit the corners of structures, narrow beam joints, and gaps. It must also be firmly mounted to the
host structure to maintain sensitivity but without damaging the structure. Moreover, such WSN’s for SHM have customized appli­
cations that require extensive research. Fund allocation for the framework’s development, evaluation, and testing is also necessary to
boost research. Field tests on existing civil structures to validate the usage of WSN for SHM are also not performed extensively [73].
As the age of the structure is increasing the monitoring needs to be, intelligent and low-cost and are required to prevent damages in

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Fig. 13. Placement of sensors on the bridge deck and piers [69].

such systems and thus, take necessary precautions accordingly. Traditionally, SHM systems include wired data acquisition systems,
which can acquire structure data periodically. These systems measure structural conduct and assess structural safety circumstances
using various types of sensing devices and certain damage diagnosis and prognosis methods. However, the wired structure monitoring
systems require expensive communication cables to be installed and regularly maintained, and thus, they are not widely implemented
because of their high cost. With the recent advances in WSNs and MEMS technology, the realization of low-cost wireless structure
monitoring systems have become feasible. The collaborative nature of WSNs for SHM applications brings several advantages over
traditional wired SHM systems, including self-organization, rapid deployment, flexibility, and inherent processing capability. In this
regard, WSNs play a vital role in creating a highly flexible and low-cost SHM system that rapidly responds to real-time events with
appropriate actions. Future work includes optimal sensor node deployment, interoperability between different WSN manufacturers,
and porting a cognitive radio paradigm to low-power wireless sensor nodes to cope with RF interference and dynamic/varying wireless
channel conditions in harsh structure environments [73].
To meet the increasing demands and requirements in SHM there are many challenges ranging from software framework to
hardware development in WSN’s. Engineers are coming up with strategies to overcome scalability, power consumption, and response
latency. For example, the Wind and Structural Health Monitoring System in Hong Kong, a highly sophisticated bridge monitoring
system was developed by the Hong Kong Highways Department. It comprises 900 sensors overall that work round the clock over the
past 15 years to monitor 5 long-span cable-supported bridges. This system was upgraded to an SHM and Maintenance Management
System (SHM&MMS) a few years to monitor 21 sea crossing viaducts. To undertake this massive task, the engineers have shifted their
focus from a conventional corrective approach to modern Condition-Based Maintenance CBM approach. In the conventional corrective
approach, the bridge is operated until any defect appears. Then maintenance and rehabilitation works begin which will be expensive
due to extensive damage and the bridge’s stability may be highly compromised. Whereas under CBM structure’s condition is monitored
continuously and once it shows sign of any failure the maintenance work is begun (SHM in Hong kong paper). Such upgrades in
designing and implementing wireless networks must be adopted across other networks to make them fully autonomous even during
sudden events [74].

6. Conclusion

Advantages like an increase in accurate inspection procedures and mitigation of failures in RCC structures by the implementation of
SHM are summarized in this paper. A transition from Non– Destructive Techniques using transducers or ultrasonic testing to per­
manent Structural Health Monitoring systems with more sophisticated and automated wireless networking and AI tools is evident in
recent years. This is mainly due to the incorporation of advances in other fields of engineering in civil engineering [75]. The recent shift
in few countries from “constructing new structures” to “maintaining existing structures” has also thrown light on SHM practices [76].
Despite its versatility, SHM techniques are constantly questioned on the grounds of stability and durability. Even though various
research activities are taking place in this field their practical application is quite less, owing to restricted availability of standards,
human ignorance towards repair and maintenance of structures, and the additional cost a permanent SHM system superimposes on the
construction costs during its installment. For each application of SHM, its reliability must be validated concerning the smallest damage
it can detect and how accurately it can process it [77]. This will increase confidence for practical implementation. Academicians must
also widen their scope of research from simple beams or smaller components to real-life structures as they are more complex and will
bring out the true challenges faced [78]. Though SHM is widely implemented in the USA, UK, China, Japan, and New Zealand it is yet
to be widely practiced in India. We have come a long way in implementing monitoring and rehabilitation methodologies to our in­
frastructures and with further efforts by the researchers and practicing engineers the gap between research and real-life fulfillment can
be gelled.

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A. Sofi et al. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 163 (2022) 108113

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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