3 - CONVECTION

Week 3 – Topic 3

1
 TOPIC OUTLINE

• Convective Heat Transfer

• Heat Transfer Coefficients
• Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers
• Forced convection in a variety of configurations
• Natural convection in single-phase fluids
• Heat transfer during film condensation and boiling

2
 CONVECTION

• Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk motion
• Convection may be classified into (depending on how fluid flow is initiated:
• natural (or free) convection
• Any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as
the rise of warmer fluid and the fall of the cooler fluid.
• forced convection
• the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan
• Other classifications include:
• External
• Fluid is forced to flow over a surface
• Internal
• Fluid is forced to flow inside a pipe

3
 MECHANISM OF CONVECTION

• Conduction and convection are similar in that both

mechanisms require the presence of a material
medium.
• But they are different in that convection requires the presence
of fluid motion.
• Heat transfer through a solid is always by conduction,
• since the molecules of a solid remain at relatively fixed positions.
• Heat transfer through a liquid or gas, however, can be by
conduction or convection, depending on the presence of any
bulk fluid motion.
• Heat transfer through a fluid is by convection in the presence
of bulk fluid motion and by conduction in the absence of it.
Therefore, conduction in a fluid can be viewed as the limiting
case of convection, corresponding to the case of quiescent fluid Figure 3-1. Heat transfer from a
(Fig. 3–1). hot surface to the surrounding fluid
by convection and conduction.

4
 MECHANISM OF CONVECTION

• Convection heat transfer is complicated

• It involves fluid motion as well as heat conduction.
• The fluid motion enhances heat transfer,
• since it brings warmer and cooler chunks of fluid into contact,
initiating higher rates of conduction at a greater number of sites in
a fluid.
• Therefore, the rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much
higher by convection than it is by conduction.
• The higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat transfer

5
 CONVECTION IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

• In most situations involving a liquid and a Small temperature difference

(Average temperature of fluid is

gas in heat transfer, convective heat slightly less than the peak value
T1

transfer usually occurs alongside

conduction.
• In most industrial processes where heat is Large temperature
being transferred from one fluid through a difference

solid wall to another fluid.

• In Fig. 3 -2, heat is being transferred from
the hot flowing fluid to the cold flowing
fluid. The temperature profile is shown. Viscous sublayer
(turbulence is absent)

Figure 3-2. Temperature profile for heat transfer by

convection from one fluid to another

6
 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

• Experience shows that convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid
properties:
• dynamic viscosity 𝜇,
• thermal conductivity k,
• density 𝜌
• specific heat 𝐶𝑝 ,
• fluid velocity, v.
• Geometry and the roughness of the solid surface,
• type of fluid flow (such as being streamlined or turbulent).
• Thus, we expect the convection heat transfer relations to be rather complex
because of the dependence of convection on so many variables. This is not surprising,
since convection is the most complex mechanism of heat transfer.

7
 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

• Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is observed to
be proportional to the temperature difference and is conveniently expressed by
Newton’s law of cooling as:
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 (3-1)
• Where:
𝑊
ℎ = convective heat transfer coefficient 𝑚2 −𝐾
𝐴 =area 𝑚2
𝑇 = bulk or average temperature of the fluid (𝐾)
𝑇𝑤 = the temperature of the wall in contact with the fluid (𝐾)
𝑞 = heat-transfer rate in W

𝑏𝑡𝑢
• In English units, q is in ,A in ft2, and T and Tw in °F
ℎ∙𝑓𝑡2·°𝐹

8
 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

• The type of fluid flow, whether laminar or turbulent, of the

individual fluid has a great effect on the heat-transfer
coefficient h, which is often called a film coefficient,
since most of the resistance to heat transfer is in a thin film
close to the wall.
• The more turbulent the flow, the greater the heat-transfer
coefficient.

9
 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

• Convection heat transfer coefficient h

• the rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per
unit surface area per unit temperature difference.

• BEWARE!!!! The simplicity of this relation is a trap!!!

• The convection heat transfer coefficient h depends on the several of
the mentioned variables, and thus is difficult to determine.

10
 DETERMINING CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

• Fluid flow is often confined by solid surfaces, and it is important to

understand how the presence of solid surfaces affects fluid flow.
• Consider the flow of a fluid in a stationary pipe or over a solid
surface that is nonporous (i.e., impermeable to
the fluid).
• All experimental observations indicate that a fluid in motion comes to a
complete stop at the surface and assumes a zero velocity relative to the
surface. That is, a fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the
surface due to viscous effects, and there is no slip. This is known as the
no-slip condition.

11
 DETERMINING CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

• The photo in Fig. 3–3 obtained from a video clip clearly shows
the evolution of a velocity gradient as a result of the fluid
sticking to the surface of a blunt nose.
• The layer that sticks to the surface slows the adjacent fluid layer
because of viscous forces between the fluid layers, which slows the
next layer, and so on.
• Therefore, the no-slip condition is responsible for the development of
the velocity profile.
• Boundary layer
Figure 3-3. The development of a velocity profile due
• The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous effects to the no-slip condition as a fluid flows over a blunt
(and thus the velocity gradients) are significant. nose.
“Hunter Rouse: Laminar and Turbulent Flow Film.”
• Viscosity Copyright IIHR-Hydroscience & Engineering, The University
of Iowa.
• The fluid property responsible for the no-slip condition and
the development of the boundary layer.

12
 DETERMINING CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
• A fluid layer adjacent to a moving surface has the same velocity
as the surface.
• A consequence of the no-slip condition is that all velocity profiles
must have zero values with respect to the surface at the points
of contact between a fluid and a solid surface (Fig. 3–4).
• Another consequence of the no-slip condition is the surface drag, which
is the force a fluid exerts on a surface in the flow direction.
• An implication of the no-slip condition is that heat transfer from the
solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure
conduction, since the fluid layer is motionless, and can be
Figure 3-4. A fluid flowing over a stationary surface expressed as:
comes to a complete stop at the surface because of 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝜕𝑇
the no-slip condition. = = −𝑘 𝜕𝑦ቚ (3-2)
𝐴 𝐴 𝑦=0
• Where:
• 𝑇 = represents the temperature distribution in the fluid
𝜕𝑇
• 𝜕𝑦
= temperature gradient at the surface

13
 DETERMINING HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

• Heat is then convected away from the surface as a result of fluid motion.
• Note that convection heat transfer from a solid surface to a fluid is merely the conduction heat
transfer from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface.
• Therefore, we can equate Eqs. 3–1 and 3-2 for the heat flux to obtain:
𝜕𝑇
−𝑘𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜕𝑦
𝑦=0 𝑊
ℎ= (3-3)
𝑇𝑤 −𝑇 𝑚2 ∙𝐾
• for the determination of the convection heat transfer coefficient when the temperature distribution
within the fluid is known.
• The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the flow (or x-) direction.
The average or mean convection heat transfer coefficient for a surface in such cases is
determined by properly averaging the local convection heat transfer coefficients
over the entire surface.

14
 HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

• Most of the correlations for predicting

Table 3-1 Approximate convective heat
film coefficients h are semiempirical
transfer coefficients of some materials
in nature and are affected by the:
• physical properties of the fluid
• type and velocity of flow
• temperature difference
• geometry of the specific physical system
• Some approximate values for convective
coefficients were presented in Table 3-1.
In the following correlations, either SI or
English units can be used, since the
equations are dimensionless.

15
 NUSSELT NUMBER

• In convection studies, it is common practice to nondimensionalize

the governing equations and combine the variables, which group
together into dimensionless numbers in order to reduce the number
of total variables.
• It is also common practice to nondimensionalize the heat transfer
coefficient h with the Nusselt number, defined as
ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = 𝑘
(3-4)
• Where:
• ℎ = the heat transfer coefficient Figure 3-5 Wilhelm Nusselt (1882–1957), was a German
engineer, born in Nuremberg, Germany. He studied
• 𝑘 = thermal conductivity k of the fluid machinery at the Technical Universities of Berlin-
Charlottenburg and Munchen and conducted advanced
• 𝐷 = characteristic dimension (can be the pipe diameter for flow inside studies in mathematics and physics. His doctoral thesis was
on the “Conductivity of Insulating Materials” which he
a pipe) completed in 1907. In 1915, Nusselt published his pioneering
paper: The Basic Laws of Heat Transfer, in which he first
• The Nusselt number is named after Wilhelm Nusselt (Fig. 3–5) is proposed the dimensionless groups now known as the
principal parameters in the similarity theory of heat transfer.
viewed as the dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient His other famous works were concerned with the film
condensation of steam on vertical surfaces, the combustion of
pulverized coal and the analogy between heat and mass
transfer in evaporation. Among his well known mathematical
works are the solutions for laminar heat transfer in the
entrance region of tubes and for heat exchange in cross-flow,
and the basic theory of regenerators.
© KIT-Archiv, Foto: 28010, I / 2678
16
 NUSSELT NUMBER

• To understand the physical significance of the Nusselt number,

• Consider a fluid layer of thickness L and temperature difference ∆𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 , as shown in Fig. 3–
6:
• Heat transfer through the fluid layer is by convection when the fluid involves some motion and,
• by conduction when the fluid layer is motionless.
• Heat flux (the rate of heat transfer per unit surface area) in either case is:
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝐴
= 𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ∆𝑇 (3-5)
• And setting L=D:
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑇
= 𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑘 (3-6)
𝐴 𝐷
• Taking their ratios give: Figure 3-6. Heat transfer through
a fluid layer of thickness L and
𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ℎ∆𝑇 ℎ𝐷 temperature difference ∆𝑇.
= = = 𝑁𝑁𝑢 (3-7)
𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑘∆𝑇/𝐷 𝑘

17
 NUSSELT NUMBER

• Therefore, the Nusselt number represents the

enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid layer as
a result of convection relative to conduction across
the same fluid layer.
• The larger the Nusselt number, the more effective the
convection.
• A Nusselt number of 𝐍𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏 for a fluid layer represents heat
transfer across the layer by pure conduction.

18
SOME PROPERTIES OF AIR AT 1 ATM PRESSURE

19
 EXAMPLE 3-1
• Heat Transfer Calculation from a Temperature Profile
• During the flow of air at 𝑇∞ = 20°𝐶 over a plate surface maintained at a constant temperature of Ts =160°C, the
dimensionless temperature profile within the air layer over the plate is determined to be:
𝑇 𝑦 − 𝑇∞
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑦
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
• where a = 3200 m-1 and y is the vertical distance measured from the plate surface in m. Determine the heat flux
on the plate surface and the convection heat transfer coefficient.
• Solution:
• Airflow over a flat plate has a given temperature profile. The heat flux on the plate surface and the convection
heat transfer coefficient are to be
determined.
• Assumptions
• 1. The given nondimensional temperature profile is representative of the variation of temperature over the
entire plate.
• 2 Heat transfer by radiation is negligible.
• Properties
𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞ 160°𝐶+ 20°𝐶
• The thermal conductivity of air at the film temperature of 𝑇𝑓 = = = 90°𝐶 is k = 0.03024
2 2
W/m·K (Table A–15)

20
 EXAMPLE 3-1
• Analysis Noting that heat transfer from the plate to air at the surface is by conduction, heat flux from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is
determined from:
𝜕𝑇
𝑞ሶ = 𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑘𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ቤ
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

• Where the temperature gradient at the plate surface is:

𝜕𝑇
ቤ = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝑎 𝑒 −𝑎𝑦 𝑦=0 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ −𝑎
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
= 160 ℃ − 20℃ −3200 𝑚−1 = −4.48 × 105 ℃/𝑚
• Substituting,
𝑊 ℃
𝑞ሶ = − 0.03024 −4.48 × 105 = 1.35 × 104 𝑊/𝑚2
𝑚∙𝐾 𝑚
• The convection heat transfer coefficient becomes:
𝜕𝑇
−𝑘𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
ℎ=
𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇
𝑊 ℃
−0.03024 −4.48 × 105
𝑚∙𝐾 𝑚
=
(160℃ − 20℃)
𝑾
= 𝟗𝟔. 𝟖 𝟐
𝒎 ∙𝑲
• Alternative method
• The convection heat transfer coefficient could also be determined from Newton’s law of cooling, 𝑞ሶ = ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

21
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW

• Viscous vs Inviscid Flow

• Viscous Flow
• Flows in which the frictional effects are significant
• Viscous flow region - thin boundary layer in
which the viscous effects are significant near the
plate surface
• Inviscid flow
• Flow in regions (typically regions not close to solid Figure 3-7. The flow of an originally uniform fluid stream over a flat
plate, and the regions of viscous flow (next to the plate on both
surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small sides) and inviscid flow (away from the plate).
Source: Fundamentals of Boundary Layers, National Committee from
compared to inertial or pressure forces. Fluid Mechanics Films, © Education Development Center

• Inviscid flow region - region of flow on both

sides away from the plate and unaffected by the
presence of the plate.

22
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW

• Internal vs External Flow

• External Flow
• Flow of an unbounded fluid over a
surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe
• Internal flow Figure 3-8. External flow over a tennis ball, and
the turbulent wake region behind.
• Fluid is completely bounded by solid Courtesy NASA and Cislunar Aerospace, Inc.

surfaces (i.e. flow in a pipe or in a duct

also called as open-channel flow

23
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW

• A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the level of variation of density during flow.
• Incompressible flow
• Density remains nearly constant throughout
• The volume of every portion of fluid remains unchanged over the course of its motion
• Liquids are usually referred to as incompressible substances
• Compressible flow
• Density may change throughout the flow
• Gases are highly compressible.
• A pressure change of just 0.01 atm, for example, causes a change of 1 percent in the density of atmospheric air
• Level of variation in density in gas flows and the consequent level of approximation made when modeling gas flows as incompressible
depends on the Mach number defined as N𝑀𝑎 = 𝑉/𝑐, where c is the speed of sound whose value is 346 m/s in air at room temperature
at sea level.
• Incompressible if the density changes are under about 5 percent, (𝑁𝑀𝑎 , < 0.3)

24
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW

• Laminar flow
• The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth
layers of fluid
• Laminar comes from the movement of adjacent fluid particles together
in “laminates.”
• Typically observed in flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils
• Turbulent
• The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high
velocities and is characterized by velocity fluctuations
Figure 3-9. Laminar, transitional, and
• Example: the flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high velocities. turbulent flows.
Courtesy ONERA, photograph by Werlé
• Transitional Flow
• Flow that alternates between laminar and turbulent

25
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW

• Classification based on how the fluid motion is

initiated
• Forced flow
• a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan
• Natural flows,
• any fluid motion is due to natural means such
as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the
rise of the warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall
of cooler (and thus denser) fluid (Fig. 3-10).
• In solar hot-water systems, for example, the
Figure 3-10. In this schlieren image of a girl, the rise of thermosiphoning effect is commonly used to replace
lighter, warmer air adjacent to her body indicates that pumps by placing the water tank sufficiently above the
humans and warm-blooded animals are surrounded by solar collectors
thermal plumes of rising warm air.
Source: G. S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State
University. Used by permission.

26
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW

• Steady and Uniform

• Steady
• No change at a point with time
• Uniform
• No change with location over a specific region
• Unsteady and Transient
• Unsteady
• In fluid mechanics means any flow that is unsteady
• Transient
• Typically used for developing flows
• Example:
• When a rocket engine is fired up, there are transient effects (the pressure builds up inside the rocket engine, the
flow
accelerates, etc.)

27
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW

• One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

• A flow field is best characterized by the velocity
distribution, and thus a flow is said to be one-, two-,
or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one,
two, or three primary dimensions, respectively.
• A typical fluid flow involves a three-dimensional geometry,
and the velocity may vary in all three dimensions,
rendering the flow three-dimensional [𝑉 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in Figure 3-11. The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V =V(r, z) and thus the
flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream
rectangular or 𝑉 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 in cylindrical coordinates] when the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r).

• The dimensionality of the flow also depends on the

choice of
coordinate system and its orientation.
• The pipe flow discussed, for example, is one-
dimensional in cylindrical coordinates, but two-
dimensional in Cartesian coordinates—illustrating
the importance of choosing the most appropriate
coordinate system.

28
 VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
Figure 3-13. The
development of a boundary
layer on a surface is due to
the no-slip condition and
friction

Figure 3-12. The development of the boundary layer for flow over a flat plate, and the
different flow regimes.
Courtesy of University of Delaware.

• Velocity Boundary Layer

• The region of the flow above the plate bounded by d in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt
• Boundary Layer Thickness, 𝛿
• Distance from the surface at which 𝑢 = 0.99𝑉
• The hypothetical line of 𝑢 = 0.99𝑉 divides the flow over a plate into two regions:
• Boundary Layer Region
• Viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant
• Irrotational Flow Region
• The frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains essentially constant.

29
 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
• A thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at a specified temperature flows over
a surface that is at a different temperature, as shown in Fig. 3-14

• Thermal Boundary Layer

• Thermal Boundary Layer Thickness, 𝜹
Figure 3-14. Thermal boundary layer
on a flat plate (the fluid is hotter than
the plate surface).
• Flow region over the surface in which the temperature variation in the direction normal to
the surface is significant
• The distance from the surface at which the temperature difference 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 equals 0.99(𝑇∞ −
𝑇𝑠 ).
• For the special case of 𝑇𝑠 = 0, we have 𝑇 = 0.99𝑇∞ at the outer edge of the thermal
boundary
layer,
• Analogous to u = 0.99V for the velocity boundary layer
• Thickness of the thermal boundary layer increases in the flow direction,
• Since the effects of heat transfer are felt at greater distances from the surface further
down stream

30
 PRANDTL NUMBER

• The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers is
best described by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl number.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝜈 𝜇𝑐𝑝
𝑁𝑃𝑟 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
=𝛼= 𝑘
(3-8)
• Prandtl numbers of fluids range from less than 0.01 for liquid metals to more
than 100,000 for heavy oils (Table 6–2).
• Prandtl number is in the order of 10 for water.
• For gases: 0.5 to 1.0

• For low NPr fluids, i.e. liquid metals, heat diffuses much faster than
momentum flow (remember Pr = ν/α<<1) and the VBL is fully
contained within the TBL
• On the other hand, for high NPr fluids, i.e. oils, heat diffuses much
slower than the momentum and the TBL is contained within
the VBL.
Figure 3-15. Ludwig Prandtl (1875–1953), was a German
Physicist famous for his work in aeronautics, born in Freising,
Bavaria. His discovery in 1904 of the Boundary Layer which
adjoins the surface of a body moving in a fluid led to an
understanding of skin friction drag and of the way in which
streamlining reduces the drag of airplane wings and other
moving bodies. Prandtl’s work and decisive advances in
boundary layer and wing theories became the basic material
of aeronautics. He also made important contributions to the
theories of supersonic flow and of turbulence, and
contributed much to the development
of wind tunnels and other aerodynamic
equipment. The dimensionless Prandtl
number was named after him.
Courtesy DLR-Archive.

31
 PRANDTL NUMBER
Table 3-1. Prandtl Number of Gases at 101.325 kPa
Source: Geankoplis 5th Ed (Table A.3-7)

Table 3-2.

32
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

• Laminar
• characterized by smooth streamlines and highly-ordered motion
• Encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in small pipes or narrow
passages.
• Turbulent
• Characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly-disordered motion.
• Most flows encountered in practice
• Transition
• Does not occur suddenly; rather,
• Occurs over some region in which the flow fluctuates between laminar and turbulent
flows before it becomes fully turbulent.

33
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

• We can verify the existence of these laminar, transitional, and

turbulent flow regimes by injecting some dye streak into the
flow in a glass tube, as the British scientist Osborn Reynolds
(Fig. 3-17) did over a century ago.
• We observe that the dye streak forms a straight and smooth
line at low velocities when the flow is laminar (we may see
some blurring because of molecular diffusion), has bursts of
fluctuations in the transitional regime, and zigzags rapidly and
randomly when the flow becomes fully turbulent.
• These zigzags and the dispersion of the dye are indicative of
the fluctuations in the main flow and the rapid mixing of fluid
Figure 3-16. The behavior of colored
fluid injected into the flow in particles from adjacent layers
laminar and turbulent flows in a
pipe.

34
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

• Typical average velocity profiles in laminar and

turbulent flow are also given in Fig. 3-12.
• Note: Velocity profile in turbulent flow is much fuller
than that in laminar flow, with a sharp drop near the
surface.
Figure 3-12. The development of the boundary layer for flow over a flat plate, and the different
flow regimes.
Courtesy of University of Delaware.

• The turbulent boundary layer can be considered to consist of four regions, characterized by the distance from the wall:
• Viscous Sublayer
• The very thin layer next to the wall where viscous effects are dominant
• Velocity profile is very nearly linear
• Flow is streamlined.
• Buffer layer
• Turbulent effects are becoming significant, but the flow is still dominated by viscous effects.
• Overlap Layer
• Above the buffer layer
• turbulent effects are much more significant, but still not dominant.
• Turbulent layer
• Turbulent effects dominate over viscous effects.

35
 REYNOLDS NUMBER

• Reynolds Number
• Ratio of the inertia forces to viscous forces in the fluid
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑉𝐿𝑐 𝜌𝑉𝐿𝑐
𝑁𝑅𝑒 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = = (3-9)
𝜈 𝜇
• Where:
• 𝑉 = upstream velocity (equivalent to the free-stream
velocity for a flat plate)
• 𝐿𝑐 = characteristic length of the geometry, Figure 3-17. Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912), an English engineer and
𝜌
• 𝑣= = kinematic viscosity of the fluid physicist best known for his work in the fields of hydraulics and
hydrodynamics, was born in Belfast, Ireland. Reynolds’ studies of
𝜇 condensation and the transfer of heat between solids and fluids brought
about radical revisions in boiler and condenser design, and his work on
• For a flat plate, the characteristic length is the distance x turbine pumps laid the foundation for their rapid development. His
from the leading edge. classical paper on “The Law of Resistance in Parallel Channels” (1883)
investigated the transition from smooth, or laminar, to turbulent flow. In
1886 he also formulated “The Theory of Lubrication” and later in 1889,
• Note that kinematic viscosity has the unit m2/s, which is he developed a mathematical framework which became the standard in

identical to the unit of thermal diffusivity, and can be viewed
as viscous diffusivity or diffusivity for momentum.
turbulence work. His other work included the explanation of the
radiometer and an early absolute determination of the mechanical
equivalent of heat. The dimensionless Reynolds number, which
provides a criterion for dynamic similarity and for correct modeling in
many fluid flow experiments, is named after him.
Courtesy of the Archives, California Institute of Technology.

36
 REYNOLDS NUMBER

• The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent

is called the critical Reynolds number.
• For flat plate the critical Re is experimentally determined to
be approximately
N𝑅𝑒(critical) = 5.0 × 105
• For smooth pipe:
• Re < 2000 – Laminar flow
• Re > 4000 – Turbulent flow
• 2000<Re<4000 – Transitional flow
37
 CONTINUITY EQUATION

• Conservation of mass relation in differential form, which is also known

as the continuity equation or mass balance for steady two-
dimensional flow of a fluid with constant density is given by:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜈
+ =0 (3-10)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

38
 MOMENTUM EQUATION

• The relation for the momentum balance in the x-

direction, also known as the x-momentum equation is
given by:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝜇 2 − (3-11)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

39
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY EQUATION

• Then the energy equation for the steady two-dimensional

flow of a fluid with constant properties and negligible shear
stresses is:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑥
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 =𝑘 + (3-12)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
which states that the net energy convected by the fluid out of the
control volume is equal to the net energy transferred into the
control volume by heat conduction.

40
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY EQUATION

• When the viscous shear stresses are not negligible, their effect is accounted for by
expressing the energy equation as:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑥
𝜌𝐶𝑝 =𝑘 + + 𝜇Φ (3-13)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
• Where:
• Viscous dissipation function Φ is equal to:
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 2
Φ=2 𝜕𝑥
+ 𝜕𝑥
+ 𝜕𝑥
+ 𝜕𝑥 (3-14)
• Viscous dissipation may play a dominant role in high-speed flows, especially when the viscosity of
the fluid is high (like the flow of oil in journal bearings). This manifests itself as a significant rise in
fluid temperature due to the conversion of the kinetic energy of the fluid to thermal energy.
Viscous dissipation is also significant for high-speed flights of aircraft.

41
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY EQUATION

• For the special case of a stationary fluid, u = v = 0, the energy

equation reduces, as expected, to the steady two-dimensional
heat conduction equation,
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
+ =0 (3-15)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

42
 PRANDTL MIXING LENGTH AND EDDY DIFFUSIVITY

• Prandtl Mixing Length

𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝜀𝑡 = 𝐿2 (3-16)
𝑑𝑦
• Where:
• 𝜀𝑡 = turbulent momentum eddy diffusivity (depends on fluid motion)
• 𝐿 = Prandtl mixing length
• Total heat flux for turbulent flow:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑞ሶ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = − 𝑘 + 𝑘𝑡 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝛼 + 𝛼𝑡 ) (3-17)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
• Where:
• 𝛼𝑡 = 𝑘𝑡 /𝜌𝐶𝑝 = eddy thermal diffusivity (or eddy diffusivity of heat)

43
 HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR A LAMINAR FLOW INSIDE A PIPE

• For laminar flow of fluids inside horizontal tubes or pipes, the following equation of Sieder and Tate (S1) can be used for NRe <
2100.
𝟏
𝒉𝒂 𝑫 𝑫 𝟑 𝝁𝒃 𝟎.𝟏𝟒
𝑵𝑵𝒖 𝒂 = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 𝑵𝑹𝒆 𝑵𝑷𝒓 (3-18)
𝒌 𝑳 𝝁𝒘
• Where
• 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚,
• 𝐿 = 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚,
• 𝜇𝑏 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎 · 𝑠,
• 𝜇𝑤 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒,
𝐽
• 𝑐𝑝 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 ,
𝑘𝑔·𝐾
𝑊
• 𝑘 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛
𝑚∙𝐾

• ℎ𝑎 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑊/𝑚2 · 𝐾,

• 𝑁𝑁𝑢 = 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
• All the physical properties are evaluated at the bulk fluid temperature except μw
• This equation holds for (𝑁𝑅𝑒 𝑁𝑃𝑟 𝐷/𝐿) > 100. If used down to (𝑁𝑅𝑒 𝑁𝑃𝑟 𝐷/𝐿) > 10, it still holds to ±20%.

44
 HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR LAMINAR FLOW INSIDE A PIPE

• In laminar flow, the average coefficient ha depends strongly on heated length. The
average (arithmetic mean) temperature drop Δ𝑇𝑎 is used in the equation to calculate the
heat-transfer rate q

𝑇𝑤 −𝑇𝑏𝑖 +(𝑇𝑤 −𝑇𝑏0 )

𝑞 = ℎ𝑜 𝐴∆𝑇𝑎 = ℎ𝑎 𝐴 (3-19)
2
• where
• Tw = wall temperature in K,
• Tbi = inlet bulk fluid temperature,
• Tbo = outlet bulk fluid temperature.

• For large pipe diameters and large temperature differences ΔT between pipe wall and
bulk fluid, natural convection effects can increase h

45
 HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR TURBULENT FLOW INSIDE A PIPE

• When the Reynolds number is above 6000, the flow is fully turbulent.

• Since the rate of heat transfer is greater in the turbulent region, many industrial heat-
transfer processes are in the turbulent region.

• The following equation has been found to hold for tubes but is also used for pipes:
1
ℎ𝐿 𝐷 0.8 𝜇𝑏 0.14
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = = 3
0.027𝑁𝑅𝑒 𝑁𝑃𝑟 𝜇 (3-20)
𝑘 𝑤

• Holds for: NRe > 6000, a NPr between 0.7 and 16 000, and L/D > 60.
• Where:
• where hL is the heat-transfer coefficient based on the log mean driving force ΔTlm

46
 HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR TURBULENT FLOW INSIDE A PIPE

• For air at 1 atm total pressure, the following simplified equation

holds for turbulent flow in pipes:
3.52𝑣 0.8
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐷0.2
(SI)
0.5𝑣𝑠0.8
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐷′ 0.2
(English) (3-21)

• Where:
• D is in m, υ in m/s, and hL in W/m2·K for SI units; and
• D′ is in in., υs in ft/s, and hL is in btu/h· ft2· °F for English units.

47
 HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR TURBULENT FLOW INSIDE A PIPE

• Water is often used in heat-transfer equipment. A simplified

equation to use for a temperature range of T = 4 – 105°C(40 –
220°F) is:

𝑣 0.8
ℎ𝐿 = 1429 1 + 0.0146𝑇℃ (SI)
𝐷0.2

𝑣𝑠0.8
ℎ𝐿 = 150 1 + 0.011𝑇℉ (English) (3-22)
𝐷′ 0.2

48
 HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR TURBULENT FLOW INSIDE A PIPE

• For organic liquids,

𝑣 0.8
ℎ𝐿 = 423 𝐷0.2 (SI)
𝑣 0.8
ℎ𝐿 = 60 𝐷′ 0.2 (English) (3-23)

• For flow inside helical coils and NRe above 104, the predicted
film coefficient for straight pipes should be increased by the
factor (1+3.5D/Dcoil)

49
 EXAMPLE 3-2

• Air at 206.8 kPa and an average of 477.6 K is being heated as it flows

through a tube of 25.4 mm inside diameter at a velocity of 7.62 m/s.
The heating medium is 488.7 K steam condensing on the outside of the
tube. Since the heat-transfer coefficient of condensing steam is several
thousand W/m2 · K and the resistance of the metal wall is very small, it
will be assumed that the surface wall temperature of the metal in
contact with the air is 488.7 K. Calculate the heat-transfer coefficient
for an L/D > 60 and also the heat-transfer flux q/A.

• Answer: 701.1 W/m2

50
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR TRANSITION FLOW INSIDE A PIPE

• The plot in Fig. 3-16 represents an

approximate relationship to use
between the various heat-transfer
parameters and the Reynolds
number between 2100 and 6000.
For below a NRe of 2100, the
curves represent Eq. (3-18), and Figure 3-16. Correlation of heat-transfer parameters for
above 104, Eq. (3-20). The mean ΔTa transition region for Reynolds numbers between 2100 and 6000.
(From R. H. Perry and C. H. Chilton, Chemical Engineers’
of Eq. (3-19) should be used with Handbook, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1973.With permission.)
the ha in Fig. 3-16.

51
HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR NONCIRCULAR CONDUITS

• A heat-transfer system often used is one in which fluids flow

at different temperatures in concentric pipes. The heat-
transfer coefficient of the fluid in the annular space
can be predicted by using the same equations as for
circular pipes. However, the equivalent diameter must
be used. For an annular space, Deq is the ID of the outer
pipe D1 minus the OD of the inner pipe D2. For other
geometries, an equivalent diameter can also be used.

52
 EXAMPLE 3-3

• Water Heated by Steam and Trial-and-Error Solution

• Water is flowing in a horizontal 1-in. Schedule 40 steel pipe at an
average temperature of 65.6°C and a velocity of 2.44 m/s. It is being
heated by condensing steam at 107.8°C on the outside of the pipe wall.
The steam-side coefficient has been estimated as ho = 10 500 W/m2·K.
a. Calculate the convective coefficient hi for water inside the pipe. (hL =
hi = 13 324 W/m2·K)
b. Calculate the overall coefficient Ui based on the inside surface area.
(Ui=4586 W/m2-K)
c. Calculate the heat-transfer rate q for 0.305 m of pipe with the water
at an average temperature of 65.6°C. (q=4935 W)

53
 ENTRANCE REGION EFFECT ON THE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

• Near the entrance of a pipe where the fluid is being heated, the temperature
profile is not fully developed and the local coefficient h is greater than the
fully developed heat-transfer coefficient hL for turbulent flow.

• At the entrance itself, where no temperature gradient has been established, the
value of h is infinite. The value of h drops rapidly and is approximately the same as hL
at L/D ≅ 60, where L is the entrance length. These relations for turbulent flow inside a
pipe where the entrance is an abrupt contraction are as follows:
ℎ 𝐷 0.7 𝐿
=1+ 2< < 20 (3-24)
ℎ𝐿 𝐿 𝐷
ℎ 𝐷 0.7 𝐿
=1+ 6 20 < < 60 (3-25)
ℎ𝐿 𝐿 𝐷
• where h is the average value for a tube of finite length L and hL is the value for a very long tube.

54
 LIQUID-METALS HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

• Liquid metals
• Sometimes used as heat-transfer fluids in cases where a fluid is
needed over a wide temperature range at relatively low
pressures.
• Often used in nuclear reactors and have high heat-transfer
coefficients as well as a high heat capacity per unit volume.
• The high heat-transfer coefficients are due to the very high thermal
conductivities and, hence, low Prandtl numbers.
• In liquid metals in pipes, heat transfer by conduction is very important in
the entire turbulent core because of the high thermal conductivity and
is often more important than the convection effects.

55
 LIQUID-METALS HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

• For fully developed turbulent flow in tubes with uniform heat flux, the following equation can be
used:
ℎ𝐿 𝐷 0.4
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = = 0.625𝑁𝑃𝑒 (3-26)
𝑘

• Where:
• Peclet number NPe = NReNPr. This holds for L/D > 60 and NPe between 100 and 104. 4

• For constant wall temperatures,

ℎ𝐿 𝐷 0.8
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = 𝑘
= 5.0 + 0.025𝑁𝑃𝑒 (3-27)

• for L/D > 60 and NPe > 100.

• All physical properties are evaluated at the average bulk temperature.

56
 EXAMPLE 3-4

• Liquid-Metal Heat Transfer Inside a Tube

• A liquid metal flows at a rate of 4.00 kg/s through a tube having an
inside diameter of 0.05 m. The liquid enters at 500 K and is heated
to 505 K in the tube. The tube wall is maintained at a temperature
of 30K above the fluid bulk temperature and constant heat flux is
also maintained. Calculate the required tube length. The average
physical properties are as follows: μ = 7.1 × 10–4 Pa · s, ρ = 7400
kg/m3, cp =120 J/kg· K, k = 13 W/m· K.
• Answer: L=0.203 m

57
 HEAT TRANSFER OUTSIDE VARIOUS GEOMETRIES IN FORCED
CONVECTION
• In many cases, a fluid is flowing over completely immersed bodies such as spheres, tubes, plates,
and so on, and heat transfer is occurring between the fluid and the solid only. Many of these
shapes are of practical interest in process engineering. The sphere, cylinder, and flat plate are
perhaps of greatest importance, with heat transfer between these surfaces and a moving fluid
frequently encountered.
• When heat transfer occurs during immersed flow, the flux is dependent on the:
• geometry of the body
• the position on the body (front, side, back, etc.)
• the proximity of other bodies
• the flow rate
• fluid properties.
• The heat-transfer coefficient varies over the body. The average heat transfer coefficient is given
in the empirical relationships.

58
 HEAT TRANSFER OUTSIDE VARIOUS GEOMETRIES IN FORCED
CONVECTION

• In general, the average heat-transfer coefficient on immersed bodies is given by

1
𝑚
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶𝑁𝑅𝑒 𝑁𝑃𝑟 3
(3-28)
• where C and m are constants that depend on the various configurations.

• The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature Tf = (Tw + Tb)/2,
where Tw is the surface or wall temperature and Tb the average bulk fluid
temperature.

• The velocity in the NRe is the undisturbed free stream velocity v of the fluid
approaching the object.

59
 FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE

• Boundary layer thickness, 𝛿

4.91𝑥
𝛿= (3-29)
√𝑁𝑅𝑒,𝑥
Where:
• 𝑁𝑅𝑒,𝑥 = 𝑉𝑥/𝜈, where 𝑥 =distance from the leading edge of the plate
• The boundary layer thickness increases with increasing kinematic
viscosity 𝜈 and with increasing distance from the leading edge x, but it
decreases with increasing free-stream velocity V.
• A large free-stream velocity suppresses the boundary layer and causes it
to be thinner.

60
 FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE

• The local friction coefficient is given by:

1
𝜏𝑤 −
𝐶𝑓,𝑥 = 2
= 0.664𝑁𝑅𝑒,𝑥 (3-30)
𝜌𝑉 2 /2
• Unlike the boundary layer thickness, wall shear stress and the skin
friction coefficient decrease along the plate as x-1/2.

61
 FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE

• The local heat transfer coefficient and the Nusselt number

for a flow over a flat plate is given by:

1 1
ℎ𝑥 𝑥
𝑁𝑁𝑢,𝑥 = 2 3
= 0.332𝑁𝑅𝑒 𝑁𝑃𝑟 (3-31)
𝑘

62
 FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE

• The averaged Cf and NNu over the entire isothermal plate for
laminar regime are:
1 1
ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = 2
= 0.664𝑁𝑅𝑒,𝐿 𝑁𝑃𝑟3
For 𝑁𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.6 (3-32)
𝑘

• where NRe,L = Lυρ/μ and NNu = hL/k

1.328
𝐶𝑓 = 1 (3-33)
2
𝑁𝑅𝑒,𝐿

63
• For the completely turbulent region at a NRe,L above 3 × 105 and NPr >
0.7,
1
0.8
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = 0.0366𝑁𝑅𝑒,𝐿 𝑁𝑃𝑟 3
(3-34)

• However, turbulence can start at a NRe,L below 3 × 105 if the plate is rough, and
then Eq. (3-34) will hold and give a NNu greater than that given by Eq. (3-32). For
a NRe,L below about 2 × 104, Eq. (3-32) gives the larger value of NNu.

64
 APPROXIMATE INTEGRAL ANALYSIS OF THE THERMAL BOUNDARY
LAYER

1 1
2
𝑁𝑁𝑢,𝑥 = 0.36𝑁𝑅𝑒,𝑥 𝑁𝑃𝑟 3
(3-35)

This is only about 8% greater than the exact result in Eq. (3-20),
which indicates that this approximate integral method can be
used with confidence in cases where exact solutions cannot be
obtained

65
 EXAMPLE 3-5

• A smooth, flat, thin fin of copper extending out from a tube is 51 mm

by 51 mm square. Its temperature is approximately uniform at 82.2°C.
Cooling air at 15.6°C and 1 atm abs flows parallel to the fin
at a velocity of 12.2 m/s.

a. For laminar flow, calculate the heat-transfer coefficient, h. (ANSWER: h = 60.7

W/m2 · K )

b. If the leading edge of the fin is rough so that all of the boundary layer or film
next to the fin is completely turbulent, calculate h (ANSWER: h = 77.2 W/m2 ·
K)

66
 CYLINDER WITH AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO FLOW

• Often a cylinder containing a fluid

inside is being heated or cooled by a Table 3-3. Constants for Use in Eq. (3-28) for Heat Transfer to
fluid flowing perpendicular to its axis. Cylinders with Axis Perpendicular to Flow (NPr > 0.6)
• The equation for predicting the
average heat-transfer coefficient of the
outside of the cylinder for gases and
liquids is Eq. (3-28) with C and m as
given in Table 3-3
• The NRe = Dυρ/μ, where D is the
outside tube diameter and all physical
properties are evaluated at the film
temperature Tf. The velocity is the
undisturbed free stream velocity
approaching the cylinder.

67
 FLOW PAST A SINGLE SPHERE

• When a single sphere is being heated or cooled by a fluid

flowing past it, the following equation can be used to predict
the average heat-transfer coefficient for a NRe = Dυρ/μ of 1
to 70 000 and a NPr of 0.6 to 400:
1
0.5
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = 2.0 + 0.60𝑁𝑅𝑒 𝑁𝑃𝑟 3
(3-36).

• The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature Tf.

68
 EXAMPLE 3-6

• Cooling of a Sphere
• Using the same conditions as Example 3-5, where air at 1 atm abs
pressure and 15.6°C is flowing at a velocity of 12.2 m/s, predict the
average heat-transfer coefficient for air flowing past a sphere having a
diameter of 51 mm and an average surface temperature of 82.2°C.
Compare this with the value of h = 77.2 W/m2 · K for the flat plate in
turbulent flow.

• ANSWER. h= 56.1 W/m2·K

69
 FLOW PAST BANKS OF TUBES OR CYLINDERS

• Many types of commercial heat exchangers are constructed

with multiple rows of tubes, where the fluid flows at right
angles to the bank of tubes.
• Example:
• a gas heater in which a hot fluid inside the tubes heats a gas
passing over the outside of the tubes.
• a cold liquid stream inside the tubes being heated by a hot fluid on
the outside.

70
 FLOW PAST BANKS OF TUBES OR CYLINDERS

• Figure 3-17 shows the arrangement for banks of tubes in-line and banks of tubes staggered,
• where D is tube OD in m (ft),
• Sn is distance m (ft) between the centers of the tubes normal to the flow,
• Sp is parallel to the flow.
• for in-line tubes, Open area to flow= (Sn – D) and (Sp – D);
• for staggered tubes, Open area = (Sn – D)
• Values of C and m to be used in Eq. (3-28) for 2000 < NRe < 40000 for heat transfer to banks of tubes
containing more than 10 transverse rows in the direction of flow are given in Table 3-4. For less than 10
rows, Table 3-5 gives the correction factors.
• For cases where Sn/D and Sp/D are not equal to each other, the reader should consult Grimison for more
data.
• In baffled exchangers where there is normal leakage when all the fluid does not flow normally to the
tubes, the average values of h obtained should be multiplied by about 0.6 .
• The Reynolds number is calculated using the minimum area open to flow for the velocity.
• All physical properties are evaluated at Tf.

71
 FLOW PAST BANKS OF TUBES OR CYLINDERS

Table 3-5. Ratio of h for N Transverse Rows Deep to h for 10 Transverse Rows Deep (for Use
with Table 15.4-2)

Figure 3-17. Nomenclature for banks of tubes in Table 3-4: (a) in-
line tube rows, (b) staggered tube rows.

Table 3-4. Values of C and m to Be Used in Eq. (15.4-1) for Heat Transfer to Banks of Tubes
Containing More Than 10 Transverse Rows

72
 EXAMPLE 3-7

• Heating Air by Bank of Tubes

• Air at 15.6°C and 1 atm abs flows across a bank of tubes containing
four transverse rows in the direction of flow and 10 rows normal
to the flow at a velocity of 7.62 m/s as the air approaches the bank
of tubes. The tube surfaces are maintained at 57.2°C. The outside
diameter of the tubes is 25.4 mm and the tubes are in-line to the
flow. The spacing Sn of the tubes normal to the flow is 38.1 mm and
Sp is also 38.1 mm parallel to the flow. For a 0.305-m length of the
tube bank, calculate the heat-transfer rate.

73
 HEAT TRANSFER FLOW IN PACKED BEDS

• Correlations for heat-transfer coefficients for packed beds are useful in

designing fixed-bed systems such as catalytic reactors, dryers for solids,
and pebble-bed heat exchangers.
• For determining the rate of heat transfer in packed beds for a
differential length dz in m,
𝑑𝑞 = ℎ(𝑎𝑆 𝑑𝑧)(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (3-37)
• where a is the solid-particle surface area per unit volume of bed in m–1, S is the
empty cross-sectional area of bed in m2, T1 is the bulk gas temperature in K, and
T2 is the solid surface temperature
•

74
 HEAT TRANSFER FLOW IN PACKED BEDS

• For the heat transfer of gases in beds of spheres and Reynolds number
range of 10 –10,000,
2
ℎ 𝑐𝑝 𝜇3 2.876 0.3023
𝜀𝐽𝐻 = 𝜀 ′ = + 0.35 (3-38)
𝑐𝑝 𝑣 𝜌 𝑘 𝑓 𝑁𝑅𝑒 𝑁𝑅𝑒

• where υ′ is the superficial velocity based on the cross section of the empty
container in m/s, ε is the void fraction, NRe = DpG′/μf,
and G′ = υ′ρ is the superficial mass velocity in kg/m2· s. The subscript f indicates
properties evaluated at the film temperature, with others at the bulk
temperature. This correlation can also be used for a fluidized bed.

• The term JH is called the Colburn J factor and is defined in terms of h.

75
 NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

• Natural convection heat transfer occurs when a solid surface is in contact with a gas or liquid
that is at a different temperature from the surface.
• Density differences in the fluid arising from the heating process provide the buoyancy force
required to move the fluid.
• Free or natural convection is observed as a result of the motion of the fluid.
• An example of heat transfer by natural convection is a hot radiator used for heating a room.
• Cold air encountering the radiator is heated and rises in natural convection because of buoyancy forces.
• The theoretical derivation of equations for natural convection heat-transfer coefficients requires
the solution of motion and energy equations.
• An important heat-transfer system occurring in process engineering is that in which heat is
being transferred from a hot vertical plate to a gas or liquid adjacent to it by natural convection.
• The fluid is not moving by forced convection but only by natural or free convection.

76
 NATURAL CONVECTION FROM VARIOUS GEOMETRIES

• Natural convection from vertical planes and cylinders. For an isothermal vertical surface or plate with height L less than 1 m, the
average natural convection heat-transfer coefficient can be expressed by the following general equation:

𝑚
ℎ𝐿 𝐿3 𝜌2 𝑔𝛽∆𝑇 𝑚
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = =𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑁𝐺𝑟 𝑁𝑃𝑟 (3-39)
𝑘 𝜇2

• where a and m are constants from Table 3-6,

• NGr = Grashof number
• ρ = density in kg/m3
• 𝜇 = viscosity in kg/m· s
• ΔT =positive temperature difference between the wall and bulk fluid or vice versa in K,
• k = thermal conductivity in W/m· K, cp the heat capacity in J/kg· K,
• Β = volumetric coefficient of expansion of the fluid in 1/K [for gases β is 1/(Tf K)],
• g = 9.80665 m/s2.
• All the physical properties are evaluated at the film temperature Tf = (Tw + Tb)/2.
• In general, for a vertical cylinder with length L m, the same equations can be used as for a vertical plate.
• In English units, β is 1/(Tf °F + 460) in 1/°R and g is 32.174 × (3600)2 ft/h2.

77
 NATURAL CONVECTION FROM VARIOUS GEOMETRIES

Table 3-6. Constants for Use with Eq. (15.5-4) for

Natural Convection • The Grashof number can be interpreted physically
as a dimensionless number that represents the ratio
of the buoyancy forces to the viscous forces in
free convection and plays a role similar to that of
the Reynolds number in forced convection.

78
 EXAMPLE 3-8

• Natural Convection from the Vertical Wall of an Oven

• A heated vertical wall 1.0 ft (0.305 m) high of an oven for baking
food with the surface at 450°F (505.4 K) is in contact with air at
100°F (311 K). Calculate the heat-transfer coefficient and the heat
transfer/ft (0.305 m) width of wall. Note that heat transfer for
radiation will not be considered. Use English and SI units.

• Answer: 433 btu/h or 127.1 W

79
 NATURAL CONVECTION FROM VARIOUS GEOMETRIES

• Simplified equations for the natural convection heat transfer from air to vertical planes
and cylinders at 1 atm abs pressure are given in Table 3-7.
• In SI units, the equation for the range of NGrNPr of 104 to 109 is the one usually encountered, and
this holds for (L3ΔT) values below about 4.7 m3·K and film temperatures between 255 and 533 K.
• To correct the value of h to pressures other than 1 atm, the values of h in Table 3-7 can be
multiplied by (p/101.32)1/2 for NGrNPr of 104 to 109, and by (p/101.32)2/3 for NGrNPr > 109, where p
= pressure in kN/m2.
• In English units, the range of NGrNPr of 104 to 109 is encountered when (L3ΔT) is less than about
300 ft3· °F.
• The value of h can be corrected to pressures other than 1.0 atm abs by multiplying the h at 1 atm
by p1/2 for NGrNPr of 104 to 109, and by p2/3 for NGrNPr above 109, where p = atm abs pressure.
• Simplified equations are also given for water and organic liquids.

80
NATURAL CONVECTION FROM VARIOUS GEOMETRIES

Table 3-7. Simplified Equations for

Natural Convection from Various
Surfaces

81
 EXAMPLE 3-9

• Natural Convection and the Simplified Equation

• Repeat Example 3-8 but use the simplified equation.

• Answer: 124.4 W

82
 NATURAL CONVECTION FROM HORIZONTAL CYLINDERS

• For a horizontal cylinder with an outside diameter of D m, Eq.

(3-39) is used with the constants given in Table 3-6. The
diameter D is used for L in the equation. Simplified equations
are given in Table 3-7. The usual case for pipes is for the
NGrNPr range 104 to 109.

83
 NATURAL CONVECTION FROM HORIZONTAL PLATES

• For horizontal flat plates, Eq. (3-39) is also used with the
constants given in Table 3-6 and the simplified equations in
Table 3-7. The dimension L to be used is the length of a side
of a square plate, the linear mean of the two dimensions for a
rectangle, and 0.9 times the diameter of a circular disk.

84
 NATURAL CONVECTION IN ENCLOSED SPACES

• Free convection in enclosed spaces occurs in a number of processing

applications.
• One example is in an enclosed double-glazed window in which two layers of glass
are separated by a layer of air for energy conservation.
• The flow phenomena inside these enclosed spaces are complex, since a number of
different types of flow patterns can occur.
• At low Grashof numbers, the heat transfer is mainly by conduction across the fluid
layer.
• As the Grashof number is increased, different flow regimes are encountered. Figure 3-18. Natural convection
• The system for two vertical plates of height L m containing the fluid with a gap of in enclosed vertical space.
δ m is shown in Fig. 15.5-2, where the plate surfaces are at temperatures T1 and
T2. The Grashof number is defined as:

𝛿 3 𝜌2 𝑔𝛽 𝑇1 −𝑇2
𝑁𝐺𝑟,𝛿 = (3-40)
𝜇2
• The Nusselt Number is defined as:
ℎ𝛿
𝑁𝑁𝑢,𝛿 = (3-41)
𝑘

85
 NATURAL CONVECTION IN ENCLOSED SPACES

• For gases enclosed between vertical plates:

(3-42)

(3-43)

(3-44)

• Figure liquids in vertical plates,

(3-45)

(3-46)
86
 NATURAL CONVECTION IN ENCLOSED SPACES

• For gases or liquids in a vertical annulus, the same equations hold as for
vertical plates.
• For gases in horizontal plates with the lower plate hotter than the upper,
(3-47)

(3-48)

• For liquids in horizontal plates with the lower plate hotter than the upper
(3-49)

87
 EXAMPLE 3-10

• Natural Convection in an Enclosed Vertical Space

• Air at 1 atm abs pressure is enclosed between two vertical plates
where L = 0.6 m and δ = 30 mm. The plates are 0.4 m wide. The
plate
temperatures are T1 = 394.3 K and T2 = 366.5 K. Calculate the
heat-transfer rate across the air gap.
• Answer: 12.74 W

88
 NATURAL CONVECTION FROM OTHER SHAPES

• For spheres, blocks, and other types of enclosed air spaces,

references elsewhere should be consulted. In some cases,
when a fluid is forced over a heated surface at low velocity in
the laminar region, combined forced convection plus natural
convection heat transfer occurs.

89
 MECHANISMS OF BOILING

• Heat transfer to a boiling liquid is very important in evaporation and distillation

as well as in other kinds of chemical and biological processing, such as:
• petroleum processing
• control of the temperature of chemical reactions
• evaporation of liquid foods
• The boiling liquid is usually contained in a vessel with a heating surface of tubes
or vertical or horizontal plates that supply the heat for boiling.
• The heating surfaces can be :
• warmed electrically or,
• by a hot or condensing fluid on the other side of the heated surface

90
 MECHANISMS OF BOILING

• In boiling,
• the temperature of the liquid is the boiling point of this
liquid at the pressure in the equipment.
• The heated surface is at a temperature above the boiling point.
• Bubbles of vapor are generated at the heated surface and rise
through the mass of liquid.
• The vapor accumulates in a vapor space above the liquid level and is
withdrawn.

91
 MECHANISMS OF BOILING

• Suppose we consider a small heated horizontal tube or wire

immersed in a vessel containing water boiling at 373.2 K (100°C).
• The heat flux is q/A W/m2; ΔT = Tw – 373.2 K,
• where
• Tw is the tube or wire wall temperature
• h is the heat-transfer coefficient in W/m2· K.
• Starting with a low ΔT, the q/A and h values are measured. This is
repeated at higher values of ΔT and the data obtained are
plotted as q/A versus ΔT, as shown in Fig. 3-19.

92
 MECHANISMS OF BOILING
• Region A
• at low temperature drops, the mechanism of boiling is essentially that of heat transfer to a liquid in
natural convection.
• The variation of h with ΔT0.25 is approximately the same as that for natural convection to horizontal
plates or cylinders.
• The very few bubbles formed are released from the surface of the metal and rise without appreciably
disturbing the normal natural convection.
• Region B of nucleate boiling for a ΔT of about 5–25 K (9–45°F),
• The rate of bubble production increases so that the velocity of the liquid’s
circulation increases.
• The heat-transfer coefficient h increases rapidly and is proportional to ΔT2 to ΔT3 in this region.
• Region C of transition boiling,
• many bubbles are formed so quickly that they tend to coalesce and form a layer of insulating vapor. Figure 3-19. Boiling mechanisms for water at atmospheric
pressure, heat flux vs. temperature drop: (A) natural convection, (B)
• Increasing the ΔT increases the thickness of this layer, nucleate boiling, (C) transition boiling, (D) film boiling.
• The heat flux and h drop as ΔT is increased.
• Region D of film boiling,
• Bubbles detach themselves regularly and rise upward.
• At higher ΔT values, radiation through the vapor layer next to the surface helps increase the q/A and h.
• Similar-shaped curves are obtained for other shapes of surfaces

93
 MECHANISMS OF BOILING

• The curve of h versus ΔT has approximately the same shape as in Fig. 3-

19. The values of h are quite large.
• At the beginning of region B in 3-19 for nucleate boiling,
• h has a value of about 5700–11400 W/m2 · K, or 1000–2000 btu/h· ft2· °F,
• and at the end of this region, h has a peak value of almost 57000 W/m2· K, or
10 000 btu/hr · ft2· °F.
• These values are quite high, and in most cases the percent resistance of
the boiling film is only a few percent of the overall resistance to heat
transfer.
• The regions of commercial interest are the nucleate and film-
boiling regions.
• Nucleate boiling occurs in kettle-type and natural-circulation reboilers.
94
 NUCLEATE BOILING

• In the nucleate-boiling region, the heat flux is affected by

• ΔT
• Pressure
• the nature and geometry of the surface and system
• the physical properties of the vapor and liquid.
• Equations have been derived by Rohesenow et al. that apply to single
tubes or flat surfaces and are quite complex.
• Simplified empirical equations for estimating the boiling heat-transfer
coefficients for water boiling on the outside of submerged surfaces at
1.0 atm abs pressure have been developed.

95
 NUCLEATE BOILING

3-50

3-51

3-52

3-53

Where:
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝐾 𝑜𝑟 ℉)

If the pressure is p atm abs, the values of h at 1 atm given above are multiplied by (p/1)0.4. Equations (3-50) and
(3-52) are in the natural convection region.

96
 NUCLEATE BOILING

• For forced convection boiling inside tubes, the following

simplified relation can be used:
(3-54)

• where p in this case is in kPa (SI units) and psia (English units)

97
 FILM BOILING
• In the film-boiling region, the heat-transfer rate is low in view of the large temperature drop used, which is not utilized effectively. Film boiling has been
subjected to considerable theoretical analysis.
• Bromley gives the following equation to predict the heat-transfer coefficient in the film-boiling region on a horizontal tube:

(3-55)
• Where
• kν = thermal conductivity of the vapor in W/m · K,
• ρν = density of the vapor in kg/m3,
• ρl = density of the liquid in kg/m3,
• hfg = latent heat of vaporization in J/kg,
• ΔT = Tw – Tsat
• Tsat = temperature of saturated vapor is in K,
• D = outside tube diameter in m,
• μy = the viscosity of the vapor in Pa· s,
• g = acceleration of gravity in m/s2
• The physical properties of the vapor are evaluated at the film temperature of Tf = (Tw + Tsat)/2, and hfg at the saturation temperature.
• If the temperature difference is quite high, some additional heat transfer occurs by radiation.

98
 EXAMPLE 3-11

• Rate of Heat Transfer in a Jacketed Kettle

• Water is being boiled at 1 atm abs pressure in a jacketed kettle with
steam condensing in the jacket at 115.6°C. The inside diameter of the
kettle is 0.656 m and the height is 0.984 m. The bottom is slightly curved
but it will be assumed to be flat. Both the bottom and the sides up to a
height of 0.656 m are jacketed. The kettle surface for heat transfer is
3.2-mm stainless steel with a k of 16.27 W/m· K. The condensing-steam
coefficient hi inside the jacket has been estimated as 10 200 W/m2· K.
Predict the boiling heat-transfer coefficient ho
for the bottom surface of the kettle .

• Answer: (ho=3180 W/m-K)

99