Electronics - 1

NETTUR TECHNICAL TRAINING FOUNDATION
DIPLOMA IN MECHATRONICS – CP15

MASTER FILE
FOR
ELECTRONICS - 1
SUBJECT CODE: CP 00 01 04
SEMESTER – 1
REVISION NO - 00
RELEASED ON – 01.07.19
PREPARED BY
R.VINOTH KUMAR (M.TECH - Embedded System Technology) - VTC
S.SURENDAR (B.E – Electronics & Communication Engineering) – Syllabus
& Infrastructure
APPROVED BY
PROGRAM MANAGER – CP15
The course should enable the students to understand the basic components and concepts involved in
electronics.
The students should be able to appreciate the importance of accuracy of electronics components and its
effects on results and its uncertainty.
Physics, Chemistry and Mathematical relations.
SL NO TITLE OF BOOK AUTHOR PUBLICATION

Albert Malvino and
1. Electronics Principle McGraw Hill
David J. Bates
Electronic Components
2. Thomas H. Jones Reston Publishing Co.
Handbook
Shroff Publishers &
Electronic Components and
3. Madhuri Joshi Distributors
Materials
Private Ltd.
4. Grover & Jamwal Dhanpat Rai & Sons
Materials
5. Dhir Tata McGraw Hill
Materials
NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 2

CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS……………………………………………………………………………………………………..05

1.1 History & Development of Electronics
1.2 Structure of an Atom: Proton, Neutron, Electron
1.3 Atomic number, Charge of an Atom
1.4 Movement of Electrons (Current) and Potential difference (Voltage)
2.0 BASIC COMPONENTS OF ELECTRONICS……………………………………………………………………………………………..12

2.1 Active Components Vs Passive Components
2.2 Resistor
2.2.1 Resistor, Resistance, Symbol of Resistors
2.2.2 Color coding of Resistors
2.2.3 Types of Resistors
2.2.4 Factors affecting Resistance of Resistor
2.2.5 Specification of Resistors
2.2.6 Resistors in Series and Parallel
2.2.7 Applications of Various Resistors
2.3 Capacitor
2.3.1 Capacitor, Capacitance, Symbol of capacitors
2.3.2 Types of Capacitors
2.3.3 Factors affecting Capacitance of Capacitor
2.3.4 Specification of Capacitors
2.3.5 Capacitors in Series & Parallel
2.3.6 Application of Various Capacitors
2.4 Inductor
2.4.1 Inductor, Inductance & Symbol of Inductor
2.4.2 Types of Inductors
2.4.3 Factors affecting Inductance of Inductor
2.4.4 Specification of Inductor
2.4.5 Inductors in Series & Parallel
2.4.6 Application of Various Inductors
2.5 Switches
2.5.1 Switch, Symbol of Switches
2.5.2 Types and Application of Switches
3.0 LAWS & RULES OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS…………………………………………………………………………………………..37

3.1 Ohms law
3.1.1 V I characteristics
3.1.2 Linear and Non Linear components based on Ohms Law
3.1.3 Problems Based on Ohms law
3.2 Voltage divider rule
3.2.1 Problems on Voltage divider rule
3.3 Current divider rule
3.3.1 Problems on Current divider rule

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR……………………………………………………………………………………………….42
4.1 Introduction and Physical nature of Matter, Classification of Matter.
4.2 Energy Band diagram, Importance of Energy Band in Solids.
4.3 Classification of Solids on the bases of Energy Bands.
4.4 Temperature Co-efficient and its classification.
4.5 Intrinsic Semiconductor.
4.6 Doping.
4.7 Extrinsic semiconductor (N type & P type).
4.8 Majority Carriers and Minority Carriers
5.0 PN JUNCTION DIODE & ITS APPLICATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………53

5.1 Introduction to Diode & Types
5.2 Ideal Diode and Practical diode comparison
5.3 PN junction Theory-construction and working
5.4 Different biasing: Forward bias & Reverse Bias & VI characteristics
5.5 Application of Diode
5.5.1 Half wave Rectifier-- Circuit writing, Working, Output Waveform
5.5.2 Full wave Center Tapped Rectifier-- Circuit writing, Working, Output Waveform
5.5.3 Bridge Rectifier -- Circuit writing, Working, Output Waveform
5.6 Comparison of Single Phase Rectifiers
6.0 SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………70

6.1 Zener Diode: Symbol, Working, VI Characteristics, Application
6.2 LED: Symbol, Working, VI Characteristics, Application
6.3 Schoktty Diode: Symbol, Working, VI Characteristics, Application
6.4 Varactor Diode: Symbol, Working, VI Characteristics, Application
6.5 Tunnel Diode: Symbol, Working, VI Characteristics, Application
6.6 Photo Diode: Symbol, Working, VI Characteristics, Application
7.0 PCB ASSEMBLY & SOLDERING………………………………………………………………………………………………………….93

7.1 Components forming & Orientation
7.2 Soldering, Types of soldering technology
7.3 Types of errors in soldering
7.4 Through Hole Technology, SMD technology
7.5 Multi-layer PCB

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS
Content
 1.1 History & Development of Electronics
 1.2 Structure of an Atom
 1.3 Atomic Number & Charge of an Atom
 1.4 Movement of Electrons (Current) and Potential difference (Voltage)

1.1 History & Development of electronics
Introduction
Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow and control of electrons (electricity) and
the study of their behavior and effects in vacuums, gases, and semiconductors, and with devices using such
electrons.
This control of electrons is accomplished by devices that resist, carry, select, steer, switch, store,
manipulate, and exploit the electron.
Brief History of Electronics:
Electronics actual history began with the invention of vacuum tubes.
Subsequently, the use of germanium and silicon semiconductor materials starts the development of
semiconductor devices. The bulky vacuum tube which consumed high power for its operations are replaced
by this semiconductor devices.
After a semiconductor devices introduction the IC fabrication leads the electronics field because of IC
fabrication technology, the electronics products becomes compact.
To understand the history of electronics; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WsdVCCJsyfU

1.2 Structure of an atom
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an element.
An atom consists of two regions. The first is the tiny atomic nucleus, which is in the center of the atom and
contains positively charged particles called protons and neutral, uncharged, particles called neutrons. The
second, much larger, region of the atom is a “cloud” of electrons, negatively charged particles that orbit
around the nucleus.
The attraction between the positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons holds the atom
together. Most atoms contain all three of these types of subatomic particles—protons, electrons, and
neutrons.
For example: A sand castle is a very large number of sand atoms molded into the shape of castle. If the
castle is demolished, it will become sand stones which will still retaining the properties of sand crystal. A
sand crystal atom gets its properties from the tiny subatomic particles it's as shown in below.
To understand the structure of atom; please click the link below

https://youtu.be/03iWCjxjCdA

1.3 Atomic Number & Charge of an atom
1.3.1 Atomic Number
The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of that element. An
atom can be classified as a particular element based solely on its atomic number. Since atoms are neutral, the
number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons.
Atomic Number is represented by the letter Z
For example, carbon’s atomic number is 6 because it has 6 protons.
Mass Number: The mass number is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Mass Number is represented by the letter A.
Example: For a carbon (C) element, the Mass number of carbon is 12 & the atomic number is 6.
To understand the atomic number; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_S7ov25y3_M
1.3.2 Charge of an atom:
When an atom has equal numbers of positive and negative particles, it has a neutral charge. But if an atom
has extra electrons or is missing electrons, it is known as an ion, and it may bear a positive or negative
charge.
To understand the charge of atom; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xz14VaLMw1U

Periodic Table of Few Elements (Additional Information)

1.4 Movement of Electrons (Current) & Potential Difference (Voltage)
1.4.1 Movement of Electrons (Current)
When an electrical potential difference is applied across the metallic wire, the loosely attached free electrons
start moving towards the positive terminal of the cell. This continuous flow of electrons constitutes the
electrical current. The flow of currents in the wire is from the negative terminal of the cell to the positive
terminal through the external circuit.
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of negative charges of the conductor or semiconductor. In other
words, the continuous flow of electrons in an electric circuit is called an electric current.
Unit of Current: The ampere is the SI unit of the Current. The I is the symbolic representation of the current.
To understand the Movement of Electrons (Current); please click the link below
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6pqrkWSWL8
Types of Current:
Electric current can be either direct or alternating. Direct current (DC) flows in the same direction at all points
in time, although the instantaneous magnitude of the current might vary. In an alternating current (AC), the
flow of charge carriers reverses direction periodically.

1.4.2 Potential difference (voltage):
The electrical potential difference (Voltage) is defined as the amount of work done to carrying a unit charge
from one point to another in an electric field. In other words, the potential difference is defined as the
difference in the electric potential of the two charged bodies.
Unit of voltage: The voltage is represented by the symbol V, and their SI unit is volt.
To understand the potential difference (Voltage); please click the link below
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNlOPxZ-Ev4
Water Analogy: With a reference of below image, consider a Water tank as Voltage source which is having
some potential energy. The water will flow from higher potential (tank) to Lower Potential (Ground), Then
the Flow of water will be consider as Current. When the magnitude of the voltage is high, large current flow
through the circuit and when their magnitude is low less current flow through it.
To understand the Water Analogy; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5XWeQuEhU4

2.0 BASIC COMPONENTS OF ELECTRONICS
Content
 2.1 Active Vs. Passive components
 2.2 Resistor
 2.3 Capacitor
 2.4 Inductor
 2.5 Switches

2.1 Active Vs. Passive components
Electronic components are the basic building blocks of an electronic circuit. They control the flow of electrons
in an electronic system or electronic circuit.
Electronic components are very small. The cost of electronic components is also low. Electronic components
consist of two or more terminals.
When a group of electronic components is connected together in an electronic board such as printed circuit
board (PCB), a useful electronic circuit is formed. Each electronic component in a circuit performs a particular
task.
Types of electronic components:
The electronic components are generally classified into two types:
1. Passive components
2. Active components
Passive components:
These components can store or maintains energy either in the form of current or voltage.
Active components:
These components rely on a source of energy and are able to control the electron flow through them. Some
of these components are semiconductors like diodes, transistors, integrated circuits.

Difference between Active and Passive components:
To understand the active and passive components; please click the link below
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PRe-8_BiA5w

2.2 Resistor
2.2.1. Resistor, Resistance, Symbol of Resistor
A resistor is an electrical component that limits the flow of electrical current in an electronic circuit.
Resistance:
Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Resistance is measured in
ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω).
The resistance of resistor is depends upon 3 factors: Resistivity of the material used (ρ), Length of
the resistor (l), Cross section area of the resistor (A) and temperature (T).
2.2.2 Color Coding of Resistor
Resistors are available in a range of different resistance values from fractions of an Ohm (Ω) to millions of
Ohms.
Generally resistor values are printed onto the body of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistors
body is big enough to read the print, such as large power resistors but when the resistor is small, it uses
colored painted bands to indicate their resistive value. These colored painted bands produce a system of
identification generally known as a Resistors Color Code.
The resistor color code markings are always read one band at a time starting from the left to the right, with
the larger width tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating its tolerance. By matching the color of
the first band with its associated number in the digit column of the color chart below the first digit is
identified and this represents the first digit of the resistance value and again, by matching the color of the
second band with its associated number in the digit column of the color chart we get the second digit of the
resistance value and so on. Then the resistor color code is read from left to right as illustrated below:
To understand the resistor; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLD7AgAYqwA

Example:

2.2.3 Types of Resistor
There are many different types of Resistor available for the electronics constructor to choose from, from very
small surface mount chip resistors up to large wire wound power resistors.
There are two basic types of

resistors.
1. Fixed Resistors
2. Variable Resistors

Fixed Resistors
As the name tells everything, fixed resistor is a resistor which has a specific value and we can’t change the
value of fixed resistors.
Types of fixed resistors:
1. Carbon Composition Resistors

2. Carbon film Resistors
3. Metal Film Resistors
4. Wire wound Resistors
Carbon Composition Resistors: These resistors are

cylindrical rods which are a mixture of carbon granules
and powdered ceramic. The resistor value depends on
the composition of the ceramic material. A higher
quantity of ceramic content will result in more
resistance. Since the rod is coated with an insulated
material, there are chances of damage due to excessive
heat caused by soldering.
Carbon film resistors: This resistor is formed by

depositing a carbon film layer on an insulating
substrate. Helical cuts are then made through the
carbon film to trace a long and helical resistive path.
The resistance can be varied by using different
resistivity carbon material and modifying the shape of
the resistor. The helical resistive path make these
resistors highly inductive and of little use for RF
applications.
Wire wound resistor: Another type of resistor, called a

Wire wound Resistor, is made by winding a thin metal
alloy wire (Nichrome) or similar wire onto an insulating
ceramic former in the form of a spiral helix similar to
the film resistor above.
These types of resistor are generally only available in
very low ohmic high precision values (from 0.01 to
100kΩ) due to the gauge of the wire and number of
turns possible on the former making them ideal for use
in measuring circuits and Whetstone bridge type
applications.
Metal Film resistor: These resistors are made from

small rods of ceramic coated with metal (such as a
nickel alloy) or metal oxide (such as tin oxide). The value
of resistance is controlled mainly by the thickness of the
coating layer (the thicker the layer, the lower is the
value of resistance). A fine spiral groove can be cut
along the rod using a laser to split the carbon or metal
coating effectively into a long and spiral strip, which
forms the resistor.

2. Variable resistor:
Presets and potentiometers are commonly used types of variable resistors. These are mostly used for voltage
division and setting the sensitivity of sensors. These have a sliding contact or wiper which can be rotated with
the help of a screw driver to change the resistance value.
To understand the types of resistor; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cz_zlNWRkFM
2.2.4 Factors affecting Resistance of Resistors
1. What it’s made of. Metals are good conductors so have lower resistance than an insulator of the same
dimensions.
2. Length – the longer, the greater resistance.
3. Area of cross section – the larger the lower.
4. Temperature (metals: higher temperature = higher resistance because the vibration of the metal lattice
impedes the drift of the electrons, semiconductors: like thermistors, resistance decreases with
temperature)

2.2.5 Specification of Resistor
Resistors are rated by the value of their resistance and the electrical power rating that they can safely
dissipate based mainly upon their size.
The Resistor Power Rating is defined as the amount of heat that a resistive element can dissipate for an
indefinite period of time without degrading its performance. Unit is given in watts (W).
To understand the resistor power rating; please click the link below
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tME40e7VLvk
2.2.6 Resistor in series and parallel
Example

2.2.6 Applications of different types of resistors:
Different types of resistor can be used in circuit based on the circuit nature.
1. Application of carbon composition resistor

 The composition resistor is used in the high energy pulses.
 It has a relatively small size.
 High voltage power supplies
 Welding
 High power
2. Application of Carbon film resistor
 The carbon film resistors are available in High plus stability.

3. Application of Metal film resistor
 The tolerance of metal film resistor has good characteristics.

 The low voltage coefficient of this resistor has high linearity and low noise.
 In bridge circuit and active filter this film resistors are used.
4. Application of Wire wound resistor
 It has high security

 Accurate measurement and balance current control is required.
2.3 Capacitor
2.3.1 Capacitor, Capacitance, Symbol of capacitors
Capacitor: The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in the form of an
electrical charge producing a potential difference across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery.
Capacitance is the ability of a component or circuit to collect and store energy in the form of an electrical
charge.
Unit of capacitance is measured in farad (f).
Construction of capacitor: A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or
dielectric).

Working of Capacitor:
A capacitor collects energy (voltage) as current flows through an electrical circuit. Both plates hold equal
charges, and as the positive plate collects a charge, an equal charge flows off the negative plate.
When the circuit is switched off, a capacitor retains the energy it has gathered, though slight leakage usually
occurs.
To understand the working of capacitor; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hFC9ugTGLs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f_MZNsEqyQw

2.3.2 Types of Capacitors:
Based on the construction and material used capacitors are widely classified into different types
some are
1. Paper Capacitor
2. Ceramic capacitor
3. Mica capacitor
4. Plastic film capacitor
5. Electrolytic capacitor
Paper capacitor: Paper capacitors are made of paper

or oil-impregnated paper and aluminum foil layers
rolled into a cylinder and sealed with wax. These
capacitors were commonly used but are now replaced
by the plastic or polymer type of capacitors.
The paper capacitors are bulky, highly hygroscopic
and soaks moisture which causes loss to the dielectric
degrading its overall performance is the major
drawback with this type of capacitors.
Ceramic capacitor: Ceramic Capacitors or Disc

Capacitors are generally made by coating two sides of
a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are
then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very
low capacitance values a single ceramic disc of about
3-6mm is used.
Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric constant and
are available so that relatively high capacitance’s can
be obtained in a small physical Size.
Mica capacitor: Mica capacitors are manufactured by

plating silver electrodes directly on to the mica film
dielectric. To achieve the required capacitance,
several layers are used. Wires for the connections are
added and then the whole assembly is encapsulated.
The values of silver mica capacitors range in value
from a few Picofarads up to two or three thousand
Picofarads.
This type of capacitor is not as widely used these
days. However they can still be obtained and are used
where stability of value is of the utmost importance
and where low loss is required.
Plastic film capacitor: These use polystyrene,

polycarbonate or Teflon as their dielectrics are
sometimes called “Plastic capacitors”. The
construction of plastic film capacitors are similar to
that for paper film capacitors but use a plastic film
instead of paper.
The main advantage of plastic film capacitors
compared to impregnated-paper types is that they
operate well under conditions of high temperature,
have smaller tolerances, a very long service life and
high reliability.

Electrolytic capacitor: Electrolytic Capacitors are
generally used when very large capacitance values are
required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic
film layer for one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid
electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is
used which serves as the second electrode (usually
the cathode).
To understand the working of types of capacitor; please click the link below
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e3W0kdLodXo&t=49s
2.3.3 Factors affecting Capacitance of Capacitors
1. Plate Area: All other factors being equal, greater plate area gives greater capacitance; less plate area gives
less capacitance.
Explanation: Larger plate area results in more field flux (charge collected on the plates) for a given field force
(voltage across the plates).
2. Plate Spacing: All other factors being equal, further plate spacing gives less capacitance; closer plate
spacing gives greater capacitance.
Explanation: Closer spacing results in a greater field force (voltage across the capacitor divided by the
distance between the plates), which results in a greater field flux (charge collected on the plates) for any
given voltage applied across the plates.
3. Dielectric Material: All other factors being equal, greater permittivity of the dielectric gives greater
capacitance; less permittivity of the dielectric gives less capacitance. Explanation: Although it’s complicated
to explain, some materials offer less opposition to field flux for a given amount of field force. Materials with a
greater permittivity allow for more field flux (offer less opposition), and thus a greater collected charge, for
any given amount of field force (applied voltage).

2.3.4 Specification of Capacitor
Capacitor specification is always mentioned with values and voltage rating.
All capacitors have a maximum voltage rating and when selecting a capacitor consideration must be given to
the amount of voltage to be applied across the capacitor. The maximum amount of voltage that can be
applied to the capacitor without damage to its dielectric material is generally given in the data sheets as: WV,
(working voltage) or as WV DC, (DC working voltage).
If the voltage applied across the capacitor becomes too great, the dielectric will break down (known as
electrical breakdown) and arcing will occur between the capacitor plates resulting in a short circuit. The
working voltage of the capacitor depends on the type of dielectric material being used and its thickness.
However, if the dielectric material becomes damaged due excessive voltage or over temperature, the leakage
current through the dielectric will become extremely high resulting in a rapid loss of charge on the plates and
an overheating of the capacitor eventually resulting in premature failure of the capacitor. Then never use a
capacitor in a circuit with higher voltages than the capacitor is rated for otherwise it may become hot and
explode.
Characteristics of capacitor:
 It blocks flow of DC and permits AC

 It is used for coupling two devices
 It bypasses the unwanted frequencies
 It feeds the desired signal to any section
 It is used for phase shifting, filtering, motor starter
 It is used to get tuned frequency

2.3.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel:
2.3.4.1 Capacitors in series
Capacitors are connected together in series when they are chained together in a single line. For series
connected capacitors, the charging current ( iC ) flowing through the capacitors is the same for all capacitors
as it only has one path to follow.
Then, Capacitors in Series all have the same current flowing through them as iT = i1 = i2 = i3 etc. Therefore
each capacitor will store the same amount of electrical charge, Q on its plates regardless of its capacitance.
Example
Calculate the total capacitance of the circuit given below.
Taking the three capacitor values from the above example, we can calculate the total capacitance, CT for the
three capacitors in series as:
To understand the working of capacitor in series; please click the link below
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jexyXQGAn14

2.3.4.2 Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors are connected together in parallel when both of its terminals are connected to each terminal of
another capacitor.
The voltage (Vc ) connected across all the capacitors that are connected in parallel is the same.
Then, Capacitors in Parallel have a “common voltage” supply across them giving:
In the above circuit the capacitors, C1, C2 and C3 are all connected together in a parallel branch between
points A and B as shown.
When capacitors are connected together in parallel the total or equivalent capacitance, CT in the circuit is
equal to the sum of all the individual capacitors added together. This is because the top plate of
capacitor, C1 is connected to the top plate of C2 which is connected to the top plate of C3 and so on.
Example
Calculate the total capacitance of the circuit given below.
By taking the values of the three capacitors from the above example, we can calculate the total equivalent
circuit capacitance CT as being:
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 = 0.1uF + 0.2uF + 0.3uF = 0.6uF
To understand the working of capacitor in parallel; please click the link below
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YEUUZ-xhMxM

2.3.5 Applications of various capacitors:
Ceramic capacitor:
 Ceramic capacitors can also be used as a general purpose capacitor, because of their non-polarity and
are available in a large variety of capacitances, voltage ratings, and sizes.
 Ceramic capacitors are majorly used in the resonant circuit in transmitter stations.
 Ceramic disc capacitors are used across brush DC motors to minimize RF noise.
Mica capacitor:
 Their main use is in power RF circuits where stability is of utmost importance.
 Mica capacitors are used in high frequency tuned circuits, such as filters and oscillators.
 Mica capacitors widely used in high-voltage applications, due to mica’s high breakdown voltage.
Electrolytic capacitor:
 Electrolytic capacitor is used where we required a high value of capacitance

 These are commonly used as filtering devices in various power supplies to reduce the voltage ripple.
 A practical example is the use of electrolytic capacitors as filters in audio amplifiers
Film capacitors:
Film capacitors are used in power electronics devices, phase shifters, X-ray flashes and pulsed lasers, while
the low power variants are used as decoupling capacitors, filters and in A/D convertors. Other notable
applications are safety capacitors, electromagnetic interference suppression, fluorescent light ballasts and
snubber capacitors.
2.4 Inductor
2.4.1 Inductor & Inductance:
An inductor is an energy storage device which stores energy in form of magnetic field. An Inductor is nothing
more than a coil of wire wound around a central core. For most coils the current, (i) flowing through the coil
produces a magnetic flux, (NΦ) around it that is proportional to this flow of electrical current.

Inductance:
Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy and it does this in the magnetic field that is created
by the flow of electrical current.
The SI unit of inductance is Henry (H)
To understand working of the Inductor; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ukBFPrXiKWA
Construction of Inductor
The simple form of an inductor consists of a length

of insulated (enamelled) copper wire spiral wound.
The winding may either be self-supporting with an
air core or wound onto a ceramic or high-
permeability ferrite core. Values from 100 nH to
100 µH are typical. Larger value inductors often
use ferrite pot cores which provide a closed
magnetic circuit with no air gaps.
Working of Inductor: Inductor is working under the principle of self-induction. In an electrical circuit, when
the emf is induced in the same circuit in which the current is changing this effect is called Self-induction, (L)
but it is sometimes commonly called back-emf as its polarity is in the opposite direction to the applied
voltage.

Inductor charging
 Inductor: oppose changes (Choking effects)

 Inductor is initially fully discharged acts like an open circuit.
 When switch is closed, the changing current across the inductor immediately induces a voltage that
opposes that change, which keeps the current near zero.
Inductor Discharging
 Inductor is initially fully charged with constant 100ma current through it. It acts like a short circuit.
 When switch is opened, the inductor will immediately induce a voltage to keep the 100ma current
constant.
To understand charging and discharging of the Inductor; please click the link below
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VFPwgjGHqFQ

2.4.2 Types of Inductors
Inductors are classified based on a core used and based on mechanism used for construction.
The different types of inductors based on core used are:
Air cored inductor: is not present in this type of inductors. The fact that no core is used
has several advantages: there is no loss within the core as air is lossless, and this result
in a high level of Q, assuming the inductor or coil resistance is low.
Iron cored inductor: Iron cores are normally used for high power and high inductance
types of inductor. Some audio coils or chokes may use iron laminate. They are generally
not widely used.
Ferrite cored inductor: Ferrite is one of the most widely used cores for a variety of
types of inductor. Ferrite is a metal oxide ceramic based around a mixture of Ferric
Oxide Fe2O3 and either manganese-zinc or nickel-zinc oxides which are extruded or
pressed into the required shape.
The different types of inductor based on mechanism
Bobbin based inductor: This type of inductor is wound on a cylindrical bobbin.
Toroidal inductor: This form of inductor is wound on a toroid - a circular former.

Ferrite is often used as the former as this increases the permeability of the core.
The advantage of a toroid is that the toroid enables the magnetic flux to travel in a
circle around the toroid and as a result the flux leakage is very low.
Film inductor: This form of inductor uses a film of conductor on

a base material. The film is then etched or shaped to give the
required conductor profile.
Multilayer ceramic inductor: The inductor is

manufactured within a ferrite or more commonly a
magnetic ceramic material. The coil is contained within
the body of the ceramic and is presented to the external
circuit on end caps in the same way as chip capacitors, etc.
To understand types of Inductor; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0dHyGOJNtA

2.4.3 Factors affecting Inductance of Inductor:
There are four basic factors of inductor construction determining the amount of inductance created.
1. Number of Wire Wraps, or “Turns” in the Coil:

When all other factors being equal, a greater number of turns of
wire in the coil results in greater inductance; fewer turns of wire
in the coil results in less inductance.
2. Coil Area:
All other factors being equal, greater coil area (as measured
looking lengthwise through the coil, at the cross-section of the
core) results in greater inductance; less coil area results in less
inductance.
3. Coil length:
When all other factors being equal, the longer the coil’s length,
the less inductance; the shorter the coil’s length, the greater the
inductance.
4. Core material:
When All other factors being equal, the greater the magnetic
permeability of the core which the coil is wrapped around, the
greater the inductance; the less the permeability of the core, the
less the inductance.
2.4.4 Specification of Inductor
2.4.5 Inductors in Series & Parallel:

2.4.5.1 Inductors in Series
Inductors can be connected together in a series connection when they are chained together sharing
a common electrical current
The current, ( I ) that flows through the first inductor, L1 has no other way to go but pass through the second
inductor and the third and so on. Then, series inductors have a Common Current flowing through them
Then the total inductance of the series chain can be found by simply adding together the individual
inductances of the inductors in series just like adding together resistors in series.
Example: Three inductors of 10mH, 40mH and 50mH are connected together in a series combination with no
mutual inductance between them. Calculate the total inductance of the series combination.
2.3.5.2 Inductors in Parallel
Inductors are said to be connected together in Parallel when both of their terminals are respectively
connected to each terminal of another inductor or inductors.
The voltage drop across all of the inductors in parallel will be the same. Then, Inductors in Parallel have
a Common Voltage across them.
We saw that the total inductance, LT of the circuit was equal to the sum of all the individual inductors added
together. For inductors in parallel the equivalent circuit inductance LT is calculated differently.
Example: Three inductors of 60mH, 120mH and 75mH respectively, are connected together in a parallel
combination with no mutual inductance between them. Calculate the total inductance of the parallel
combination in millihenries.

2.4.6 Applications of Inductor
Bobbin based inductor: They may be designed for printed circuit board mounting, even surface mount of
they may be much larger and mounted via some other mechanical means. Some older versions of these
inductors may even be in a similar format to normal leaded resistors.
Toroidal Inductor: It has high energy transferring efficiency and high inductance values at low frequency
applications. These inductors mainly used in medical devices, switching regulators, air conditioners,
refrigerators, telecommunications and musical instruments etc.
Multilayer ceramic Inductor: These are having applications at high frequencies to suppress noise, in signal
processing modules like wireless LANs, Bluetooth etc. These are also used at mobile communication systems.
Film Inductor: Film inductors in thin size are suitable for DC to DC converters that serve as power supplies in
smart phones and mobile devices. These are also used in amplifiers, Voltage controlled oscillators &
Impedance matching circuit.
2.5 Switches
2.5.1 Switch: A switch is a small control for an electrical device which you use to turn the device on or off.
The simplest function is to interrupt a circuit so that it can be switched off and switched on. By using switches
in electronics circuits in different ways, it is possible to use them to perform a variety of different switching
functions.
Symbol
Basic switching terms
The purpose of a switch is to make and break electrical circuits. To achieve this a switch comprises two main
sections, namely the contacts and the actuator. The contacts are the fixed part, and the actuator moves over
them to make or break the contact.
It is possible to have a number of arrangements for switches. The contacts may be what is termed:

 Normally closed (NC): This type of switch has contacts that in the normal position, or biased position of
the switch are closed, i.e. the contacts have made contact. Utilizing the switch then opens the contacts.
 Normally open (NO): This type of switch has contacts that in the normal position, or biased position of
the switch are open, i.e. the contacts have made contact. Utilizing the switch then closes the contacts.
 Changeover (CO or C/O): These types of switch have no form of bias and may have several contacts, the
center or pole piece connecting to any one of the contacts. Rotary switches are generally of the
changeover type.
2.5.2 Types of Electronics Switches
There is a large variety of different types of electronics switches. Each of these types of switch operates in a
slightly different manner and can be used for different applications.
Toggle switch: The toggle switch is usually a two position switch. The internal
construction includes a spring such that it is held firmly in the position to which it has
been switched. It is widely used for switching items on or off. Occasionally toggle
switches are available with a center "off" position. Many versions are able to withstand
switching 250 VAC at current levels of around 1 amp.
Rocker switch: In many ways rocker switches are similar to toggle switches. These
are widely used for mains on-off functions and have a two position capability. Some
include an integral neon lamp to indicate when the circuit is on. In view of their
intended use, these switches are often able to switch voltages of around 250 VAC and
current levels of around 1 amp.
Rotary switch: As the name implies, rotary switches are operated by turning a knob.
Selecting the correct position enables the relevant connections to be made. As rotary
switches can have many positions, they enable a particular point to be connected to
one of a number of other points in the electronics circuit.
Push button switch: Push button switches are used in many electronic
circuits. These electronic switches are often used when a push action is
required to give a momentary connection. Alternatively they can be
used to provide a push on - push off action.
There are many types of electronics switches used in circuits and equipment. These types represent some of
the major in use, although there are naturally many other types available.
To understand types of switches; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qCRM9s0AYxI

Different Symbols of Switches
Application of Various Switches
Push button switch: when you press the switch, contacts of switch is closed and make circuit close to flow
the current and when you remove pressure from the button, contacts of switch is open and break the circuit.
So, this switch is momentary contact switch which is able to control the circuit by making and breaking its
contact. In push button switch, when you remove pressure from the switch, there is an arrangement of
spring to open contact.
Toggle switch: This type of switch is commonly used in household application to ON and OFF electrical
appliances. It has a lever by which we can move up or down to ON and OFF appliances.
Rotary switch: This type of switch is used to connect one line with one of the many lines. Nob of multi-meter,
channel selector, range selector metering device band selector in communication devices are the examples of
this type of switch. This switch is same as single pole multi throw switch. But the arrangement of this switch
is different.

3.0 LAWS & RULES OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Content
 3.1 Ohm’s law

 3.2 Voltage divider rule
 3.3 Current divider rule

3.1 Ohms laws
Ohms law states that at a constant temperature, the electrical current flowing through a fixed linear
resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied across it, and also inversely proportional to the
resistance.
To understand ohms law; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h79K6yiAM6k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZjQeo6OxSQ
3.1.1 VI characteristics:
Ohm's law can also be viewed as a voltage-current characteristic for the resistor. The voltage-current
characteristic of a component is simply the relationship between voltage and current at the component's
terminals. As Ohm's law would indicate, the I-V curve is a straight line with slope R.

3.1.2 Linear & Nonlinear component:
Any of the components can be identified linear or nonlinear based on the VI characteristics of that particular
component.
The linear components are also an electrical element and there will be a linear relationship between the
voltage and current. If any of the characteristics graph is a straight line represented in the graph, then it is a
linear. The examples of the linear elements are resistor
The non-linear components are an electrical element and it will not have any linear relationship between the
current & voltage. If the characteristics graph is a curved line, then it is nonlinear. The example of the
nonlinear element is a diode
To understand linear & nonlinear characteristic; please click the link below
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VqXWiOt2FGc
3.1.3 Problems based on Ohms Law

3.2 Voltage divider rule
The voltage divider rule is a simple and most important electronic circuit, which is used to change a large
voltage into a small voltage. Using just an input voltage and two series resistors we can get an o/p voltage.
Here, output voltage is a fraction of the input voltage.
The best example for voltage divider is two resistors are connected in series. Generally, these dividers are
used to reduce the magnitude of the voltage or to create reference voltage and also used at low frequencies
as a signal attenuator.
Voltage Divider Equation

The voltage divider rule equation accepts when you know the three values in the above circuit they are
input voltage and the two resistor values. By using the following equation, we can find the output voltage.
The above equation states that the Vout (o/p voltage) is directly proportional to the Vin (input voltage) and
the ratio of two resistors R1 and R2.
3.2.1 Problem Based on Voltage divider Rule
To understand Voltage divider rule; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L321aqTvrLQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCTOpwp9e5c

3.3 Current Divider Rule:
When current flows through more than one parallel path, each of the paths shares a definite portion of the
total current depending upon the impedance of that path. The rule or formula derived from these known
impedances to know the portion of total current through any parallel path is known as current division rule.
The Current Divider Rule is the rule which determines how much Current flow through each branch in a
current divider.
3.3.1 Problems on current divider rule Example
To understand current divider rule; please click the link below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wukU0s3zrAo&t=34s

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR
Content
 4.1 Introduction and Physical Nature of Matter Classifications of Matter

 4.2 Energy level Diagram, Importance of energy band in solids
 4.3 Classification of solids on the basis of energy bands
 4.4 Temperature co-efficient and its classifications
 4.5 Intrinsic Semiconductor
 4.6 Doping
 4.7 Extrinsic Semiconductor(N-Type & P-Type)
 4.8 Majority & Minority Carriers

4.1 Introduction and Physical Nature of Matter
There are different kinds of matter around us. What you drink and eat is matter. You, yourself are a matter.
Matter is something that occupies space and has its own mass. It is something that can be felt by us. Some
examples of matter are air, water, food, table, pen, gold, sand, fruits, plants, trees, bottle, plastic, stones, oil, fan,
chair etc. All these things occupy space and have their own masses. Both, living things and non-living things are
matter. The entire universe is composed of matter.
However, few things like heat, sound, light, and electricity cannot come under the term matter, because they do
not have mass, but they can be useful to do work. Heat can be used to iron clothes, cook food, water, etc.
Electricity has multiple uses like making the fans revolve, useful in operating machines, etc. Our eardrums vibrate
due to sound. Plant use light to create their food. Light is also useful during the night time to work or study. All
these things are forms of energy. Energy means the ability to do work.
Nature of Matter
Tiny atoms form matter. The number of these tiny particles may be larger. Naked eyes can’t see these extremely
tiny particles. Atoms can only be observed with the help of high- powered microscope. The following is the
nature of matter:
 Atoms that have protons, neutrons, electrons and a nucleus consist of matter.
 It generally exists in four states i.e. liquid, solid, gaseous and plasma state.
 The universe itself is a matter.
 Not all forms of energy are matter. For example, heat, sound, electricity, etc.
 What we see, hear, feel, touch or taste is matter.
 It occupies space and has its own mass.
To understand Physical Nature of Matter; please click the link below

https://youtu.be/jmm1J2yI9tk

Classifications of Matter
We can classify matter on the basis of physical properties and chemical properties.
Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the composition of matter. Physical
properties are used to observe and describe matter. Physical properties include: appearance, texture, color, odor,
melting point, boiling point, density, solubility, polarity, and many others.
Liquids, gases and solids come under the physical properties.
Chemical properties of matter are classified on the basis of mixtures and pure substances. The homogenous and
heterogeneous mixture are the two classifications of mixtures. Whereas, pure substances classify further into
elements and compounds. Organic substances and inorganic substances are two forms of compounds and metals
and non – metals are two forms of elements.

4.2 Energy Band Diagram
In a single isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit have definite energy associated with it. But in case of solids
all the atoms are close to each other, so the energy levels of outermost orbit electrons are affected by the
neighboring atoms.
The electrons in same orbit exhibit different energy levels. The grouping of this different energy levels is called
energy band.
Importance of energy Band Diagram
There are number of energy bands in solids but three of them are very important. These three energy bands are
important to understand the behavior of solids.
These energy bands are
1. Valence band
2. Conduction band
3. Forbidden band or forbidden gap
Within any material electrons exist in either Valence band or conduction band. No electron exists in
forbidden band.
The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is called valence band. The electrons present in the
valence band are loosely bound to the nucleus of atom.
The range of energies possessed by free electrons is called conduction band. Generally, the conduction
band is empty. When external energy (voltage) is applied the electrons from the valence band jumps to the
conduction band and become free electrons. Electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than the
electrons in valence band. The conduction band electrons are not bound to the nucleus of atom.
Valence band and conduction band are separated by an energy gap in which no electrons normally
exist. This gap is called forbidden gap.

Electrons in conduction band are free electrons. Thereby the electrons in conduction band may be
easily moved around within the material by applying relatively small amount of energy (voltage).
Much larger amount of energy must be applied to extract an electron from the valence band. Electrons in
valence band are in the normal orbit around the nucleus. For any given material, the forbidden gap may be
large, small or non-existent.
To understand Energy Band; please click the link below

https://youtu.be/ANr1wgYLVRo
4.3 Classification of Solids on the basis of Energy Bands
Based on the width of the forbidden gap, materials are classified as conductors, insulators and
semiconductors.
Conductors: In the metals like copper, aluminum there is no forbidden gap between valence band and
conduction band. The two bands overlap. Hence even at room temperature, a large number of electrons are
available for conduction. So without any additional energy, such metals contain a large number of free
electrons and hence called good conductors.
Insulators: In case of such insulating material, there exists a large forbidden gap in between the conduction
band and the valence band. Practically it is impossible for an electron to jump from the valence band to the
conduction band. Hence such materials cannot conduct and called insulators. The forbidden gap is very wide,
approximately of about 7 eV is present in insulators. For a diamond, which is an insulator, the forbidden gap is
about 6 eV. Such materials may conduct only at very high temperatures or if they are subjected to high
voltage. Such conduction is rare and is called breakdown of an insulator. The other insulating materials are
glass, wood, mica, paper etc.

Semiconductors: The forbidden gap in such materials is very narrow as shown in Fig. Such materials are called
semiconductors. The forbidden gap is about 1 eV. In such materials, the energy provided by the heat at room
temperature is sufficient to lift the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band.
Example: Silicon, Germanium, Selenium etc.
4.4 Temperature co-efficient and its classifications
The temperature coefficient is the relative change of resistance when the temperature varies. It is of two
types-positive temperature co-efficient and negative temperature co-efficient
Positive temperature co-efficient
Resistance value increases as the temperature increases. E.g.:

Conductor.
As the temperature increases the vibrations of the atoms of the

conductor become more vigorous. As a result resistance of the
conductor increases. Hence they have positive temperature
coefficient of resistance.
Negative temperature co-efficient
Resistance value decreases as the temperature increases. E.g.:

Semiconductor
In Semiconductors when temperature increases, more electrons

jump to conduction band from valance bond. Hence resistance
decreases.
4.5 Classification of Semiconductors

4.5.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor: A semiconductor in extremely pure form is known as Intrinsic Semiconductor.
Example: Silicon, germanium
Both silicon and Germanium are tetravalent (having 4 valence electrons).
Each atom forms a covalent bond or electron pair bond with the electrons of neighboring atom. At low
temperature, all the valence electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus. Hence no free electrons are
available for conduction. The semiconductor therefore behaves as an Insulator at absolute zero
temperature.
At Room temperature, some of the valence electrons gain enough thermal energy to break up the covalent
bonds. This breaking up of covalent bonds sets the electrons free and is available for conduction.
When an electron escapes from a covalent bond and becomes free electron a vacancy is created in a covalent
bond. Such a vacancy is called Hole. It carries positive charge and moves under the influence of an electric
field in the direction of the electric field applied.
Numbers of holes are equal to the number of electrons since; a hole is nothing but an absence of electrons.
Electron motion: Free electrons in the conduction band move under the influence of the applied electric
field (voltage). Since electrons have negative charge they are attracted towards the positive terminal and are
repelled by the negative terminal of the applied voltage.
Hole Transfer: Hole (absence of electron) transfer involves the movement of holes. Holes may be thought of
as positive charged particles. These being positive are attracted by the negative terminal and are repelled by
negative terminal of the applied voltage.

(a) Electrons move right in the conduction band (b) Hole moves right in the valence
band as electrons enter tube. Electrons move left.
4.5.2 Doping
Drawbacks in Intrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors are not suitable for the construction of devices due to the following reasons
Current is controlled by temperature: In intrinsic semiconductors when electrons get thermal energy, electrons move
from valence band to conduction band. More the thermal energy, more will be the number of electrons in the
conduction band, and more will be the current. Hence, current is controlled by temperature.
Current is very small: Intrinsic semiconductor can conduct only a small amount of current at normal temperature. To
increase the current the semiconductor should be constantly heated which is not suitable. Hence for devices that
require large amount of current, semiconductors cannot be used.
Number of holes equal to number of electrons: For creation of any device, number of electrons should be greater
than number of holes or vice versa. But in intrinsic semiconductors as both the number of holes and number of
electron are equal, so it is not used. Due to the drawbacks of intrinsic semiconductors they cannot be used in devices.
To make intrinsic semiconductor useful doping of semiconductor is done.
Doping is mixing semiconductor with a CHOICED impurity in a MEASURED quantity.

In other words, the process of adding impurity to pure semiconductor is called
doping.
The product formed after doping is called doped semiconductors or extrinsic

semiconductors.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free
electrons or holes in the semiconductor crystal. It also eliminates all the
drawback stated above.
If a pentavalent impurity (having 5 valence electrons) is added to the semiconductor, large number of free
electrons are produced in the semiconductor. Eg: Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), or Antimony (Sb)
On the other hand, addition of trivalent impurity (having 3 valence electrons) creates a large number of
holes in the semiconductor. E.g.: Boron (B), Gallium (Ga), Indium (In), Aluminum (Al).
To understand Doping; please click the link below

https://youtu.be/YUlxsZA-BiU

4.5.3 Extrinsic semiconductor
When an impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor its conductivity changes. This process of adding
impurity to a semiconductor is called Doping and the impure semiconductor is called Extrinsic
semiconductor.
Depending on the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as n-type and p-
type semiconductor.
4.5.3.1 Extrinsic semiconductors (N-Type)
When a small amount of pentavalent (atom with 5 electrons in the outermost orbit) impurity is added to
a pure semiconductor it is called as n-type semiconductor.
Addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of free electrons in a semiconductor crystal.
Typical examples for pentavalent impurities are Arsenic, Antimony and Phosphorus etc. Such impurities
which produce n-type semiconductors are known as Donor impurities because they donate or provide free
electrons to the semiconductor crystal.
To understand the formation of n-type semiconductor, consider a pure silicon crystal with impurity say
phosphorus added to it as shown in figure. We know that a silicon atom has 4 valence electrons and
phosphorus has 5 valence electrons. When phosphorus is added as impurity to silicon, the 4 valence
electrons of silicon make co-valent bond with 4 valence electrons of phosphorus.
The 5th Valence electron finds no place in the covalent bond thus, it becomes free and travels to the
conduction band as shown in figure. Therefore, for each phosphorus atom added, one free electron will
be available in the silicon crystal. Though each phosphorus atom provides one free electron yet an
extremely small amount of arsenic impurity provides enough atoms to supply millions of free electrons.
Due to thermal energy, still hole electron pairs as in pure semiconductor are generated. But the number of
free electrons are very large in number when compared to holes, due to impurity added, so in an n-type
semiconductor electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carriers. Since the
current conduction is pre-dominantly by free electrons (negatively charges), it is called as n-type
semiconductor (n- means negative).

4.5.3.2 Extrinsic Semiconductor (P-Type)
When a small amount of trivalent (atom with 3 electrons in the outermost orbit) impurity is added to
a pure semiconductor it is called p-type semiconductor.
The addition of trivalent impurity provides large number of holes (absence of electrons) in the
semiconductor crystals.
Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminum or Boron etc. Such impurities which produce p- type semiconductors
are known as acceptor impurities because the holes created can accept the electrons in the semiconductor
crystal.
To understand the formation of p-type semiconductor, consider a pure silicon crystal with an impurity
say Aluminum added to it as shown in figure. We know that silicon atom has 4 valence electrons and
Aluminum has 3 electrons. When Aluminum is added as impurity to silicon, the 3 valence electrons of
gallium make 3 covalent bonds with 3 valence Electrons of silicon.
The 4th valence electrons of silicon cannot make a covalent bond with that of Aluminum because of short
of one electron as shown above. This absence of electron is called a hole. Therefore for each gallium
atom added one hole is created, a small amount of Aluminum provides millions of holes which is very
large compared to the number of electrons. Therefore, in a p-type semiconductor holes are majority
carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since the current conduction is predominantly by hole
(positive charges) it is called as p-type semiconductor (p means positive)
To understand Intrinsic & Extrinsic semiconductor; please click the link below
https://youtu.be/s6rQI7t9XM4

4.5.4 Majority and Minority Carriers
An n-type material has its share of electron-hole pairs (released by breaking of bonds at room temperature)
and in addition has a much larger quantity of free electrons due to the contribution by impurity atoms.
These impurity caused free electrons are not associated with holes. Consequently an n-type material has a
large number of free electrons and small number of holes. These free electrons are considered as majority
carriers since the majority portion of current in n-type is by the flow of free electrons and the holes are the
minority carriers.
A p-type material has its share of electron-hole pairs (released by breaking of bonds at room temperature)
and in addition has a much larger quantity of holes due to the contribution by impurity atoms.
These impurity caused holes are not associated with free electrons. Consequently a p-type material has a
large number of holes and small number of free electrons. These holes are considered as majority carriers
since the majority portion of current in p-type is by the flow of holes and the free electrons are the
minority carriers.

5.0 PN JUNCTION DIODE & ITS APPLICATIONS
Content
 5.1 Introduction to Diode & Types
 5.2 Ideal & Real Diode Comparison
 5.3 PN junction Theory-construction and working
 5.4 Different biasing: forward bias & Reverse Bias & VI
characteristics
 5.5 Applications of diode
 5.6 Comparison of half, full and bridge rectifiers

5.1 Introduction to Diode
Once you understand from the simple, passive components that are resistors, capacitors, and inductors, it's
time to step on up to the wonderful world of semiconductors. One of the most widely used semiconductor
components is the diode.
Diode: DIODE is a two electrode semiconductor device, one called as anode and other as cathode. In the
name itself you can find it out as DI (TWO) and ODE (short form of Electrode). Diode is given its name
because it's a combination of 2 electrodes — Cathode and Anode.
Diode Definition: Diode is an electrical component that allows the flow of current in only one direction.
Every diode has two terminals -- connections on each end of the component -- and those terminals
are polarized, meaning the two terminals are distinctly different. It's important not to mix the connections
on a diode up. The positive end of a diode is called the anode, and the negative end is called the cathode.
Current can flow from the anode end to the cathode, but not the other direction.
If you forget which way current flows through a diode, try to remember the mnemonic ACID: "anode
current in diode" (also anode cathode is diode).
The circuit symbol of a standard diode is a triangle putting up against a line.
The terminal entering the flat edge of the triangle represents the anode. Current flows in the direction that
the triangle/arrow is pointing, but it can't go the other way.
To understand the Diode working, please click the link below
https://youtu.be/JNi6WY7WKAI

Types of Diodes
There are several types of diodes are available for use in electronics design, namely; a Backward diode,
BARITT diode, Gunn Diode, Laser diode, Light emitting diodes, Photodiode, PIN diode, PN Junction, Schottky
diodes, Step recovery diode, Tunnel diode, Varactor diode and Zener diode.
To understand the different types Diode, please click the link below
https://youtu.be/luO9p_f12FY

5.2 Ideal Diode and Real diode comparison
A diode is said to be an Ideal Diode when it is forward biased and acts like a perfect conductor, with zero
voltage across it. Similarly, when the diode is reversed biased, it acts as a perfect insulator with zero current
through it. The V-I characteristics of the Ideal diode are shown in the figure below.
An Ideal diode also acts like a switch. When the diode is forward biased it acts like a closed switch as shown
in the figure below.
Whereas, if the diode is reversed biased, it acts like an open switch as shown in the figure below.
Real Diode
A Real diode contains barrier potential V0 (0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium) and a forward
resistance RF of about 25 ohms. When a diode is forward biased and conducts a forward current IF flows
through it which causes a voltage drop IFRF in the forward resistance. Hence, the forward voltage VF applied
across the real diode for conduction, has to overcome the following.
 Potential barrier
 Drop in forward resistance
i.e.
For Silicon diode, the equation becomes as shown below.

For Germanium diode the equation becomes
The V-I characteristic of the Real diode is shown below.
For all the practical purposes, a diode is considered to be an open switch when reversing biased. It is
because the value of reverse resistance is so high (RR > 100 MΩ) that is considered to be an infinite for all
practical purposes.
The equivalent circuit of the real diode under forwarding bias condition is shown below.
This circuit shows that a real diode still acts as a switch when forward biased, but the voltage required to
operate this switch is VF, that is
To understand power conversion; please click the link below

https://youtu.be/EdUAecpYVWQ

5.3 PN Junction Diode – Construction and Working
A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type material creating a
semiconductor diode
As shown above N-Type and P-Type semiconductor materials are joined together to form a P-N junction.
Since the N-type region has a high electron concentration and the P-type a high hole concentration,
electrons diffuse from the N-type side to the P-type side. This charge transfer of electrons and holes across
the PN junction is known as diffusion.
As a result, the free electrons and holes near the junction tend to eat each other, producing a region
depleted of any moving charges. This creates what is called the depletion zone.
Use of PN Junction
It can also be used as a solar cell. P-N junction forward bias condition is used in all LED lighting applications.
The voltage across the P-N junction biased is used to create Temperature Sensors, and Reference voltages. It
is used in many circuits' rectifiers, varactors for voltage controlled oscillators.
To understand PN Junction working; please click the link below
https://youtu.be/0yyFiJw5emw

PN Junction Diode
PN Junction Diode and Its Working Principle. A PN junction diode is a two terminal single crystal
semiconductor device whose one side is doped with acceptors (Holes) and other side by donors (Electrons).
Doping with acceptor creates P type semiconductor while doping with donors produces N type. Thus a PN
junction is formed in diode.
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the characteristic
of passing current in only one direction only. A P–N junction is an interface between two types of
semiconductor materials, P-type and N-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. This allows electrical
current to pass through the junction only in one direction.
Why PN junction is called Diode: PN Junction Diode. If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied
between the two ends of the PN junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they
require to cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
In (reverse bias) Majority charge carriers cannot move across the junction, hence current will not be allowed
to flow across the diode. In reverse biased condition P-N junction diode acts as insulator because as the
width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is increased.
Application of PN Junction Diode: PN Junction Diode are used in many application like: PN Junction Diodes
are mostly used for rectification (Alternative Current to Pulsating DC). They are used as clipper to clip the
portion of AC. They are used as clamper to change the reference voltage.
To understand PN Junction Diode working; please click the link below
https://youtu.be/OsfguONJw2Q

5.4 Different biasing: Forward bias & Reverse Bias
Before we can use the PN junction as a practical device we need to firstly bias the junction, i.e. connect a
voltage potential across it.
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction
Diode and these are:
1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.

2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and positive,
(+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the PN junction diode’s
width.
3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and negative (-ve)
to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.
5.4.1 Zero Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the PN
junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the P-type
material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the junction against this
barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favorable and move
across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR.
This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known as diffusion.

5.4.2 Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type material
and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and
away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards
the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high
impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created that preventing
current from flowing through the semiconductor material.
This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current does flow
through the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes, (μA).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough
value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the
junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current,
and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.
Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

5.4.3 Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type material
and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material.
If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon
and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to
flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy
to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by
the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point,
called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in
the external voltage as shown below.
Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode
The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer becoming
very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high
currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static
I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.
To understand PN Junction diode biasing; please click the link below
https://youtu.be/USrY0JspDEg

5.5 Applications of Diode
Here are a few of the typical applications of diodes include:
 Power conversion
 Radio demodulation
 Over-voltage protection
 Logic gates
 Ionizing radiation detectors
 Temperature measuring
 Current steering
Power conversion
A Rectifier is an electrical device that converts an alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC)
by using one or more PN junction diodes.
Why do we convert AC to DC? (Analyze)
AC signals cannot be stored and DC power or signals can be stored. Thus, to store the electrical
energy we need to convert it into DC. ... AC can be transported over long distances because of its
frequency and DC cannot be transported as DC has zero frequency. Thus, we have AC power supplied in
homes &industries.
Example: Devices like smartphones need DC current to charge. But, the electricity we get in our homes is
AC.
To understand power conversion, please click the link below
https://youtu.be/J8A6QUxfk8c
Rectifier practical example
In our houses, almost all the electronic appliances use AC current. However, some electronic appliances
such as laptops or notebook computers convert this AC current into DC current before they consume the
power.
The AC adapter of the laptop connected to the AC source converts the high AC voltage or high AC current
into low DC voltage or low DC current. This low DC current is supplied to the laptop battery and this is what
we called laptop charging. However, the laptop will not turn on unless you manually turned it on by pressing

the on button. When you press the laptop "power on" button, the laptop battery starts supplying DC
current.
We have forgotten an important step; how the AC adapters convert high AC voltage or high AC current into
low DC voltage or low DC current.
The AC adapters consist of all the essential components needed for AC to DC conversion.
These components are a transformer, capacitor, and several diodes. Out of these components, the main key
component is a diode which converts the alternating current into direct current.
The transformer in the AC adapter reduces the high AC voltage to a low AC voltage.
The rectifier (made up of diodes) converts this low AC voltage or AC current into low DC voltage or DC
current. However, the converted current is not pure DC current. It is a pulsating DC current.
The capacitor filters this pulsating DC current to pure DC current.

5.6 Classification of rectifiers
Rectifiers are classified into a variety of configurations as shown in below figure. Depends on factors like
type of supply, bridge configuration, control nature, components used, etc. these rectifiers are classified.
Majorly rectifiers are classified into single phase and three phase rectifier and these are further classified
into uncontrolled, half controlled and full controlled rectifiers.
Single Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
This type of rectifiers uses the uncontrolled diode for rectifying the input AC supply. At the output
terminals of this rectifier, power becomes constant and changes of its magnitude or value depend on
load requirement is not possible.
5.6.1 Half wave rectifier
Construction
Half Wave Rectifier circuit consists of a single diode and a step-down transformer, the high voltage AC will
be converted into low voltage AC with the help of step-down transformer. After this, a diode connected in
the circuit will be forward biased for positive half of AC cycle and will be reversed biased during negative
half.

Working
When the diode is forward biased, it acts as a short circuit, while when it is reversed biased it acts as an
open circuit. This is because of the connection architecture of the circuit. The P-terminal of the diode is
connected with the secondary winding of transformer and N-terminal of the diode is connected with the
load resistor.
Thus, the diode conducts during the positive half of AC cycle. While it will not conduct during the negative
half of AC cycle. Thus, the voltage drop across the load resistor will appear only for the positive half of AC.
During negative half of AC cycle, we will get zero DC voltage.
To understand half wave rectifier, please click the link below
https://youtu.be/8Bzt-FFvRgQ
5.6.2 Full Wave Center - Tapped Rectifier
Construction
Full Wave Rectifier consists of two diodes and one step down transformer which is center tapped. The P-
terminal of the diodes is connected to the secondary winding of the transformer. The N-terminals of both
the diodes are connected to the center tapping point of the secondary winding, and they are also connected
to load terminal.
Working:
When positive half of AC cycle passes through transformer primary winding, then due to mutual induction
the top of the secondary winding becomes positive while the bottom of the secondary winding becomes
negative.
The P-terminal of diode D1 is connected to the positive voltage which makes the diode to operate in
forward biased region. At the same time diode D2 becomes reverse biased, due to the negative voltage at
the bottom of the secondary winding.
Thus, for the positive half cycle of AC, only diode D1 conducts, and diode D2 does not conduct. Thus, when
the negative half cycle of AC passes through the primary winding of transformer then due to mutual

induction the top of the secondary winding of transformer becomes negative and bottom of the secondary
windings become positive.
Now, diode D2 will be forward biased, and diode D1 will be reverse biased. Thus, DC voltage will be
obtained for positive half of AC cycle as well as for negative half of AC cycle. Thus, it is called full wave as it
conducts for the full cycle of AC.
To understand full wave rectifier, please click the link below

https://youtu.be/qvcT2iC1N6k
5.6.3 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Using the same secondary voltage, this bridge rectifier can produce almost double the output voltage as
compared with full wave center-tapped transformer rectifier.
Working:
During the positive half of the input AC diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and D3 and D4 are reverse
biased. Thus load current flows through D1 and D2 diodes. During the negative half cycle of the input diodes
D3&D4 are forward biased and D1&D2 are reverse biased. Therefore load current flows through D3&D4
diodes.
To understand bridge rectifier, please click the link below

https://youtu.be/PfWmIQfYIRI

5.7 Comparison of Single phase Rectifiers

6.0 SPECIAL DIODES
Content
 6.1 Zener Diode
 6.2 Light Emitting Diode
 6.3 Schottky Diode
 6.4 Varactor Diode
 6.5 Tunnel Diode
 6.6 Photo Diode

6.1 Zener Diode
A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal,
but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value – the
breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage.
Zener diode consists of two terminals: cathode and anode. In zener diode, electric current flows from both
anode to cathode and cathode to anode. The symbol of zener diode is similar to the normal p-n junction
diode, but with bend edges on the vertical bar.
Circuit Diagram
The Zener diode is employed in reverse biasing. The reverse biasing means the n-type material of the diode
is connected to the positive terminal of the supply and the P-type material is connected to the negative
terminal of the supply. The depletion region of the diode is very thin because it is made of the heavily doped
semiconductor material.
Working of Zener Diode

When no biasing is applied across the Zener diode, the electrons remains in the valence band of the p-type
material and no current flow through the diode. The band in which the valence electrons (outermost orbit
electron) place is known as the valence band electron. The electrons of the valence band easily move from
one band to another when the external energy is applied across it.

When the reverse bias applies across the diode and the supply voltage is equal to the Zener voltage then it
starts conducting in the reverse bias direction. The Zener voltage is the voltage at which the depletion
region completely vanish.
The reverse bias applies across the diode increases the intensity of electric field across the depletion region.
Thus, it allows the electrons to move from the valence band of P-type material to the conduction band of N-
type material. This transferring of valence band electrons to the conduction band reduces the barrier
between the p and n-type material. When the depletion region become completely vanish the diode starts
conducting in the reverse biased.
Characteristic of Zener Diode
This curve shows that the Zener diode, when connected in forwarding bias, behaves like an ordinary
diode.When reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small amount of leakage
current until the voltage is less than zener voltage. When reverse biased voltage applied to the zener diode
reaches zener voltage, it starts allowing large amount of electric current. At this point, a small increase in
reverse voltage will rapidly increases the electric current. Because of this sudden rise in electric current,
breakdown occurs called zener breakdown. However, zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown that
does damage the device. The zener breakdown voltage of the zener diode is depends on the amount of
doping applied. If the diode is heavily doped, zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltages. On the other
hand, if the diode is lightly doped, the zener breakdown occurs at high reverse voltages.

Applications of Zener diode
The Zener diode is mostly used in the commercial and industrial applications. The following are the main
application of the Zener diode.
1. As Voltage Stabilizer – The Zener diode is used for regulating the voltage. It provides the constant
voltage from the fluctuating voltage source to the load. The Zener diode is connected in parallel across the
load and maintain the constant voltage VZ and hence stabilizes the voltage.
2. For Meter Protection – The Zener diode is generally used in millimeters for controlling the movement of
the meter against accidental overloads. It is connected in parallel with the diode. When the overload occurs
across the diode most of the current pass through the diode. Thus, protects the meter from damage.
3. For Wave Shaping – The Zener diode is used for converting the sine wave into the square wave. This can
be done by placing the two Zener Diodes in series with the resistance. The diode is connected back to back
and in the opposite direction.
To understand Zener Diode, please click the link below

https://youtu.be/bN6_eHJQKz4

6.2 Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits light when voltage is applied. In
other words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts electrical energy into light energy.
LED construction
The three semiconductor layers deposited on the substrate are n-type semiconductor, p-type
semiconductor and active region. Active region is present in between the n-type and p-type semiconductor
layers.
When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type semiconductor and holes from p-type
semiconductor are pushed towards the active region.
When free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side recombine with the opposite charge carriers (free
electrons with holes or holes with free electrons) in active region, an invisible or visible light is emitted.
In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region. Therefore, most of the light is emitted by the
active region. The active region is also called as depletion region.

Working of LED
Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in forward bias condition. When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward
biased, the free electrons from n-side and the holes from p-side are pushed towards the junction.
When free electrons reach the junction or depletion region, some of the free electrons recombine with the
holes in the positive ions. We know that positive ions have less number of electrons than protons.
Therefore, they are ready to accept electrons. Thus, free electrons recombine with holes in the depletion
region. In the similar way, holes from p-side recombine with electrons in the depletion region.
The free electrons from n-type semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with holes in p-type
semiconductor. In the similar way, holes from p-type semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines
with free electrons in the n-type semiconductor.
Thus, recombination takes place in depletion region as well as in p-type and n-type semiconductor.
The free electrons in the conduction band releases energy in the form of light before they recombine with
holes in the valence band.

The energy level of free electrons in the conduction band is high compared to the energy level of valence
electrons or holes in the valence band. Therefore, free electrons in the conduction band need to lose
energy in order to recombine with the holes in the valence band.
The free electrons in the conduction band do not stay for long period. After a short period, the free
electrons lose energy in the form of light and recombine with the holes in the valence band. Each
recombination of charge carrier will emit some light energy.
The energy loose of free electrons or the intensity of emitted light is depends on the forbidden gap or
energy gap between conduction band and valence band.
The semiconductor device with large forbidden gap emits high intensity light whereas the semiconductor
device with small forbidden gap emits low intensity light.
In other words, the brightness of the emitted light is depends on the material used for constructing LED
and forward current flow through the LED.
Light Emitting Diode Colors
Silicon semiconductor materials, Light Emitting Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor compounds
such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon
Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different ratios to produce a distinct
wavelength of colour.
Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics.
Light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow through it, as it is a current
dependent device with their light output intensity being directly proportional to the forward current
flowing through the LED.

Advantages of LED
 The brightness of light emitted by LED is depends on the current flowing through the LED. Hence, the
brightness of LED can be easily controlled by varying the current. This makes possible to operate LED
displays under different ambient lighting conditions.
 Light emitting diodes consume low energy.
 LEDs are very cheap and readily available.
 LEDs are light in weight.
 Smaller size.
 LEDs have longer lifetime.
 LEDs operates very fast. They can be turned on and off in very less time.
 LEDs do not contain toxic material like mercury which is used in fluorescent lamps.
 LEDs can emit different colors of light.
Disadvantages of LED
 LEDs need more power to operate than normal p-n junction diodes.
 Luminous efficiency of LEDs is low.
Applications of LED
 Calculators
 Picture phones
 Traffic signals
 Digital computers
 Multi-meters
 Digital watches
 Camera flashes
 Aviation lighting
To understand LED, please click the link below
https://youtu.be/0T5ZkOEkrL8

6.3 Schottky diode
Schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor junction diode that has less forward voltage drop than the P-N
junction diode and can be used in high-speed switching applications.
In schottky diode, metals such as aluminium or platinum replace the P-type semiconductor.
Schottky diode is also known as schottky barrier diode, surface barrier diode, majority carrier device, hot-
electron diode, or hot carrier diode. Schottky diodes are widely used in radio frequency (RF) applications.
When aluminium or platinum metal is joined with N-type semiconductor, a junction is formed between the
metal and N-type semiconductor. This junction is known as a metal-semiconductor junction or M-S
junction. A metal-semiconductor junction formed between a metal and n-type semiconductor creates a
barrier or depletion layer known as a schottky barrier.
Schottky diode can switch on and off much faster than the p-n junction diode. Also, the schottky diode
produces less unwanted noise than p-n junction diode. These two characteristics of the schottky diode
make it very useful in high-speed switching power circuits.

A silicon diode has a voltage drop of 0.6 to 0.7 volts, while a schottky diode has a voltage drop of 0.2 to 0.3
volts. Voltage loss or voltage drop is the amount of voltage wasted to turn on a diode. In silicon diode, 0.6
to 0.7 volts is wasted to turn on the diode, whereas in schottky diode, 0.2 to 0.3 volts is wasted to turn on
the diode. Therefore, the schottky diode consumes less voltage to turn on.
Appearance and Symbol of schottky diode
In schottky diode, the metal acts as the anode and n-type semiconductor acts as the cathode.
Forward biased schottky diode
If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the metal and the negative terminal of the battery is
connected to the n-type semiconductor, the schottky diode is said to be forward biased.
When a forward bias voltage is applied to the schottky diode, a large number of free electrons are
generated in the n-type semiconductor and metal. However, the free electrons in n-type semiconductor
and metal cannot cross the junction unless the applied voltage is greater than 0.2 volts.
If the applied voltage is greater than 0.2 volts, the free electrons gain enough energy and overcomes the
built-in-voltage of the depletion region. As a result, electric current starts flowing through the schottky
diode.
If the applied voltage is continuously increased, the depletion region becomes very thin and finally
disappears.

Reverse bias schottky diode
If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the metal and the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the n-type semiconductor, the schottky diode is said to be reverse biased.
When a reverse bias voltage is applied to the schottky diode, the depletion width increases. As a result, the
electric current stops flowing. However, a small leakage current flows due to the thermally excited
electrons in the metal.
If the reverse bias voltage is continuously increased, the electric current gradually increases due to the
weak barrier. If the reverse bias voltage is largely increased, a sudden rise in electric current takes place.
This sudden rise in electric current causes depletion region to break down which may permanently damage
the device.
V-I characteristics of schottky diode
The V-I (Voltage-Current) characteristics of schottky diode is shown in the below figure. The vertical line in
the below figure represents the current flow in the schottky diode and the horizontal line represents the
voltage applied across the schottky diode.

The V-I characteristics of schottky diode is almost similar to the P-N junction diode. However, the forward
voltage drop of schottky diode is very low as compared to the P-N junction diode.
The forward voltage drop of schottky diode is 0.2 to 0.3 volts whereas the forward voltage drop of silicon P-
N junction diode is 0.6 to 0.7 volts.
If the forward bias voltage is greater than 0.2 or 0.3 volts, electric current starts flowing through the
schottky diode.
In schottky diode, the reverse saturation current occurs at a very low voltage as compared to the silicon
diode.
Applications of schottky diodes
 Schottky diodes are used as general-purpose rectifiers.

 Schottky diodes are used in radio frequency (RF) applications.
 Schottky diodes are widely used in power supplies.
 Schottky diodes are used to detect signals.
 Schottky diodes are used in logic circuits.
To understand schottky diode, please click the link below
https://youtu.be/nV3bBrQnws0
6.4 Varactor diode
Varactor diode is a P-N junction diode whose capacitance is varied by varying the reverse voltage.
The term varactor is originated from a variable capacitor. Varactor diode operates only in reverse bias. The
varactor diode acts like a variable capacitor under reverse bias.
Varactor diode is also sometimes referred to as varicap diode, tuning diode, variable reactance diode, or
variable capacitance diode.
The circuit symbol of the varactor diode is almost similar to the normal p-n junction diode. Two parallel lines
at the cathode side represents two conductive plates and the space between these two parallel lines
represents dielectric.

A capacitor is an electronic component that stores electrical energy or electric charge in the form of
an electric field. The basic capacitor is made up of two parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric.
The two conductive plate’s acts like electrodes and the dielectric acts like an insulator.
The conductive plates are good conductors of electricity so they easily allow electric current through them.
On the other hand, a dielectric is poor conductor of electricity so it does not allow electric current through it
but it allows electric field or electric force.
When voltage is applied to the capacitor in such a way that the negative terminal of the battery is connected
to the right side electrode or plate and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the left side
electrode, the capacitor starts storing electric charge.
Construction
The varactor diode is made up of the p-type and n-type semiconductor. In the n-type semiconductor, free
electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers. So the free electrons carry most of the
electric current in n-type semiconductor. In the p-type semiconductor, holes are the majority carriers and
free electrons are the minority carriers. So the holes carry most of the electric current in p-type
semiconductor.

When a p-type semiconductor is in contact with the n-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed between
them. This p-n junction separates the p-type and n-type semiconductor.
At the p-n junction, a depletion region is created. A depletion region is a region where mobile charge carriers
(free electrons and holes) are absent.
The depletion region is made up of positive and negative ions (charged atoms). These positive and negative
ions does not move from one place to another place.
The depletion region blocks free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side. Thus, depletion region blocks
electric current across the p-n junction.
Working
When a reverse bias voltage is applied, the electrons from n-region and holes from p-region moves away
from the junction. As a result, the width of depletion region increases and the capacitance decreases.
However, if the applied reverse bias voltage is very low the capacitance will be very large.
The capacitance is inversely proportional to the width of the depletion region and directly proportional to the
surface area of the p-region and n-region. So the capacitance decreases as the as the width of depletion
region increases.

If the reverse bias voltage is increased, the width of depletion region further increases and the capacitance
further decreases.
On the other hand, if the reverse bias voltage is reduced, the width of depletion region decreases and the
capacitance increases.
Thus, an increase in reverse bias voltage increases the width of the depletion region and decreases the
capacitance of a varactor diode.
The decrease in capacitance means the decrease in storage charge. So the reverse bias voltage should be
kept at a minimum to achieve large storage charge. Thus, capacitance or transition capacitance can be
varied by varying the voltage.
In a fixed capacitor, the capacitance will not be varied whereas, in variable capacitor, the capacitance is
varied.
In a varactor diode, the capacitance is varied when the voltage is varied. So the varactor diode is a variable
capacitor. The capacitance of a varactor diode is measured in picofarads (pF).
Applications of varactor diode
 Varactor diode is used in frequency multipliers.

 Varactor diode is used in parametric amplifiers.
 Varactor diode is used in voltage-controlled oscillators.
To understand Varactor diode, please click the link below
https://youtu.be/A6kgfyeC5Qg

6.5 Tunnel diode
A Tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode in which the electric current decreases as
the voltage increases.
In tunnel diode, electric current is caused by “Tunneling”. The tunnel diode is used as a very fast switching
device in computers. It is also used in high-frequency oscillators and amplifiers.
Appearance and Symbol of tunnel diode
The circuit symbol of tunnel diode is shown in the below figure. In tunnel diode, the p-type
semiconductor act as an anode and the n-type semiconductor act as a cathode.
The operation of tunnel diode depends on the quantum mechanics principle known as “Tunneling”. In
electronics, tunneling means a direct flow of electrons across the small depletion region from n-side
conduction band into the p-side valence band.
Quantum mechanics says that the electrons will directly penetrate through the depletion layer or barrier if
the depletion width is very small.

The germanium material is commonly used to make the tunnel diodes. They are also made from other types
of materials such as gallium arsenide, gallium antimonide, and silicon.
In tunnel diode, the p-type and n-type semiconductor is heavily doped which means a large number of
impurities are introduced into the p-type and n-type semiconductor. This heavy doping process produces an
extremely narrow depletion region. The concentration of impurities in tunnel diode is 1000 times greater
than the normal p-n junction diode.
In normal p-n junction diode, the depletion width is large as compared to the tunnel diode. This wide
depletion layer or depletion region in normal diode opposes the flow of current. Hence, depletion layer acts
as a barrier. To overcome this barrier, we need to apply sufficient voltage. When sufficient voltage is applied,
electric current starts flowing through the normal p-n junction diode.
Unlike the normal p-n junction diode, the width of a depletion layer in tunnel diode is extremely narrow. So
applying a small voltage is enough to produce electric current in tunnel diode.
The depletion layer of tunnel diode is very small. It is in nanometers. So the electrons can directly tunnel
across the small depletion region from n-side conduction band into the p-side valence band.
In ordinary diodes, current is produced when the applied voltage is greater than the built-in voltage of the
depletion region. But in tunnel diodes, a small voltage which is less than the built-in voltage of depletion
region is enough to produce electric current.
In tunnel diodes, the electrons need not overcome the opposing force from the depletion layer to produce
electric current. The electrons can directly tunnel from the conduction band of n-region into the valence
band of p-region. Thus, electric current is produced in tunnel diode.

Step 1: Unbiased tunnel diode
When no voltage is applied to the tunnel diode, it is said to be an unbiased tunnel diode. In tunnel diode,
the conduction band of the n-type material overlaps with the valence band of the p-type material because
of the heavy doping.
Because of this overlapping, the conduction band electrons at n-side and valence band holes at p-side are
nearly at the same energy level. So when the temperature increases, some electrons tunnel from the
conduction band of n-region to the valence band of p-region. In a similar way, holes tunnel from the valence
band of p-region to the conduction band of n-region.
However, the net current flow will be zero because an equal number of charge carriers (free electrons and
holes) flow in opposite directions.
Step 2: Small voltage applied to the tunnel diode
When a small voltage is applied to the tunnel diode which is less than the built-in voltage of the depletion
layer, no forward current flows through the junction.
However, a small number of electrons in the conduction band of the n-region will tunnel to the empty states
of the valence band in p-region. This will create a small forward bias tunnel current. Thus, tunnel current
starts flowing with a small application of voltage.

Step 3: Applied voltage is slightly increased
When the voltage applied to the tunnel diode is slightly increased, a large number of free electrons at n-side
and holes at p-side are generated. Because of the increase in voltage, the overlapping of the conduction
band and valence band is increased. In simple words, the energy level of an n-side conduction band
becomes exactly equal to the energy level of a p-side valence band. As a result, maximum tunnel current
flows
Step 4: Applied voltage is further increased
If the applied voltage is further increased, a slight misalign of the conduction band and valence band takes
place.
Since the conduction band of the n-type material and the valence band of the p-type material sill overlap.
The electrons tunnel from the conduction band of n-region to the valence band of p-region and cause a
small current flow. Thus, the tunneling current starts decreasing.

Step 5: Applied voltage is largely increased
If the applied voltage is largely increased, the tunneling current drops to zero. At this point, the conduction
band and valence band no longer overlap and the tunnel diode operates in the same manner as a normal
p-n junction diode.
Advantages of tunnel diodes
 Long life
 High-speed operation
 Low noise
 Low power consumption
Disadvantages of tunnel diodes
 Tunnel diodes cannot be fabricated in large numbers

 Being a two terminal device, the input and output are not isolated from one another.
Applications of tunnel diodes
 Tunnel diodes are used as logic memory storage devices.

 Tunnel diodes are used in relaxation oscillator circuits.
 Tunnel diode is used as an ultra-high-speed switch.
 Tunnel diodes are used in FM receivers.
To understand Tunnel diode, please click the link below
https://youtu.be/hNzLQdFW-FI

6.6 Photodiode
A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin semiconductor device that consumes light energy to generate electric
current. Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition. Photodiode is very
sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on the photodiode it easily converts light into electric
current.
Solar cell is also known as large area photodiode because it converts solar energy or light energy into electric
energy. However, solar cell works only at bright light.
Photodiode symbol
The symbol of photodiode is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that it contains arrows striking
the diode. The arrows striking the diode represent light or photons.
Principle of Photodiode
It works on the principle of Photoelectric effect.
The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when the junction of this two terminal semiconductor
device is illuminated then electric current starts flowing through it. Only minority current flows through the
device when the certain reverse potential is applied to it.
Construction of Photodiode

The PN junction of the device placed inside a glass material. This is done to order to allow the light energy to
pass through it. As only the junction is exposed to radiation, thus, the other portion of the glass material is
painted black or is metallized.
Operational Modes of Photodiode
 Photovoltaic mode: It is also known as zero bias mode because no any external reverse potential is
provided to the device. However, the flow of minority carrier will take place when the device is
exposed to light.
 Photoconductive mode: When a certain reverse potential is applied to the device then it behaves as a
photoconductive device. Here, an increase in depletion width is seen with the corresponding change in
reverse voltage.
Working of Photodiode
In the photodiode, a very small reverse current flows through the device that is termed as dark current. It is
called so because this current is totally the result of the flow of minority carriers and is thus flows when the
device is not exposed to radiation.
The electrons present in the p side and holes present in n side are the minority carriers. When a certain
reverse-biased voltage is applied then minority carrier, holes from n-side experiences repulsive force from
the positive potential of the battery.
Similarly, the electrons present in the p side experiences repulsion from the negative potential of the
battery. Due to this movement electron and hole recombine at the junction resultantly generating depletion
region at the junction. Due to this movement, a very small reverse current flows through the device known
as dark current.

The combination of electron and hole at the junction generates neutral atom at the depletion. Due to which
any further flow of current is restricted. Now, the junction of the device is illuminated with light. As the light
falls on the surface of the junction, then the temperature of the junction gets increased. This causes the
electron and hole to get separated from each other. At the two gets separated then electrons from n side
gets attracted towards the positive potential of the battery. Similarly, holes present in the p side get
attracted to the negative potential of the battery. This movement then generates a high reverse current
through the device. With the rise in the light intensity, more charge carriers are generated and flow through
the device. Thereby, producing a large electric current through the device. This current is then used to drive
other circuits of the system. So, we can say the intensity of light energy is directly proportional to the
current through the device. Only positive biased potential can put the device in no current condition in case
of the photodiode.
Characteristics of Photodiode
The vertical line represents the reverse current flowing through the device and the horizontal line
represents the reverse biased potential.The above curve represents the dark current that generates due to
minority carriers in the absence of light. As we can see in the above figure that all the curve shows almost
equal spacing in between them. This is so because current proportionally increases with the luminous flux.
Advantages
 It shows a quick response when exposed to light.

 Photodiode offers high operational speed.
 It provides a linear response.
 It is a low-cost device.
Disadvantages
 It is a temperature dependent device. And shows poor temperature stability.

 When low illumination is provided, then amplification is necessary.
Applications
1. Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits.

2. Photodiodes are extensively used in an optical communication system.
3. Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.
4. It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. In such alarm systems, until exposure to radiation
is not interrupted, the current flows. As the light energy fails to fall on the device, it sounds
the alarm.
To understand Photo diode, please click the links below

https://youtu.be/3OPpFWco4A8 https://youtu.be/BtQ7qY-uqs8

7.0 PCB ASSEMBLY & SOLDERING
Content
 7.1 Components forming & Orientation
 7.2 Soldering, Types of soldering technology
 7.3 Types of errors in soldering
 7.4 Through Hole Technology, SMD technology
 7.5 Types of PCB

7.1 Component forming & orientation:
Component forming is the process of straightening the leads of IC components.
This component leads can be formed for different length. Different types of tools are available for
component forming.
Nose plier Resistor Lead Forming Tool Forming Machine
Component orientation relates to properly orienting discrete electronic components for assembly to circuit
boards. Depends on the shape of the component and how it is arranged on circuit board the orientation is of
different types.
1. Axial orientation
2. Radial orientation

7.2 Soldering
Soldering is the process of joining two or more electronic parts together by melting solder around the
connection. Solder is a metal alloy and when it cools it creates a strong electrical bond between the parts.
The following are the soldering tools.
1. Soldering Iron: A soldering iron is a hand tool that plugs into a

standard 230v AC outlet and heats up in order to melt solder around
electrical connections. This is one of the most important tools used in
soldering and it can come in a few variations such as pen or gun form.
Pen style soldering iron in the 15W to 30W range. Most soldering irons
have interchangeable tips that can be used for different soldering
applications. Be very cautious when using any type of soldering iron
because it can heat up to 896′ F which is extremely hot.
2. Soldering Station: A soldering station is a more advanced version of

the basic standalone soldering pen. If you are going to be doing a lot of
soldering, these are great to have as they offer more flexibility and
control. The main benefit of a soldering station is the ability to precisely
adjust the temperature of the soldering iron which is great for a range
of projects. These stations can also create a safer workspace as some
include advanced temperature sensors, alert settings and even
password protection for safety.
3. Soldering Iron Tips: At the end of most soldering irons is an

interchangeable part known as a soldering tip. There are many
variations of this tip and they come in a wide variety of shapes and
sizes. Each tip is used for a specific purpose and offers a distinct
advantage over another. The most common tips you will use in
electronics projects are the conical tip and the chisel tip.
Conical Tip – Used in precision electronics soldering because of the fine
tip. Because of its pointed end, it’s able to deliver heat to smaller areas
without affecting its surroundings.
Chisel Tip – This tip is well-suited to soldering wires or other larger
components because of its broad flat tip.

4. Brass or Conventional Sponge: Using a sponge will help to keep the
soldering iron tip clean by removing the oxidation that forms. Tips with
oxidation will tend to turn black and not accept solder as it did when it
was new. You could use a conventional wet sponge but this tends to
shorten the lifespan of the tip due to expansion and contraction. Also, a
wet sponge will drop the temperature of the tip temporarily when
wiped. A better alternative is to use a brass sponge as shown on the
left.
5. Solder: Solder is a metal alloy material that is melted to create a

permanent bond between electrical parts. It comes in both lead and
lead-free variations with diameters of .032″ and .062″ being the most
common. Inside the solder core is a material known as flux which helps
improve electrical contact and its mechanical strength.
For electronics soldering, the most commonly used type is lead-free
rosin core solder. This type of solder is usually made up of a Tin/Copper
alloy. You can also use leaded 60/40 (60% tin, 40% lead) rosin core
solder but it’s becoming less popular due to health concerns. If you do
use lead solder, make sure you have proper ventilation and that you
wash your hands after use.
6. Helping Hand (Third Hand): When buying solder, make sure not to
use acid core solder as this will damage your circuits and components.
Acid core solder is sold at home improvement stores and is mainly used
for plumbing and metal working.
As mentioned earlier, solder does come in a few different diameters.
The thicker diameter solder (.062″) is good for soldering larger joints
more quickly but it can make soldering smaller joints difficult.
7. Soldering Iron Stand: A soldering iron stand is very basic but very
useful and handy to have. This stand helps prevent the hot iron tip from
coming in contact with flammable materials or causing accidental injury
to your hand. Most soldering stations come with this built in and also
include a sponge or brass sponge for cleaning the tip.

Soldering Safety
Now that you know what tools and materials are required, it’s time to briefly discuss ways of staying safe
while soldering. Soldering irons can reach temperatures of 800′ F so it’s very important to know where your
iron is at all times. We always recommend you use a soldering iron stand to help prevent accidental burns or
damage.
Make sure you are soldering in a well-ventilated area. When solder is heated, there are fumes released that
are harmful to your eyes and lungs. It’s recommended to use a fume extractor which is a fan with a charcoal
filter that absorbs the harmful solder smoke you can visit sites like Integrated Air Systems for air filtration
systems.
It’s always a good idea to wear protective eye wear in case of accidental splashes of hot solder. Lastly, make
sure to wash your hands when done soldering especially if using lead solder.
Tinning the Tip

Before you can start soldering, you need to prep your soldering iron by tinning the tip with solder. This
process will help improve the heat transfer from the iron to the item you’re soldering. Tinning will also help
to protect the tip and reduce wear.
Step 1: Begin by making sure the tip is attached to the iron and screwed tightly in place.
Step 2: Turn on your soldering iron and let it heat up. If you have a soldering station with an adjustable temp
control, set it to 400′ C/ 752′ F.
Step 3: Wipe the tip of the soldering iron on a damp wet sponge to clean it. Wait a few seconds to let the tip
heat up again before proceeding to step 4.
Step 4: Hold the soldering iron in one hand and solder in the other. Touch the solder to the tip of the iron
and make sure the solder flows evenly around the tip.
You should tin the tip of your iron before and after each soldering session to extend its life. Eventually, every
tip will wear out and will need replacing when it becomes rough or pitted.

How to Solder
To better explain how to solder, we’re going to demonstrate it with a real world application. In this example,
we’re going to solder an LED to a circuit board.
Step 1: Mount the Component – Begin by inserting the leads of the LED
into the holes of the circuit board. Flip the board over and bend the leads
outward at a 45′ angle. This will help the component make a better
connection with the copper pad and prevent it from falling out while
soldering.
Step 2: Heat The Joint – Turn your soldering iron on and if it has an
adjustable heat control, set it to 400’C. At this point, touch the tip of the
iron to the copper pad and the resistor lead at the same time. You need to
hold the soldering iron in place for 3-4 seconds in order to heat the pad
and the lead.
Step 3: Apply Solder to Joint – Continue holding the soldering iron on the
copper pad and the lead and touch your solder to the joint. IMPORTANT –
Don’t touch the solder directly to the tip of the iron. You want the joint to
be hot enough to melt the solder when it’s touched. If the joint is too cold,
it will form a bad connection.
Step 4: Snip The Leads – Remove the soldering iron and let the solder cool
down naturally. Don’t blow on the solder as this will cause a bad joint.
Once cool, you can snip the extra wire from leads.
A proper solder joint is smooth, shiny and looks like a volcano or cone
shape. You want just enough solder to cover the entire joint but not too
much so it becomes a ball or spills to a nearby lead or joint.
How to Solder Wires

Now it’s time to show you how to solder wires together. For this process, it’s recommended to use helping
hands or other type of clamp device.
Step 1: Begin by removing the insulation from the ends of

both wires you are soldering together. If the wire is stranded,
twist the strands together with your fingers.
Step 2: Make sure your soldering iron is fully heated and

touch the tip to the end of one of the wires. Hold it on the
wire for 3-4 seconds.

Step 3: Keep the iron in place and touch the solder to the
wire until it’s fully coated. Repeat this process on the other
wire.
Step 4: Hold the two tinned wires on top of each other and
touch the soldering iron to both wires. This process should
melt the solder and coat both wires evenly.
Step 5: Remove the soldering iron and wait a few seconds to

let the soldered connection cool and harden. Use heat shrink
to cover the connection.
De-soldering
The good thing about using solder is the fact that it can be removed easily in a technique known as de-
soldering. This comes in handy if you need to remove a component or make a correction to your electronic
circuit. To de-solder a joint, you will need solder wick which is also known as de-soldering braid.
Step 1 – Place a piece of the de-soldering braid on top of the joint/solder you want removed.
Step 2 – Heat your soldering iron and touch the tip to the top of the braid. This will heat the solder below
which will then be absorbed into the de-soldering braid. You can now remove the braid to see the solder has
been extracted and removed. Be careful touching the braid when you are heating it because it will get hot.
Optional – If you have a lot of solder you want removed, you may want to use a device called a solder
sucker. This is a handheld mechanical vacuum that sucks up hot solder with a press of a button.
To use, press the plunger down at the end of the solder sucker. Heat the joint with your soldering iron and
place the tip of the solder sucker over the hot solder. Press the release button to suck up the liquid solder. In
order to empty the solder sucker, press down on the plunger.
7.2 Methods of Soldering
The methods of soldering process can be classified into two, namely soft soldering and hard soldering.
Soft Soldering: Soft soldering is a process for fitting very minute compound parts possessing low liquefying
temperature, which have been broken during the procedure of soldering is performed at high temperature.
In this process, a tin-lead alloy is used as space filler metal. The liquefying temperature of the space filler
alloy must not be less than 400oC / 752oF. A gas torch is used as a heat source, for the procedure. Some of
the examples of this kind of soldering metals include: tin-zinc for bonding aluminum, tin-lead for general
usage; zinc-aluminum for aluminum, cadmium-silver for power at high temperature; lead-silver for strength
higher than room temperature, weakening confrontation, tin-silver & tin-bismuth for electrical products.
Hard Soldering: In this type of soldering a solid solder unites two elements of metals by spreading out into
the holes of the component that are unlocked due to high temperature. The space filler metal grips higher
temperature more than 450oC/840oF. It comprises of two elements: Silver soldering and Brazing.
Silver Soldering: It is an unsoiled method supportive to fabricate small components, carrying out abnormal
maintenance and built-up tools. It makes use of an alloy containing silver as a space filler metal. Though
silver provides a free running individuality, yet silver soldering is not suggested for space filling, and thus,
different flux is recommended for accurate silver soldering.
Braze Soldering: This type of soldering is a procedure for connecting two terminals of the base metals by
forming liquid metallic space filler, which runs by the attraction of a vessel through the joints and cools
down to give a solid union through diffusion and atomic magnetism. It produces a very strong joint. It makes
use of a brass metal as a space filler agent.
7.3 Types of Errors in Soldering
1. Disturbed Joint: A Disturbed joint is one that has been

subjected to movement as the solder was solidifying. The
surface of the joint may appear frosted, crystalline or rough.
Often called a 'Cold Joint'. They can look similar to a true cold
joint, but the cause is different.
Repair: This joint can be repaired by reheating and allowing it to
cool undisturbed.
Prevention: Proper preparation, including immobilizing the joint
and stabilizing the work in a vise can prevent disturbed joints.
2. Cold Joint: A 'Cold Joint' is one where the solder did not melt
completely. It is often characterized by a rough or lumpy
surface. Cold joints are unreliable. The solder bond will be poor
and the cracks may develop in the joint over time.
Repair: Cold joints can usually be repaired by simply re-heating
the joint with a hot iron until the solder flows. Many cold joints
(such as the one pictured) also suffer from too much solder. The
excess solder can usually be drawn-off with the tip of the iron.
Prevention: A properly pre-heated soldering iron with sufficient
power will help prevent cold joints.
3. Overheated Joint: At the other extreme, we have the

overheated joint. The solder has not yet flowed well and the
residue of burnt flux will make fixing this joint difficult.
Repair: An overheated joint can usually be repaired after
cleaning. Careful scraping with the tip of a knife, or little
isopropyl alcohol & a toothbrush will remove the burnt flux.
Prevention: A clean, hot soldering iron, proper preparation and
cleaning of the joint will help prevent overheated joints.
4. Insufficient Wetting (Pad): These two joints both show signs
of insufficient wetting of the solder pad. The solder has wetted
the leads nicely, but it has not formed a good bond with the
pad. This can be caused by a dirty circuit board, or by failing to
apply heat to the pad as well as the pin.
Repair: This condition can usually be repaired by placing the tip
of the hot iron at the base of the joint until the solder flows to
cover the pad. Prevention: Cleaning the board and even heating
of both the pad and the pin will prevent this problem.
5. Insufficient Wetting (Pin): This solder in this joint has not

wetted the pin at all and has only partially wetted the pad. In
this case, heat was not applied to the pin and the solder was not
given adequate time to flow.
Repair: This joint can be repaired by re-heating and applying
more solder. Be sure that the tip of the hot iron is touching both
the pin and the pad.
Prevention: Even heating of both the pin and the pad will
prevent this problem.
6. Too Much Solder: This might be a perfectly good joint, but

we can't tell for sure. It is entirely possible that this blob of
solder wets neither the pin nor the pad and is not a reliable
electrical connection. The best evidence of proper wetting (and
good electrical contact) is a nice concave surface as on the joint
on the far left.
Repair: It is usually possible to draw off some of the excess
solder with the tip of a hot iron. In extreme cases, a solder-
sucker or some solder wick can be helpful as well.
7. Untrimmed Leads: Leads that are too long are potential short
circuits. The two joints on the left are an obvious danger of
touching. But the one on the right is long enough to be
dangerous as well. It would not take much force to bend that
lead over to touch an adjacent trace.
Repair: Trim all leads just at the top of the solder joint.
8. Solder Bridge: The left two solder joints have melted

together, forming an unintended connection between the two.
Repair: Sometimes the excess solder can be drawn off by
dragging the tip of a hot iron between the two solder joints. If
there is too much solder, a solder sucker or solder wick can help
get rid of the excess. Prevention: Solder bridges most often
happen between joints with too much solder to begin with. Use
only enough solder to make a good joint.
7.4 Through Hole Technology (THT)
Through Hole technology is a method for constructing electronic circuits in which the pin-through hole (PTH)
components are inserted through holes drilled into printed circuit boards (PCBs). The ends, or leads, are then
affixed to pads on the opposite side with molten metal solder using wave soldering or reflow soldering
equipment. This process is also called through hole assembly.
Through Hole technology replaced early electronics assembly techniques such as point-to-point construction.
From the second generation of computers in the 1950s until surface-mount technology became popular in
the late 1980s, every component on a typical PCB was a through hole component.
While through hole mounting provides stronger mechanical bonds than surface-mount technology
techniques, the additional drilling required makes the boards more expensive to produce. It also limits the
available routing area for signal traces on multilayer boards since the holes must pass through all layers to
the opposite side. For these reasons, through hole mounting is normally reserved for bulkier components
such as electrolytic capacitors or semiconductors in large packages that require additional mounting strength
to endure physical stress.
7.4 Introduction to Surface Mount Technology:
Surface Mount Technology is an area of electronic assembly used to mount electronic components to the
surface of the printed circuit board (PCB) as oppose to inserting components through holes as with
conventional assembly.
SMT was developed to reduce manufacturing costs and also to make more efficient use of PCB space. As a
result of the introduction of surface mount technology it is now possible to build highly complex electronic
circuits into smaller and smaller assemblies with good repeatability due to the higher level of automation.
What are SMD's?

Surface mount device or SMD is the term used for the electronic components used within the surface mount
assembly process. There is a wide range of SMD component packages available on the market and come in
many shapes and sizes.
Components are available packaged in many different ways such as on reels, in tubes or in trays as can been
seen below. Most are available on reels which is preferred but sometimes due to 'Minimum Order
Quantities (MOQ's)' components are quite often supplied in tubes or in short strips of tape. Both of these
packaging types can be used but do need appropriate feeder types.
Surface Mount Assembly Process
The surface mount assembly process starts during the design phase when the many different components
are selected and the PCB is designed using software. Once the PCB design has been finalized and
components selected the next phase is to send the PCB data away to a PCB manufacturing company and
components bought in the most suitable way to facilitate automation. The PCB panel design should be
considered and specification created to ensure that the format that the PCB's are received is as expected
and suitable for the machines to be used. Compared with thru-hole mounting process, surface mounting
process stands out in terms of manufacturing efficiency because it features a totally automatic mounting
PCB assembly process from solder paste printing, pick and place and reflow soldering.
Step 1: Solder Paste Printing - Solder paste is applied on the board
through a solder paste printer. A template ensures that solder
paste can be accurately left on correct places where components
will be mounted, which is also called stencil or solder screen
because quality of solder paste printing is directly associated with
quality of soldering, PCBA manufacturers focusing on high quality
products usually carry out inspections after solder paste printing
through a solder paste inspector.
This inspection guarantees printing has achieved regulations and
standards. If defects are found on solder paste printing, printing
has to be reworked or solder paste will be washed off prior to
second printing.
Step 2: Components Mounting - After coming out of solder paste

printer, PCB will be auto-sent to pick-and-place machine where
components or ICs will be mounted on corresponding pads in the
effect of tension of solder paste. Components are mounted on PCB
board through component reels in the machine. Similar to film
reels, component reels carrying components rotate to provide
parts to the machine, which will quickly stick parts to the board.
Step 3: Reflow Soldering - After every component is placed, the

board passes through a 23-foot-long furnace. A temperature of
500°F causes the solder paste to liquefy. Now the SMD
components are bound firmly to the board.
To understand SMD Process, please click the links below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XSOPNJtch5I
7.5 Types of PCB
7.5.1 Multilayer PCB
Multilayer PCB is a circuit board that has more than two layers. Unlike a Double-Sided PCB which only has
two conductive layers of material, all multilayer PCBs must have at least three layers of conductive material
which are buried in the center of the material.
How Are Multilayer PCBs Made?
Alternating layers of prepeg and core materials are laminated together under high temperature and
pressure to produce Multilayer PCBs. This process ensures that air isn't trapped between layers, conductors
are completely encapsulated by resin, and the adhesive that holds the layers together are properly melted
and cured. The range of material combinations is extensive from basic epoxy glass to exotic ceramic or
Teflon materials.
The figure above illustrates the stackup of a 4-Layer/ multilayer PCB. Prepeg and core are essentially the
same material, but prepeg is not fully cured, making it more malleable than the core. The alternating layers
are then placed into a lamination press. Extremely high temperatures and pressures are applied to the
stackup, causing the prepeg to "melt" and join the layers together. After cooling off, the end result is a very
hard and solid multilayer board.
To understand Multilayer PCB, please click the links below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wmr-Sr-qd90
Benefits of Multilayer PCBs (compared to single or double-sided PCBs)
 Higher assembly density

 Smaller size (considerable savings on space)
 Increased flexibility
 Easier incorporation controlled impedance features.
 EMI shielding through careful placement of power and ground layers.
 Reduces the need for interconnection wiring harnesses (reduces overall weight)

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NETTUR TECHNICAL TRAINING FOUNDATION

DIPLOMA IN MECHATRONICS – CP15

Physics, Chemistry and Mathematical relations.

SL NO TITLE OF BOOK AUTHOR PUBLICATION

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 2

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS……………………………………………………………………………………………………..05

2.0 BASIC COMPONENTS OF ELECTRONICS……………………………………………………………………………………………..12

3.0 LAWS & RULES OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS…………………………………………………………………………………………..37

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 3

5.0 PN JUNCTION DIODE & ITS APPLICATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………53

6.0 SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………70

7.0 PCB ASSEMBLY & SOLDERING………………………………………………………………………………………………………….93

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 4

 1.1 History & Development of Electronics

 1.2 Structure of an Atom

 1.3 Atomic Number & Charge of an Atom

 1.4 Movement of Electrons (Current) and Potential difference (Voltage)

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 5

Brief History of Electronics:

Electronics actual history began with the invention of vacuum tubes.

To understand the history of electronics; please click the link below

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 6

To understand the structure of atom; please click the link below

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 7

1.3.1 Atomic Number

Atomic Number is represented by the letter Z

For example, carbon’s atomic number is 6 because it has 6 protons.

Mass Number is represented by the letter A.

To understand the atomic number; please click the link below

1.3.2 Charge of an atom:

To understand the charge of atom; please click the link below

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 8

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 9

1.4.1 Movement of Electrons (Current)

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 10

To understand the Water Analogy; please click the link below

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 11

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 12

Types of electronic components:

The electronic components are generally classified into two types:

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NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 14

2.2.1. Resistor, Resistance, Symbol of Resistor

2.2.2 Color Coding of Resistor

To understand the resistor; please click the link below

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 15

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 16

There are two basic types of

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Types of fixed resistors:

1. Carbon Composition Resistors

Carbon Composition Resistors: These resistors are

Carbon film resistors: This resistor is formed by

Wire wound resistor: Another type of resistor, called a

Metal Film resistor: These resistors are made from

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 18

To understand the types of resistor; please click the link below

2.2.4 Factors affecting Resistance of Resistors

NTTF - DIPLOMA IN MECHATONICS [CP15] - SEMESTER 1 – ELECTRONICS I - REV 0 – 01.07. 019 19

2.2.6 Resistor in series and parallel

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1. Application of carbon composition resistor